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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChromeOS#:~:text=time%20operating%20system.-,Pwnium%20competition,with%20prizes%20available%20for%20attacks. | ChromeOS | ChromeOS (sometimes styled as chromeOS and formerly styled as Chrome OS) is an operating system designed and developed by Google. It is derived from the open-source ChromiumOS operating system (which itself is derived from Gentoo Linux), and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface.
Google announced the project in July 2009, initially describing it as an operating system where applications and user data would reside in the cloud. ChromeOS was used primarily to run web applications. The operating system first shipped with Chromebooks in 2011. It is also offered since 2020 as an installable Linux distribution as ChromeOS Flex.
ChromeOS supports progressive web applications, Android apps from Google Play and Linux applications.
In 2025, Google confirmed that ChromeOS will switch from the Linux kernel to the Android kernel. The reworked operating system will result in ChromeOS's development merging with that of Android.
== History ==
In 2006, Jeff Nelson, a Google employee, created the concept of what would become ChromeOS, initially codenamed "Google OS" as a Linux distribution focused on speed. Early versions of the Google operating system used Firefox as Chrome had not been released, though it switched to Chrome sometime in 2007 due to internal betas being passed around Google.
To ascertain marketing requirements, developers relied on informal metrics, including monitoring the usage patterns of 200 machines used by Google employees. Developers also noted their own usage patterns.
Google requested that its hardware partners use solid-state drives "for performance and reliability reasons" as well as the lower capacity requirements inherent in an operating system that accesses applications and most user data on remote servers. In November 2009, Matthew Papakipos, engineering director for the ChromeOS, announced that ChromeOS would only support solid-state storage (i.e. not mechanical hard-disks), and noted that ChromeOS only required one-sixtieth as much drive space as Windows 7. Ten years later, in 2019, the recovery images Google provided for ChromeOS were still only between 1 and 3 GB in size.
On November 19, 2009, Google released ChromeOS's source code as the ChromiumOS project. At a November 19, 2009 news conference, Sundar Pichai–at the time Google's vice president overseeing Chrome–demonstrated an early version of the operating system. He previewed a desktop which looked very similar to the desktop Chrome browser, and in addition to the regular browser tabs also had application tabs, which take less space and can be pinned for easier access. At the conference, the operating system booted up in seven seconds, a time Google said it would work to reduce. Additionally, Chris Kenyon, vice president of OEM services at Canonical Ltd, announced that Canonical was under contract to contribute engineering resources to the project with the intent to build on existing open-source components and tools where feasible.
Canonical was an early engineering partner on the project, and initially ChromiumOS could only be built on an Ubuntu system. In February 2010, the ChromiumOS development team switched to Gentoo Linux because Gentoo's package management system Portage was more flexible. The ChromiumOS build environment is no longer restricted to any particular distribution, but installation and quick-start guides use Debian's (and thus also Ubuntu's) apt syntax.
=== Early Chromebooks (2010) ===
In 2010, Google released the unbranded Cr-48 Chromebook in a pilot program. The launch date for retail hardware featuring ChromeOS was delayed from late 2010 until the next year.
On May 11, 2011, Google announced two Chromebooks from Acer and Samsung at Google I/O. The Samsung model was released on June 15, 2011, and the Acer model in mid-July. In August 2011, Netflix announced official support for ChromeOS through its streaming service, allowing Chromebooks to watch streaming movies and TV shows via Netflix. At the time, other devices had to use Microsoft Silverlight to play videos from Netflix. Later in that same month, Citrix released a client application for ChromeOS, allowing Chromebooks to access Windows applications and desktops remotely. Dublin City University became the first educational institution in Europe to provide Chromebooks for its students when it announced an agreement with Google in September 2011.
=== Expansion (2012) ===
By 2012, demand for Chromebooks had begun to grow, and Google announced a new range of devices, designed and manufactured by Samsung. In so doing, they also released the first Chromebox, the Samsung Series 3, which was ChromeOS' entrance into the world of desktop computers. Although they were faster than the previous range of devices, they were still underpowered compared to other desktops and laptops of the time, fitting in more closely with the Netbook market. Only months later, in October, Samsung and Google released a new Chromebook at a significantly lower price point ($250, compared to the previous Series 5 Chromebooks' $450). It was the first Chromebook to use an ARM processor, one from Samsung's Exynos line. To reduce the price, Google and Samsung also reduced the memory and screen resolution of the device. An advantage of using the ARM processor, however, was that the Chromebook did not require a fan. Acer followed quickly after with the C7 Chromebook, priced even lower ($199), but containing an Intel Celeron processor. One notable way Acer reduced the cost of the C7 was to use a laptop hard disk rather than a solid-state drive.
In April 2012, Google made the first update to ChromeOS's user interface since the operating system had launched, introducing a hardware-accelerated window manager called "Aura" along with a conventional taskbar. The additions marked a departure from the operating system's original concept of a single browser with tabs and gave ChromeOS the look and feel of a more conventional desktop operating system. "In a way, this almost feels as if Google is admitting defeat here", wrote Frederic Lardinois on TechCrunch. He argued that Google had traded its original version of simplicity for greater functionality. "That's not necessarily a bad thing, though, and may just help ChromeOS gain more mainstream acceptance as new users will surely find it to be a more familiar experience." Lenovo and HP followed Samsung and Acer in manufacturing Chromebooks in early 2013 with their own models. Lenovo specifically targeted their Chromebook at students, headlining their press release with "Lenovo Introduces Rugged ThinkPad Chromebook for Schools".
When Google released Google Drive, they also included Drive integration in ChromeOS version 20, released in July 2012. While ChromeOS had supported Adobe Flash since 2010, by the end of 2012 it had been fully sandboxed, preventing issues with Flash from affecting other parts of ChromeOS. This affected all versions of Chrome including ChromeOS.
=== Chromebook Pixel (2013) ===
Prior to 2013, Google had never made their own ChromeOS device. ChromeOS devices were designed, manufactured, and marketed by third-party manufacturers, with Google controlling the software side. This changed in February 2013 when Google released the Chromebook Pixel. The Chromebook Pixel was entirely Google-branded, and contained an Intel Core i5 processor, a high-resolution (2,560 × 1,700) touchscreen display, and a price competitive with business laptops.
=== 2013–2025 ===
By the end of 2013, analysts were undecided on the future of ChromeOS. Although there had been articles predicting the demise of ChromeOS since 2009, ChromeOS device sales continued to increase substantially year-over-year. In mid-2014, Time magazine published an article titled "Depending on Who's Counting, Chromebooks are Either an Enormous Hit or Totally Irrelevant", which detailed the differences in opinion. This uncertainty was further spurred by Intel's announcement of Intel-based Chromebooks, Chromeboxes, and an all-in-one offering from LG called the Chromebase.
Seizing the opportunity created by the end of life for Windows XP, Google pushed hard to sell Chromebooks to businesses, offering significant discounts in early 2014.
ChromeOS devices outsold Apple Macs worldwide for the year 2020.
Since July 2021, ChromeOS's embedded controller was changed to be based on a Google maintained fork of Zephyr, a real time operating system.
=== Pwnium competition ===
In March 2014, Google hosted a hacking contest aimed at computer security experts called "Pwnium". Similar to the Pwn2Own contest, they invited hackers from around the world to find exploits in ChromeOS, with prizes available for attacks. Two exploits were demonstrated there, and a third was demonstrated at that year's Pwn2Own competition. Google patched all of the issues within a week.
=== Material Design and app runtime for Chrome ===
Although the Google Native Client has been available on ChromeOS since 2010, there originally were few Native Client apps available, and most ChromeOS apps were still web apps. However, in June 2014, Google announced at Google I/O that ChromeOS would both synchronise with Android phones to share notifications and begin to run Android apps, installed directly from Google Play. This, along with the broadening selection of Chromebooks, laid the groundwork for future ChromeOS development.
At the same time, Google was also moving towards the then-new Material Design design language for its products, which it would bring to its web products as well as Android Lollipop. One of the first Material Design items to come to ChromeOS was a new default wallpaper. Google's Material Design experiment for ChromeOS were added to the stable version with Chrome 117.
=== Merger with Android ===
After some rumors, Google confirmed in July 2025 that ChromeOS will "merge" with Android under one unified platform. It was formally announced at the Snapdragon Summit in September 2025. Internally, it is known as codename Aluminium OS.
The existing Linux-based ChromeOS will be replaced by a desktop-optimized Android-based operating system. The same Android software would run on desktop and mobile and be adapted for the different display sizes. Like ChromeOS, the desktop version of Aluminium will work on both ARM and x86 processors. The latter port is expected be the first mainline maintained x86 architecture version of Android.
== Features ==
=== Functionality for small and medium businesses and Enterprise ===
==== Chrome Enterprise ====
Chrome Enterprise, launched in 2017, includes ChromeOS, Chrome Browser, Chrome devices and their management capabilities intended for business use. Businesses can access the standard ChromeOS features and unlock advanced features for business with the Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. Standard features include the ability to sync bookmarks and browser extensions across devices, cloud or native printing, multi-layered security, remote desktop, and automatic updates. Advanced features include Active Directory integration, unified endpoint management, advanced security protection, access to device policies and Google Admin console, guest access, kiosk mode, and whitelisting or blacklisting third-party apps managed on Google Play.
The education sector was an early adopter of Chromebooks, ChromeOS, and cloud-based computing. Chromebooks are widely used in classrooms and the advantages of cloud-based systems have been gaining an increased share of the market in other sectors as well, including financial services, healthcare, and retail. "The popularity of cloud computing and cloud-based services highlights the degree to which companies and business processes have become both internet-enabled and dependent." ICT managers cite a number of advantages of the cloud that have motivated the move. Among them are advanced security, because data is not physically on a single machine that can be lost or stolen. Deploying and managing cloud-native devices is easier because no hardware and software upgrades or virus definition updates are needed, and patching of OS and software updates are simpler. Simplified and centralized management decreases operational costs.
Employees can securely access files and work on any machine, increasing the shareability of Chrome devices. Google's Grab and Go program with Chrome Enterprise allows businesses deploying Chromebooks to provide employees access to a bank of fully charged computers that can be checked out and returned after some time.
==== From Chromebooks to Chromebox and Chromebase ====
In an early attempt to expand its enterprise offerings, Google released Chromebox for Meetings in February 2014. Chromebox for Meetings is a kit for conference rooms containing a Chromebox, a camera, a unit containing both a noise-cancelling microphone and speakers, and a remote control. It supports Google Hangouts meetings, Vidyo video conferences, and conference calls from UberConference.
Several partners announced Chromebox for Meetings models with Google, and in 2016 Google announced an all-in-one Chromebase for Meetings for smaller meeting rooms. Google targeted the consumer hardware market with the release of the Chromebook in 2011 and Chromebook Pixel in 2013, and sought access to the enterprise market with the 2017 release of the Pixelbook. The second-generation Pixelbook was released in 2019. In 2021 there are several vendors selling all-in-one Chromebase devices.
==== Enterprise response to Chrome devices ====
Google has partnered on Chrome devices with several leading OEMs, including Acer, ASUS, Dell, HP, Lenovo, and Samsung. In August 2019, Dell announced that two of its popular business-focused laptops would run ChromeOS and come with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. The Latitude 5300 2-in-1 Chromebook Enterprise and Latitude 5400 Chromebook Enterprise were the result of a two-year partnership between Dell and Google. The machines come with a bundle of Dell's cloud-based support services that would enable enterprise ICT managers to deploy them in environments that also rely on Windows. The new laptop line "delivers the search giant's ChromeOS operating system in a form tailored for security-conscious organizations." Other OEMs that have launched devices with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade include Acer and HP.
With a broader range of hardware available, ChromeOS became an option for enterprises wishing to avoid a migration to Windows 10 before Windows 7 support was discontinued by Microsoft.
== Hardware ==
Laptops running ChromeOS are known collectively as "Chromebooks". The first was the CR-48, a reference hardware design that Google gave to testers and reviewers beginning in December 2010. Retail machines followed in May 2011. A year later, in May 2012, a desktop design marketed as a "Chromebox" was released by Samsung. In March 2015 a partnership with AOPEN was announced and the first commercial Chromebox was developed.
In early 2014, LG Electronics introduced the first device belonging to the new all-in-one form factor called "Chromebase". Chromebase devices are essentially Chromebox hardware inside a monitor with a built-in camera, microphone and speakers.
The Chromebit is an HDMI dongle running ChromeOS. When placed in an HDMI slot on a television set or computer monitor, the device turns that display into a personal computer. The first device, announced in March 2015 was an Asus unit that shipped that November and which reached end of life in November 2020.
Chromebook tablets were introduced in March 2018 by Acer with their Chromebook Tab 10. Designed to rival the Apple iPad, it had an identical screen size and resolution and other similar specifications, a notable addition was a Wacom-branded stylus that does not require a battery or charging.
ChromeOS supports multi-monitor setups on devices with a video-out port, USB 3.0 Standard-A or USB-C, the latter being preferable.
On February 16, 2022, Google announced a development version of ChromeOS Flex—a distribution of ChromeOS that can be installed on conventional PC hardware to replace other operating systems such as Windows and macOS. It is similar to CloudReady, a distribution of ChromiumOS whose developers were acquired by Google in 2020.
== Software ==
ChromeOS automatic updates are available for 10 years for all Chromebook models manufactured in 2019 and onwards, these updates are for the operating system, browser and hardware. Google maintains a web page with their Auto Update policy and the end date for all ChromeOS devices manufactured.
Previously the automatic update period was 8 years, and shorter prior to that although the earlier models had continued to receive updates for longer.
== Applications ==
Initially, ChromeOS was a pure thin client operating system that relied primarily on servers to host web applications and related data storage. Google gradually began encouraging developers to create "packaged applications", and later, Chrome Apps by employing HTML5, CSS, Adobe Shockwave, and JavaScript to provide a user experience closer to a native application.
In September 2014, Google launched App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allowed certain ported Android applications to run on ChromeOS. Runtime was launched with four Android applications: Duolingo, Evernote, Sight Words, and Vine. In 2016, the second version, ARC++, was introduced, using Linux kernel features cgroups and namespaces to make containers that can run Android apps in an isolated environment. As ARC++ removed the need to recompile apps, Google made Google Play available for ChromeOS, making most Android apps available for supported ChromeOS devices. ARC++ was introduced with Android Marshmallow and upgraded to Android Nougat and Android Pie. ARCVM launched in 2021 with Android 11 and runs on Android 13 starting with ChromeOS 117. ARCVM uses virtual machines to enhance the isolation of the Android environment in order to improve security and maintainability.
In 2018, Google announced plans for Linux on ChromeOS, also known as Crostini, allowing for desktop Linux applications. This capability was released to the stable channel (as an option for most machines) with Chrome 69 in October 2018, but was still marked as beta. This feature was officially released with Chrome 91.
In 2023, with version 119, Google released Valve Corporation's Steam for Chromebook (Beta) for playing video games on Chromebooks meeting minimum hardware requirements. Steam for Chromebook was developed under the codename Borealis, building off work for SteamOS for the Steam Deck, similarly built using a modified version of Arch Linux, running as a virtual machine. In August 2025, Google announced that they will end Steam for Chromebook support in January 2026.
=== Chrome Apps ===
From 2013 until January 2020, Google encouraged developers to build not just conventional Web applications for ChromeOS, but Chrome Apps (formerly known as Packaged Apps). In January 2020, Google's Chrome team announced its intent to phase out support for Chrome Apps in favor of "progressive web applications" (PWA) and Chrome extensions instead. In March 2020, Google stopped accepting new public Chrome Apps for the web store. According to Google, general support for Chrome Apps on ChromeOS will remain enabled, without requiring any policy setting, through June 2022.
From a user's perspective, Chrome Apps resemble conventional native applications: they can be launched outside of the Chrome browser, are offline by default, can manage multiple windows, and interact with other applications.
==== Integrated media player, file manager ====
Google integrated a media player into both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser, enabling users to play back MP3s, view JPEGs, and handle other multimedia files without connectivity. The integration also supports DRM videos.
ChromeOS also includes an integrated file manager, resembling those found on other operating systems, with the ability to display directories and the files they contain from both Google Drive and local storage, as well as to preview and manage file contents using a variety of Web applications, including Google Docs and Box. Since January 2015, ChromeOS can also integrate additional storage sources into the file manager, relying on installed extensions that use the File System Provider API.
==== Remote application access and virtual desktop access ====
In June 2010, Google's software engineer Gary Kačmarčík wrote that ChromeOS would access remote applications through a technology unofficially called "Chromoting", which would resemble Microsoft's Remote Desktop Connection. The name has since been changed to "Chrome Remote Desktop", and is like "running an application via Remote Desktop Services or by first connecting to a host machine by using RDP or VNC". Initial roll-outs of ChromeOS laptops (Chromebooks) indicate an interest in enabling users to access virtual desktops.
=== Android applications ===
At Google I/O 2014, a proof of concept showing Android applications, including Flipboard, running on ChromeOS was presented. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of the App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications.
In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access to Google Play in its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allow the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with the Android Native Development Toolkit (NDK), and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.
=== Linux apps ===
All Chromebooks made since 2018, and some earlier models, can run Linux apps. As with Android apps, these apps can be installed and launched alongside other apps. Google maintains a list of devices that were launched before 2019 which support Linux apps.
Since 2013, it has been possible to run Linux applications in ChromeOS through the use of Crouton, a third-party set of scripts that allows access to a Linux distribution such as Ubuntu. However, in 2018 Google announced that desktop Linux apps were officially coming to ChromeOS. The main benefit claimed by Google of their official Linux application support is that it can run without enabling developer mode, keeping many of the security features of ChromeOS. It was noticed in the ChromiumOS source code in early 2018. Early parts of Crostini were made available for the Google Pixelbook via the dev channel in February 2018 as part of ChromeOS version 66, and it was enabled by default via the beta channel for testing on a variety of Chromebooks in August 2018 with version 69.
==== Architecture ====
Google's project for supporting Linux applications in ChromeOS is called Crostini, named for the Italian bread-based starter, and as a pun on Crouton. Crostini runs a virtual machine through a virtual machine monitor called crosvm, which uses Linux's built-in KVM virtualization tool. Although crosvm supports multiple virtual machines, the one used for running Linux apps, Termina, contains a basic ChromeOS kernel based on Gentoo, in which it runs containers based on LXD. In the interest of stability and recovery, no Linux apps run on the virtual machine itself; any installed Linux userland ecosystem runs in an isolated container, all of which are deployed and managed by the virtual machine. A Debian container with host system integration is provided by default. Users can install programs to this installation by using tools like APT within the container, or may grant access to .deb files stored on ChromeOS itself, which are copied and installed to the container. Users may also individually grant access to individual files or USB devices. Other distributions can be added using LXD, although not by default integrated with the Host System.
== Architecture ==
ChromeOS is built on top of the Linux kernel. Originally based on Ubuntu, its base was changed to Gentoo Linux in February 2010. For Project Crostini, as of ChromeOS 121, Debian 12 (Bookworm) is the default container base image. In preliminary design documents for the ChromiumOS open-source project, Google described a three-tier architecture: firmware, browser and window manager, and system-level software and userland services.
The firmware contributes to fast boot time by not probing for hardware, such as floppy disk drives, that are no longer common on computers, especially netbooks. The firmware also contributes to security by verifying each step in the boot process and incorporating system recovery.
System-level software includes the Linux kernel that has been patched to improve boot performance. Userland software has been trimmed to essentials, with management by Upstart, which can launch services in parallel, re-spawn crashed jobs, and defer services in the interest of faster booting.
The window manager handles user interaction with multiple client windows (much like other X window managers).
=== Shell access ===
ChromeOS includes the Chromium Shell, or "crosh", which documents minimal functionality such as ping at crosh start-up.
In developer mode, a full-featured bash shell (which is supposed to be used for development purposes) can be opened via VT-2, and is also accessible using the crosh command shell. It is also accessible via the key shortcut crtl+alt+t. To access full privileges in shell (e.g. sudo) a root password is requested. For some time the default was "chronos" in ChromeOS and "facepunch" in ChromeOS Vanilla and later the default was empty, and instructions on updating it were displayed at each login.
=== Open source ===
ChromeOS is partially developed under the open-source ChromiumOS project. As with other open-source projects, developers can modify the code from ChromiumOS and build their own versions, whereas ChromeOS code is only supported by Google and its partners and only runs on hardware designed for the purpose. Unlike ChromiumOS, ChromeOS is automatically updated to the latest version.
=== ChromeOS on Windows ===
On Windows 8, exceptions allow the default desktop web browser to offer a variant that can run inside its full-screen "Metro" shell and access features such as the Share charm, without necessarily needing to be written with Windows Runtime. Chrome's "Windows 8 mode" was previously a tablet-optimized version of the standard Chrome interface. In October 2013, the mode was changed on Developer channel to offer a variant of the ChromeOS desktop.
== Design ==
Early in the project, Google provided publicly many details of ChromeOS' design goals and direction, although the company has not followed up with a technical description of the completed operating system.
=== User interface ===
Design goals for ChromeOS' user interface included using minimal screen space by combining applications and standard Web pages into a single tab strip, rather than separating the two. Designers considered a reduced window management scheme that would operate only in full-screen mode. Secondary tasks would be handled with "panels": floating windows that dock to the bottom of the screen for tasks like chat and music players. Split screens were also under consideration for viewing two pieces of content side by side. ChromeOS would follow the Chrome browser's practice of leveraging HTML5's offline modes, background processing, and notifications. Designers proposed using search and pinned tabs as a way to quickly locate and access applications.
==== Version 19 window manager and graphics engine ====
On April 10, 2012, a new build of ChromeOS offered a choice between the original full-screen window interface and overlapping, resizable windows, such as found on Microsoft Windows and Apple's macOS. The feature was implemented through the Ash window manager, which runs atop the Aura hardware-accelerated graphics engine. The April 2012 upgrade also included the ability to display smaller, overlapping browser windows, each with its own translucent tabs, browser tabs that can be "torn" and dragged to new positions or merged with another tab strip, and a mouse-enabled shortcut list across the bottom of the screen. One icon on the task bar shows a list of installed applications and bookmarks. Writing in CNET, Stephen Shankland argued that with overlapping windows, "Google is anchoring itself into the past" as both iOS and Microsoft's Metro interface are largely or entirely full-screen. Even so, "ChromeOS already is different enough that it's best to preserve any familiarity that can be preserved".
=== Printing ===
In 2016, Google included "Native CUPS Support" in ChromeOS as an experimental feature that became stable in 2020. With CUPS support turned on, it becomes possible to use most printers even if they do not support Google Cloud Print.
Google Cloud Print was a Google service that helps any application on any device to print on supported printers. While the cloud provides virtually any connected device with information access, the task of "developing and maintaining print subsystems for every combination of hardware and operating system—from desktops to netbooks to mobile devices—simply isn't feasible." The cloud service required the installation of a piece of software called proxy, as part of the ChromeOS. The proxy registered the printer with the service, managed the print jobs, provided the printer driver functionality, and gave status alerts for each job.
Google announced that Google Cloud Print would no longer be supported after December 31, 2020, and that the online service would not be available as of January 1, 2021.
=== Link handling ===
ChromeOS was designed to store user documents and files on remote servers. Both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser may introduce difficulties to end-users when handling specific file types offline; for example, when opening an image or document residing on a local storage device, it may be unclear whether and which specific Web application should be automatically opened for viewing, or the handling should be performed by a traditional application acting as a preview utility. Matthew Papakipos, ChromeOS engineering director, noted in 2010 that Windows developers have faced the same fundamental problem: "Quicktime is fighting with Windows Media Player, which is fighting with Chrome."
=== Release channels and updates ===
ChromeOS uses the same release system as Google Chrome: there are three distinct channels: Stable, Beta, and Developer preview (called the "Dev" channel). The stable channel is updated with features and fixes that have been thoroughly tested in the Beta channel, and the Beta channel is updated approximately once a month with stable and complete features from the Developer channel. New ideas get tested in the Developer channel, which can be very unstable at times. A fourth canary channel was confirmed to exist by Google Developer Francois Beaufort and hacker Kenny Strawn, by entering the ChromeOS shell in developer mode, typing the command shell to access the bash shell, and finally entering the command update_engine_client -channel canary-channel -update. It is possible to return to the verified boot mode after entering the canary channel, but the channel updater disappears and the only way to return to another channel is using the "powerwash" factory reset. In 2022 2 New channels were added called LTC (Long-term support candidate) and LTS (Long-term support) Only available for Enterprise admins .LTC is for 3 months of support and then switched to LTS automatically
== Security ==
In March 2010, Google software security engineer Will Drewry discussed ChromeOS security. Drewry described ChromeOS as a "hardened" operating system featuring auto-updating and sandbox features that would reduce malware exposure. He said that ChromeOS netbooks would be shipped with Trusted Platform Module (TPM), and include both a "trusted boot path" and a physical switch under the battery compartment that activates a "developer mode". That mode drops some specialized security functions but increases developer flexibility. This switch is also reversible. Drewry also emphasized that the open-source nature of the operating system would contribute greatly to its security by allowing constant developer feedback.
At a December 2010 press conference, Google declared that ChromeOS would be the most secure consumer operating system due in part to a verified boot ability, in which the initial boot code, stored in read-only memory, checks for system compromises.
ChromeOS devices ship with full disk encryption by default, which cannot be disabled. The decryption password is stored in the device's TPM. Google allows the TPM to be updated manually via the settings. Updating the TPM will reset the device to factory defaults.
=== Login ===
ChromeOS devices utilize a user's Google Account password as the default sign-in method. To enhance security, users can implement additional authentication measures such as PINs, passwords, fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, or smart unlock (via a paired phone). These supplementary measures mitigate the risk of unauthorized access to the user's Google account via shoulder surfing, even if an attacker possesses the user's Google email address.
If multi-factor authentication (MFA) is enabled on the associated Google Account, the user may be prompted to use it during the initial setup of their ChromeOS device. By default, the device will be designated as "trusted," exempting it from MFA requirements for subsequent logins. For enhanced security, MFA can be mandated for each sign-in by utilizing hardware tokens (such as YubiKeys) linked to the Google Account.
== Reception ==
At its debut, ChromeOS was viewed as a competitor to Microsoft, both directly to Microsoft Windows and indirectly the company's word processing and spreadsheet applications—the latter through ChromeOS' reliance on cloud computing. But ChromeOS engineering director Matthew Papakipos argued that the two operating systems would not fully overlap in functionality because ChromeOS is intended for netbooks, which lack the computational power to run a resource-intensive program like Adobe Photoshop.
Some observers claimed that other operating systems already filled the niche that ChromeOS was aiming for, with the added advantage of supporting native applications in addition to a browser. Tony Bradley of PC World wrote in November 2009: We can already do most, if not all, of what ChromeOS promises to deliver. Using a Windows 7 or Linux-based netbook, users can simply not install anything but a web browser and connect to the vast array of Google products and other web-based services and applications. Netbooks have been successful at capturing the low-end PC market, and they provide a web-centric computing experience today. I am not sure why we should get excited that a year from now we'll be able to do the same thing, but locked into doing it from the fourth-place web browser.
In 2016, Chromebooks were the most popular computer in the US K–12 education market.
In 2020, Chromebooks became the second most-popular end-user oriented OS (growing from 6.4% in 2019 to 10.8% in 2020). The majority of growth came at Windows' expense (which fell from 85.4% in 2019 to 80.5% in 2021).
=== Relationship to Android ===
Google's offer of several open-source operating systems, of which Android and ChromeOS are the best known, has attracted some criticism, despite the similarity between this situation and that of Apple Inc.'s two operating systems, macOS and iOS. Steve Ballmer, Microsoft CEO at the time, accused Google of not being able to make up its mind. Steven Levy wrote that "the dissonance between the two systems was apparent" at Google I/O 2011. The event featured a daily press conference in which each team leader, Android's Andy Rubin and Chrome's Sundar Pichai, "unconvincingly tried to explain why the systems weren't competitive". Google co-founder Sergey Brin addressed the question by saying that owning two promising operating systems was "a problem that most companies would love to face". Brin suggested that the two operating systems "will likely converge over time". The speculation over convergence increased in March 2013 when ChromeOS chief Pichai replaced Rubin as the senior vice president in charge of Android, thereby putting Pichai in charge of both.
The relationship between Android and ChromeOS became closer at Google I/O 2014, where developers demonstrated native Android software running on ChromeOS through a Native Client-based runtime. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of the App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications. In October 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that ChromeOS would be folded into Android so that a single OS would result by 2017. The resulting OS would be Android, but it would be expanded to run on laptops. Google responded that while the company has "been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out ChromeOS".
In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access to Google Play in its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allows the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with the Android Native Development Toolkit (NDK), and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.
On November 18, 2024, Android Authority reported that Google is planning to completely merge ChromeOS into Android.
== See also ==
Comparison of operating systems
Fuchsia (operating system)
Light-weight Linux distribution
List of operating systems
QWERTY § ChromeOS for information on typing diacritics (accents) and special symbols
Timeline of operating systems
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Official blog
Release blog
ChromiumOS project page
Official announcement
Google Chrome OS Live Webcast; November 19, 2009
ChromeOS Flex |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukul_Dey#: | Mukul Dey | Mukul Chandra Dey (23 July 1895 – 1 March 1989) was one of five children of Purnashashi Devi and Kula Chandra Dey. He was a student of Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan and is considered as a pioneer of drypoint-etching in India. The entire family of Mukul Dey had artistic talents, the brother Manishi Dey was a well-known painter, and his two sisters, Annapura and Rani Chanda, were accomplished in arts and crafts as well.
Mukul Dey was married to Bina Roy, who was from Khanakul, Bengal. They had one daughter named Manjari, whom they affectionately called Bukuma. Manjari was later married to Shantanu Ukil, a leading painter of the Bengal School of Art.
== Early years ==
He was the first Indian artist to travel abroad for the purpose of studying printmaking as an art. While in Japan in 1916, Mukul Dey studied under Yokoyama Taikan and Kanzan Shimomura at Tokyo and Yokohama. At Yokohama Rabindranath Tagore and Mukul Dey lived as guests of Japanese silk-merchant Tomitaro Hara at his famous residential complex Sankeien, enjoying a rare opportunity to study classical Chinese and Nihonga style Japanese paintings. Especially the masterpieces of Sesshu Toyo.
Dey received his initial training at Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan. He then travelled to America from Japan in 1916 to learn the technique of etching under James Blanding Sloan and Bertha Jaques in Chicago, to whom Dey was introduced by American artist Roi Partridge and his wife Imogen Cunningham. Mukul Dey remained a life-member of Chicago Society of Etchers. On his return to India in 1917, Dey concentrated on creating etchings as a fine art. He also supported himself through making portrait drawings of the rich and famous, and turned these into etchings. In 1920 Dey once again travelled abroad for the purpose of study, this time learning etching and engraving under Frank Short and Muirhead Bone. He studied at both the Slade School of Fine Art and the Royal College of Art in London. At Slade School of Art Mukul Dey was a student of Professor Henry Tonks.
An exhibition of Dey's drawings and paintings were shown, including ten copies of paintings at Ajanta and 1 at the Bagh Caves, courtesy of Lady Grant, at 59 Onslow Square, London, on 4 February 1924. His work had already been shown at the Royal Academy and the New English Art Club.
According to the Polish sculptor Stanislaw Szukalski, when Mukul was in America,
he showed Szukalski his drawings, which impressed the artist. He then told Szukalski of his desire to venture into Paris, to "finish his study", despite the extreme disapproval of this decision by Mukul's mentor, Tagore. Szukalski thought of Paris as a factory for the "brainwashing of the public of every nation", into thinking Kandinski, Picasso, etc., were masters. Szukalski told Mukul, "You are already a fine artist, but with your silly anticipation of finding miraculous Culture in Europe, you will swallow as a new religion any pseudo-movement, any Ism of the misfits who abuse painting and sculpture with combs, forks and brushes stuck in their noses to give an easy semblance of individuality. Later come to Europe, with enough belief in yourself to look upon European Decadence with CONTEMPT and the ability to select really worthy examples of Art from all ages and Cultures". This argument persuaded Mukul to return to Santiniketan, to the delight of Tagore.
Mukul Dey chose an essentially Western medium to portray various sides of Indian life. Unlike artists such as Haren Das, whose woodcut printing technique was more indigenous to Indian culture, Dey concentrated on drypoint etching, a thoroughly European practice. Regardless of his adopted Western technique, Dey chose subjects such as river scenes in Bengal, traditional baul singers, the markets of Calcutta, or the life of Santhal villagers in the Birbhum district, near the Santiniketan art school. When the Tagore family of Kolkata created the Vichitra Club at their ancestral home of Jorasanko, Mukul Dey became an active member. At Vichitra Club the young and upcoming artists like Nandalal Bose, Asit Kumar Haldar, Mukul Dey and Narayan Kashinath Deval were encouraged to experiment in ever new creative mediums and art forms.
In 1925, Dey published a book on the cave paintings in Ajanta and Bagh, which he cherished and used as an inspiration. The vibrant language of the descriptions reflect his enthusiasm for the cave paintings. He later published and illustrated various other books during his career.
== Professional career ==
Dey was appointed the first Indian Principal of the Government School of Art, Calcutta, in 1928. Since Dey was committed to imposing an Indian identity on the then British-controlled art establishment, he quickly drove teachers too closely linked with Company School painting out of the institution. While at Government School of Art, Calcutta Mukul Dey was responsible for starting a women's section there. Prior to his time only men could join this institution as art students.
Gracefully drawn images of Bengali villagers executed in dry-point have become what Dey is most associated with. Some of his finer works are dry-point etchings that have been hand-coloured with watercolors, coloured pencils, or thin washes of ink. Dey is also remembered for his portraits of various Indian personalities, including members of the Tagore and Tata families, Albert Einstein, and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He also depicted lesser known personalities, such as Josephine MacLeod, the promoter of Swami Vivekananda's Ramakrishna order at Belur Math. Incidentally, it was Josephine MacLeod who first brought Okakura Kakuzo to India from Japan in 1901–1902.
Manishi Dey, the younger brother of Mukul, was a member of the Progressive Artists' Group and a prominent painter of the Bengal School of Art. In contrast to his more steady brother Mukul, Manishi travelled tirelessly throughout India.
== Legacy ==
Mukul Dey's works are found in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, the Indian Museum, Kolkata, the National Gallery of Modern Art NGMA in Mumbai, and the National Gallery of Art, New Delhi. The Mukul Dey Archives are housed at Mukul Dey's former home, named Chitralekha, at Santiniketan.
He was also the illustrator for many book projects, one of his earliest was a scholarly book Shantiniketan Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore, which he illustrated for the later Nobel Prize winner in 1916.
== Bibliography ==
Pearson, WW. with illustrations by Mukul Chandra Dey. Shantiniketan: The Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore. The Macmillan Company, 1916.
Mukul Chandra Dey. My Pilgrimages To Ajanta Bagh. Published in English by George H. Doran Co, New York, USA, 1925. [3]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Twenty Portraits. 1943 [4]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Birbhum Terracottas. 1959 [5]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Amar Kotha, ed. Visva Bharati, 1995 A posthumously published autobiography. [6]
== References ==
== External links ==
Mukul Dey Archives
Delhi Art Gallery
Online Museum of Contemporary Indian Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_paintings | List of most expensive paintings | This is a list of the highest known prices paid for paintings. The record payment for a work is approximately US $450.3 million (which includes commission) for the work Salvator Mundi (c. 1500) generally considered to be by Leonardo da Vinci, though this is disputed. The painting was sold in November 2017, through the auction house Christie's in New York City.
== Background ==
The most famous paintings, especially old master works created before 1803, are generally owned or held by museums for viewing by patrons. Since museums rarely sell them, they are considered priceless. Guinness World Records lists Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa as having the highest insurance value for a painting. On permanent display at the Louvre in Paris, the Mona Lisa was assessed at US$100 million on 14 December 1962. Taking only inflation into account, the 1962 value would be around US$1 billion in 2024.
The earliest sale on the list below (Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh) is from March 1987; with a price of £24.75 million (£87.9 million in 2024 currency). This sale tripled the previous record, and introduced a new era in top art sales. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was £8.1 million (£23.7 million in 2024 currency) paid by the J. Paul Getty Museum for Andrea Mantegna's Adoration of the Magi at Christie's in London on 18 April 1985. The sale of Vincent van Gogh's Sunflowers was the first time a "modern" (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder. Old master paintings had previously dominated the market. In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 89, and none created between 1635 and 1874.
An exceptional case is graffiti artist David Choe, who accepted payment in shares for painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledgling Facebook. His shares were of limited value when he was given them, but by the time of Facebook's IPO they were valued at around $200 million.
The list is incomplete with respect to sales between private parties, as these are not always reported and, even if they are, details like the purchase price may remain secret. For example, on June 25, 2019, the American hedge fund manager J. Tomilson Hill bought a recently rediscovered Judith and Holofernes (1607) attributed to Caravaggio, two days before it would have been auctioned in Toulouse. Though the Louvre Museum had turned down the opportunity to purchase it for €100 million, the painting was estimated to sell for $110 to $170 million. The actual purchase price was not disclosed, because of a confidentiality agreement attached to the private sale. Another example is a 2019 sale of The Seated Zouave by Vincent van Gogh. According to some sources, the painting had been sold by Argentine art collector Nelly Arrieta de Blaquier for $300 million, but the price was not confirmed by any of the parties involved.
Vincent van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, and Andy Warhol are the best-represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, van Gogh is known to have sold only one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, for 400 French francs (approximately $2,000 in 2018 dollars) in 1890, to the Belgian impressionist painter and heiress Anna Boch.
Georgia O'Keeffe holds the record for the highest price paid for a painting by a woman. On November 20, 2014 at Sotheby's, the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art bought her 1932 painting Jimson Weed/White Flower No. 1 for US $44.4 million (equivalent to US$59 million in 2024).
Among the listed top paintings listed, only seven are by non-Western artists. Five are traditional Chinese paintings by Qi Baishi, Wu Bin, Wang Meng and Xu Yang. In particular, Qi Baishi's Twelve Landscape Screens was sold for $140.8 million in 2017. The only non-Western modern artwork listed is that of the Chinese-French painter Zao Wouki's oil painting Juin-Octobre 1985, which was sold for $65 million in 2018. Also included in this list is Chinese painter Wang Shaofei's The High Sun, which was sold at an estimated price of $74 million in 2017.
== List of highest prices paid ==
This list is ordered by consumer price index inflation-adjusted value (in bold) in millions of United States dollars in 2024. Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using the exchange rate at the time the painting was sold. The inflation adjustment may change as recent inflation rates are often revised. A list in another currency may be in a slightly different order due to exchange-rate fluctuations. Paintings are listed only once, i.e., for the highest price sold.
== Interactive graph ==
== Progression of highest prices paid ==
This list shows the progression of the highest price paid for a painting since 1746.
== See also ==
Market for artworks
Destination painting
The Price of Everything, 2018 documentary on contemporary art valuations
The Lost Leonardo, 2021 documentary on the 2017 sale of the Salvador Mundi
List of most expensive artworks by living artists
List of most expensive books and manuscripts
List of most expensive cars sold at auction
List of most expensive non-fungible tokens
List of most expensive photographs
List of most expensive sculptures
List of most expensive watches sold at auction
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
The Most Expensive Paintings ever sold list by theartwolf
Oeuvres d'art les plus dispendieuses au monde at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 June 2016)
Most Expensive Artworks of 2024 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bindy_Johal#Early_life | Bindy Johal | Bhupinder "Bindy" Singh Johal (January 14, 1971 – December 20, 1998) was an Indo-Canadian gangster from Vancouver, British Columbia. A self-confessed drug kingpin, he was known for his outspoken nature, blatant disregard for authority and his longtime rivalry with his former Punjabi Mafia Bosses turned rivals; Robbie Kandola and the Dosanjh Brothers, who led a rival Punjabi Mafia faction, while Johal controlled his own faction alongside international Drug lord Ranjit Cheema. On December 20, 1998, Johal was fatally shot in the back of the head at a crowded nightclub in Vancouver.
== Early life ==
Johal was born in 1971 (although some sources have noted 1972 and 1973) in Punjab, India to a Jatt Sikh family of the Johal clan. He immigrated to Vancouver, British Columbia with his family at the age of four. His parents separated and he was raised by his mother. He was increasingly temperamental, resented discipline, and had a lack of respect and remorse for others. He suffered from severe depression when his parents cut his hair after an armed assault in Canada in the aftermath of the Assassination of Indira Gandhi, which happened miles away in Delhi, his mother said, "That was the only time I saw another expression of his other than anger and silence." Johal was considered to be a "problem child" by his teachers. One of Johal's teachers, Rob Sandhu, stated: "When he came into Grade 8, it didn't seem like he had any problems. It seems these kids are not being flagged. But teachers are raising these issues, so why aren't we acting on it?"
Although he did well in school and was even on the honour roll, he was expelled from Sir Charles Tupper Secondary School and sentenced to 60 days in jail after he "brutally" assaulted his vice-principal in 1989. Johal tried to justify his behaviour at his trial in a defence that the journalist Jerry Langton wrote "smacked of cold-blooded cynicism" by saying that as an Indo-Canadian that he was the victim of a racist society and he was only just lashing out against society by beating up his vice-principal so severely that he had to go to the hospital emergency room to save his life. The judge at Johal's trial rejected this defence. The judge noted there was no evidence that the vice-principal was a racist and that whatever slights and insults Johal may have endured from others was no excuse for the assault.
Having moved to Richmond, British Columbia, Johal enrolled in McNair Secondary School. Johal smashed in the window of a car using a baseball bat and was convicted of possession of a dangerous weapon. Johal enrolled in college, but dropped out after his first semester to begin his criminal career. Johal joined a once Hispanic gang called Los Diablos ("The Devils"). As the membership of Los Diablos became more Indo-Canadian, the gang was renamed as the Punjabi Mafia. He built a reputation as a hit-man working for Jimmy and Ron Dosanjh, both of whom he would later betray and have killed. Johal also started to sell cocaine.
On March 14, 1991, a Colombian drug trafficker, Teodoro Salcedo, was murdered in Vancouver Jimsher "Jimmy" Dosanjh was arrested and charged with the murder. While Dosanjh was in jail awaiting his trial which ended with his acquittal, Johal took advantage of his absence to make himself leader of the gang. Johal and his gang hijacked trucks carrying electronics and automobiles landed at the port of Vancouver, which he sold on the black market. A television documentary at the time estimated that Johal had an annual income of $4 million.
Bindy reportedly had antisocial personality disorder which may account for why he was so quick to kill those close to him. He didn't keep close friends and was extremely callous to his associates. According to Constable Spencer, "All he was concerned about was himself, he was very narcissistic in nature and had a general hatred of people. Bindy actually met Bal Buttar, one of his close associates, in prison when he was in his twenties. They never knew each other growing up and from Bal's statements, Bindy made it very clear that they were not friends, but business partners as he did with everyone else in his group." He attended school with Harjit Sajjan, who later became the Canadian Minister of Defense.
== Dosanjh murders ==
Johal was responsible in the murders of gangster brothers Ron Dosanjh and Jimmy Dosanjh. Jimmy Dosanjh was killed in February 1994, and Ron was killed in April 1994. Johal knew that Jimmy Dosanjh had taken out a contract to kill him for over C$230,000, according to Crown prosecutors. The hitman whom Jimmy Dosanjh hired to kill Johal instead approached him and made a deal for more money to kill Dosanjh. On February 25, 1994, Dosanjh went into a back alley to inspect some stolen electronics when he was ambushed and killed by his own men, whose true loyalty was to Johal. Afterwards remarked "This Jimmy Dosanjh, they portrayed him as a hit-man this that. Personally from what I've seen of him on the street I don't think he could have hit his way out of a paper bag."
In a television interview, Ranjit "Ron" Dosanjh told a television crew that if he saw Johal at his house, he’d “shoot him between the eyes". Johal when asked to comment about the remark by another television crew snapped back: "Basically, I just want these guys to know you got another thing coming, bitch! I'm still around!" On April 19, 1994, Ron Dosanjh was killed in his red pick-up truck while waiting for a traffic light when a car pulled alongside and a man opened fire with an AK-47 assault rifle. Dosanjh took several bullets to his face, killing him instantly; his truck veered wildly and crashed into a tree. On April 24, 1994, Johal's neighbour, Greg Olson, who was walking his dog, was killed in a case of mistaken identity. On April 25, 1994, Johal was charged with two counts of first-degree murder in connection with the Dosanjh murders along with Sarbjit Gill, Rajinder "Big Raj" Benji, Michael Kim Budai, Sun News Lai, Preet "Peter" Sarbjit Gill, and Kim "Phil" Ho-Sik, whom the Crown alleged to be the actual gunman who killed the Dosanjh brothers.
Because of the required security for the trial, it was one of the most expensive trials in Canadian history. His former brother-in-law, Peter Gill, was also accused. The accused, including Gill and Johal, were acquitted. During and following the trial, Gill had an affair with Gillian Guess, an active juror on the trial. Guess was sentenced to 18 months after being convicted of obstruction of justice. Gill was tried and convicted of the same crime and sentenced to six years in prison. The Crown appealed the acquittal of Johal and other defendants, but Johal was killed before the new trial began. Gill was not retried.
== The Punjabi Mafia and Johal's criminal activity ==
The Punjabi Mafia is a loosely affilicated criminal organization originating in British Columbia with gang members. The gang, initially being liberal in its membership, became more ethnocentric over time, some subgroups excepted. These groups are still active and notorious in Vancouver and have been since the early 1990s. They have been linked to the Independent Soldiers (IS), Red Scorpions, Lotus Triads, Hells Angels, and the United Nations (UN) gang in Canada, although several members of the Independent Soldiers can also be grouped as part of the mafia as well. Bindy Johal was accepted into the Punjabi Mafia in the early 1990s most likely through Ranjit Cheema or Ron Dosanjh. Ranjit Cheema and Ron Dosanjh were among the few who had full control of the criminal organization.
According to Johal's former lieutenant Bal Buttar, Punjabi Mafia hitmen claimed contracts in B.C. They are responsible for dozens of murders in Canada in the 90s alone and the majority of those murders still remain unsolved. Buttar admitted to performing several executions alongside Bindy, as well as the unsuccessful attempt to kill Johal's associate and former brother-in-law, Preet Sarbjit "Peter" Gill. However, Buttar was shocked when Bindy said he wanted his own cousin killed. "I thought this guy was kidding, but he was actually being serious, he wanted to take him out." Buttar was suspected of being behind the hit on Robbie Kandola outside his Coal Harbour penthouse. He believed Kandola was the one responsible for his younger brother's death. He is also suspected to be the one behind Bindy's death. It is still up for debate whether he was killed because Bal feared Bindy would kill him or because Ranj and other major players turned on him. He was charged with aggravated assault for beating two men in a bar with a broken beer bottle in 1997. When imprisoned, Johal was labelled a "menace to society."
Johal was earning approximately $500,000–$900,000 a week in his prime through various illegal activities including murder for hire, debt collecting, and drug dealing. He was also affiliated to the Buttar brothers who were well known across the Lower Mainland for their brutal gangland slayings. Even so, Johal coldly told Buttar: "You listen to me. If you take care of things at your end, I'll be happy with you, brother. If you fuck me over, I'll kill you. Right?". Johal's chosen instrument was a hit squad which Johal named "The Elite" consisting of five Indo-Canadian hit men. Buttar later stated that "The Elite" hit squad was responsible for 25 murders over a five year period. Johal had a "legendary" bad temper, known for his frequent outbursts of violent rage, which led him to be convicted in 1997 of attacking two men in a bar fight with a broken beer bottle. Johal had convictions for obstruction of justice, possession of dangerous weapons, and aggravated assault.
A Chinese-Canadian rival drug dealer, Randy Chan was kidnapped on October 25, 1996, and Johal was charged with his kidnapping. Reportedly Chan had been kidnapped by Roman Mann, one of Johal's associates. Mann was angry with the quality of the cocaine that Chan had just sold him, which he stated was very diluted despite the premium price. Chan was held captive for 50 or 56 hours, part of which was spent in an automobile trunk. Johal phoned Chan's older brother, Raymond, to tell him that if he wanted to see his brother alive again, to give him 5 kilograms of cocaine in exchange for his brothers' life. Johal negotiated Chan's release with his brother to be in exchange for $500,000 paid by the Lotus triads to the Punjabi Mafia faction of Johal. Chan's brother was Raymond Chan, a gang member of the Chinese criminal organization called the "Lotus".
Johal made no effort to disguise the fact that he was a gangster, and would threaten the lives of rivals in interviews with television crews. Johal became a folk hero in the Lower Mainland, being admired for his success as a gangster, and many of the young men who joined organized crime admitted that it was Johal's example that inspired them to turn to crime. One gangster who wished to remain anonymous told the academic Arthur J. Pais: "To many young people in the immigrant community who feel that Canadian society does not give them enough chance to succeed, joining gangsters is an exercise in building their self-esteem. Why do you think Bindy Johal was a hero to many young Indo-Canadians. His legend had spread wide in the past few years among Indians not only here but also in Toronto and Montreal, New York and San Francisco. He stood up to his school principles, he beat up those who called him racial names—and he was making a lot of money even though he was in his mid-twenties. He drove fancy cars, he had girls falling over him".
His gang was responsible for several murders. The first one killed was Amarjit Singh Dheil who was shot dead while leaving the Marpole-Oakridge Community Centre on January 19, 1997, after watching a hockey game. Dheil was an associate of the Dosanjh brothers, and Johal wanted to see all of the associates of the Dosanjh brothers killed least they try to avenge them. On October 21, 1997, "The Elite" killed Gorinder Singh Khun Khun as he leaving his home. Khun Khun had attended high school alongside Johal, and considered him a friend. Johal in a moment of paranoia was convinced that Khun Khun was involved in the Olson murder, which led him to order Khun Khun's murder. On July 1, 1998, Johal had "The Elite" kill Vinuse News MacKenzie. The reason for MacKenzie's murder was eliminate a romantic rival for the affections of a woman who preferred Mackenzie over Johal.
On September 19, 1998, a member of the gang, Derek Chand Shankar, insulted Johal, calling him an "idiot" and a "baby" after Johal stated he was felt too tired to go to a nightclub. Later the same night, Johal showed up at the nightclub and asked Buttar where Shankar was. Buttar stated that he was drunk and sleeping in a truck in the parking lot. Despite knowing that Johal was planning to kill Shankar, Buttar drove the truck to the Queensborough Bridge in New Westminster. As Shankar was waking up from his stupor, Johal shot him. On November 29, 1998, Johal's associate, Roman "Danny" Mann expressed the wish to leave the gang, leading to Johal to punch him out in fury. Later the same night, Mann's body was found in an empty industrial lot in Burnaby with a single bullet through his head. When Buttar asked Johal about the murder, he stated: "Blame it on the H.A. [Hells Angels]". Johal then asked Buttar if he wanted to go to a nightclub with him.
== Death ==
On Sunday, December 20, 1998, Johal was dancing at the Palladium nightclub in Vancouver when he was shot from behind at 4:30 a.m. He was rushed to Vancouver General Hospital where he died 4 hours later. No witnesses were able to describe the assailant. Four months before Johal's death, "at least three of Johal's associates had also been killed", with each killing alleged to be connected to Bindy, according to the confessions of Bal Buttar. In 2004, before he died, Bal Buttar told a reporter that he ordered the assassination of Johal, fearing that if he didn't do it, Johal would have had him murdered. The kidnapping trial was set to commence within two months of his murder; Buttar would have served up to 10 years if he had been convicted. Buttar was never convicted in the murder of Johal due to his blind and quadriplegic state.
Kash Heed, commanding officer of the 3rd Police District in Vancouver, stated that it was really disappointing that someone as bright and intelligent as Johal would turn to a life of crime. He added that young people who want to emulate gangsters like Bindy see the benefits of being a criminal, but do not see the danger of putting their lives at risk.
== See also ==
List of unsolved murders (1980–1999)
Beeba Boys, fictionalized film inspired by real crimes including those committed by Bindy Johal
== Notes ==
== Books ==
Langton, Jerry (2013). The Notorious Bacon Brothers : inside gang warfare on Vancouver streets. Etobicoke, Ont.: J. Wiley and Sons Canada. ISBN 978-1118388679.
Langton, Jerry (2015). Cold War How Organized Crime Works in Canada and Why It's About to Get More Violent. Toronto: HarperColllins. ISBN 978-1-4434-3255-9.
== References ==
== External links ==
Archive photo of Bindy Johal |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germund_Dahlquist | Germund Dahlquist | Germund Dahlquist (16 January 1925 – 8 February 2005) was a Swedish mathematician known primarily for his early contributions to the theory of numerical analysis as applied to differential equations.
Dahlquist began to study mathematics at Stockholm University in 1942 at the age of 17, where he cites the Danish mathematician Harald Bohr (who was living in exile after the occupation of Denmark during World War II) as a profound influence.
He received the degree of licentiat from Stockholm University in 1949, before taking a break from his studies to work at the Swedish Board of Computer Machinery (Matematikmaskinnämnden), working on (among other things) the early computer BESK, Sweden's first. During this time, he also worked with Carl-Gustaf Rossby on early numerical weather forecasts.
Dahlquist returned to Stockholm University to complete his Ph.D., Stability and Error Bounds in the Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations, which he defended in 1958, with Fritz Carlson and Lars Hörmander as his advisors. As part of this work he introduced the logarithmic norm (also introduced by Russian mathematician Sergei Lozinskii the same year).
In 1959 he moved to the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), where he would later establish what became the Department of Numerical Analysis and Computer Science (NADA) in 1962 (now part of the School of Computer Science and Communication), and become Sweden's first Professor of Numerical Analysis in 1963. He helped establish the Nordic journal of numerical analysis, BIT, in 1961. In 1965 he was elected into the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences (IVA).
The software package COMSOL Multiphysics, for finite element analysis of partial differential equations, was started by a couple of Dahlquist's graduate students based upon codes developed for a graduate course at KTH.
== See also ==
First and second Dahlquist barriers
== Honors and awards ==
SIAM 1988 John von Neumann lecturer.
SIAM 1991 Peter Henrici Prize.
SIAM Germund Dahlquist Prize, established 1995, "Awarded to a young scientist (normally under 45) for original contributions to fields associated with Germund Dahlquist, especially the numerical solution of differential equations and numerical methods for scientific computing".
Three honorary doctorates, from Hamburg (1981), Helsinki (1994), and Linköping (1996).
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles#Section_5 | 2020 French Open – Men's singles | Three-time defending champion Rafael Nadal defeated Novak Djokovic in the final, 6–0, 6–2, 7–5 to win the men's singles tennis title at the 2020 French Open. It was his record-extending 13th French Open title and 20th major title overall, equaling Roger Federer's all-time record of men's singles titles. For an Open Era record fourth time in his career, Nadal did not lose a set during the tournament (following 2008, 2010, and 2017). For the first time in French Open history, neither the men's nor women's singles champions lost a set during their tournaments. Nadal also became the first player, male or female, to win 100 matches at the French Open, and only the second man, after Federer at the Australian Open and Wimbledon, to win 100 matches at the same major.
Djokovic was attempting to become the first man in the Open Era to achieve a double career Grand Slam, a feat he would accomplish the following year. Instead, he suffered his worst-ever defeat in a major final, winning only seven games and suffering his first, and only bagel (0–6 set).
Taylor Fritz and Lorenzo Sonego played the longest tiebreak in French Open history in the third round: Sonego won the third set tiebreak 19–17.
Jannik Sinner was the first man to reach the quarterfinals on his tournament debut since Nadal won in 2005, and the youngest quarterfinalist since Djokovic in 2006. He was the first man born in the 21st century to reach a major quarterfinal.
Nadal and Sinner's quarterfinal match was the first men's match to start at night in French Open history. Their match, played under cold and windy conditions, started after 10:00 pm CEST and finished at 1:26 am, the first French Open match to finish after midnight.
== Seeds ==
All seedings per ATP rankings.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
== Draw ==
Key
=== Finals ===
=== Top half ===
==== Section 1 ====
==== Section 2 ====
==== Section 3 ====
==== Section 4 ====
=== Bottom half ===
==== Section 5 ====
==== Section 6 ====
==== Section 7 ====
==== Section 8 ====
== Other entry information ==
=== Wild cards ===
=== Protected ranking ===
=== Qualifiers ===
=== Lucky losers ===
=== Withdrawals ===
== References ==
== External links ==
2020 French Open – Men's draws and results at the International Tennis Federation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_430 | Bell 430 | The Bell 430 is an American/Canadian twin-engine light-medium helicopter built by Bell Helicopter. It is a stretched and more powerful development of the Bell 230, which, in turn, was based on the earlier Bell 222.
== Development ==
While developing the reengined Model 222 as the 230, Bell began preliminary design work on a stretched derivative with a four-bladed main rotor in 1991. The Bell 430 was formally launched in February 1992, with two prototypes modified from Bell 230s. The first of these flew in its new configuration on October 25, 1994, and the second prototype, featuring the full 430 avionics suite, first flew on December 19, 1994.
Production of the Bell 230 ended in August 1995, and 430 production began. The first 430 production aircraft was completed later that year. Canadian certification was awarded on February 23, 1996. Deliveries began in mid-1996.
On January 24, 2008, Bell announced plans to terminate production of its Model 430 after order commitments were fulfilled in 2008. Production ended after 136 helicopters were completed, with the last being delivered in May 2008.
== Design ==
The Bell 430 features several significant improvements over the 230, the most significant of these being the new four-blade, bearingless, hingeless, composite main rotor. Although both the 230 and 430 are powered by Rolls-Royce (Allison) 250 turboshaft engines, the 430's engines are 10% more powerful. Other changes include the 1 ft 6 in (46 cm) stretched fuselage, providing for two extra seats, an optional EFIS flight deck, and a choice of either skids or retractable wheeled undercarriage.
The typical configuration seats ten, including a pilot and co-pilot with eight passengers in the main cabin behind them in three rows of seats. Six- and eight-place executive layouts are offered. In an EMS role it can carry one or two stretcher patients with four or three medical attendants, respectively. Maximum external load capacity is 3,500 pounds (1,600 kg).
== Operational history ==
The Bell 430 entered service in 1996, with thirteen delivered that year. In 1998, some 50 Bell 430s were in service with 9,000 flight hours totaled.
On September 3, 1996, Americans Ron Bower and John Williams broke the round-the-world helicopter record with the second Bell 430, flying westwards from the UK with a time of 17 days, 6 hours and 14 minutes.
== Operators ==
=== Military ===
Bulgaria
Bulgarian Air Force
Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic Air Force
Ecuador
Ecuadorian Navy
=== Civilian ===
Indonesia
Pelita Air
United States
AirMed
New York State Police.
Lee County EMS
GrandView Aviation
Louisiana State Police
Uber Elevate
== Accidents ==
On September 2, 2009, an Andhra Govt. Bell 430 carrying Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy and his party from Andhra Pradesh in southern India went missing over a local stretch of forest. The charred wreckage was found the next morning, crashed on a hilltop in the Nallamala Hills leaving no survivors, five persons deceased.
== Specifications ==
Sources: Airliners.net, helicopterdirect.com, AircraftOne.com
== See also ==
Related development
Bell 222/230
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
AgustaWestland AW109
Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin
Sikorsky S-76
== References ==
Jackson, Paul, ed. (2004). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 2004–2005. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-7106-2614-2.
== External links ==
Bell 430 at Bell Helicopter web site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television | History of television | The concept of television is the work of many individuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the World's Fair in Paris on August 24, 1900.
The first practical transmissions of moving images over a radio system used mechanical rotating perforated disks to scan a scene into a time-varying signal that could be reconstructed at a receiver back into an approximation of the original image. Development of television was interrupted by the Second World War. After the end of the war, all-electronic methods of scanning and displaying images became standard. Several different standards for addition of color to transmitted images were developed with different regions using technically incompatible signal standards.
Television broadcasting expanded rapidly after the war, becoming an important mass medium for advertising, propaganda, and entertainment.
Television broadcasts can be distributed over the air by very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF) radio signals from terrestrial transmitting stations, by microwave signals from Earth-orbiting satellites, or by wired transmission to individual consumers by cable television. Many countries have moved away from the original analog radio transmission methods and now use digital television standards, providing additional operating features and conserving radio spectrum bandwidth for more profitable uses. Television programming can also be distributed over the Internet.
Television broadcasting may be funded by advertising revenue, by private or governmental organizations prepared to underwrite the cost, or in some countries, by television license fees paid by owners of receivers. Some services, especially carried by cable or satellite, are paid by subscriptions.
Television broadcasting is supported by continuing technical developments such as long-haul microwave networks, which allow distribution of programming over a wide geographic area. Video recording methods allow programming to be edited and replayed for later use. Three-dimensional television has been used commercially but has not received wide consumer acceptance owing to the limitations of display methods.
== Mechanical television ==
Facsimile transmission (fax) systems pioneered methods of mechanically scanning graphics in the early 19th century. The Scottish inventor Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. The English physicist Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. The first practical facsimile system, working on telegraph lines, was developed and put into service by the Italian priest Giovanni Caselli from 1856 onward.
Willoughby Smith, an English electrical engineer, discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium in 1873. This led, among other technologies, towards telephotography, a way to send still images through phone lines, as early as in 1895, as well as any kind of electronic image scanning devices, both still and in motion, and ultimately to TV cameras.
=== Maurice Leblanc ===
In 1880, French physicist Maurice Leblanc published an article "Etude sur la transmission électrique des impressions lumineuses" ("Study on the electric transmission of light impressions"). Amongst various proposals, it included the idea of using oscillating mirrors. This idea would be tested by various inventors, including the Austro-Hungarian Wilhelm von Szygarto (1894), the French Emile Desbeaux (1891), the Polish Jan Szczepanik (1897), the Austrian Bendict Schöffler (1898), the American engineer Alexander McLean Nicolson and the Hungarian Denes von Mihaly.
=== Nipkow ===
As a 23-year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in 1884 in Berlin. This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image.
Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "image rasterizer" became exceedingly common. In a paper presented at the International Electricity Congress at the World's Fair in Paris in August 1900, Constantin Perskyi reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others, and coining the word "television". However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology, by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn among others, made the design practical.
=== Rignoux and Fournier ===
The first demonstration of instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of mirrors at various angles attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8×8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.
=== Rosing ===
In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "Braun tube" (cathode-ray tube or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy".
=== Low's Televista ===
In May 1914, Archibald Low gave the first demonstration of his television system at the Institute of Automobile Engineers in London. He called his system 'Televista'. The events were widely reported worldwide and were generally entitled Seeing By Wireless. The demonstrations had so impressed Harry Gordon Selfridge that he included Televista in his 1914 Scientific and Electrical Exhibition at his store. It also interested Deputy Consul General Carl Raymond Loop, who filled a US consular report from London containing considerable detail about Low's system.
Low's invention employed a matrix detector (camera) and a mosaic screen (receiver/viewer) with an electro-mechanical scanning mechanism that moved a rotating roller over the cell contacts providing a multiplex signal to the camera/viewer data link. The receiver employed a similar roller and the two rollers were synchronised. It was unlike any other TV system of the 20th Century and in some respects, Low had a digital TV system 80 years before modern digital TV.
World War I began shortly after these demonstrations in London and Low became involved in sensitive military work on UAVs, so did not apply for a patent until 1917. His "Televista" Patent No. 191,405 titled "Improved Apparatus for the Electrical Transmission of Optical Images" was finally published in 1923; delayed possibly for security reasons. The patent states that the scanning roller had a row of conductive contacts corresponding to the cells in each row of the array and arranged to sample each cell in turn as the roller rotated. The receiver's roller was similarly constructed and each revolution addressed a row of cells as the rollers traversed over their array of cells.
Loop's report tells us that, "The receiver is made up of a series of cells operated by the passage of polarized light through thin slats of steel, and at the receiver the object before the transmitter is reproduced as a flickering image" and "The roller is driven by a motor of 3,000 revolutions per minute, and the resulting variations of light are transmitted along an ordinary conducting wire." and the patent states "into each... space I place a selenium cell". Low covered the cells with a liquid dielectric and the roller connected with each cell in turn through this medium as it rotated and traveled over the array. The receiver used bimetallic elements that acted as shutters "transmitting more or less light according to the current passing through them..." as stated in the patent. Low said the main deficiency of the system was the selenium cells used for converting light waves into electric impulses, which responded too slowly thus spoiling the effect. Loop reported that "The system has been tested through a resistance equivalent to a distance of four miles, but in the opinion of Doctor Low there is no reason why it should not be equally effective over far greater distances. The patent states that this connection could be either wired or wireless. The cost of the apparatus is considerable because the conductive sections of the roller are made of platinum..."
In 1914, the demonstrations certainly garnered a lot of media interest, with The Times reporting on 30 May:
An inventor, Dr. A. M. Low, has discovered a means of transmitting visual images by wire. If all goes well with this invention, we shall soon be able, it seems, to see people at a distance.
On 29 May, the Daily Chronicle reported:
Dr. Low gave a demonstration for the first time in public, with a new apparatus that he has invented, for seeing, he claims by electricity, by which it is possible for persons using a telephone to see each other at the same time
In 1927, Ronald Frank Tiltman asked Low to write the introduction to his book in which he acknowledged Low's work, referring to Low's related patents with an apology that they were of 'too technical a nature for inclusion'. Later in his 1938 patent Low envisioned a much larger 'camera' cell density achieved by a deposition process of cesium alloy on an insulated substrate that was subsequently sectioned to divide it into cells, the essence of today's technology. Low's system failed for various reasons, mostly due to its inability to reproduce an image by reflected light and simultaneously depict gradations of light and shade. It can be added to the list of systems, like that of Boris Rosing, that predominantly reproduced shadows. With subsequent technological advances, many such ideas could be made viable decades later, but at the time they were impractical.
=== Baird ===
In 1923, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird envisaged a complete television system that employed the Nipkow disk. Nipkow's was an obscure, forgotten patent and not at all obvious at the time. He created his first prototypes in Hastings, where he was recovering from a serious illness. In late 1924, Baird returned to London to continue his experiments there. On March 25, 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion at Selfridges department store in London. Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his system at this time, he televised cut-outs and by mid-1925 the head of a ventriloquist's dummy he later named "Stooky Bill", whose face was painted to highlight its contrast. "Stooky Bill" also did not complain about the long hours of staying still in front of the blinding level of light used in these experiments. On October 2, 1925, suddenly the dummy's head came through on the screen with incredible clarity. On January 26, 1926, he demonstrated the transmission of images of real human faces for 40 distinguished scientists of the Royal Institution. This is widely regarded as being the world's first public television demonstration. Baird's system used Nipkow disks for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses that swept images across a static photocell. At this time, it is believed that it was a thallium sulfide (thalofide) cell, developed by Theodore Case in the US, that detected the light reflected from the subject. This was transmitted by radio to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon bulb behind a similar Nipkow disk synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each lens in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. With this early apparatus, Baird's disks had 16 lenses, yet in conjunction with the other discs used produced moving images with 32 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face. He began with a frame rate of five per second, which was soon increased to a rate of 121⁄2 frames per second and 30 scan lines.
In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between London and Glasgow. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of the Derby. In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird Television Limited's mechanical systems reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution at the company's Crystal Palace studios, and later on BBC television broadcasts in 1936, though for action shots (as opposed to a seated presenter) the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead, a 17.5mm film was shot, rapidly developed, and then scanned while the film was still wet.
The Scophony Company's success with their mechanical system in the 1930s enabled them to take their operations to the US when World War II curtailed their business in Britain.
=== C. Francis Jenkins ===
An American inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins, also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses. On June 13, 1925, Jenkins publicly demonstrated the synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. Jenkins used a Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of 5 mi (8.0 km) (from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C.), using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution. He was granted U.S. patent 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on June 30, 1925 (filed March 13, 1922).
=== Takayanagi ===
On December 25, 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum at Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu Campus. By 1927, Takayanagi improved the resolution to 100 lines, which was not surpassed until 1931. He is the man who completed the first all-electronic television. His research toward creating a production model was halted by the US after Japan lost World War II.
=== Bell Labs ===
On April 7, 1927, a team from Bell Telephone Laboratories demonstrated television transmission from Washington, D.C. to New York City, using a prototype array of 50 lines containing 50 individual neon lights each against a gold-appearing background, as a display to make the images visible to an audience. The display measured approximately two feet by three feet and had 2500 total pixels (50x50).
Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on April 7, 1927. The reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a 2 in (51 mm)-wide by 2.5 in (64 mm)-high screen. The large receiver had a screen 24 in (610 mm) wide by 30 in (760 mm) high. Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets also received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a copper wire link from Washington, D.C. to New York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New Jersey. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. A flying-spot scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 milliseconds. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality."
In 1928, WRGB (then W2XCW) was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the General Electric facility in Schenectady, New York. It was popularly known as "WGY Television".
=== Theremin ===
Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16-line resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis on May 7, 1926, Theremin electrically transmitted and then projected near-simultaneous moving images on a five-foot square screen. By 1927 he achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until 1931 by RCA, with 120 lines.
Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution in mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to about 120. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear. A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935, and the 180-line system that Peck Television Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in Montreal.
=== Codelli ===
Anton Codelli (22 March 1875 – 28 April 1954), a Slovenian nobleman, was a passionate inventor. Among other things, he had devised a miniature refrigerator for cars and a new rotary engine design. Intrigued by television, he decided to apply his technical skills to the new medium. At the time, the biggest challenge in television technology was to transmit images with sufficient resolution to reproduce recognizable figures. As recounted by media historian Melita Zajc, most inventors were determined to increase the number of lines used by their systems – some were approaching what was then the magic number of 100 lines. But Codelli had a different idea. In 1929, he developed a television device with a single line – but one that formed a continuous spiral on the screen. Codelli based his design on his understanding of the human eye. He knew that objects seen in peripheral vision don't need to be as sharp as those in the center. Codelli's mechanical television system, whose image was sharpest in the middle, worked well, and he was soon able to transmit images of his wife, Ilona von Drasche-Lazar, over the air.
Despite the backing of the German electronics giant Telefunken, however, Codelli's television system never became a commercial reality. Electronic television ultimately emerged as the dominant system, and Codelli moved on to other projects. His invention was largely forgotten.
=== Footnote ===
The advancement of all-electronic television (including image dissectors and other camera tubes and cathode ray tubes for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical TV usually only produced small images with poor resolution. It was the main type of TV until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.
== Electronic television ==
In 1897, J. J. Thomson, an English physicist, in his three famous experiments was able to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern cathode-ray tube (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also known as the Braun tube. Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device. It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen. The Braun tube became the foundation of 20th century television. A cathode ray tube was successfully demonstrated as a displaying device by the German Professor Max Dieckmann in 1906, his experimental results were published by the journal Scientific American in 1909. In 1908 Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the UK Royal Society, published a letter in the scientific journal Nature in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a cathode ray tube (or "Braun" tube) as both a transmitting and receiving device. He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in The Times and the Journal of the Röntgen Society. In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died. They were later repeated in 1937 by two different teams, H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922.
These early electronic camera tubes (like the image dissector) suffered from a very disappointing and fatal flaw: They scanned the subject and what was seen at each point was only the tiny piece of light viewed at the instant that the scanning system passed over it. A practical functional camera tube needed a different technological approach, which later became known as Charge - Storage camera tube. It was based on a new physical phenomenon that was discovered and patented in Hungary in 1926, but it became widely understood and recognized only from around 1930.
The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by the Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi in the beginning of 1924.
In 1926, Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube. His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed "Radioskop". After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application, Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930, and so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of RCA's "iconoscope" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval. Tihanyi's charge storage idea remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day. His Radioskop patent was recognized as a Document of Universal Significance by the UNESCO, and thus became part of the Memory of the World Programme on September 4, 2001.
On December 25, 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.
On September 7, 1927, Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By September 3, 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was further improved by elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a 3.5 in (89 mm) image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).
Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary. Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a patent interference suit against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application, he also divided his original application in 1931. Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use Farnsworth's patents.
In 1933 RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle. Dubbed the Iconoscope by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector. However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a unique multipactor device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931. This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. A problem with the multipactor, unfortunately, was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.
At the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931 in Berlin, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission. However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot scanner to scan slides and film. Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world's first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, the Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow, culminating in the live broadcast of the 1936 Summer Olympic Games from Berlin to public places all over Germany.
Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia on August 25, 1934, and for ten days afterwards.
In Britain the EMI engineering team led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed "the Emitron", which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. A joint company EMI-Marconi was created in 1934 to lead the work, and for the Marconi Company, Simeon Aisenstein lead the team developing the VHF transmission system. In November 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but it was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular high-definition television service. The EMI patent was given in May 1932 to Australian James Dwyer McGee and William Francis Tedham (1902–2000).
The original American iconoscope, was an early electronic camera tube used to scan an image for the transmission of television. No other practical television scanning device prior to it was completely electronic, although some, such as the Nipkow disc, combined electronic elements with mechanical ones. The iconoscope had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high-definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available. The EMI team under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum. They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron. The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for an outside broadcasting by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighbouring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA could do the same before the 1939 New York World's Fair.
On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken. The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron. The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925, two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States. The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon. The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955, finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.
American television broadcasting at the time consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941. RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco. In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents. With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems. In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.
The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944, and became a national standard in 1946. The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in 1948 in Moscow. The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European CCIR standard.
In 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system.
In 1978, James P. Mitchell described, prototyped and demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel LED display targeted at replacing the CRT.
== Color television ==
The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details. Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it. Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him, and was patented in Germany on March 31, 1908, patent No. 197183, then in Britain, on April 1, 1908, patent No. 7219, in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).
Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on February 4, 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre.
Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green and blue images into one full-color image.
The first practical, hybrid, electro-mechanical, Field-sequential color system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird, with the initial demonstration made in July 1939. His system incorporated synchronized, two color, red and blue-green, rotating filters, placed in front of both the camera, and CRT, to add false colour to the monochromatic television broadcasts. By December 1940 he had publicly demonstrated a 600-line, hybrid, field-sequential, color television system. This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console. However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.
In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on August 29, 1940, and shown to the press on September 4.
CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12. NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942, to August 20, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.
Mexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also experimented with hybrid field-sequential color TV (known as telectroescopía at first). His efforts began in 1931 and led to a Mexican patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" color television being filed in August 1940.
As early as 1940 Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "Telechrome". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on August 16, 1944, was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. This used a patterned version of the phosphor plate, with the guns aimed at ridges on one side of the plate. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.
Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.
One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and-white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee approved an all-electronic Compatible color system developed by RCA, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher-resolution black-and-white and lower-resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement.
Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953, high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) occurred on January 1, 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.
Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice, they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets.
Color broadcasting in Europe was also not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s.
By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets, such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and by the early 1980s, black-and-white sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s, even these areas switched to color sets.
== Digital television ==
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel-separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth. It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s.
Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It wasn't until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility.
In the mid-1980s Japanese consumer electronics firm Sony Corporation developed HDTV technology and the equipment to record at such resolution, and the MUSE analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese broadcaster, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies. Sony's system produced images at 1125-line resolution (or in digital terms, 1875x1125, close to the resolution of Full HD video) Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.
In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.
The final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior. Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then feasible, that is, 1080 lines per picture and 1920 pixels per line. William F. Schreiber, who was a director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.
Digital television transition started in the late 2000s. All the governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by the 2010s. Initially, the adoption rate was low. But soon, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition was expected to be complete worldwide by the mid to late 2010s.
== Smart television ==
Advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid television, is a television set with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is an example of technological convergence between computers and television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system, including Android or a derivative of it, Tizen, webOS, Roku OS, and SmartCast.
Smart TV is not to be confused with Internet TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Internet television refers to the receiving of television content over the Internet instead of traditional systems (terrestrial, cable and satellite) (although the Tnternet itself may be received by these methods). Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
A first patent was filed in 1994 (and extended the following year) for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs.
Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.
== 3D television ==
Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on August 10, 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London. Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electro-mechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs.
Although 3D TV sets are somewhat prevalent for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads among the public. Many 3D television channels that started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s.
== Terrestrial television ==
=== Overview ===
Programming is broadcast by television stations, sometimes called "channels", as stations are licensed by their governments to broadcast only over assigned channels in the television band. At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of channels available, government regulation was the norm.
=== Canada ===
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) adopted the American NTSC 525-line B/W 60 field per second system as its broadcast standard. It began television broadcasting in Canada in September 1952. The first broadcast was on September 6, 1952, from its Montreal station CBFT. The premiere broadcast was bilingual, spoken in English and French. Two days later, on September 8, 1952, the Toronto station CBLT went on the air. This became the English-speaking flagship station for the country, while CBFT became the French-language flagship after a second English-language station was licensed to CBC in Montreal later in the decade. The CBC's first privately owned affiliate television station, CKSO in Sudbury, Ontario, launched in October 1953 (at the time, all private stations were expected to affiliate with the CBC, a condition that was relaxed in 1960–61 when CTV, Canada's second national English-language network, was formed).
=== Czechoslovakia ===
In former Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia) the first experimental television sets were produced in 1948. In the same year, the first test television transmission was performed. Regular television broadcasts in Prague area started on May 1, 1953. Television service expanded in the following years as new studios were built in Ostrava, Bratislava, Brno and Košice. By 1961 more than a million citizens owned a television set. The second channel of the state-owned Czechoslovak Television started broadcasting in 1970.
Preparations for color transmissions in the PAL color system started in the second half of the 1960s. However, due to the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and the following normalization period, the broadcaster was ultimately forced to adopt the SECAM color system used by the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Regular color transmissions eventually started in 1973, with television studios using PAL equipment and the output signal only being transcoded to SECAM at transmitter sites.
After the Velvet Revolution, it was decided to switch to the PAL standard. The new OK3 channel was launched by Czechoslovak Television in May 1990 and broadcast in the format from the very start. The remaining channels switched to PAL by July 1, 1992. Commercial television didn't start broadcasting until after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
=== France ===
The first experiments in television broadcasting began in France in the 1930s, although the French did not immediately employ the new technology.
In November 1929, Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. On April 14, 1931, there took place the first transmission with a thirty-line standard by René Barthélemy. On December 6, 1931, Henri de France created the Compagnie Générale de Télévision (CGT). In December 1932, Barthélemy carried out an experimental program in black and white (definition: 60 lines) one hour per week, "Paris Télévision", which gradually became daily from early 1933.
The first official channel of French television appeared on February 13, 1935, the date of the official inauguration of television in France, which was broadcast in 60 lines from 8:15 to 8:30 pm. The program showed the actress Béatrice Bretty in the studio of Radio-PTT Vision at 103 rue de Grenelle in Paris. The broadcast had a range of 100 km (62 mi). On November 10, George Mandel, Minister of Posts, inaugurated the first broadcast in 180 lines from the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower. On the 18th, Susy Wincker, the first announcer since the previous June, carried out a demonstration for the press from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. Broadcasts became regular from January 4, 1937, from 11:00 to 11:30 am and 8:00 to 8:30 pm during the week, and from 5:30 to 7:30 pm on Sundays. In July 1938, a decree defined for three years a standard of 455 lines VHF (whereas three standards were used for the experiments: 441 lines for Gramont, 450 lines for the Compagnie des Compteurs and 455 for Thomson). In 1939, there were about only 200 to 300 individual television sets, some of which were also available in a few public places.
With the entry of France into World War II the same year, broadcasts ceased and the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was sabotaged. On September 3, 1940, French television was seized by the German occupation forces. A technical agreement was signed by the Compagnie des Compteurs and Telefunken, and a financing agreement for the resuming of the service is signed by German Ministry of Post and Radiodiffusion Nationale (Vichy's radio). On May 7, 1943, at 3:00 evening broadcasts. The first broadcast of Fernsehsender Paris (Paris Télévision) was transmitted from rue Cognac-Jay. These regular broadcasts (51⁄4 hours a day) lasted until August 16, 1944. One thousand 441-line sets, most of which were installed in soldiers' hospitals, picked up the broadcasts. These German-controlled television broadcasts from the Eiffel Tower in Paris were able to be received on the south coast of England by Royal Air Force and BBC engineers, who photographed the station identification image direct from the screen.
In 1944, René Barthélemy developed an 819-line television standard. During the years of occupation, Barthélemy reached 1015 and even 1042 lines. On October 1, 1944, television service resumed after the liberation of Paris. The broadcasts were transmitted from the Cognacq-Jay studios. In October 1945, after repairs, the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was back in service. On November 20, 1948, François Mitterrand decreed a broadcast standard of 819 lines; broadcasting began at the end of 1949 in this definition. Besides France, this standard was later adopted by Algeria, Monaco, and Morocco. Belgium and Luxembourg used a modified version of this standard with bandwidth narrowed to 7 MHz.
Development of color coding standard SECAM began in 1956, by a team led by Henri de France working at Compagnie Française de Télévision; NTSC was considered undesirable in Europe because of its tint problem, requiring an additional control, which SECAM, and later PAL, solved. Some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers. However, incompatibility had started with the earlier unusual decision to adopt positive video modulation for 819-line French broadcast signals (only the UK's 405-line was similar; widely adopted 525- and 625-line systems used negative video). Nonetheless, SECAM was partly developed for reasons of national pride. Henri de France's personal charisma and ambition may have been a contributing factor; PAL was developed by Telefunken, a German company.
The first proposed system was called SECAM I and tested in December 1961, followed by other studies to improve compatibility and image quality, but it was too soon for a wide introduction. A version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but never introduced.
=== Germany ===
Electromechanical broadcasts began in Germany in 1929, but were without sound until 1934. Network electronic service started on March 22, 1935, on 180 lines using telecine transmission of film, intermediate film system, or cameras using the Nipkow Disk. Transmissions using cameras based on the iconoscope began on January 15, 1936. The Berlin Summer Olympic Games were televised, using both all-electronic iconoscope-based cameras and intermediate film cameras, to Berlin and Hamburg in August 1936. Twenty-eight public television rooms were opened for anybody who did not own a television set. The Germans had a 441-line system on the air in February 1937, and during World War II brought it to France, where they broadcast from the Eiffel Tower.
After the end of World War II, the victorious Allies imposed a general ban on all radio and television broadcasting in Germany. Radio broadcasts for information purposes were soon permitted again, but television broadcasting was allowed to resume only in 1948.
In East Germany, the head of broadcasting in the Soviet occupation zone, Hans Mahler, predicted in 1948 that in the near future 'a new and important technical step forward in the field of broadcasting in Germany will begin its triumphant march: television.' In 1950, the plans for a nationwide television service got off the ground, and a Television Centre in Berlin was approved. Transmissions began on December 21, 1952, using the 625-line standard developed in the Soviet Union in 1944, although at that time there were probably no more than 75 television receivers capable of receiving the programming.
In West Germany, the British occupation forces as well as NWDR (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), which had started work in the British zone straight after the war, agreed to the launch of a television station. Even before this, German television specialists had agreed on 625 lines as the future standard. This standard had a narrower channel bandwidth (7 MHz) compared to the Soviet specification (8 MHz), allowing three television channels to fit into the VHF I band. In 1963 a second broadcaster (ZDF) started. Commercial stations began programming in the 1980s.
When color was introduced, West Germany (1967) chose a variant of the NTSC color system, modified by Walter Bruch and called PAL. East Germany (1969) accepted the French SECAM system, which was used in Eastern European countries. With the reunification of Germany, it was decided to switch to the PAL color system. The system was changed in December 1990.
=== Italy ===
In Italy, the first experimental tests on television broadcasts were made in Turin since 1934. The city already hosted the Center for Management of the EIAR (lately renamed as RAI) at the premises of the Theatre of Turin. Subsequently, the EAIR established offices in Rome and Milan.
On July 22, 1939, comes into operation in Rome the first television transmitter at the EIAR station, which performed a regular broadcast for about a year using a 441-line system that was developed in Germany. In September of the same year, a second television transmitter was installed in Milan, making experimental broadcasts during major events in the city.
The broadcasts were suddenly ended on May 31, 1940, by order of the government, allegedly because of interferences encountered in the first air navigation systems. Also, the imminent participation in the war is believed to have played a role in this decision. EIAR transmitting equipment was relocated to Germany by the German troops. Lately, it was returned to Italy.
The first official television broadcast began on January 3, 1954, by the RAI.
=== Japan ===
Television broadcasting in Japan started on May 13, 1939, making the country one of the first in the world with an experimental television service. The broadcasts were in 441-lines with 25 frames/second and 4.5 MHz video bandwidth. The first television tests were conducted as early as 1926 using a combined mechanical Nipkow disk and electronic Braun tube system, later switching to an all-electronic system in 1935 using a domestically developed iconoscope system. In spite of that, because of the beginning of World War II in the Pacific region, this first full-fledged TV broadcast experimentation lasted only a few months. Regular television broadcasts would eventually start in 1953.
In 1979, NHK first developed a consumer high-definition television with a 5:3 display aspect ratio. The system, known as Hi-Vision or MUSE after its Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding for encoding the signal, required about twice the bandwidth of the existing NTSC system but provided about four times the resolution (1080i/1125 lines). Satellite test broadcasts started in 1989, with regular testing starting in 1991 and regular broadcasting of BS-9ch commenced on November 25, 1994, which featured commercial and NHK television programming.
Sony first demonstrated a wideband analog high-definition television system HDTV capable video camera, monitor and video tape recorder (VTR) in April 1981 at an international meeting of television engineers in Algiers. The Sony HDVS range was launched in April 1984, with the HDC-100 camera, HDV-100 video recorder and HDS-100 video switcher all working in the 1125-line component video format with interlaced video and a 5:3 aspect ratio.
=== Mexico ===
The first testing television station in Mexico signed on in 1935. When KFMB-TV in San Diego signed on in 1949, Baja California became the first state to receive a commercial television station over the air. Within a year, the Mexican government would adopt the U.S. NTSC 525-line B/W 60-field-per-second system as the country's broadcast standard. In 1950, the first commercial television station within Mexico, XHTV in Mexico City, signed on the air, followed by XEW-TV in 1951 and XHGC in 1952. Those three were not only the first television stations in the country, but also the flagship stations of Telesistema Mexicano, which was formed in 1955. That year, Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta, who had signed on XEW-TV, entered into a partnership with Rómulo O'Farrill who had signed on XHTV, and Guillermo González Camarena, who had signed on XHGC. The earliest 3D television broadcasts in the world were broadcast over XHGC in 1954. Color television was introduced in 1962, also over XHGC-TV. One of Telesistema Mexicano's earliest broadcasts as a network, over XEW-TV, on June 25, 1955, was the first international North American broadcast in the medium's history, and was jointly aired with NBC in the United States, where it aired as the premiere episode of Wide Wide World, and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Except for a brief period between 1969 and 1973, nearly every commercial television station in Mexico, with exceptions in the border cities, was expected to affiliate with a subnetwork of Telesistema Mexicano or its successor, Televisa (formed by the 1973 merger of Telesistema Mexicano and Television Independiente de Mexico). This condition would not be relaxed for good until 1993 when Imevision was privatized to become TV Azteca.
=== Soviet Union (USSR) ===
The Soviet Union began offering 30-line electromechanical test broadcasts in Moscow on October 31, 1931, and a commercially manufactured television set in 1932.
First electronic television system on 180 lines at 25 fps was created in the beginning of 1935 in Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In September 1937 the experimental Leningrad TV Center (OLTC) was put in action. OLTC worked with 240 lines at 25 fps progressive scan.
In Moscow, experimental transmissions of electronic television took place on March 9, 1937, using equipment manufactured by RCA. Regular broadcasting began on December 31, 1938. It was quickly realized that 343 lines of resolution offered by this format would have become insufficient in the long run, thus a specification for a 441-line format at 25 fps interlaced was developed in 1940.
Television broadcasts were suspended during Great Patriotic War. In 1944, while the war was still raging, a new standard, offering 625 lines of vertical resolution was prepared. This format was ultimately accepted as a national standard.
The transmissions in 625-line format started in Moscow on November 4, 1948. Regular broadcasting began on June 16, 1949. Details for this standard were formalized in 1955 specification called GOST 7845-55, basic parameters for black-and-white television broadcast. In particular, frame size was set to 625 lines, frame rate to 25 frames/s interlaced, and video bandwidth to 6 MHz. These basic parameters were accepted by most countries having 50 Hz mains frequency and became the foundation of television systems presently known as PAL and SECAM.
Starting in 1951, broadcasting in the 625-line standard was introduced in other major cities of the Soviet Union.
Color television broadcast started in 1967, using SECAM color system.
=== Turkey ===
The first Turkish television channel, ITU TV, was launched in 1952. The first national television is TRT 1 and was launched in 1968. Color television was introduced in 1981. Before 1989 there was the only channel, the state broadcasting company TRT, and it broadcast in several times of the dateline. Turkey's first private television channel Star started it broadcast on 26 May 1989. Until then there was only one television channel controlled by the state, but with the wave of liberalization, privately owned broadcasting began. Turkey's television market is defined by a handful of big channels, led by Kanal D, ATV and Show, with 14%, 10% and 9.6% market share, respectively. The most important reception platforms are terrestrial and satellite, with almost 50% of homes using satellite (of these 15% were pay services) at the end of 2009. Three services dominate the multi-channel market: the satellite platforms Digitürk and D-Smart and the cable TV service Türksat.
=== United Kingdom ===
The first British television broadcast was made by Baird Television's electromechanical system over the BBC radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. During this time, Southampton earned the distinction of broadcasting the first-ever live television interview, which featured Peggy O'Neil, an actress and singer from Buffalo, New York. On August 22, 1932, BBC launched its own regular service using Baird's 30-line electromechanical system, continuing until September 11, 1935.
On November 2, 1936, the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London. It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today. It was a dual-system service, alternating between Marconi-EMI's 405-line standard and Baird's improved 240-line standard, from Alexandra Palace in London. The BBC Television Service continues to this day.
The government, on advice from a special advisory committee, decided that Marconi-EMI's electronic system gave the superior picture, and the Baird system was dropped in February 1937. TV broadcasts in London were on the air an average of four hours daily from 1936 to 1939. There were 12,000 to 15,000 receivers. Some sets in restaurants or bars might have 100 viewers for sport events (Dunlap, p56). The outbreak of the Second World War caused the BBC service to be abruptly suspended on September 1, 1939, at 12:35 pm, after a Mickey Mouse cartoon and test signals were broadcast, so that transmissions could not be used as a beacon to guide enemy aircraft to London. It resumed, again from Alexandra Palace on June 7, 1946, after the end of the war, began with a live programme that opened with the line "Good afternoon everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh?" and was followed by the same Mickey Mouse cartoon broadcast on the last day before the war. At the end of 1947 there were 54,000 licensed television receivers, compared with 44,000 television sets in the United States at that time.
The first transatlantic television signal was sent in 1928 from London to New York by the Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television, although this signal was not broadcast to the public. The first live satellite signal to Britain from the United States was broadcast via the Telstar satellite on July 23, 1962.
The first live broadcast from the European continent was made on August 27, 1950.
=== United States ===
WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, New York, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers.
The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928, fifteen months before the United Kingdom. The Federal Radio Commission authorized C. F. Jenkins to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in Wheaton, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C. For at least the first eighteen months, 48-line silhouette images from motion picture film were broadcast, although beginning in the summer of 1929 he occasionally broadcast in halftones.
Hugo Gernsback's New York City radio station, WRNY, began a regular, if limited, schedule of live television broadcasts on August 14, 1928, using 48-line images. Working with only one transmitter, the station alternated radio broadcasts with silent television images of the station's call sign, faces in motion, and wind-up toys in motion. Speaking later that month, Gernsback downplayed the broadcasts, intended for amateur experimenters. "In six months we may have television for the public, but so far we have not got it." Gernsback also published Television, the world's first magazine about the medium.
General Electric's experimental station in Schenectady, New York, on the air sporadically since January 13, 1928, was able to broadcast reflected-light, 48-line images via shortwave as far as Los Angeles, and by September was making four television broadcasts weekly. It is considered to be the direct predecessor of current television station WRGB. The Queen's Messenger, a one-act play broadcast on September 11, 1928, was the world's first live drama on television.
Radio giant RCA began daily experimental television broadcasts in New York City in March 1929 over station W2XBS, the predecessor of current television station WNBC. The 60-line transmissions consisted of pictures, signs, and views of persons and objects. Experimental broadcasts continued to 1931.
General Broadcasting System's WGBS radio and W2XCR television aired their regular broadcasting debut in New York City on April 26, 1931, with a special demonstration set up in Aeolian Hall at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street. Thousands waited to catch a glimpse of the Broadway stars who appeared on the 6 in (150 mm) square image, in an evening event to publicize a weekday programming schedule offering films and live entertainers during the four-hour daily broadcasts. Appearing were boxer Primo Carnera, actors Gertrude Lawrence, Louis Calhern, Frances Upton and Lionel Atwill, WHN announcer Nils Granlund, the Forman Sisters, and a host of others.
CBS's New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting their first regular seven-day-a-week television schedule on July 21, 1931, with a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included Mayor Jimmy Walker, the Boswell Sisters, Kate Smith, and George Gershwin. The service ended in February 1933. Don Lee Broadcasting's station W6XAO in Los Angeles went on the air in December 1931. Using the UHF spectrum, it broadcast a regular schedule of filmed images every day except Sundays and holidays for several years.
By 1935, low-definition electromechanical television broadcasting had ceased in the United States except for a handful of stations run by public universities that continued to 1939. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) saw television in the continual flux of development with no consistent technical standards, hence all such stations in the U.S. were granted only experimental and non-commercial licenses, hampering television's economic development. Just as importantly, Philo Farnsworth's August 1934 demonstration of an all-electronic system at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia pointed out the direction of television's future.
On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one-month-long demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL, then KNXT, now KCBS-TV) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily television broadcasts of films. By 1934 RCA increased the definition to 343 interlaced lines and the frame rate to 30 per second. On July 7, 1936, RCA and its subsidiary NBC demonstrated in New York City a 343-line electronic television broadcast with live and film segments to its licensees, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. Irregularly scheduled broadcasts continued through 1937 and 1938. Regularly scheduled electronic broadcasts began in April 1938 in New York (to the second week of June, and resuming in August) and Los Angeles. NBC officially began regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939, with a broadcast of the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair.
In 1937 RCA raised the frame definition to 441 lines, and its executives petitioned the FCC for approval of the standard. By June 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. From May through December 1939, the New York City NBC station (W2XBS) of RCA broadcast twenty to fifty-eight hours of programming per month, Wednesday through Sunday of each week. The programming was 33% news, 29% drama, and 17% educational programming, with an estimated 2,000 receiving sets by the end of the year, and an estimated audience of five to eight thousand. A remote truck could cover outdoor events from up to 10 miles (16 km) away from the transmitter, which was located atop the Empire State Building. Coaxial cable was used to cover events at Madison Square Garden. The coverage area for reliable reception was a radius of 40 to 50 miles (80 km) from the Empire State Building, an area populated by more than 10,000,000 people.
The FCC adopted NTSC television engineering standards on May 2, 1941, calling for 525 lines of vertical resolution, 30 frames per second with interlaced scanning, 60 fields per second, and sound carried by frequency modulation. Sets sold since 1939 that were built for slightly lower resolution could still be adjusted to receive the new standard. (Dunlap, p31). The FCC saw television ready for commercial licensing, and the first such licenses were issued to NBC- and CBS-owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941, followed by Philco's station WPTZ in Philadelphia.
In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941 but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television license fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had public service as part of its royal charter.
The first official, paid advertising to appear on American commercial television occurred on the afternoon of July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute.
After the U.S. entry into World War II, the FCC reduced the required minimum air time for commercial television stations from 15 hours per week to 4 hours. Most TV stations suspended broadcasting; of the ten original television stations only six continued through the war. On the few that remained, programs included entertainment such as boxing and plays, events at Madison Square Garden, and illustrated war news as well as training for air raid wardens and first aid providers. In 1942, there were 5,000 sets in operation, but production of new TVs, radios, and other broadcasting equipment for civilian purposes was suspended from April 1942 to August 1945 (Dunlap).
By 1947, when there were 40 million radios in the U.S., there were about 44,000 television sets (with probably 30,000 in the New York area). Regular network television broadcasts began on NBC on a three-station network linking New York with the Capital District and Philadelphia in 1944; on the DuMont Television Network in 1946, and on CBS and ABC in 1948.
Following the rapid rise of television after the war, the Federal Communications Commission was flooded with applications for television station licenses. With more applications than available television channels, the FCC ordered a freeze on processing station applications in 1948 that remained in effect until April 14, 1952.
By 1949, the networks stretched from New York to the Mississippi River, and by 1951 to the West Coast. Commercial color television broadcasts began on CBS in 1951 with a field-sequential color system that was suspended four months later for technical and economic reasons. The television industry's National Television System Committee (NTSC) developed a color television system based on RCA technology that was compatible with existing black and white receivers, and commercial color broadcasts reappeared in 1953.
With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and the 1980s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna. A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to a switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for cord cutters.
== Cable television ==
Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for "community access television" or "community antenna television", from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.
Early cable television was analog, but since the 2000s all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.
== Satellite television ==
=== Overview ===
Satellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television.
The most common method of reception is direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH). In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a direct broadcast satellite on the Ku wavelength and are completely digital. Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as television receive-only. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed big dish systems, and were more expensive and less popular.
The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high-definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription.
In 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.
The first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on July 23, 1962. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on July 26, 1963.
The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to a network of twenty ground downlink stations each equipped with a parabolic antenna 39 feet (12 m) in diameter. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972. ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974. It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home-constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.
In the Soviet Union, the Moskva (or Moscow) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites was launched in 1979. Stationary and mobile downlink stations with parabolic antennas 13.1 and 8.2 feet (4 and 2.5 m) in diameter were receiving signal from Gorizont communication satellites deployed to geostationary orbits. The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran 1, was launched on October 26, 1976. It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave technology.
=== Beginning of the satellite TV industry ===
In the United States, the satellite television industry developed from the cable television industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote cable television headends. Home Box Office (HBO), Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later The Family Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976. PBS, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978. On October 18, 1979, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license. The front cover of the 1979 Neiman-Marcus Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500. The dishes were nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter and were remote-controlled. The price went down by half soon after that, but there were only eight more channels. The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations (SPACE), an organisation that represented consumers and satellite TV system owners was established in 1980.
Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size. The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were 10 to 16 feet (3.0 to 4.9 m) in diameter, made of fibreglass or solid aluminum or steel, and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000. Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in geostationary orbit located 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the Earth.
=== TVRO/C-band satellite era ===
By 1980, satellite television was well established in the US and Europe. On April 26, 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, Satellite Television Ltd, (later Sky1) was launched. Its signals were transmitted from the ESA's Orbital Test Satellites. Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of Gallium Arsenide FET technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. 500,000 systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984. Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper. People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees. The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them eyesores, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal. These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal. A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use. The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.
Originally, all channels were broadcast in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to scramble their signal and develop subscription systems.
In October 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984, which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable fee. Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition. In January 1986, HBO began using the now-obsolete VideoCipher II system to encrypt their channels. Other channels uses less secure television encryption systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive. Eventually HBO allowed dish owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than what cable subscribers were paying, and required a descrambler to be purchased for $395. This led to the attack on HBO's transponder Galaxy 1 by John R. MacDougall in April 1986. One by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels. The Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association SBCA was founded on December 2, 1986, as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association (DBSA).
Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and Data Encryption Standard based encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a black market for descrambler devices, which were initially sold as "test" devices.
=== Late 1980s and 1990s to present ===
By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air. While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year. Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result. Scrambling also led to the development of pay-per-view events. On November 1, 1988, NBC began scrambling its C-band signal but left its Ku band signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising. Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band. ABC and CBS were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local network affiliates. The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison. A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.
Satellite television had also developed in Europe but it initially used low-power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in). On December 11, 1988 Luxembourg launched Astra 1A, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe. This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in Ku band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm). The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, British Satellite Broadcasting, to the market.
In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched PrimeStar, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the Hughes DirecTV and Dish Network satellite television systems.
On March 4, 1996, EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite. EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170. These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to digital television transmission using the DigiCipher conditional access system.
In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of DBS services such as PrimeStar and DirecTV had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent Ku band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the solar panels and energy efficiency of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the digital modulation methods now used require less signal strength at the receiver than analog modulation methods. Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the Ku band, but only 24 in the C band, and several digital subchannels can be multiplexed (MCPC) or carried separately (SCPC) on a single transponder. Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave technology and semiconductor materials have also had an effect. However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.
== Internet television ==
Internet television (Internet TV), (online television) or IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable and satellite, although internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters.
Internet television is not to be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the TV set that has an inbuilt operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
== Television sets ==
A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as VHS and later DVD, as well as for early home computers and videogame consoles. Since the late 2000s, flat panel television incorporating liquid-crystal displays largely replaced cathode ray tubes. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of high-definition display (720p, 1080p or 2160p) and can also play content from a USB device.
Mechanical televisions were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States, and Soviet Union. The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird called Televisors in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a neon tube behind a mechanically spinning disk (patented by German engineer Paul Nipkow in 1884) with a spiral of apertures first mass-produced television set, selling about a thousand units.
The first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France (1936), Britain (1936), and the United States (1938). The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 (equivalent to $9,940 in 2024). An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. Television usage in the western world skyrocketed after World War II with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, color television had come into wide use. In Britain, BBC1, BBC2 and ITV were regularly broadcasting in color by 1969.
By the late 2000s, CRT display technology was largely supplanted worldwide by flat-panel displays such as LCD. Flat-panel television, especially LCD, has become the dominant form of television since the early 2010s. was about the largest size of a CRT.
== Technological innovations ==
The first national live television broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951, when President Harry Truman's speech at the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco was transmitted over AT&T's transcontinental cable and microwave radio relay system to broadcast stations in local markets.
The first live coast-to-coast commercial television broadcast in the U.S. took place on November 18, 1951, during the premiere of CBS's See It Now, which showed a split-screen view of the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City and the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco.
The Eurovision Song Contest held yearly from 1956 by the European Broadcasting Union was launched, among other goals, with the aim to make technical improvements in the field of simultaneous sharing of TV signals across main national European broadcasters, a technical challenge by that time. It is the longest-running annual international televised music competition.
In 1958, the CBC completed the longest television network in the world, from Sydney, Nova Scotia to Victoria, British Columbia.
Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a "breaking" news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the Springhill mining disaster, which began on October 23, 1958.
The development of cable television and satellite television in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged companies to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the rise of subscription television channels, such as HBO and Showtime in the U.S., and Sky Television in the U.K.
== Television pioneers ==
Important people in the development and contributions of TV technology.
== Television museums ==
Museums focused on or exhibiting television history.
Paley Center for Media (New York City, New York, United States)
Central Illinois' On-Line Broadcast Museum
Early Television Museum (Hilliard, Ohio, United States)
Museum of Broadcast Communications (Chicago, Illinois, United States)
National Science and Media Museum (Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom)
National Museum of Australia (Acton, Australian Capital Territory)
Museum of the Moving Image (New York City, New York, United States)
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Abramson, Albert (1987). The History of Television, 1880 to 1941. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-89950-284-9.
Abramson, Albert (2003). The History of Television, 1942 to 2000. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-7864-1220-8.
Beyer, Rick (2003). The Greatest Stories Never Told: 100 tales from history to astonish, bewilder, & stupefy. A&E Television Networks. ISBN 0-06-001401-6.
Burns, R. W. (1998). Television: An International History of the Formative Years. IEE History of Technology Series. Vol. 22. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers. ISBN 0-85296-914-7.
Inventors and Inventions. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. ISBN 978-0-7614-7763-1.
Dunlap, Orrin E. (1942). The Future of Television. New York and London: Harper Brothers.
Everson, George (1949). The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-405-06042-7. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Fisher, David E.; Fisher, Marshall Jon (1996). Tube: the Invention of Television. Washington: Counterpoint. ISBN 1-887178-17-1.
Hart, Jeffrey A. (2004). Television, technology, and competition: HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan (PDF). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82624-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2012.
Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 978-0-471-20505-0.
Jenkins, C. F. (1925). Vision by radio, radio photographs, radio photograms. Washington, D.C.: National Capitol Press.
Lohr, Lenox (1940). Television Broadcasting. New York: McGraw Hill.
Meyrowitz, Joshua (1985). No Sense of Place. New York: Oxford University Press.
Shiers, George; Shiers, May (1997). Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940. Garland Reference Library of Social Science. Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-0-8240-7782-2.
== Further reading ==
Marsh, Allison (September 16, 2024). "In 1926, TV Was Mechanical: John Logie Baird's television was based around a spinning metal disk". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved September 18, 2024.
== External links ==
NAB: How It All Got Started Archived March 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
Bairdtelevision.com
History of European Television – online exhibition
Journal of European Television History and Culture
Technology Review – Who Really Invented Television?
Who Invented Television – Reconciling The Historical Origins of Electronic Video
Photos of early TV receivers
Early television museum (extensive online presence)
Detailed timeline of communications media (including the TV)
The History of Australian Television
EUscreen: Discover Europe's television heritage
A Visit to Our Studios: a television program exploring the studios at Johns Hopkins University in 1951
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archives
History of West Australian Television
MZTV Museum of Television & Archive
Television Early Patents and Inventions
Littleton, Cynthia. "Happy 70th Birthday, TV Commercial broadcasts bow on July 1, 1941; Variety calls it 'corney'", Variety, July 1, 2011. WebCitation archive.
Booknotes interview with Daniel Stashower on The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television, July 21, 2002.
André Lange, "Histoire de la télévision" (Comprehensive collection of documents on the formative years of television - Important bibliography) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakshi_Ghulam_Mohammad#:~:text=retire%20from%20politics.-,Indian%20Parliament%20(1967%E2%80%931971),the%20Lok%20Sabha%20till%201971. | Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad | Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad (20 July 1907 – 15 July 1972) was an Indian politician who served as the prime minister of Jammu and Kashmir from 1953 to 1964. Bakshi was a founding member of the National Conference and rose to be the second in command to the principal leader Sheikh Abdullah. He served as the deputy prime minister of the State of Jammu and Kashmir between 1947 and 1953, but disagreed with Abdullah's advocacy of independence for the state in 1953. He staged a 'coup' with the help of the head of state Karan Singh, resulting in the dismissal and imprisonment of Sheikh Abdullah. Bakshi was the longest serving prime minister, whose rule saw the formulation of the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir and a normalisation of relations of Jammu and Kashmir with the Indian government.
== Early life ==
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was born in 1907 in a lower middle class family in the Safakadal area of Srinagar (in the then princely state of Jammu and Kashmir). His father, Abdul Ghaffar Bakshi, was said to have been unemployed. Bakshi had six siblings, four brothers and two sisters.
He was educated at C.M.S Tyndale Biscoe School upto eighth grade, which was considered a reasonable qualification at that time. He started his career as a school teacher in Christian missionary schools in Skardu and Leh. Due to family pressure, he returned to Srinagar and got married.
In 1925, he served in the Kashmir branch of the All India Spinners’ Association and worked as a karyakarta at Gandhi Ashram in Srinagar, which was founded and based on Mahatma Gandhi’s principles for appropriate technology to tackle rural poverty. He was exposed to the ideas of Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi during this time. He earned the epithet of "Kashmiri Gandhi" for his calls to boycott British goods.
== Politics in the princely state ==
In 1927 Bakshi joined Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah in the agitation for securing civic and political rights for the state's Muslim population, which culminated in the formation of the Muslim Conference. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad displayed talent for organisation during this period. He organised the students and workers and set up their unions. He was arrested several times during the freedom struggle including a sixteen-month term in Reasi sub-jail. Within the Muslim Conference party he earned the sobriquet "Khalid-e-Kashmir" after Khalid bin Walid, the great Muslim general.
By 1938, people of all communities had joined the demand for responsible government, which had spread all over the state and the Muslim Conference's name was altered to National Conference. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad worked underground during this period, keeping a step ahead of the state police. In 1946, during the "Quit Kashmir" movement, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad escaped to British India when a warrant was issued for his arrest. He visited many places, mobilizing public opinion in favour of the Kashmir agitation. After Mahatma Gandhi's visit to Kashmir in August 1947 the warrant against him was withdrawn and he returned home after seventeen months.
== Politics ==
On 30 October 1947, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was appointed as the Head of Emergency Administration, while Kashmir was under attack from Pakistani raiders. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became his deputy head. In March 1948, the administration was upgraded to a popular interim government. Bakshi was entrusted with the Home portfolio. After the constituency assembly election in 1951, Abdullah was elected prime minister of the state and Bakshi appointed as the deputy prime minister.
=== Prime minister (1953–1964) ===
In August 1953, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was dismissed and arrested, and Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became prime minister of the state, winning unanimous a vote of confidence at the beginning of October, and also president of the National Conference by majority vote of the State Cabinet. The famous Kashmir Conspiracy Case against Abdullah and others was started during his tenure.
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad proved to be an able administrator and is remembered as the "Architect of Modern Kashmir" because of his constructive work in the state. He set Kashmir on the road to progress, gave a practical shape to the ideal of "Naya Kashmir", and earned fame and goodwill at home and outside Kashmir. He had a unique knack of establishing a direct rapport with people at grass-root level land gained tremendous popularity among people of all regions.
On the political front, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad had to face a stiff challenge from the Plebiscite Front which was formed by the loyalists of Sheikh Abdullah in 1955.
In May 1963, after the loss of three Parliamentary by-elections, the Congress party, under the Kamaraj plan, decided that some ministers should resign and give all their time to party work. The final selection was left to Jawaharlal Nehru. Many central ministers resigned in Delhi and Nehru also suggested that Bakshi resign in Jammu and Kashmir. Upon Bakshi's recommendation, Khwaja Shamsuddin, a Bakshi loyalist, was appointed to succeed him. But Shamsuddin headed the state only for a very brief period.
The eleven years of the Bakshi's tenure have been the longest continuous stint by any prime minister or chief minister and are generally acknowledged as a period of stability in the state's post-independence history. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad had steadfastly resisted any attempt to undermine Jammu and Kashmir's special status within the Union of India.
=== In the opposition (1964–1965) ===
In 1964 Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad headed the opposition to the government of Chief Minister Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq. In the late summer of the same year the majority of the legislators compelled him to move a vote of no-confidence against the government but he was arrested and detained under the Defence of India Rules despite the support of the majority of MLA's in the State Assembly which was prorogued by the governor. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was released on health grounds in December. In June 1965 he made an announcement that he had decided to retire from politics.
=== Indian Parliament (1967–1971) ===
In 1967 Indian general election Bakshi was elected to the Lok Sabha from Srinagar Lok Sabha constituency on a National Conference ticket defeating the ruling Congress nominee, Ali Mohammed Tariq, by a large margin. He remained a member of the Lok Sabha till 1971.
== Death ==
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad died on 9 July 1972.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Das Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan (1968), Jammu and Kashmir, Springer, ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6
Kanjwal, Hafsa (2017), Building a New Kashmir: Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad and the Politics of State-Formation in a Disputed Territory (1953-1963) (Thesis), The University of Michigan, hdl:2027.42/138699
Hussain, Shahla (2021), Kashmir in the Aftermath of the Partition, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781108901130
Puri, Balraj (2015), "Jammu and Kashmir", in Myron Wiener (ed.), State Politics in India, Princeton University Press, pp. 215–246, ISBN 978-1-4008-7914-4
Wani, Aijaz Ashraf (2019), What Happened to Governance in Kashmir?, Oxford University Press India, ISBN 978-0-19-909715-9
== External links ==
"Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed- A Life Sketch". www.kashmirnetwork.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed: Biography, Kashmirnetwork.com, retrieved 26 March 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hum_TV#:~:text=Hum%20Network%20Limited%20was%20known,shifted%20to%20HD%20in%20Pakistan. | Hum TV | Hum TV HD is a 24-hour Urdu general entertainment TV channel based in Karachi, Pakistan. It was founded by Sultana Siddiqui and Duraid Qureshi in 2005.
It is owned by Hum Network Limited and traded on the Pakistan Stock Exchange as (HUMNL).
Hum Network Limited was known as Eye Television Network Limited prior to 21 January 2011. Hum TV began its transmission on 17 January 2005. In March 2013, Hum Network held its first Hum Awards ceremony. As of 1 May 2018, Hum TV shut down its SD feed and shifted to HD resolution in Pakistan.
Hum TV is one of Pakistan's biggest entertainment networks and regularly is in the top ranks and maintains a loyal fanbase on social media in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and streaming platforms, as well as on television.
== History ==
The channel's drama series Humsafar, broadcast in 2011–2012, has become the most successful program of the channel to date, earning it widespread acclaim and international recognition. Due to its success, critics referred to Pakistani television as a "Golden Age".
At the 1st Hum Awards ceremony, it was awarded the Hum Honorary Phenomenal Serial Award. Hum TV caters to all genres of entertainment. While HUM caters to urban Pakistan, most dramas on Hum TV at the moment are skewed towards a teen/youth audience, with some other serials being aimed at a more mature urban audience.
== Hum TV's Digital Expansion on YouTube ==
Hum Network, a Pakistani media company, is increasingly relying on its YouTube presence for revenue. Historically a traditional broadcaster, Hum TV has seen its digital income, primarily from its official YouTube channel, grow to become a significant part of its business. The channel boasts over 51 million subscribers and 46 billion views, contributing to a substantial rise in digital revenue. While the recent acquisition of Ten Sports has shifted the overall revenue mix, the growth of YouTube as a revenue stream for Hum Network has been a major trend, highlighting the company's successful adaptation to the digital landscape.
== Former programming ==
=== Anthology ===
=== Comedy and sitcoms ===
=== Prime time series ===
=== Daily series ===
=== Horror and supernatural series ===
=== Miniseries ===
=== Telefilms ===
=== Reality shows ===
=== Award shows ===
=== Dubbed series ===
== Production house ==
=== MD Productions ===
The network television serials are primarily produced under production company Momina Duraid Productions or MD Productions, owned by Momina Duraid wife of Siddiqui's youngest Son Duraid Qureshi and she is also a senior producer at channel.
=== Moomal Entertainment ===
The other Hum TV shows are being produced by Moomal Entertainment owned by Moomal Shunaid, wife of Siddiqui's eldest son Shunaid Siddiqui. Moomal Entertainment was founded in 2014.
== See also ==
Hum Masala
Hum Sitaray
Hum Europe
Hum Films
Hum Award
== Other networks ==
List of Pakistani television series
List of television channels in Pakistan
List of programs broadcast by ARY Digital
List of programs broadcast by Geo Entertainment
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves | Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves | The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves of 1807 (2 Stat. 426, enacted March 2, 1807) is a United States federal law that prohibits the importation of slaves into the United States. It took effect on January 1, 1808, the earliest date permitted by the United States Constitution.
This legislation was promoted by President Thomas Jefferson, who called for its enactment in his 1806 State of the Union Address. He and others had promoted the idea since the 1770s. It reflected the general trend toward abolishing the international slave trade, which Virginia, followed by all the other states, had prohibited or restricted since then (South Carolina, however, had reopened its trade). Congress first regulated against the trade in the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which made it illegal for American ships to participate in the trade. The 1807 law took matters further by criminalizing all importation from abroad, even on foreign ships.
The domestic slave trade within the United States was not affected by the 1807 law. Indeed, with the legal supply of imported slaves terminated, the domestic trade increased in importance. In addition, some smuggling of slaves persisted.
== Background ==
The Act affected only the import or export of slaves, and did not affect the internal trade in states or between states. During the American Revolution, all of the Thirteen Colonies prohibited their involvement in the international slave trade (some also internally abolished slavery), but three states later reopened the international slave trade (North Carolina banned slave imports in 1794, and strengthened the law in 1795. Georgia received transatlantic slave ships until 1798. South Carolina reopened the transatlantic slave trade in December 1803 and imported 39,075 enslaved people of African descent between 1804 and 1808). Article 1 Section 9 of the United States Constitution protected a state's involvement in the Atlantic slave trade for twenty years from federal prohibition. Article 5 said that this clause could not be affected by constitutional amendment. Only starting on January 1, 1808, could there be a federal law to abolish the international slave trade in all states, although individual states could and did ban it before such time.
The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
By 1775, Africans both free and enslaved made up 20% of the population in the Thirteen Colonies, which made them the second-largest ethnic group after English Americans. In 1774, the influential, revolutionary Fairfax Resolves, called for an end to the "wicked, cruel, and unnatural" Atlantic slave trade. During the Revolutionary War, the United Colonies all pledged to ban their involvement in the transatlantic slave trade. This was done for a variety of economic, political, and moral reasons depending on the colony. After the American victory in 1783, South Carolina reopened its involvement in the slave trade until prohibiting it again in 1787, but then reopened it in 1803; while North Carolina allowed the trade beginning after the Treaty of Paris (1783) until abolishing its involvement in slave trading in 1794; and Georgia allowed the slave trade between 1783, until it closed its international trade in 1798. By 1807, only South Carolina allowed the Atlantic slave trade.
On March 22, 1794, Congress passed the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which prohibited making, loading, outfitting, equipping or dispatching of any ship to be used in the trade of slaves, essentially limiting the trade to foreign ships. On August 5, 1797, John Brown of Providence, Rhode Island became the first American to be tried in federal court under the 1794 law. Brown was convicted and was forced to forfeit his ship Hope. In the 1798 act creating the Mississippi Territory, Congress allowed slaves to be transferred from the rest of the United States to Mississippi Territory, and exempted the territory from the part of the 1787 Northwest Ordinance that abolished slavery in the Northwest Territory (modern-day Midwest) after 1800. However, the same act also abolished the importation of slaves to the Mississippi Territory from "foreign parts" (foreign nations). The penalty for illegally importing slaves from abroad to the territory was a fine of $300. In the Slave Trade Act of 1800, Congress outlawed U.S. citizens' investment in the trade and the employment of U.S. citizens on ships involved in the trade.
== Passage of the Act ==
On March 3, 1805, Joseph Bradley Varnum submitted a Massachusetts Proposition to amend the Constitution and Abolish the Slave Trade. This proposition was tabled until 1807.
On December 2, 1806, in his annual message to Congress, widely reprinted in most newspapers, President Thomas Jefferson denounced the "violations of human rights." He said:
I congratulate you, fellow-citizens, on the approach of the period at which you may interpose your authority constitutionally, to withdraw the citizens of the United States from all further participation in those violations of human rights which have been so long continued on the unoffending inhabitants of Africa, and which the morality, the reputation, and the best interests of our country, have long been eager to proscribe.
Under Varnum's leadership, legislation moved through Congress and passed both houses on March 2, 1807. The House and Senate agreed on a bill, approved on March 2, 1807, called An Act to prohibit the importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States, from and after the first day of January, in the year of our Lord, One Thousand Eight Hundred and Eight. The measure also regulated the coastwise slave trade. President Thomas Jefferson signed the bill into law on March 2, 1807. Many in Congress believed the act would doom slavery in the South, but they were mistaken.
The role of the Navy was expanded to include patrols off the coasts of Cuba and South America. The effective date of the Act, January 1, 1808, was celebrated by Peter Williams, Jr., in "An Oration on the Abolition of the Slave Trade" delivered in New York City.
== Effectiveness and prosecutions for slaving ==
While there are no exact figures known, historians estimate that up to 50,000 slaves were illegally imported into the United States after 1808, mostly through Spanish Florida and Texas, before those states were admitted to the Union. However, South Carolina Governor Henry Middleton estimated in 1819 that 13,000 smuggled African slaves arrived every year.
Carl C. Cutler's book on American clippers records:
The act outlawing the slave trade in 1808 furnished another source of demand for fast vessels, and for another half century ships continued to be fitted out and financed in this trade by many a respectable citizen in the majority of American ports. Newspapers of the fifties contain occasional references to the number of ships sailing from the various cities in this traffic. One account stated that as late as 1859 there were seven slavers regularly fitted out in New York, and many more in all the larger ports.
In 1820, slave trading became a capital offense with an amendment to the 1819 Act to Protect the Commerce of the United States and Punish the Crime of Piracy. A total of 74 cases of slaving were brought in the United States between 1837 and 1860, "but few captains had been convicted, and those had received trifling sentences, which they had usually been able to avoid". Nathaniel Gordon, who was hanged in 1862, was the only person to be executed for illegal slave-trading in the United States.
In addition, after the 1808 abolition of the slave trade to the United States, many Americans continued to engage in the slave trade by transporting Africans to Cuba. From 1808 to 1860, almost one-third of all slave ships either were owned by American merchants or were built and outfitted in American ports. It is possible that U.S. citizens "may have transported twice as many Africans to other countries such as Cuba and Brazil as they did to their own ports".
The U.S. Navy was slow to institute anti-slaving patrols off the slave ports of Africa—it was not until the 1820 legislation that authority was given to the president to use naval vessels for this task. Even then, enforcement activity was sporadic and largely ineffective. The U.S. position meant that many slave ships from other countries falsely flew the American flag to avoid being seized by British anti-slaving patrols. The first U.S. warship sent to the African coast to intercept U.S. vessels operating in the illegal trade was the USS Cyane. A total of five U.S. Navy ships were on station there in 1820 and 1821, arresting 11 American slavers. No further U.S. anti-slaving patrols were carried out until 1842, and then with limited effectiveness due to political pressure from the slave-owning states. The Atlantic slave trade was not ended until the U.S. Civil War, when American-built and -managed ships were prevented from operating.
== Antebellum proposals by Fire-Eaters to reopen ==
In the South, the Fire-Eaters—antebellum pro-slavery extremists—proposed repealing the act and once more legalizing the international slave trade in the United States. Historian Erskine Clarke writes that this call "was a shameless expression of their contempt for any antislavery sentiment and a part of their stratagem to divide the nation and create a slaveholding confederacy. Among other things, the Fire-Eaters hoped that a reopened international slave trade would incense the North, and that Northern outrage would cause white Southerns to unite and move toward secession."
In addition to whipping up sectional tensions, Fire-Eaters advocated the reopening of the slave trade in order to drive down the price of slaves; to balance the millions of European immigrants who had settled in the North and maintain Southern representation in Congress; and assert the morality of slavery: "Slave trading had to be made right, otherwise slavery was imperiled." Fire-Eaters essentially desired to "legitimize the slave trade in order to make the point that both slavery and the African slave trade were morally acceptable practices"—a view intended to be precisely opposite that of the abolitionists, who affirmed the immorality of both slavery and the slave trade. The view alarmed even pro-slavery figures, such as former President John Tyler, who in retirement wrote a widely republished letter condemning the Fire-Eaters' call to abrogate Article 8 of the Webster–Ashburton Treaty (which barred the slave trade). Tyler noted that the South had voted to ratify the treaty.
Slavery and the cotton economy boomed during the 1850s, and cotton prices were resurgent after a decline in the 1840s. This, in turn, drove up the price of slaves, which led to further pressure to re-open the slave trade to meet demand or bring down prices. Not all Southerners felt this way, however, as the high price of slaves benefitted slave owners and slave merchants. But the general sentiment called for a re-opening of the trade as a logical extension of the support for slavery. Southerners reasoned that, if slavery was good, then putting more people into slavery must also be good, and that, if trading slaves in the South was okay, then trading them from Africa must also be okay. Conventions of Southern planters repeatedly called for the trade to re-open. This, of course, was a non-starter in Congress. There were also attempts from state legislatures to allow the importation of "apprentices" from Africa, but without success. When trying to repeal the slave act failed, some turned to simply ignoring it. Notable cases during the 1850s included slaves smuggled aboard the Wanderer and the Clotilda.
== See also ==
Abolitionism in the United States
Act to Protect the Commerce of the United States and Punish the Crime of Piracy (1820)
Blockade of Africa
Slave Trade Act 1807 (equivalent British act of Parliament)
Prohibition of the Black Slave Trade (equivalent Ottoman law)
Slave Trade Acts
Slavery in international law
Post-1808 importation of slaves to the United States
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Channing, Edward (1921). A History of the United States: Federalists and Republicans, 1789–1815. Macmillan. pp. 432–436.
Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (1904). The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870. Longmans, Green and Company. ISBN 9780722272848. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Lyles, J.A. (August 1856). "The Union and its Compromises – Characteristics of the North and the South – where we stand, and to what we are drifting". De Bow's Review. 21 (2): 177–186.
Marques, Leonardo (2016). The United States and the Transatlantic Slave trade to the Americas, 1776–1867. Yale University Press..
Marques, Leonardo (2012). "Slave Trading in a New World: The Strategies of North American Slave Traders in the Age of Abolition". Journal of the Early Republic. 32 (2): 233–260.
== External links ==
Complete Text of the Act
9th U.S. Congress (February 27, 1807). "Bill H.R. 77 – P.L. 9-22". Journal of the House of Representatives of the United States, 1817–1818. 2 Stat. 426 ~ House Bill 77. United States Library of Congress.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alyaksandr_Buloychyk | Alyaksandr Buloychyk | Alyaksandr Buloychyk (Belarusian: Аляксандр Булойчык; Russian: Александр Булойчик; born 30 August 1979) is a Belarusian retired professional footballer.
== External links ==
Profile at teams.by
Alyaksandr Buloychyk at Soccerway |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen#:~:text=100%C2%A0m%20(330%C2%A0ft)%20%2D%20October%2026%2C%202021%20in%20Ka%C5%9F%2C%20Antalya%2C%20Turkey | Şahika Ercümen | Şahika Ercümen (born 16 January 1985) is a Turkish dietitian and world record holder free-diver.
Born on January 16, 1985, in Çanakkale, she was educated at the Gazi Primary School, and received a secondary education at the Milli Piyango Anatolian High School in her hometown. For her higher education, she moved to Ankara, and became a dietitian graduating from the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics at Başkent University's Faculty of Health Sciences.
Her participation in underwater sports began with scuba diving and underwater rugby. For twelve years, she is interested in various branches of underwater sports, and is a member of four national teams since 2001. She participated with the underwater hockey, underwater rugby, underwater orienteering and free diving national teams in the World and European Championships.
== Achievements ==
Her 110 m (360 ft) long dynamic apnea under ice (DYN) that was achieved on February 11, 2011, in Lake Weissensee, Austria, found entry into the Guinness Book of World Records for both for men and women. Former records were 70 m (230 ft) for women and 108 m (354 ft) for men.
Şahika Ercümen is former world record holder of constant weight with fins at sea (CWT) discipline with 70 m (230 ft) set in Dahab, Egypt on November 10, 2011 (recognized by CMAS). The former record belonged to Tanya Streeter with 67 m (220 ft). The same day at the same place, she set another CMAS-recognized world record diving 60 m (200 ft) deep in variable weight apnea without fins at sea (VNF).
On June 1, 2013, she broke her own world record diving in the VNF discipline to a depth of 61 m (200 ft) in saline soda waters of Lake Van, eastern Turkey (recognized by CMAS). She stated that she preferred the site for her world-record free-diving attempt because she wanted to call world's attention to the migration of Pearl Mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichi), also called Lake Van fish.
She set a new free-diving world record in the VNF discipline reaching the 91 m (299 ft) depth mark in 2:49 minutes at Kaş, Antalya, southern Turkey on July 23, 2014. Former record in this discipline, which was set the previous year, belonged to Derya Can, another Turkish diver.
On October 22, 2016, Ercümen set a new world record off Kaş, Turkey diving to a depth of 110 m (360 ft) in the variable weight apnea with fins at sea (VWT) discipline in 2:44 minutes. Her record was recognized by CMAS officials at site.
She set a new CMAS world record for women diving in sweet water of Lake Salda in Yeşilova, Burdur Province, Turkey to 65 m (213 ft) in 1:58 minutes. The previous world record was at 55 m (180 ft).
On 26 October 2021, she set a new world record in variable weight apnea without fins at sea (VNF) category at Kaş, Antalya, Turkey with 100 m (330 ft), which is valid for women and men.
In October 2025, she set a new world record of 106 meters in the variable weight apnea without fins at sea category, diving to 107 meters with the slogan “Let Gaza breathe, let darkness turn to light” to draw attention to Gaza.
== World records ==
DYN under ice
110 m (360 ft) - February 11, 2011 in Lake Weissensee, Austria
CWT
70 m (230 ft) - November 10, 2011 in Dahab, Egypt
VNF
60 m (200 ft) - November 10, 2011 in Dahab, Egypt
61 m (200 ft) - June 1, 2013 in Lake Van, Turkey
91 m (299 ft) - July 23, 2014 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
100 m (330 ft) - October 26, 2021 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
107 m (351 ft) - October17, 2025 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
VWT
110 m (360 ft) - October 22, 2016 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
Fresh water
65 m (213 ft) - October 26, 2018 in Lake Salda, Yeşilova, Burdur, Turkey
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women%27s_firsts | List of women's firsts | This is a list of women's firsts noting the first time that a woman or women achieved a given historical feat. A shorthand phrase for this development is "breaking the gender barrier" or "breaking the glass ceiling." Other terms related to the glass ceiling can be used for specific fields related to those terms, such as "breaking the brass ceiling" for women in the military and "breaking the stained glass ceiling" for women clergy.
Inclusion on the list is reserved for achievements by women that have significant historical impact.
== Aviation and aerospace ==
== Bureaucrat ==
Asha Attri - First women bureaucrat in Punjab.
== Computing ==
== Dentistry ==
== Education ==
== Exploration ==
== General business ==
1500s: Philippine Welser, first European female billionaire.
1889: Anna Bissell, first female CEO in the United States of America.
1903: Maggie L. Walker, first African-American woman to charter a bank.
1908: Clara Hammerl, first woman to lead a Spanish financial institution.
1915: Helena Rubinstein, first woman to found a cosmetics company.
1945: Ruth Handler, first female president of a major toy company.
1961: Katherine Graham, first female to lead a Fortune 500 company.
1992: Alice Walton, first female decabillionaire.
1999: Andrea Jung, first female CEO of a MLM company.
1999: Carly Fiorina, first female head of a Fortune 20 company.
2000: Martha Stewart, first self-made female American billionaire.
2003: Oprah Winfrey, first female African-American billionaire.
2013: Mary Barra, first female CEO of a major car manufacturer.
2019: Kylie Jenner, first female billionaire under 30.
2020: Rania Llewellyn, first female bank CEO in Canada.
2021: Kathryn Farmer, first female CEO of a major railroad.
== Healthcare ==
Gertrude Stanton - first woman licensed to practice optometry in the U.S.
== History ==
1st century AD: Ban Zhao and Pamphile of Epidaurus – first female historians in Han China and the Roman Empire respectively.
María del Pilar Fernández Vega – first female museum curator in Spain, National Archaeological Museum (Madrid).
== International bodies ==
1950: Geronima Pecson – first Filipino and first woman elected to the executive board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
1981: Jeane Kirkpatrick – First woman to serve as US Ambassador to the United Nations.
2021: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala became the first female Director-General of the World Trade Organization.
== Journalism ==
1918: Minna Lewinson – first woman to win a Pulitzer Prize for journalism in any category.
1936: Anne O'Hare McCormick – first woman appointed to the editorial board of the Times.
1946: Katharine Graham – first female publisher of a major newspaper in the United States, The Washington Post.
1962: Ellene Mocria – first female radio newscaster and producer in Ethiopia.
1973: Linda Carter Brinson – first female assistant national editor at The Baltimore Sun.
2002: Linda Carter Brinson – first female editorial page editor at the Winston-Salem Journal.
2004: Catherine Pepinster – first woman to be editor of British newspaper The Tablet in its 175-year history.
== Law ==
== Library science ==
== Mathematics ==
== Military ==
== Nobel Prizes ==
1903: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with Antoine Henri Becquerel and Pierre Curie. First woman to win a Nobel Prize.
1905: Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita von Suttner, first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize.
1909: Selma Lagerlöf, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1911: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. First person (and only woman to date) to win two Nobel Prizes. Only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences.
1947: Gerty Cori, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; she shared the prize with Carl Ferdinand Cori and Bernardo Alberto Houssay. Although born in Prague, Gerty Cori is considered the first American woman to win a Nobel Prize in medicine. She had become a U.S. citizen in 1928.
1983: Barbara McClintock, first woman to win an unshared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
2009: Elinor Ostrom, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Economics, and the first American woman to do so; she shared the prize with Oliver E. Williamson.
== Politics ==
Historic firsts for women as heads of state or government:
Yevgenia Bosch, Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1918), sometimes considered the first modern female leader of a national government. She held the position of Minister of Interior and Acting Leader of the People's Secretariat of Ukraine, one of a number of competing ruling bodies in the Ukrainian People's Republic, the predecessor of Soviet Ukraine.
Khertek Anchimaa-Toka, Tuvan People's Republic (1940–1944): The first female head of state (Chairperson of the Presidium of the Little Khural) of a partially recognized country.
Sukhbaataryn Yanjmaa, Mongolia (1953–1954): The first female acting head of state (Chairperson of the Presidium of the State Great Khural).
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Ceylon, now Sri Lanka (1960–1965): The first elected female prime minister (head of government) of a sovereign country. She served again 1970–77 and 1994–2000; in total she served for 17 years.
Indira Gandhi, India (1966–1977): The first female prime minister of a present-day G20 country. She served again 1980–1984.
Soong Ching-ling, China (1968–1972): The first female acting co-head of state (Co-Chairperson). She later served as Honorary President for 12 days in 1981.
Golda Meir, Israel (1969–1974): The first female prime minister in the Middle East.
Isabel Perón, Argentina (1974–1976): The first (appointed) female president, head of state and head of government.
Elisabeth Domitien, Central African Republic (1975–1976): The first (appointed) female prime minister of an African country.
Margaret Thatcher, United Kingdom (1979–1990): The first female prime minister of a G7/P5 country and the first female prime minister of a sovereign European country.
Eugenia Charles, Dominica (1980–1995): The longest continuously serving female prime minister.
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Iceland (1980–1996): The first democratically directly elected female president. With a presidency of exactly sixteen years, she also remains the longest-serving elected female head of state of any country to date.
Jeanne Sauvé, Canada (1984–1990): The first female head of state in North America.
Corazon Aquino, Philippines (1986–1992): The first female president in Southeast Asia.
Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan (1988–1990): The first female prime minister of any Muslim majority country. She served again 1993–96.
Kim Campbell, Canada (1993): The first female head of government in North America.
Tansu Çiller, Turkey (1993–1996): The first elected Muslim female prime minister in Europe.
Chandrika Kumaratunga, Sri Lanka (1994–2000): The first time that a nation possessed a female president (Chandrika Kumaratunga) and a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) simultaneously. This also marked the first time that a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) directly succeeded another female prime minister (Chandrika Kumaratunga).
Ruth Perry, Liberia (1996–1997): The first (appointed) female head of state in Africa. Carmen Pereira of Guinea-Bissau and Sylvie Kinigi of Burundi had previously acted as head of state for 2 days and 101 days respectively.
Mary McAleese, Ireland (1997–2011): The first time that a female president directly succeeded another female president, Mary Robinson.
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia (2006–2018): Africa's first elected female head of state.
Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, Iceland (2009–2013): As prime minister, she was the world's first openly lesbian world leader, first female world leader to wed a same-sex partner while in office.
Elizabeth II, United Kingdom (1952–2022): In 2015, she became the longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in world history. In 2016, she became the longest currently serving head of state and longest currently reigning monarch.
Ursula von der Leyen, European Union (2019–present): The first woman to be appointed President of the European Commission.
Kamala Harris, United States (2021–2025): The first woman to be inaugurated as Vice President of the United States in American history.
Sandra Mason, Barbados (2021–present): The first time that a country's first president was female (Barbados has not had a male president to date).
Giorgia Meloni, Italy (2022–present): The first woman to be elected in Italy as head of government.
Claudia Sheinbaum, Mexico (2024–present): The first woman to be elected president.
Sanae Takaichi became the first female president of the LDP on 4 October 2025 (and is therefore likely to become Japan's first woman prime minister).
Sanae Takaichi (2025–present) elected Prime Minister of Japan.
== Racing ==
1949: Sara Christian became the first woman to race in NASCAR.
1976: Janet Guthrie became the first woman to qualify and compete in the Indianapolis 500
1977: Janet Guthrie became the first woman to qualify and compete in the Daytona 500
1989: Shawna Robinson became the first woman to win a NASCAR-sanctioned stock car race, winning in the Charlotte/Daytona Dash Series at New Asheville Speedway.
2005: Danica Patrick became the first woman to lead the Indianapolis 500
2008: Danica Patrick became the first woman to win an Indy Car Series race.
2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to race a complete full-time NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series schedule.
2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to win a pole position for NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series in the 2013 Daytona 500.
2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to lead the Daytona 500.
== Religion ==
1935: Regina Jonas first woman to be ordained as a rabbi.
1980: Marjorie Matthews, first woman to become a bishop of the United Methodist Church.
1989: Barbara Harris, first woman ordained a bishop in the Anglican Communion.
1992: First women ordained as priests in the Anglican Church of Australia.
March 12, 1994: The first women were ordained as Church of England priests; 32 women were ordained together.
1996: On 21 December 1996 Gloria Shipp was the first Aboriginal woman ordained as priest in the Anglican Church of Australia
2000: Denise Wyss, first woman to be ordained as a priest in the Old Catholic Church.
2003: Alison Elliot was elected the first female moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. She chaired the General Assembly the following year.
2006: Katharine Jefferts Schori, first female presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States.
2008: Kay Goldsworthy, first female consecrated bishop in Australia; she was made a bishop of the Anglican Church of Australia.
2014: Libby Lane, first female consecrated bishop in the Church of England.
2021: Sister Nathalie Becquart, first woman appointed as undersecretary to the Synod of Bishops.
2023: Maria Kubin, first female consecrated bishop in the Old Catholic Church in Austria.
2025: Sarah Mullally named the 106th Archbishop of Canterbury, the first woman to become the spiritual leader of the Church of England.
2025: Katrina Foster, first woman bishop of the Metropolitan New York Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
== Science and Technology ==
== Sports ==
August 6, 1926: Gertrude Ederle, first woman to swim across the English Channel.
1937: Grace Hudowalski was the ninth person and first woman to climb all 46 of the Adirondack High Peaks.
1940s: Lois Fegan Farrell became the first female reporter to cover a professional hockey team in America.
1960: Mary McGee becomes the first official female motorcycle racer in the United States by earning a license from the Federation Internationale de Motocyclisme. She is also the first woman to compete in the Baja 500 off-road race.
1960: Wilma Rudolph, track and field champion, became the first American woman to win three gold medals in the Rome Olympics. She elevated women's track to a major presence in the United States. As a member of the black community, she is also regarded as a civil rights and women's rights pioneer. Along with other 1960 Olympic athletes such as Cassius Clay (who later became Muhammad Ali), Rudolph became an international star due to the first international television coverage of the Olympics that year.
1967: Drahşan Arda (born 1945) is a Turkish former association football referee. She was confirmed as the world's first female football referee by FIFA cockart.
November 27, 1968: Penny Ann Early, first woman to play major professional basketball, in an ABA game (Kentucky Colonels vs. Los Angeles Stars).
August 15, 1970: Patricia Palinkas, first woman to play professionally in an American football game.
January 1, 1972 – Women were officially welcomed into the United States Polo Association with Sue Sally Hale becoming the first female member.
May 16, 1975: Junko Tabei, first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest.
1993: Lynn Hill does the first free ascent (FFA) of the 3,000-foot Nose Route on El Capitan (5.14a/b); one of the biggest prizes in big wall climbing.
1993: Halli Reid became the first woman to swim across Lake Erie, swimming from Long Point, Ontario, to North East, Pennsylvania, in 17 hours.
1994: Catherine Destivelle becomes the first woman to complete the winter free solo of the "north face trilogy of the Eiger, the Grandes Jorasses, and the Matterhorn.
October 18, 1997: Liz Heaston, first female to play and score in a college football game, kicking two extra points in the 1997 Linfield vs. Willamette football game.
December 26, 2008: Sarah Thomas, first woman to officiate an NCAA football bowl game.
2009: Kei Taniguchi becomes the first woman to win the Piolet d'Or (Golden Ice Axe), the "Oscar" of Mountaineering.
September 4, 2009: Carolynn Sells became the first woman to win a solo motorcycle race on the Snaefell Mountain Course in the Isle of Man when she won the Ultra Lightweight race at the 2009 Manx Grand Prix.
May 17, 2010, Edurne Pasaban became the first woman to climb all of the fourteen eight-thousander peaks in the World.
May 4, 2012: Rosie Napravnik became the first woman jockey to win the Kentucky Oaks, riding Believe You Can.
August 9, 2012: Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate a National Football League game in a pre-season matchup between the Green Bay Packers and the San Diego Chargers.
2012: Anna Wardley, from England, became the first person to complete a solo swim around Portsea Island recognized by the British Long Distance Swimming Association.
May 31, 2013: Lydia Nsekera became the first female FIFA Executive Committee member.
May 18, 2013: Rosie Napravnik places third in the Preakness Stakes on Mylute, making her the first woman to have ridden in all three Triple Crown races. On June 8, 2013, she rode the filly Unlimited Budget to a 6th-place finish in the 2013 Belmont, becoming the first woman to ride all three Triple Crown races in the same year.
June 2013: Ashley Freiberg became the first woman to claim an overall GT3 Cup Challenge victory in North America, winning the Porsche IMSA GT3 Cup Challenge.
September 23, 2013: Sarah Outen arrived in a small harbor on the Aleutian island of Adak, and thus became the first person to row solo from Japan to Alaska, as well as the first woman to complete a mid-Pacific row from West to East.
2013: Davie Jane Gilmour became the first woman to lead the board of directors for Little League.
2013: UFC 157, which took place in February, featured not only the first women's fight in UFC history but also the first UFC event to be headlined by two female fighters (Ronda Rousey and Liz Carmouche).
2013: On her fifth attempt and at the age of 64, Diana Nyad became the first person confirmed to swim from Cuba to Florida without the protection of a shark cage, swimming from Havana to Key West.
2013: Scotland's solicitor general, Lesley Thomson, became the first woman to be appointed to Scottish Rugby's board.
2013: Anna Wardley, from England, became the first woman to swim non-stop around the Isle of Wight.
2013: Peggy O'Neal, an American-born lawyer, became the first woman in the Australian Football League to hold the position of club president, being chosen as the president of the Richmond Football Club.
2013: Tracey Gaudry became the first woman appointed as vice president of the Union Cycliste Internationale.
2013: Adel Weir, former world number 53 from South Africa, became the first ever female squash coach hire at the Qatar Squash Federation.
2013: Maria Toor, a squash player from South Waziristan, became the winner of the first ever women's event in the Nash Cup in Canada by beating Milou van der Heijden of the Netherlands 13–11, 11–3, 11–9.
2013: Tatyana McFadden became the first athlete to win six gold medals at a championships during the 2013 IPC Athletics World Championships in Lyon. She claimed gold in every event from the 100 meters through to the 5,000 meters.
2013: Tatyana McFadden won the Boston, Chicago, London, and New York marathons in 2013. This makes her the first person – able-bodied or otherwise – to win the four major marathons in the same year. She also set a new course record for the Chicago Marathon (1 hour, 42 minutes, 35 seconds).
2013: Denise Fejtek became the first woman to complete the "Peak to Heat Double" – the combination of summiting Mount Everest and finishing the Ironman Triathlon World Championship in Kona, Hawaii. She reached the Everest Summit on May 23, 2010, and finished the Hawaii Ironman in October 2013.
2013: Sonya Baumstein became the first person to stand-up paddleboard across the Bering Strait.
2013: Meredith Novack became the fastest person, and first woman, to pull a double crossing of the Auau Channel in Hawaii. Her time was 11 hours and one minute.
2013: Rosie Napravnik won 17 races to become the first woman to capture the leading rider title at Keeneland.
2013: Olivia Prokopova became the first woman to win the World Crazy Golf Championship.
2013: Mia Hamm became the first woman inducted into the World Football Hall of Fame in Pachuca, Mexico.
2013: Emily Bell became the first woman to kayak the length of Britain.
2013: Casey Stoney became the first female member of the Professional Footballers' Association's management committee.
2013: Jodi Eller became the first woman to complete the 1,515-mile Florida Circumnavigational Saltwater Paddling Trail.
2013: On March 1, 2013, Privateers owner and president Nicole Kirnan served as the team's coach for the first time, making her the first woman to coach a professional hockey team in the United States.
2014: Torah Bright became the first woman to qualify for three snowboard disciplines at a Winter Olympics, specifically snowboard cross, halfpipe and slopestyle.
2014: Ashley Freiberg became the first woman to win an overall race in Continental Tire Challenge History when she won the Continental Tire SportsCar Challenge. Her co-driver was Shelby Blackstock.
2014: The first women competed in ski jumping at the Olympics.
2014: Jennifer Welter became the first female non-kicker or placekick-holder to play in a men's pro football game; she played running back for the Texas Revolution.
2014: Abbey Holmes became the first woman to kick 100 goals in one regular season of Australian Rules football.
2014: Annabel Anderson, from New Zealand, became the first woman to cross Cook Strait standing on a paddleboard.
2014: Peta Searle became the first woman appointed as a development coach in the Australian Football League when she was chosen by St Kilda as a development coach.
2014: 16-year-old Katie Ormerod, from Britain, became the first female snowboarder to land a backside double cork 1080.
2014: Shelby Osborne became the first female defensive back in American football when she was drafted by Campbellsville University in Kentucky.
2014: Amélie Mauresmo became the first woman to coach a top male tennis player (specifically, Andy Murray).
2014: Corinne Diacre became the first woman to coach a men's professional soccer team (Clermont Foot) in a competitive match in France on August 4, 2014, her 40th birthday.
2014: Cecilia Brækhus, from Norway, became the first Norwegian and the first woman to hold all major world championship titles in her weight division (welterweight) in boxing.
2014: On August 15, 2014, Mo'ne Davis was the first girl in Little League World Series history to pitch a winning game for the Taney Dragons and earned the win, and she was also the first girl to pitch a shutout in Little League postseason history.
2014: Amy Hughes, from England, ran 53 marathons in 53 days, thus setting the record for the most marathons run on consecutive days by any person, male or female.
2015: Jennifer Welter became the first woman hired to coach in men's pro football when the Texas Revolution of the Champions Indoor Football league announced that Welter was hired to coach linebackers and special teams.
2019: G. S. Lakshmi, former Indian cricketer, becomes the first female ICC match referee
2021: First African-American female full-time NFL coach (Washington Football Team); Jennifer King.
== See also ==
(History Portal is a "main page" linking to broader history topics.)
Aerial Nurse Corps of America - composed entirely of women pilots, ANCOA is regarded as the beginning of flight nurses and Air Ambulances.
Early Australian female aviators
List of American women's firsts - women's firsts specific to the U.S.
List of inventions and discoveries by women - inventions and discoveries in which women played a primary role
Timeline of women in photography - includes historic firsts for women in photography (as an art and in journalism)
Women in India §Timeline of women's achievements in India - section includes historic firsts for women in India
Women's history – Study of women's role in history
First woman (disambiguation link?)
== Further reading ==
Timeline of Women in World History, britannica.com, 2015 (archived January 18, 2015).
Nine things you didn't know were invented by women BBC, 4 September 2017
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodlands_House_School | Woodlands House School | Woodlands House School is a school in Srinagar, the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Pupils range from pre-nursery stage to 12th grade. The school consists of a boys' wing and a girls' wing separately.
== History ==
Woodlands House School was established by Mrs Rup SP Singh (founder and principal) in 1966 under the foothills of the Takht-e-Sulaiman/Shankaracharya Temple. The school started with few students but her leadership attracted the people of J&K in general and that of Srinagar in particular. The institution began to progress and enrolment soon increased. Her work was recognized by the then Chief Minister, Bakshi Gulam Mohammad and later on by Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah who encouraged her to start her junior wing at Shivpora, Srinagar which later was converted to the girls' wing. Woodlands House School met a need as there were only a few English-medium schools in the area. The school progressed in academic, co-curricular and infrastructural aspects.
Mrs Singh placed emphasis on inculcating social and moral values. She left her post in 1995 and was succeeded by her son, Mr Riki Singh, the chairman and principal of the school.
== Notable alumni ==
Mir Sarwar
Rohit Bal
== Location ==
The boys' wing is located at Gupkar Road, Sonwar Bagh, Srinagar. The girls' wing is located at Shivpora, Srinagar.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibha_Saraf#Awards | Vibha Saraf | Vibha Saraf is an Indian singer-songwriter and Bollywood playback singer. She performs folk songs and writes and performs music for soundtracks, primarily Kashmiri folk-inspired songs. Her work has been featured on the soundtracks for the films Raazi, which went to win Best Film in the 64th Filmfare Awards, and Gully Boy, the fourth highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2019. In 2019, she was jointly nominated with Harshdeep Kaur for Best Female Playback Singer for the 65th Filmfare Awards and Best Female Playback Singer for the 20th International Indian Film Academy Awards for the song Dilbaro, from the 2018 drama thriller Raazi.
== Early life and education ==
Vibha Saraf was born in the Fateh Kadal neighbourhood of Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir in India. During the exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the region, her family relocated to New Delhi, India, when Saraf was three years old.
She began taking classes at Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kendra, studying Hindustani classical music for four years before studying pop music for five years. Saraf worked as a management consultant for five years before quitting to pursue music.
== Career ==
In 2013, Saraf moved to Mumbai to pursue her career in music. One year later, she had recorded her first soundtrack song, a duet with Arijit Singh titled "O Soniye" for Titoo MBA. The next year, in 2015, she sang "Feeling Avnavi," alongside Advait Nemlekar, for the soundtrack Gujjubhai the Great.
She released her debut single "Harmokh Bartal," in 2016. A bhajan from Kashmir that Saraf selected to celebrate Kashmir's culture and music, Saraf reinterpreted the song, with Tapas Relia composing it and Ashwin Srinivasan playing flute and Ankur Mukherjee, guitar.
In 2018, Saraf performed "Dilbaro" for the film Raazi. The song was written by Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy and was inspired by the Kashmiri folk wedding song "Khanmoj koor." She was nominated for an International Indian Film Academy Award for the performance in 2019.
In February 2019, Saraf released "Kab Se Kab Tak," a duet with Ranveer Singh. Saraf also co-sang the song "Dil Mein Mars Hai" alongside Benny Dayal for the Mission Mangal soundtrack, which was released in the summer of 2019. That same year, Saraf performed on the Gully Boy soundtrack in the duet "Kab Se Kab Tak" with Ranveer Singh.
Saraf has written music for Nucleya, whom she met briefly at an airport after a performance. The two exchanged music over WhatsApp and Saraf wrote lyrics. She has since written two songs for Nucleya and performed on one, the latter which was "Behka," for the film High Jack.
== Music & Discography ==
Vibha Saraf has appeared in music videos in her songs. She appears in the music video of the song 'Mumal' where she is a co-singer with a Rajasthani folk singer Dapu Khan.
Vibha also appears in her own music video 'Jalwe' along with Absar Zahoor.
She has sung for Bollywood and also in other Indian languages including Kashmiri, Telugu, Bengali & Tamil. She writes lyrics for both film and non-film songs & also composes songs for both the film industry and Independent music.
=== Singer ===
Film Songs
=== Songs ===
Her non film songs where Vibha has composed, sung and written lyrics.
=== Other language songs ===
In addition to Hindi and Kashmiri, she has sung songs in Bangla, Telugu and Tamil.
== Musical influence ==
Saraf's music is influenced by traditional music of Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh. Saraf cites the music she heard growing up, as sung by her grandparents and mother, as making Kashmiri music "subconsciously" in her. She wants more people to understand the sufism in the songs. She also finds inspiration in Kashmiri literature, including the poetry of Habba Khatoon and Lalleshwari.
In an interview with The Hindu in 2019, Saraf described her interest in sharing Kashmir-inspired folk music with a broader listenership as a responsibility that "falls on our generation" to "stick to our roots." In the interview, she expresses an appreciation for the preservation and popularity of Punjabi music.
== Awards ==
Vibha Saraf won the Best Female Playback Singer award for the song Dilbaro, Raazi at the 20th IIFA Awards held on 18 September 2019 in Mumbai, India.
Saraf and Harshdeep Kaur also jointly won the Best Female Playback Singer at REEL Movie Awards 2019 for Dilbaro, Raazi, as well as the Zee Cine Award for Best Playback Singer – Female for the same song.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._V._Grant | W. V. Grant | Walter Vinson Grant Jr. (born May 25, 1945) is an American televangelist whose ministry has been based in the Greater Dallas area.
== Career ==
Grant began his career in Cincinnati, Ohio, in the mid-1970s with the "Cathedral of Compassion" in the Over-the-Rhine area of Cincinnati before relocating to the suburbs of St Bernard until the early 1980s. The son of minister Walter Vinson Grant, Sr., in 1983 Grant took over Soul's Harbor Church (located in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas) and expanded its ministry, later renaming the church as "Eagles Nest Cathedral". In 1987, Grant purchased 28 acres (11 hectares) in the southwest section of Dallas (near Dallas Baptist University) and built the "Eagle's Nest Family Church", and continued pastoring the 5000-seat church until 1996.
Grant was convicted in 1996 of tax evasion, and since his release from prison he has restarted his ministry.
He was married 3 times. His wife, Brenda Gayle Hayes, died on October 6, 2020. He has three adult children: daughter Misty and stepsons Barry and Mark Anderson.
== Education and degrees ==
As of August 2011, Grant's website stated the following about the minister's education and honorary degrees:
After attending Southwestern Assemblies of God Bible University, he started in the full-time ministry. He received his undergraduate degrees in English Literature and Religion, as well as his Master's Degree in History from Dallas Baptist University. He has two honorary degrees from Kingsway Bible University (Des Moines, Iowa) and the Colonial Academy (Chicago).
Paranormal investigator James Randi examined Grant's practices in his 1987 book, The Faith Healers. About Grant's degrees, Randi wrote:
. . . even Grant's college degree is phony. He claims that he obtained it from "Midstates Bible College" in Des Moines in 1972. He displays the diploma on his office wall. But Midstates wasn't then and isn't now accredited with the Iowa Department of Public Instruction, as all parochial and public schools are required to be. It wasn't recorded with the secretary of state's office in Iowa as a corporation; nor was it listed in the county recorder's office. It didn't even show up in the telephone directory.
Grant told a reporter in 1986 that he did not graduate from a seminary but, in Grant's words, had "more or less an honorary D.D. (doctor of divinity) degree" from Mid-States Bible College in Des Moines, Iowa, which later changed its name to Kingsway Christian College. "They take a formula of how many books you've written, how long you've been in the ministry, maybe how many times you've been on radio and TV," he said.
== Faith healing ==
Grant has denied being a faith healer, stating that "whatever healing there is, is a gift from God", for which he is merely "a mortal conduit".
== Tax evasion ==
In 1996, an Internal Revenue Service investigation into Grant's ministry resulted in Grant's imprisonment for tax evasion. He was found guilty of failing to report $375,000 in taxable income in the purchase of two homes, including his $1 million residence. An undercover video tape showed Grant admitting that he used $100,000 in 1988 from church members as a down payment on a $1.2 million home overlooking a Desoto, Texas, country club and not reporting it as income. Judge Joe Kendall criticized Grant by asking, "Did you watch the same videotape I watched?" He continued, "He's all over it admitting he's guilty. He swore to God under oath he is guilty". The judge sentenced Grant to 16 months in prison and a $30,000 fine, to be paid after his release, when he would also serve an additional year of probation. Kendall also ordered Grant to "perform 100 hours of community service, publish details of his arrest and sentence for everyone on his mailing list and provide complete, continuing financial reports to the court."
His wife was indicted on charges of blocking the IRS and evading taxes.
Though she initially pleaded guilty, the judge allowed her to withdraw the plea and she was later acquitted. Following the conviction, Grant transferred the Eagles Nest Cathedral facility to T. D. Jakes, also a televangelist, who renamed it "The Potter's House".
== Eagles Nest Cathedral ==
Grant was released from prison on September 18, 1997, and has since restarted his ministry, again under the name Eagles Nest Cathedral.
Originally located in the eastern part of Dallas in the area known as Pleasant Grove", in August 2012, W.V. Grant purchased a historic property in downtown Dallas (the former home of "First Church of Christ, Scientist," located at 1508 Cadiz Street, Dallas, Texas 75201) where "The Eagle's Nest Cathedral" and Grant now hold almost nightly services normally lasting from 7:00 PM – 9:00 PM.
== Media coverage ==
1986–87: Scientific skeptic and professional stage magician James Randi reported that Grant had been supplied with notes concerning the ailments of audience members before the show, that he used a "sleight of hand" trick to make a person's leg appear to grow, and that he had members of the audience who walked into the event placed into wheelchairs beforehand and then, during the service, he asked them to stand and walk. Randi also claimed that Grant's wife first gathered information about members of the audience, which she relayed to her husband via slips of paper in a Bible he displayed during his presentations. "They're agnostics," Grant said of his critics in 1986, "Or even atheists."
1987: Chicago Tribune religion writer Bruce Buursma reported the experiences of one of Randi's fellow investigators, Andrew A. Skolnick, who was twice "healed" by Grant and once by televangelist faith healer Peter Popoff.
1991: Grant was investigated by ABC News and Trinity Foundation for an exposé report on Primetime Live (with Larry Lea and Robert Tilton). A 2006 opinion article in the Dallas Observer claimed that the examination of documents in various lawsuits revealed deceptive journalistic techniques were utilized by ABC News, and concluded that a key element of the televised Primetime Live report relating to Tilton was "bogus".
The Trinity Foundation also found photos of a naked Grant in his trash and published one in the centrefold of their satirical magazine, The Door.
1996: The Dallas Morning News reported that one of Grant's fundraising letters was apparently written by Gene Ewing, who heads a multi-million dollar marketing empire, writing donation letters for other evangelicals like Don Stewart and Robert Tilton.
2003: Atlanta television station WAGA-TV investigated Grant and found that Grant liked to arrive at his revivals early, hours before they were supposed to begin. WAGA reporters showed up early as well, with hidden cameras, and watched the preacher talk to several people already in the church. As it turned out, many of them were people Grant would later pick out of the crowd and "miraculously" announce their name and their disease." The report concluded that of three people Grant claimed to heal, two were in worse condition after, and one assisted Grant with the setup with no sign of the condition he claimed during the service. In addition, "healing the short leg" was a magic trick demonstrated on a reporter by magician James Randi.
2006: Richmond, Virginia television station WWBT-TV aired an investigation on Grant while he conducted faith healing services at the Richmond Christian Center.
2010: Free Inquiry, the magazine of the Council for Secular Humanism, discussed how Grant's act had changed little in the preceding twenty years and detailed his "miracles" at a venue.
2011: British mentalist Derren Brown produced a program "Miracles for Sale" broadcast on Channel 4. As part of the program, Brown and his team made two visits to Grant's church in Dallas. During the first visit, Grant claimed that "God" had told him the name of a member of Brown's team, but the name he gave out was a false one that the person had written on a contact card prior to the start of the service. This indicated that Grant's knowledge came from the card and not from any supernatural means. On their second visit, Grant performed his leg lengthening "miracle" on Brown himself. The footage showed Grant using the same shoe-manipulation technique that Brown had exposed earlier on the program.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official ministries site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaki_Tsuji#:~:text=In%20April%202007%2C%20Tsuji%20headed,11th%20Japan%20Media%20Arts%20Festival. | Masaki Tsuji | Masaki Tsuji (辻 真先, Tsuji Masaki; born March 23, 1932 in Nagoya) is a Japanese anime screenwriter, mystery writer, manga author, travel critic, essayist, professor as well as mystery fiction novels writer. Tsuji was most active in the business from the 1960s through the 1980s, and worked as a script writer on many popular anime television series for Mushi Production, Toei Animation, and Tokyo Movie Shinsha.
He is well known for his association with the animated adaptations of the works of Osamu Tezuka and Go Nagai.
In April 2007, Tsuji headed Japan's first international anime research lab as part of Digital Hollywood University. On December 4, 2007, Tsuji was given a lifetime achievement award at the 11th Japan Media Arts Festival. On September 24, 2008, Tsuji won a Special Award in the 13th Animation Kobe for his writing work.
== Filmography ==
== See also ==
Honkaku Mystery Writers Club of Japan
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese)
Masaki Tsuji at IMDb
Masaki Tsuji at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Hall#:~:text=Hall%20was%20born%20and%20raised,became%20a%20Certified%20Public%20Accountant. | Carla Hall | Carla Hall (born May 12, 1964) is an American chef, television personality, and former model.
She appeared in the fifth and eighth seasons of Top Chef, Bravo's cooking competition show. She was a co-host on The Chew, a one-hour talk show centered on food from all angles, which premiered on ABC in September 2011.
== Early life and education ==
Hall was born and raised in Nashville, Tennessee. Hall graduated from Hillsboro High School.
She graduated from Howard University's Business School with a degree in accounting in 1986. She then worked at Price Waterhouse in Tampa, Florida, and became a Certified Public Accountant. Hall hated her job and left after two years.
=== Modeling career ===
Hall then spent several years working as a model on the runways of Paris, Milan and London. During this time, she decided to pursue a culinary career.
== Career ==
=== Early chef career ===
Upon returning to the United States, Hall moved to Washington, D.C. When Hall brought some leftover sandwiches to her friend's office, and the friend's coworkers all wanted her to come again, she decided to start a lunch delivery service called the Lunch Bunch. After four years, she enrolled in L'Academie de Cuisine in Bethesda, Maryland, graduating with a Culinary Career Training certificate. From here, she went on to serve an externship at the Henley Park Hotel, where she was then promoted to sous chef. By 1999, Hall was the executive chef at the Garden Cafe in the State Plaza Hotel, a sister hotel. She then served as executive chef of the Washington Club, a private social club.
=== Catering business ===
In 2001, Hall started her own catering company, Alchemy Caterers, based in Wheaton, Maryland. Hall remains in charge of the company, which she renamed Alchemy by Carla Hall. Hall has written the cookbook Cooking with Love: Comfort Food that Hugs You.
=== Top Chef ===
Hall's big break came in 2008, when she was selected to be a contestant on Top Chef: New York. In the beginning, her dishes finished somewhere in the middle in most episodes, but she had the top-rated dish for the Thanksgiving challenge. After Episode 10, she wowed the judges with her crawfish gumbo, going on to win Super Bowl XLIII tickets for this victory. After this, she won two more challenges and was in the top for several others. Most notably, she impressed Jacques Pépin, who said he could "die happy" after eating her fresh peas, and Emeril Lagasse, who said he loved her gumbo. However, in the final challenge in New Orleans, she and Stefan Richter ended as runners-up to champion Hosea Rosenberg.
On the show, Hall gained popularity for her personality, although she did not win Fan Favorite in her season. She became known for her call-and-response catch phrase "Hootie Hoo!", a tradition she and her husband had whenever trying to locate one another in public. Hall also became known on Top Chef for her philosophy of "cooking with love", which she defined as putting one's own care and warmth into food. She believes that if one is happy and calm while cooking, then this will show in the food, making it much better, whereas if one feels otherwise, it will degrade their cuisine. For this reason, she says that, “If you're not in a good mood, the only thing you should make is a reservation."
Hall was part of the cast of Top Chef: All-Stars, the eighth season of the show, which consisted of participants from past seasons. She performed well in this season, which included demonstrating her chicken pot pie recipe on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. Hall finished fifth overall in the competition, but was awarded "Fan Favorite" for the season by viewers of the show, which included beating out Fabio Viviani, who was voted Fan Favorite over Hall when they both appeared in Season 5.
=== The Chew ===
Since the first show that aired on September 26, 2011, Hall had been one of the five co-hosts on The Chew, a one-hour show on ABC centered on food from all angles. The show replaced All My Children. Hall remained a cohost of the show until its cancellation in 2018.
=== Restaurant ===
In 2014, Hall launched a Kickstarter campaign where she raised $264,703 that exceeded her $250,000 goal from 1550 backers for the opening of her restaurant. The restaurant, Carla Hall's Southern Kitchen, opened June 17, 2016, in Brooklyn, New York. The restaurant closed in August 2017.
=== Media appearances ===
Hall appeared on the May 3, 2009, cover of the Washington Post Magazine, on a feature called "Fit for Fame", about still exercising while being famous.
She portrayed a version of herself named "Spaghetti Scientist Carla Hall" in the BoJack Horseman episode "That Went Well". She voiced Mpishi the harrier hawk in a season 2 episode of Disney Junior's The Lion Guard titled "Ono and the Egg". She also voiced the president in Season 1, Episode 5, titled "A Grilled Cheese for the Big Cheese!" from Nickelodeon's animated series Butterbean's Café.
In 2016, Hall made a cameo appearance in Fox's The Passion: New Orleans as a food truck operator.
In 2018, Hall made a guest appearance on ABC's soap opera General Hospital, playing the Quartermaine family's cook.
Hall has appeared as a judge on Food Network's Halloween Baking Championship. For the 2020 season, she served as both a judge and the host. Hall appeared on Season 7 on Food Network's Holiday Baking Championship as a judge as a replacement for Lorraine Pascal, who could not make it due to COVID-19 restrictions that were in place at the time of filming.
In 2020, Hall appeared as a judge in the Channel 4 competition series Crazy Delicious. The show took place on an edible set and was hosted by British comedian Jayde Adams alongside chefs and fellow judges Heston Blumenthal and Niklas Ekstedt.
As of 2020, Hall is currently with Sesame Street characters Cookie Monster and Gonger in a series of segments called Snack Chat.
In 2021, she appeared in Antiques Roadshow Celebrity Edition, episode 2.
In 2021, she hosted Worst Cooks in America with Anne Burrell, and is a host and judge on Best Baker in America.
In 2022, she was the headliner judge for the National Gingerbread House Competition.
== Personal life ==
Hall lives in Washington, D.C. She married Matthew Lyons in 2006. She has a stepson Noah.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Carla Hall's Southern Kitchen |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FPT_Corporation | FPT Corporation | FPT, officially the FPT Corporation (Vietnamese: Công ty Cổ phần FPT, lit. 'FPT Joint Stock Company'; "FPT" stands for Financing and Promoting Technology), is the largest information technology service company in Vietnam with operations spanning three fundamental sectors: Technology, Telecommunications and Education.
== History ==
On September 13, 1988, FPT was officially founded under the name Food Processing Technology. On October 27, 1990, the company changed its name to The Corporation for Technology Development and Investment (abbreviated as FPT), operating mainly in the field of information technology. In 1998, FPT was one of the first four Internet service providers (ISPs) in Vietnam. Since 2002, FPT has operated as a joint-stock company.
On September 8, 2006, FPT University was established under the corporation, becoming the first corporate university in Vietnam to be licensed. Also in 2006, on October 24, FPT issued additional shares to two strategic investors, Texas Pacific Group (TPG) and Intel Capital, receiving an investment of 36.5 million USD. On November 18, 2006, FPT and Microsoft signed a strategic alliance agreement. On December 13, 2006, FPT stock was listed on the Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange (HOSE).
On December 19, 2008, FPT Corporation was approved to change its name from "The Corporation for Financing and Promoting Technology" to "FPT Corporation". On December 24, 2008, FPT Corporation announced a decision to appoint Mr. Nguyen Thanh Nam as the CEO of FPT Group, replacing Mr. Truong Gia Binh. Mr. Nguyen Thanh Nam is a founding member of FPT Corporation and chairman of FPT Software (FSOFT).
In February 2011, the board of directors of FPT Corporation issued a resolution appointing Mr. Truong Dinh Anh as general director to replace Mr. Nguyen Thanh Nam. On July 31, 2013, the board of directors of FPT Corporation approved the appointment of Mr. Bui Quang Ngoc, Ph.D. in database, to replace Mr. Truong Gia Binh as FPT's general director. Mr. Bui Quang Ngoc is one of the founding members and currently vice chairman of FPT. In 2014, FPT was the first IT company in Vietnam to acquire a foreign IT company, RWE IT Slovakia (a member of RWE, a European leading energy corporation). In August 2017, FPT transferred 30% of its ownership in FPT Retail to Vina Capital and Dragon Capital, reducing its stake in FPT Retail to 55%. In September 2017, FPT transferred 47% of its ownership in FPT Trading to Synnex Corporation (Taiwan), reducing its stake in FPT Trading to 48%. In July 2018, FPT acquired 90% stake in Intellinet Consulting (Intellinet), one of the fastest growing technology consulting companies in the US. In March 2019, FPT appointed Mr. Nguyen Van Khoa - Executive Vice President of FPT and CEO of FPT Information System - to take the position of FPT's CEO, replacing Mr. Bui Quang Ngoc at the end of his term.
In May 2021, FPT acquired Base.vn, a SaaS start-up. In July 2021, FPT invested in Intertec International. In August 2021, FPT launched eCovax – a digital "vaccine" program that helps businesses respond, recover, and thrive during COVID-19. On September 16, 2021, FPT's Chairman Truong Gia Binh initiated the idea of building a school for children who lost their parents due to COVID-19. FPT has strengthened its presence in 27 countries by opening a second office in New York in May 2022 and the first representative office in Northern Europe in Copenhagen, Denmark in September 2022. In September 2022, Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore Heng Swee Keat visited FPT with the aim of promoting partnership and cooperation of private sector enterprises between Vietnam and Singapore. In October 2022, FPT invested in Japanese business consulting services provider LTS Inc., becoming its strategic shareholder.
In 2023, FPT executed four M&A deals and invested in technology companies in the US and France, such as Intertec International, Cardinal Peak, AOSIS and Landing AI. On December 14, 2023, FPT launches automotive technology subsidiary in Texas – FPT Automotive. In April 2024 it partnered with American tech company Nvidia to build an artificial intelligence factory.
On July 16, 2025, the Ministry of Public Security officially received the state-owned stake (50.17% / 50.2%) in FPT Telecom from the State Capital Investment Corporation (SCIC). Prior to the transfer, SCIC held ~50.2%, while FPT Corporation held ~45.66% and maintained control over operations.
== Organizational structure ==
In Vietnam, FPT's technology infrastructure appears in 34 out of 34 provinces and cities. Meanwhile, FPT has offices and branches in 30 countries and territories around the world. As of December 31, 2023, the corporation's business structure comprises eight subsidiaries and two affiliated companies.
Eight subsidiaries:
FPT Software
FPT IS
FPT Telecom
FPT Online
FPT Education
FPT Investment
FPT Smart Cloud
FPT Digital
Two associates:
Synnex FPT
FPT Retail
== Business sectors ==
Technology: Software development; System integration; IT services
Telecommunications: Telecom services; Digital content
Education: General education; Vocational education; Higher education
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to FPT Corporation at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponyo#Music | Ponyo | Ponyo is a 2008 Japanese animated fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki. It was animated by Studio Ghibli for the Nippon Television Network, Dentsu, Hakuhodo DY Media Partners, Buena Vista Home Entertainment, Mitsubishi, and distributed by Toho. The film stars Yuria Nara, Hiroki Doi, Tomoko Yamaguchi, Kazushige Nagashima, Yūki Amami, George Tokoro, Rumi Hiiragi, Akiko Yano, Kazuko Yoshiyuki and Tomoko Naraoka. It is the eighth film Miyazaki directed for Studio Ghibli, and his tenth overall.
The film tells the story of Ponyo, a goldfish-like creature who escapes from the ocean and is helped by a five-year-old human boy named Sōsuke, after she is washed ashore while trapped in a glass jar. As they bond with each other, Ponyo desires to become a human girl, against the devastating circumstances brought about by her acquisition and use of magic.
The film was originally released in Japan on July 19, 2008, by distributor Toho. It was a major commercial success, grossing over $204 million worldwide and becoming the eighth-highest-grossing anime film of all time. It received critical acclaim for its uplifting themes, visual design, and simultaneous appeal towards young children and all audiences.
An English-language version of the film was released on August 14, 2009, to 927 theatres across the U.S., the widest opening for a Studio Ghibli film in the U.S. It was produced by The Kennedy/Marshall Company and released by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through their Walt Disney Pictures banner.
== Plot ==
Fujimoto, a misanthropic wizard who was once a human, lives underwater with his daughter Brunhilde and her numerous smaller sisters, who are goldfish-like creatures with human faces. While she and her siblings are on an outing with their father in his four-flippered submarine, Brunhilde sneaks off and floats away on the back of a jellyfish. After an encounter with a fishing trawler, she becomes trapped in a glass jar and drifts to the shore of a small fishing town where she is rescued by a five-year-old boy named Sōsuke. While shattering the jar with a rock, Sōsuke cuts his finger. Brunhilde licks his blood, healing the wound almost instantly. Sōsuke names her Ponyo and promises to protect her. Meanwhile, a distraught Fujimoto searches frantically for his lost daughter whom he believes to have been kidnapped. He calls his wave spirits to recover her, leaving Sōsuke heartbroken and confused by what happened.
Ponyo refuses to let her father call her by her birth name, declaring her desire to be a human named Ponyo. She magically begins changing into a human, a power granted to her by Sōsuke's human blood that she licked. Fujimoto forces her back into her true form and leaves to summon Ponyo's mother, Gran Mamare. Meanwhile, Ponyo, with the help of her sisters, breaks away from her father and inadvertently uses his magic to make herself human. The huge amount of magic that she releases into the ocean causes an imbalance in nature, resulting in a tsunami. Ponyo goes back to Sōsuke, who is amazed and overjoyed to see her. His mother, Lisa, allows her to stay at their house. Lisa leaves after the tsunami subsides to check up on the residents of the nursing home where she works, promising Sōsuke that she will return home as soon as possible.
Gran Mamare arrives at Fujimoto's submarine. Sōsuke's father, Kōichi, sees her traveling and recognizes her as the Goddess of Mercy. Fujimoto notices the moon appears to be falling out of its orbit and satellites are falling like shooting stars, symptoms of the dangerous imbalance of nature that now exists. Gran Mamare reassures him, and declares that if Sōsuke can pass a test, Ponyo can live as a human and the balance of nature will be restored. Fujimoto, still worried, reminds her that if Sōsuke fails the test, Ponyo will turn into sea foam.
The next day, Sōsuke and Ponyo find that most of the land around the house has been covered by the ocean. Since it is impossible for Lisa to come home, the two decide to find her. With Ponyo's magic, they make Sōsuke's pop-pop boat bigger to traverse the waters, seeing marine life from the Late Devonian period and more people on boats. When they reach the forest, however, Ponyo tires and falls asleep, and the boat slowly reverts to its original size. Sōsuke drags Ponyo to the shore, where he finds Lisa's abandoned car. As they continue walking, Ponyo mysteriously reverts to her fish form. Meanwhile, Gran Mamare grants Lisa and the residents of the nursing home the temporary ability to breathe in water. Ponyo and Sōsuke encounter Fujimoto, who warns the boy about the imbalance of nature and begs him to return Ponyo to him. Despite their attempt to escape, Fujimoto captures them and transports them to the protected nursing home.
Sōsuke reunites with Lisa and meets Gran Mamare, with whom Lisa has just had a long private conversation. Gran Mamare asks him if he can love Ponyo whether she is a fish or human; Sōsuke confirms that he does. She then informs her daughter that she must relinquish her magical powers if she decides to permanently transform into a human. Ponyo agrees, and she is encased in a bubble given to Sōsuke, who is instructed to kiss it to complete Ponyo's transformation, as the balance of nature is restored. The previously stranded ships head back to port. Fujimoto respects his daughter's choice, having decided he can trust Sōsuke. Ponyo then joyfully jumps high in the air and kisses Sōsuke, completing her transformation into a human.
== Cast ==
== Production ==
=== Development ===
Hayao Miyazaki, the film's director and writer, was prompted to create Ponyo after producer Toshio Suzuki suggested he make a film aimed at children, noting the success of Howl's Moving Castle (2004). The film would be created from a mixture of real-world and fictional influences, combined with a desire to implement new art and animation approaches developed by other Studio Ghibli staff in a feature-length film. In 2004 and 2005, Miyazaki spent time in Tomonoura, a seaside town in Setonaikai National Park, where he familiarised himself with its community and environment. His experience in Tomonoura established the kind of setting he wanted for his next film. During his time there, he read the complete works of Natsume Sōseki. He took particular interest in The Gate, a book involving a character named Sōsuke who lived at the bottom of a cliff. This provided him more concrete ideas for characters and settings. Initially, Miyazaki solely considered the concept of a film that would depict a stormy sea with "waves higher than the house on a hillside". He later created the character Ponyo, a name he thought of as an onomatopoeia of what "soft, squishy softness" feels like when touched. Miyazaki recalled that as a nine-year-old he borrowed a copy of Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid" from his neighbour, and that while he was reading it, he had difficulty accepting its premise that its protagonist did not have a soul.
When preparing pre-production materials, Miyazaki hit a creative block before visiting the Tate Britain art museum, where he found himself startled by an 1852 painting named Ophelia done by English painter John Everett Millais and its attention to detail. He remarked, "I thought, my work is shoddy compared to those artists. I was just astonished. At that point, it became clear to me. Our animation style could not go on as before." At the time Katsuya Kondō, Miyazaki's colleague, had been the animation director of House Hunting (2006), a 12-minute short film made for screening at the Ghibli Museum. The short used solid and simple lines, and largely used hand-drawn animation. During the production of the short, Kondō had discussed the possibility of producing a feature-length film like this. Kondō accepted an offer to work on the next Studio Ghibli feature film soon after completing the short, identifying an opportunity to progress the ideas behind House Hunting with more consideration to story.
Production of Ponyo began in May 2006. Kondō was given the role of animation supervisor, and worked closely with Miyazaki in outlining a set of goals that defined the direction of the project, including the use of traditional animation throughout production. Borrowing from Kondō's experience in animating House Hunting, Ponyo would use solid and simple lines; in isolating basic animation elements, the film would aim to demonstrate the advantages of hand drawn animation through the depiction of motion that cannot be reproduced in any other medium. An example of the simple style is when Miyazaki painted a picture of Ponyo riding on a flock of fish, called "Ponyo is Here", which was inspired by him listening to "Ride of the Valkyries" while writing a letter to his staff about going with a more elemental style. This would later become a scene in the film. In normal productions, animating a sailing ship would usually involve drawing one cel and sliding it across the frame, which would fix it in a predefined perspective and direction. Miyazaki, however, wanted the ships that appeared in Ponyo to be drawn frame-by-frame. A few previous Studio Ghibli films used computer-generated imagery (CGI), the earliest being Princess Mononoke (1997). For the production of Ponyo however, the computer graphics section at the studio was closed to prioritize hand-drawn animation.
Some elements of the film were inspired by Richard Wagner's opera Die Walküre. Ponyo's birth name, Brunhilde, is a deliberate reference to the eldest of the nine legendary Valkyrie and Wagner's Brünnhilde. The music also makes reference to Wagner's opera. The character of Sōsuke is based on Miyazaki's son Gorō Miyazaki when he was five.
Miyazaki wanted his next film to be a sequel to Ponyo, but producer Toshio Suzuki convinced him to make The Wind Rises instead.
=== Music ===
Ponyo's eponymous theme song, "Gake no Ue no Ponyo", was released ahead of the film on December 5, 2007, performed by Fujioka Fujimaki (a duo consisting of Takaaki Fujioka and Naoya Fujimaki who are known for their underground band Marichans from the 1970s) and eight-year-old Nozomi Ōhashi. It entered the top 100 on the Oricon Weekly Charts on July 14, then rose to 24th on July 21, then 6th on July 28, and after the release of the film it ranked 3rd on August 4. By the end of 2008, it was ranked as the 14th highest selling single on the Oricon Yearly Charts. Ōhashi was also the youngest participant in the 59th NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen, beating Cute's Mai Hagiwara's record at age 11. Afterward, Ōhashi announced her unit with Fujioka Fujimaki was disbanding.
An English-translated pop version of the theme was recorded by Jonas and Cyrus to tie in with the film's English release. The theme plays over the second half of the English version's closing credits; the first half is a translated version of the theme rather than a remix.
The film score of Ponyo was composed by Joe Hisaishi, Miyazaki's regular collaborator. The score album, published on compact disc in Japan by Tokuma Japan Communications, in South Korea by Pony Canyon Korea and throughout Europe by Germany-based label Colosseum, received a great deal of press in the West, including positive reviews from several veteran film music reviewers.
== Distribution ==
=== Japan ===
The film was released by Toho on July 19, 2008, in theatres across Japan on 481 screens—a record for a domestic film. As it had beaten Pokémon: Giratina & the Sky Warrior (which had opened on the same day). It grossed ¥10 billion ($91 million) in its first month of release, and a total of ¥15.0 billion ($153.1 million) as of November 9, 2008.
Tokyo Anime Fair chose Ponyo as Animation of the Year of 2008, as revealed in a press release by Anime News Network.
The film was released on VHS and DVD by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on July 3, 2009, and on Blu-ray on December 8, 2009. Ponyo was the last Studio Ghibli film and last anime as a whole to be released on VHS, and the first Studio Ghibli film to be released on Blu-ray, although several Ghibli documentaries had been released on the format by Disney Japan prior to the release.
=== International ===
Ponyo was released in the U.S. and Canada on August 14, 2009, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through their Walt Disney Pictures banner and The Kennedy/Marshall Company, opening at a wide release at 927 theaters across America, which is by far the widest release for a Studio Ghibli film ever in the U.S., as compared to other Miyazaki films (Spirited Away opened in 26 theaters, Howl's Moving Castle opened in 36 theaters, and Princess Mononoke opened in 38 theaters).
The film's English dub was directed by John Lasseter, Brad Lewis and Peter Sohn of Pixar and produced by Frank Marshall, Hayao Miyazaki, John Lasseter, Steve Alpert, and Kathleen Kennedy; the English script was written by Melissa Mathison. In July 2009, there were multiple pre-screenings of the film in California. Miyazaki traveled to America to promote this film by speaking at the University of California, Berkeley, and San Diego Comic-Con.
Ponyo was released in Southeast Asia on January 1, 2009.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu-ray on March 2, 2010, as the first film produced by Ghibli or directed by either Miyazaki or Takahata to be released on Blu-ray in America. GKIDS re-issued the film on Blu-ray and DVD on October 17, 2017, under a new deal with Studio Ghibli. The film was re-released from March 25 to 28, 2018, for its 10th anniversary.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
On its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, it made $3,585,852 on 927 screens, which is a per screen average of $3,868. It also opened at number nine at the United States and Canada box office. The film made a total of $15,743,471 in the United States and Canada and $187,461,411 in other countries for a worldwide total of $203,204,882. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray, as well as a DVD/Plush Toy pack, on March 2, 2010.
=== Critical response ===
Ponyo received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes compiled 174 reviews and determined that 91% were positive, with an average score of 7.6/10. The critics consensus on the website states, "While not Miyazaki's best film, Ponyo is a visually stunning fairy tale that's a sweetly poetic treat for children and Miyazaki fans of all ages." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100, based on 29 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
The Japan Times gave the film four out of five stars, praised its simple thematic elements and its visual scheme, and compared the film to Miyazaki's classic animation My Neighbor Totoro.
Critics at the Venice International Film Festival generally had high praise. Wendy Ide of The Times said Ponyo "is as chaotic and exuberant as a story told by a hyperactive toddler," and gave it 4 stars out of 5. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars, stating that, "There is a word to describe Ponyo, and that word is magical. This poetic, visually breathtaking work by the greatest of all animators has such deep charm that adults and children will both be touched. It's wonderful and never even seems to try: It unfolds fantastically."
=== Awards ===
The film was rated #2 on Dentsu's list of "2008 Hit Products in Japan", after the Wii console.
Ponyo was an entrant in the 65th Venice International Film Festival. It received a special mention in the Bologna Future Film Festival, for "the high artistic and expressive quality of animation able to give form to wonderful imagination of the worldwide cinema master".
In 2009, Ponyo won five awards at the 8th annual Tokyo Anime Awards. The awards included "Anime of the year" and "Best domestic feature". Miyazaki received the award for best director and best original story, and Noboru Yoshida received the award for best art direction.
The film won the awards for Animation of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Music at the 32nd Japan Academy Prize.
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Arakawa, Kaku (2019). "Ponyo Is Here". 10 Years With Hayao Miyazaki. Episode 1. NHK.
Kanazawa, Makoto (2008). "Interview with Hayao Miyazaki" special feature. Ponyo (Blu-ray). StudioCanal. Interview on June 30, 2008.
Studio Ghibli (2009). The Art of Ponyo. Viz Media. ISBN 978-1-4215-3064-2.
Tsuchiya, Toshio (2008). "Interview with Toshio Suzuki" special feature. Ponyo (Blu-ray). StudioCanal. Nippon TV "Dai2" interview on May 21, 2008.
== Further reading ==
Sotinel, Thomas (March 29, 2011). "Japan's fantasy films act as a buffer against the reality of the natural world". The Guardian Weekly. Retrieved August 28, 2014.
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese)
GKIDS North America official web page
Ponyo (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
Ponyo at IMDb
Ponyo at Box Office Mojo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Power_(India)#Cabinet_Ministers | Ministry of Power (India) | The Ministry of Power is an Indian government ministry. The current Union Cabinet Minister is Manohar Lal Khattar.
The ministry is charged with overseeing electricity production and infrastructure development, including generation, transmission, and delivery, as well as maintenance projects.
The ministry acts as a liaison between the central government and state electricity operations, as well as with the private sector. The ministry also oversees rural electrification projects.
== History ==
The Ministry of Power became a ministry on July 2, 1992, during the P. V. Narasimha Rao government. Prior to that time it had been a department (the Department of Power) in the Ministry of Power, Coal and Non-Conventional Energy Sources. That ministry was split into the Ministry of Power, Ministry of Coal, and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (renamed the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy in 2006).
In 2012, the Ministry of Power inaugurated the Smart Grid project in Puducherry.
== Agencies ==
=== Central Public Sector Undertakings ===
National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
Power Grid Corporation of India
Grid Controller of India Limited
North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
Power Finance Corporation
Power Finance Consulting Limited, a 100% subsidiary of PFC
PFC Projects Limited, a 100% subsidiary of PFC
Rural Electrification Corporation (REC)
REC Power Development and Consultancy Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of REC Ltd.
Bihar Grid Company Limited, a JV of Power Grid and BSP(H)CL
=== Commissions ===
1. Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
=== Institutes ===
National Power Training Institute, Faridabad
=== Societies ===
Central Power Research Institute, Bangalore
=== Others ===
Bhakra Beas Management Board
Central Electricity Authority (CEA)
== Cabinet Ministers ==
Note: I/C – Independent Charge
Key: † Died in office
== Ministers of State ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh | Himachal Pradesh | Himachal Pradesh (Hindi: Himācal Pradeś, pronounced [ɦɪˈmäːtʃəl pɾəˈd̪eːʃ]; Sanskrit: himācāl prādes; lit. "Snow-laden Mountain Province") is a state in the northern part of India. Situated in the Western Himalayas, it is one of the 13 mountain states and is characterised by an extreme landscape featuring several peaks and extensive river systems. Himachal Pradesh is the northernmost state of India and shares borders with the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh to the north, and the states of Punjab to the west, Haryana to the southwest, Uttarakhand to the southeast and a very narrow border with Uttar Pradesh to the south. The state also shares an international border to the east with the Tibet Autonomous Region in China. Himachal Pradesh is also known as Dev Bhoomi, meaning 'Land of Gods' and Veer Bhoomi which means 'Land of the Brave'.
The predominantly mountainous region comprising the present-day Himachal Pradesh has been inhabited since pre-historic times, having witnessed multiple waves of human migrations from other areas. Through its history, the region was mostly ruled by local kingdoms, some of which accepted the suzerainty of larger empires. Prior to India's independence from the British, Himachal comprised the hilly regions of the Punjab Province of British India. After independence, many of the hilly territories were organised as the Chief Commissioner's province of Himachal Pradesh, which later became a Union Territory. In 1966, hilly areas of the neighbouring Punjab state were merged into Himachal and it was ultimately granted full statehood in 1971.
Himachal Pradesh is spread across valleys with many perennial rivers flowing through them. Agriculture, horticulture, hydropower, and tourism are important constituents of the state's economy. The hilly state is almost universally electrified, with 99.5% of households having electricity as of 2016. The state was declared India's second open-defecation-free state in 2016. According to a survey of CMS-India Corruption Study in 2017, Himachal Pradesh is India's least corrupt state.
Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts.
== Etymology ==
The name of the state is a reference to its setting: Himachal means "snowy slopes" (Sanskrit: hima, meaning "snow"; acala/achala, meaning "slopes", or "land", or "abode"). Himachal Pradesh (ɦɪˈmaːtʃəl pɾəˈdeːʃ; literally "snow-laden province"). Himachal refers to being in the "aanchal" of the Himalayas hence; sheltered by the Himalayas or by the snow. It means "the land in the lap of the snowy Himalayas". Pradesh means "state". Himachal was referenced by Diwakar Datt Sharma, a Sanskrit scholar, after independence, when "Jan Gan Man" was revealed publicly by Pt. Nehru from Gurudev Tagore's diary. The word was added in the national anthem of India, "Jan Gan Man", by Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore when he was writing and composing it. Later, after the independence of India, Punjab province was divided and the name was given, officially to the mountain state as Himachal Pradesh.
== History ==
=== Early history ===
Tribes such as the Koli, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kanaura, and Kirata inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. The foothills of the modern state of Himachal Pradesh were inhabited by people from the Indus valley civilisation, which flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE. The Kols and Mundas are believed to be the original inhabitants to the hills of present-day Himachal Pradesh, followed by the Bhotas and Kiratas.
During the Vedic period, several small republics known as Janapada existed which were later conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains, including some Rajput principalities. These kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate several times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 11th century. Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state, captured several forts, and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid regular tribute to the Mughals.
The Kingdom of Gorkha conquered many kingdoms and came to power in Nepal in 1768. They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory. Gradually, the Kingdom of Nepal annexed Sirmour and Shimla. Under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Nepali army laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, in 1806 with the help of many provincial chiefs. However, the Nepali army could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1809. After the defeat, they expanded towards the south of the state. However, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War.
They came into direct conflict with the British along the tarai belt, after which the British expelled them from the provinces of the Satluj. The British gradually emerged as the paramount power in the region. In the revolt of 1857, or first Indian war of independence, arising from several grievances against the British, the people of the hill states were not as politically active as were those in other parts of the country. They and their rulers, except Bushahr, remained more or less inactive. Some, including the rulers of Chamba, Bilaspur, Bhagal and Dhami, rendered help to the British government during the revolt.
The British territories came under the British Crown after Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858. The states of Chamba, Mandi and Bilaspur made good progress in many fields during the British rule. During World War I, virtually all rulers of the hill states remained loyal and contributed to the British war effort, both in the form of men and materials. Among these were the states of Kangra, Jaswan, Datarpur, Guler, Rajgarh, Nurpur, Chamba, Suket, Mandi, and Bilaspur.
=== Partition and post-independence ===
After independence, the Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh was organised on 15 April 1948 as a result of the integration of 30 petty princely states (including feudal princes and zaildars) in the promontories of the western Himalayas. These were known as the Simla Hills States and four Punjab southern hill states under the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 and 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O. of 1950). The State of Bilaspur was merged into Himachal Pradesh on 1 July 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954.
Himachal became a Part 'C' state on 26 January 1950 when the Constitution of India came into effect and the Lieutenant Governor was appointed. The Legislative Assembly was elected in 1952. In July 1954, following the passage of The Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954 by an act of Parliament, Bilaspur State was dissolved and incorporated into the State of Himachal Pradesh as Bilaspur district. Himachal Pradesh became a union territory on 1 November 1956. Some areas of the Punjab State, namely, Simla, Kangra, Kullu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Lohara, Amb and Una Kanungo circles, some areas of Santokhgarh Kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una Tehsil of Hoshiarpur District, as well as Kandaghat and Nalagarh Tehsils of erstwhile PEPSU State, besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Kanungo circle of Pathankot District—were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on the enactment by Parliament of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966. On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament, and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971. Himachal became the 18th state of the Indian Union with Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar as its first chief minister.
== Geography ==
Himachal is in the western Himalayas situated between 30°22′N and 33°12′N latitude and 75°47′E and 79°04′E longitude. Covering an area of 55,673 square kilometres (21,495 sq mi), it is a mountainous state. The Zanskar range runs in the northeastern part of the state and the great Himalayan range run through the eastern and northern parts, while the Dhauladhar and the Pir Panjal ranges of the lesser Himalayas, and their valleys, form much of the core regions. The outer Himalayas, or the Shiwalik range, form southern and western Himachal Pradesh. At 6,816 m, Reo Purgyil is the highest mountain peak in the state of Himachal Pradesh.
The drainage system of Himachal is composed of both rivers and glaciers. Himalayan rivers criss-cross the entire mountain chain. Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins. The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej, and the Yamuna. These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation. Four of the five Punjab rivers flow through Himachal Pradesh, three of them originating in the state. These rivers run through a maze of valleys separated by the mountain ranges of the state. The Satluj Valley is formed by the Satluj river entering the state near Shipki La, while the Spiti and Baspa Valleys are formed by the river's two major tributaries in the state. The Beas river flows though the Kullu and the Kangra Valleys, with tributary Parvati forming the Parvati Valley. The Chenab river, formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga, forms much of the northern regions of Lahaul and Pangi, and the Ravi river flows principally through Chamba. The Pabbar and Giri rivers in the southeast are part of the Yamuna basin.
Due to extreme variation in elevation, great variation occurs in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh. The climate varies from hot and humid subtropical in the southern tracts to, with more elevation, cold, alpine, and glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges. The state's winter capital, Dharamsala receives very heavy rainfall, while areas like Lahaul and Spiti are cold and almost rainless. Broadly, Himachal experiences three seasons: summer, winter, and rainy season. Summer lasts from mid-April until the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in the alpine zone which experiences a mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F). Winter lasts from late November until mid-March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts. Pollution is affecting the climate of almost all the states of India. Due to steps taken by governments to prevent pollution, Himachal Pradesh has become the first smoke-free state in India which means cooking in the entire state is free of traditional chulhas.
In a statement on 29 March 2025, Town and Country Planning Minister, Rajesh Dharmani, highlighted the state government's policy of sustainable development, citing the "Green Himachal vision" and ongoing efforts to meet sustainable development goals.
=== Flora and fauna ===
Himachal Pradesh is one of the states that lies in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), one of the richest reservoirs of biological diversity in the world. As of 2002, the IHR is undergoing large scale irrational extraction of wild, medicinal herbs, thus endangering many of its high-value gene stock. To address this, a workshop on 'Endangered Medicinal Plant Species in Himachal Pradesh' was held in 2002 and the conference was attended by forty experts from diverse disciplines.
According to 2003 Forest Survey of India report, legally defined forest areas constitute 66.52% of the area of Himachal Pradesh. Vegetation in the state is dictated by elevation and precipitation. The state is endowed with a high diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. Lahaul-Spiti region of the state, being a cold desert, supports unique plants of medicinal value including Ferula jaeschkeana, Hyoscyamus niger, Lancea tibetica, and Saussurea bracteata.
Himachal is also said to be the fruit bowl of the country, with widespread orchards. Meadows and pastures are also seen clinging to steep slopes. After the winter season, the hillsides and orchards bloom with wild flowers, white gladiolas, carnations, marigolds, roses, chrysanthemums, tulips and lilies are carefully cultivated. Himachal Pradesh Horticultural Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation Ltd. (HPMC) is a state body that markets fresh and processed fruits.
Himachal Pradesh has around 463 birds, and Tragopan melanocephalus is the state bird of Himanchal Pradesh 77 mammalian, 44 reptile and 80 fish species. Himachal Pradesh has currently five National Parks. Great Himalayan National Park, which is the oldest and largest National park in the state, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Pin Valley National Park, Inderkilla, Khirganga and Simbalbara are the other national Parks located in the state. The state also has 30 wildlife sanctuaries and 3 conservation reserves. The state bird of Himachal Pradesh is the Western tragopan, locally known as the jujurana. It is one of the rarest living pheasants in the world. The state animal is the snow leopard, which is even rarer to find than the jujurana.
== Government ==
The Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh has no pre-constitution history. The State itself is a post-independence creation. It came into being as a centrally administered territory on 15 April 1948 from the integration of thirty erstwhile princely states.
Himachal Pradesh is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. The legislature consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Himachal Pradesh High Court and a system of lower courts.
Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 68 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA). Terms of office run for five years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.
In the assembly elections held in November 2022, the Indian National Congress secured an absolute majority, winning 40 of the 68 seats while the BJP won only 25 of the 68 seats. Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu was sworn in as Himachal Pradesh's 15th Chief Minister in Shimla on 11 December 2022. Mukesh Agnihotri was sworn in as his deputy the same day.
== Administrative divisions ==
The state of Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts which are grouped into three divisions, Shimla, Kangra and Mandi. The districts are further divided into 73 subdivisions, 78 blocks and 172 Tehsils.
== Economy ==
Planning in Himachal Pradesh started in 1951 along with the rest of India with the implementation of the first five-year plan. The First Plan allocated ₹52.7 million to Himachal Pradesh. More than 50% of this expenditure was incurred on transport and communication; while the power sector got a share of just 4.6%, though it had steadily increased to 7% by the Third Plan. Expenditure on agriculture and allied activities increased from 14.4% in the First Plan to 32% in the Third Plan, showing a progressive decline afterwards from 24% in the Fourth Plan to less than 10% in the Tenth Plan. Expenditure on energy sector was 24.2% of the total in the Tenth Plan.
The total GDP for 2005–06 was estimated at ₹254 billion as against ₹230 billion in the year 2004–05, showing an increase of 10.5%. The GDP for fiscal 2015–16 was estimated at ₹1.110 trillion, which increased to ₹1.247 trillion in 2016–17, recording growth of 6.8%. The per capita income increased from ₹130,067 in 2015–16 to ₹147,277 in 2016–17. The state government's advance estimates for fiscal 2017–18 stated the total GDP and per capita income as ₹1.359 trillion and ₹158,462, respectively. As of 2018, Himachal is the 22nd-largest state economy in India with ₹1.52 lakh crore (US$18 billion) in gross domestic product and has the 13th-highest per capita income (₹160,000 (US$1,900)) among the states and union territories of India.
Himachal Pradesh also ranks as the second-best performing state in the country on human development indicators after Kerala. One of the Indian government's key initiatives to tackle unemployment is the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The participation of women in the NREGA has been observed to vary across different regions of the nation. As of the year 2009–2010, Himachal Pradesh joined the category of high female participation, recording a 46% share of NREGS (National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) workdays for women. This was a drastic increase from the 13% that was recorded in 2006–2007.
=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture accounts for 9.4% of the net state domestic product. It is the main source of income and employment in Himachal. About 90% of the population in Himachal depends directly upon agriculture, which provides direct employment to 62% of total workers of state. The main cereals grown include wheat, maize, rice and barley with major cropping systems being maize-wheat, rice-wheat and maize-potato-wheat. Pulses, fruits, vegetables and oilseeds are among the other crops grown in the state. Centuries-old traditional Kuhl irrigation system is prevalent in the Kangra valley, though in recent years these Kuhls have come under threat from hydroprojects on small streams in the valley. Land husbandry initiatives such as the Mid-Himalayan Watershed Development Project, which includes the Himachal Pradesh Reforestation Project (HPRP), the world's largest clean development mechanism (CDM) undertaking, have improved agricultural yields and productivity, and raised rural household incomes.
Apple is the principal cash crop of the state grown principally in the districts of Shimla, Kinnaur, Kullu, Mandi, Chamba and some parts of Sirmaur and Lahaul-Spiti with an average annual production of five lakh tonnes and per hectare production of 8 to 10 tonnes. The apple cultivation constitute 49 per cent of the total area under fruit crops and 85% of total fruit production in the state with an estimated economy of ₹3500 crore. Apples from Himachal are exported to other Indian states and even other countries. In 2011–12, the total area under apple cultivation was 104,000 hectares, increased from 90,347 hectares in 2000–01. According to the provisional estimates of Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, the annual apple production in Himachal for fiscal 2015–16 stood at 753,000 tonnes, making it India's second-largest apple-producing state after Jammu and Kashmir. The state is also among the leading producers of other fruits such as apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums and strawberries in India.
Kangra tea is grown in the Kangra valley. Tea plantation began in 1849, and production peaked in the late 19th century with the tea becoming popular across the globe. Production dipped sharply after the 1905 Kangra earthquake and continues to decline. The tea received geographical indication status in 2005.
=== Industry ===
==== Pharma hub ====
Himachal Pradesh is renowned as Asia's pharmaceutical hub, housing a total of 652 pharmaceutical units. The state hosts a thriving ₹40,000 crore drug manufacturing industry.
=== Energy ===
Hydropower is one of the major sources of income generation for the state. The state has an abundance of hydropower resources because of the presence of various perennial rivers. Many high-capacity hydropower plants have been constructed which produce surplus electricity that is sold to other states, such as Delhi, Punjab and West Bengal. The income generated from exporting the electricity to other states is being provided as subsidy to the consumers in the state. The rich hydropower resources of Himachal have resulted in the state becoming almost universally electrified with around 94.8% houses receiving electricity as of 2001, as compared to the national average of 55.9%. Himachal's hydro-electric power production is, however, yet to be fully utilised. The identified hydroelectric potential for the state is 27,436 MW in five river basins while the hydroelectric capacity in 2016 was 10,351 MW.
== Tourism ==
Tourism in Himachal Pradesh is a major contributor to the state's economy and growth. The Himalayas attracts tourists from all over the world. Hill stations like Shimla, Manali, Dharamshala, Dalhousie, Chamba, Khajjiar, Kullu and Kasauli are popular destinations for both domestic and foreign tourists. The state has 5 Shakti Peeths - Chintpurni, Jwalamukhi Temple, Bajreshwari Mata Temple, Shri Chamunda Devi Mandir and Naina Devi Temple. The state also has many important Hindu pilgrimage sites with prominent temples like Baijnath Temple, Bhimakali Temple, Bijli Mahadev and Jakhoo Temple. Manimahesh Lake situated in the Bharmour region of Chamba district is the venue of an annual Hindu pilgrimage trek held in the month of August which attracts lakhs of devotees. The state is also referred to as "Dev Bhoomi" (literally meaning Abode of Gods) due to its mention as such in ancient Hindu texts and occurrence of a large number of historical temples in the state.
Himachal is also known for its adventure tourism activities like ice skating in Shimla, paragliding in Bir, Himachal Pradesh and Solang Valley, rafting in Kullu, skiing in Manali, boating in Bilaspur, fishing in Tirthan Valley, trekking and horse riding in different parts of the state. Shimla, the state's capital, is home to Asia's only natural ice-skating rink. The state has some of the highest mountain passes in the world - Rohtang Pass, Baralacha La, Kunzum La, Borasu Pass and Hamta Pass. Spiti Valley in Lahaul and Spiti District situated at an altitude of over 3000 metres with its picturesque landscapes is popular destination for adventure seekers. The region also has some of the oldest Buddhist monasteries in the world.
Himachal hosted the first Paragliding World Cup in India from 24 to 31 October in 2015. Bir Billing, the venue for the paragliding world cup, is known as the launching site of paragliding. It is 70 km from the tourist town of Mcleod Ganj and is located in the heart of Himachal in Kangra district. Bir Billing is the centre for aero sports in Himachal and considered as best for paragliding. While Bir, the paragliding capital of India, is the landing site for paragliding. It is also known for its tourist attractions including Buddhist monasteries, trekking to tribal villages and mountain biking. The village also hosts prominent cultural musical events like Bir Music Festival, aiming to primarily promote the tourism of Bir.
There are a variety of festivals celebrated by the locals of Himachal Pradesh who worship gods and goddesses. There are over 2000 villages in Himachal Pradesh which celebrate festivals such as Kullu Dussehra, Chamba's Minjar, Renuka ji Fair, Lohri, Halda, Phagli, Losar and Mandi Shivratri. There approximately 6000 temples in Himachal Pradesh with a known one being Bijli Mahadev. The temple is seen as a 20-meter structure built in stone which, according to locals, is known to attract lighting. They say that this is a way the Gods show their blessings.
The Great Himalayan National Park is found in the Kullu districts of Himachal Pradesh. It has an area of 620 km2 and ranging from an altitude of 1500 meters to 4500 meters and was created in 1984. There are various forest types found here such as Deodar, Himalayan Fir, Spruce, Oak and Alpine pastures. In the Great Himalayan National Park, there are a variety of animals found such as Snow leopard, Yak, Himalayan black bear, Western tragopan, Monal and Musk deer. This National Park is a trail to many hikers and trekkers too. Moreover, there are sanctuaries which are tourist spots such as Naina Devi and Gobind Sagar Sanctuary in the Una and Bilaspur districts with an area of 220 km2. There are animals such as Indian porcupine and giant flying squirrel found here. The Gobind Sagar Lake has fish species such as Mrigal, Silver carp, Katla, Mahaseer and Rohu are found here. Narkanda located in at an altitude of around 8850 feet is known for its apple orchards. It is located between the river valleys of Giri and Sutlej.
== Transport ==
=== Air ===
Himachal has three domestic airports in Kangra, Kullu and Shimla districts, respectively. The air routes connect the state with New Delhi and Chandigarh.
Kullu–Manali Airport is in Kullu district, around 10 kilometres (6 mi) from district headquarters Kullu.
Kangra Airport is in Kangra district, around 15 kilometres (9 mi) from district headquarters at Dharamshala, which is around 10 kilometres (6 mi) from Kangra
Shimla Airport is around 22 kilometres (14 mi) west of the Shimla city.
=== Railways ===
==== Broad-gauge lines ====
The only broad-gauge railway line in the whole state connects Amb Andaura–Una Himachal railway station to Nangal Dam in Punjab and runs all the way to Daulatpur, Himachal Pradesh. It is an electrified track since 1999. While a tiny portion of line adjacent to Kandrori(KNDI) station on either side on Pathankot-Jalandhar Section, under Ferozepur Division of Northern Railway also crosses into Himachal Pradesh, before venturing out to Punjab again.
Future constructions:
Una Himachal–Hamirpur rail project via Dhundla
Bhanupali (Punjab)–Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh
Chandigarh–Baddi
==== Narrow-gauge lines ====
Himachal is known for its narrow-gauge railways. One is the Kalka-Shimla Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and another is the Kangra Valley Railway. The total length of these two tracks is 259 kilometres (161 mi). The Kalka-Shimla Railway passes through many tunnels and bridges, while the Pathankot–Jogindernagar one meanders through a maze of hills and valleys. The total route length of the operational railway network in the state is 296.26 kilometres (184.09 mi).
=== Roads ===
Roads are the major mode of transport in Himachal Pradesh due to its hilly terrain. The state has road network of 28,208 kilometres (17,528 mi), including eight National Highways (NH) that constitute 1,234 kilometres (767 mi) and 19 State Highways with a total length of 1,625 kilometres (1,010 mi). Hamirpur district has the highest road density in the country. Some roads are closed during winter and monsoon seasons due to snow and landslides. The state-owned Himachal Road Transport Corporation with a fleet of over 3,100, operates bus services connecting important cities and towns with villages within the state and also on various interstate routes. In addition, around 5,000 private buses ply in the state.
== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
Himachal Pradesh has a total population of 6,864,602 including 3,481,873 males and 3,382,729 females according to the Census of India 2011. It has only 0.57 per cent of India's total population, recording a growth of 12.81 per cent. The child sex ratio increased from 896 in 2001 to 909 in 2011. The total fertility rate (TFR) per woman in 2015 stood at 1.7, one of the lowest in India.
The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes account for 25.19 per cent and 5.71 per cent of the population, respectively. The sex ratio stood at 972 females per 1,000 males, recording a marginal increase from 968 in 2001. The main caste groups in Himachal Pradesh are Brahmins, Rajputs, Kanets, Kulindas, Girths, Gurjars, Raos, Kolis, Hollis, Chamars, Drains, Rehars, Chanals, Lohars, Baris, Julahas, Dhakhis, Turis, and Batwals.
Caste-based discrimination in Himachal Pradesh has persisted alongside the state’s relatively high human-development indicators, particularly affecting Dalit communities in rural areas. Recent high-profile incidents have reignited public debate and led to calls for stronger enforcement of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. A 12-year-old boy from a Scheduled Caste was found to have died by suicide (on 17 September 2025) in Limbra village, Rohru subdivision of Shimla district, after being locked overnight in a cowshed and harassed for allegedly entering an upper-caste woman’s house. The woman has been arrested under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act.Field work in Himachal shows that “upper castes occupy land holdings which are mostly fertile, whereas the depressed castes have very less land and that too is usually unfertile.” Research further notes that both major parties in Himachal allocate tickets and mobilise voters with regard to caste, and specifically acknowledge dependence on Thakur or upper‐caste votes.
In the census, the state is placed 21st on the population chart, followed by Tripura at 22nd place. Kangra District was top-ranked with a population strength of 1,507,223 (21.98%), Mandi District 999,518 (14.58%), Shimla District 813,384 (11.86%), Solan District 576,670 (8.41%), Sirmaur District 530,164 (7.73%), Una District 521,057 (7.60%), Chamba District 518,844 (7.57%), Hamirpur district 454,293 (6.63%), Kullu District 437,474 (6.38%), Bilaspur district 382,056 (5.57%), Kinnaur District 84,298 (1.23%) and Lahaul Spiti 31,528 (0.46%).
The life expectancy at birth in Himachal Pradesh increased significantly from 52.6 years in the period from 1970 to 1975 (above the national average of 49.7 years) to 72.0 years for the period 2011–15 (above the national average of 68.3 years). The infant mortality rate stood at 40 in 2010, and the crude birth rate has declined from 37.3 in 1971 to 16.9 in 2010, below the national average of 26.5 in 1998. The crude death rate was 6.9 in 2010. Himachal Pradesh's literacy rate has almost doubled between 1981 and 2011 (see table to right). The state is one of the most literate states of India with a literacy rate of 83.78% as of 2011.
=== Languages ===
Hindi is the de jure official language of Himachal Pradesh and is spoken by the majority of the population as a lingua franca. Sanskrit is the additional official language of the state. Although mostly encountered in academic and symbolic contexts, the government of Himachal Pradesh is encouraging its wider study and use.
Most of the population, however, speaks natively one or another of the Western Pahari languages (locally also known as Himachali or just Pahari), a subgroup of the Indo-Aryan languages that includes Bhattiyali, Bilaspuri, Chambeali, Churahi, Gaddi, Hinduri, Kangri, Kullu, Mahasu Pahari, Mandeali, Pahari Kinnauri, Pangwali, and Sirmauri. Additional Indo-Aryan languages spoken include Punjabi (native to 4.4% of the population), Nepali (1.3%), Chinali, Lahul Lohar, and others. In parts of the state there are speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages like Kinnauri (1.2%), Tibetan (0.3%), Lahuli–Spiti languages (0.16%), Pattani (0.12%), Bhoti Kinnauri, Chitkuli Kinnauri, Bunan (or Gahri), Jangshung, Kanashi, Shumcho, Spiti Bhoti, Sunam, Tinani, and Tukpa.
=== Religion ===
Hinduism is the major religion in Himachal Pradesh. More than 95% of the total population adheres to the Hindu faith and majorly follows Shaivism and Shaktism traditions, the distribution of which is evenly spread throughout the state. Himachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of Hindu population among all the states and union territories in India.
Other religions that form a smaller percentage are Islam, Sikhism and Buddhism. Muslims are mainly concentrated in Sirmaur, Chamba, Una and Solan districts where they form 2.5-6.3% of the population. Sikhs mostly live in towns and cities and constitute 1.16% of the state population. The Buddhists, who constitute 1.15%, are mainly natives and tribals from Lahaul and Spiti, where they form a majority of 62%, and Kinnaur, where they form 21.5%.
== Culture ==
Himachal Pradesh was one of the few states that had remained largely untouched by external customs, largely due to its difficult terrain. With remarkable economic and social advancements, the state has changed rapidly. Himachal Pradesh is a multilingual state like other Indian states. Western Pahari languages also known as Himachali languages are widely spoken in the state. Some of the most commonly spoken Pahadi lects are Kangri, Mandyali, Kullvi, Chambeali, Bharmauri and Kinnauri.
Himachal is well known for its handicrafts. The carpets, leather works, Kullu shawls, Kangra paintings, Chamba Rumals, stoles, embroidered grass footwear (Pullan chappal), silver jewellery, metal ware, knitted woolen socks, Pattoo, basketry of cane and bamboo (Wicker and Rattan) and woodwork are among the notable ones. Of late, the demand for these handicrafts has increased within and outside the country.
Himachali caps of various colour bands are also well-known local art work, and are often treated as a symbol of the Himachali identity. The colour of the Himachali caps has been an indicator of political loyalties in the hill state for a long period of time with Congress party leaders like Virbhadra Singh donning caps with green band and the rival BJP leader Prem Kumar Dhumal wearing a cap with maroon band. The former has served six terms as the Chief Minister of the state while the latter is a two-time Chief Minister. Local music and dance also reflect the cultural identity of the state. Through their dance and music, the Himachali people entreat their gods during local festivals and other special occasions.
There are national and regional fairs and festivals, including temple fairs in nearly every region. The Kullu Dussehra, Minjar mela and Mahashivratri Mandi festival is nationally known. The day-to-day cuisine of Himachalis is similar to the rest of northern India with Punjabi and Tibetan influences. Lentils (Dāl), rice (chāwal or bhāț), vegetables (sabzī) and chapati (wheat flatbread) form the staple food of the local population. Non-vegetarian food is more widely accepted in Himachal Pradesh than elsewhere in India, partly due to the scarcity of fresh vegetables on the hilly terrain of the state.
Himachali specialities include Siddu, Babru, Khatta, Mhanee, Channa Madra, Patrode, Mah ki dal, Chamba-style fried fish, Kullu trout, Chha Gosht, Pahadi Chicken, Sepu Badi, Auriya Kaddu, Aloo palda, Pateer, Makki di roti, Sarson ka saag, Chamba Chukh (Chouck), Bhagjery, Chutney of Til, etc.
=== Notable people ===
== Education ==
At the time of Independence, Himachal Pradesh had a literacy rate of 8% – one of the lowest in the country. By 2011, the literacy rate surged to 82.8%, making Himachal one of the most-literate states in the country. There are over 10,000 primary schools, 1,000 secondary schools and more than 1,300 high schools in the state. In meeting the constitutional obligation to make primary education compulsory, Himachal became the first state in India to make elementary education accessible to every child. Himachal Pradesh is an exception to the nationwide gender bias in education levels. The state has a female literacy rate of around 76%. In addition, school enrolment and participation rates for girls are almost universal at the primary level. While higher levels of education do reflect a gender-based disparity, Himachal is still significantly ahead of other states at bridging the gap. The Hamirpur District in particular stands out for high literacy rates across all metrics of measurement.
The state government has played an instrumental role in the rise of literacy in the state by spending a significant proportion of the state's GDP on education. During the first six five-year plans, most of the development expenditure in the education sector was utilised in quantitative expansion, but after the seventh five-year-plan the state government switched emphasis on qualitative improvement and modernisation of education. To raise the number of the teaching staff at primary schools they appointed over 1000 teacher aids through the Vidya Upasak Yojna in 2001. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is another HP government initiative that not only aims for universal elementary education but also encourages communities to engage in the management of schools. The Rashtriya Madhayamic Shiksha Abhiyan launched in 2009, is a similar scheme but focuses on improving access to quality secondary education.
The standard of education in the state has reached a considerably high level as compared to other states in India with several reputed educational institutes for higher studies. The Baddi University of Emerging Sciences and Technologies, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Indian Institute of Management Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh University in Shimla, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamsala, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Indian Institute of Information Technology Una, Alakh Prakash Goyal University, Maharaja Agrasen University, Himachal Pradesh National Law University are some of the notable universities in the state. Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital in Shimla, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Government Medical College in Kangra, Rajiv Gandhi Government Post Graduate Ayurvedic College in Paprola and Homoeopathic Medical College & Hospital in Kumarhatti are the prominent medical institutes in the state. Besides these, there is a Government Dental College in Shimla which is the state's first recognised dental institute.
The state government has also decided to start three major nursing colleges to develop the healthcare system of the state. CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalya Palampur is one of the most renowned hill agriculture institutes in the world. Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry has earned a unique distinction in India for imparting teaching, research and extension education in horticulture, forestry and allied disciplines. Further, state-run Jawaharlal Nehru Government Engineering College was inaugurated in 2006 at Sundernagar.
Himachal Pradesh also hosts a campus of the fashion college, National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) in Kangra.
== State profile ==
Source: Department of Information and Public Relations.
== See also ==
Outline of Himachal Pradesh
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Government
The official site of Himachal Pradesh
The official tourism site of Himachal Pradesh, India
General information
Himachal Pradesh at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Geographic data related to Himachal Pradesh at OpenStreetMap |
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Brodie rose to prominence as a premier ultimate player at the University of Florida, where he won two USA Ultimate College Championships, in 2006 and 2010. He also won two National Club Championships, first in 2012 with Austin's Doublewide, and again in 2014 with Denver's Johnny Bravo. He has played professionally with the AUDL's Indianapolis AlleyCats, Chicago Wildfire, Dallas Roughnecks, and Jacksonville Cannons.
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Brodie's first trick shot video, Frisbee Trick Shots, was released in 2011 on YouTube as a compilation video of trick frisbee throws around Gainesville, Florida and the University of Florida campus. As of December 2015, the video has generated over 5 million views. In the video, Brodie is seen completing throws into trash cans and other targets in increasingly difficult situations. The final shot involves him throwing a disc into a trash can from top of the University of Florida football stadium.
== Personal life ==
Brodie has performed trick shots all over the world, including competing in a Japanese game show, with the goal of using his skills to promote awareness for Ultimate as a sport. Some of them are uploaded to his own account on Instagram and in his fan page: @brodiesmith21fans. His trick shot videos have also led him onto the national media stage with multiple appearances on ESPN Sports Center's Top Plays. Brodie has also created several videos with YouTube trick shot performers Dude Perfect.
== References ==
== External links ==
Frisbee Trick Shots (Original)
Brodie Smith on the Huffington Post
Official Brodie Smith merchandise Archived 2018-12-04 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades#:~:text=Edme%2DS%C3%A9bastien%20Jeaurat%20then%20drew,which%20he%20published%20in%201786. | Pleiades | The Pleiades ( PLEE-ə-deez, PLAY-, PLY-), also known as Seven Sisters and Messier 45 (M45), is an asterism of an open star cluster containing young B-type stars in the northwest of the constellation Taurus. At a distance of about 444 light-years, it is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and the nearest Messier object to Earth, being the most obvious star cluster to the naked eye in the night sky. It contains the reflection nebulae NGC 1432, an HII region, and NGC 1435, known as the Merope Nebula. Around 2330 BC the Pleiades marked the vernal point. Due to the brightness of its stars, the Pleiades is viewable from most areas on Earth, even in locations with significant light pollution.
The cluster is dominated by hot blue luminous stars that have formed within the last 100 million years. Reflection nebulae around the brightest stars were once thought to be leftover material from their formation, but are now considered likely to be an unrelated dust cloud in the interstellar medium through which the stars are currently passing. This dust cloud is estimated to be moving at a speed of approximately 18 km/s relative to the stars in the cluster.
Computer simulations have shown that the Pleiades were probably formed from a compact configuration that once resembled the Orion Nebula. Astronomers estimate that the cluster will survive for approximately another 250 million years, after which the clustering will be lost due to gravitational interactions with the galactic neighborhood.
Together with the open star cluster of the Hyades, the Pleiades form the Golden Gate of the Ecliptic. The Pleiades have been said to "resemble a tiny dipper," and should not be confused with the "Little Dipper," or Ursa Minor.
== Origin of name ==
The name, Pleiades, comes from Ancient Greek: Πλειάδες. It probably derives from plein (πλεῖν 'to sail') because of the cluster's importance in delimiting the sailing season in the Mediterranean Sea: "the season of navigation began with their heliacal rising". In Classical Greek mythology the name was used for seven divine sisters called the Pleiades. In time, the name was said to be derived from that of a mythical mother, Pleione, effectively meaning "daughters of Pleione". In reality, the ancient name of the star cluster related to sailing almost certainly came first in the culture, naming of a relationship to the sister deities followed, and eventually appearing in later myths, to interpret the group name, a mother, Pleione.
== Astronomical role of M45 in antiquity ==
The M45 group played an important role in ancient times for the establishment of many calendars thanks to the combination of two remarkable elements. The first, which is still valid, is its unique and easily identifiable appearance on the celestial vault near the ecliptic. The second, essential for the ancients, is that in the middle of the third millennium BC, this asterism (a prominent pattern or group of stars that is smaller than a constellation) marked the vernal point. (2330 BC with ecliptic latitude about +3.5° according to Stellarium)
The importance of this asterism is also evident in northern Europe. The Pleiades cluster is displayed on the Nebra sky disc that was found in Germany and is dated to around 1600 BC. On the disk the cluster is represented in a high position between the Sun and the Moon.
This asterism also marks the beginning of several ancient calendars:
In ancient India, it constitutes, in the Atharvaveda, compiled around 1200-1000 BC, the first nakṣatra (Sanskrit name for lunar stations), which is called Kṛttikā (क्रृत्तिका), a revealing name since it literally means 'the Cuttings', i.e. "Those that mark the break of the year". This is so before the classic list lowers this nakṣatra to third place, henceforth giving the first to the star couple β Arietis and γ Arietis, which, notably in Hipparchus, at that time, marks the equinox.
In Mesopotamia, the MUL.APIN compendium, the first known Mesopotamian astronomy treatise, discovered at Nineveh in the library of Assurbanipal and dating from no later than 627 BC, presents a list of deities [holders of stars] who stand on "the path of the Moon", a list which begins with mul.MUL.
In Greece, the Pleiádes (Πλειάδες) are a group whose name is probably functional before having a mythological meaning, as André Lebœuffle points out, who has his preference for the explanation by the Indo-European root *pe/ol-/pl- that expresses the idea of 'multiplicity, crowd, assembly'.
Similarly, the Ancient Arabs begin their old parapegma type calendar, that of the anwāʾ, with M45 under the name of al-Thurayyā (الثريّا). And this before their classic calendar, that of the manāzil al-qamar or 'lunar stations', also begins with the star couple β Arietis and γ Arietis whose name, al-Sharaṭān (الشرطان), is literally "the Two Marks [of entering the equinox]" Although M45 is no longer at the vernal point, the asterism still remains important, both functionally and symbolically. In addition to the changes in the calendars based on the lunar stations among the Indians and the Arabs, consider the case of an ancient Yemeni calendar in which the months are designated according to an astronomical criterion that caused it to be named Calendar of the Pleiades: the month of khams, literally 'five', is that during which the Sun and al-Thurayyā, i.e. the Pleiades, deviate from each other by five movements of the Moon, i.e. five times the path that the Moon travels on average in one day and one night, to use the terminology of Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi.
== Nomenclature and mythology ==
The Pleiades are a prominent sight in winter in the Northern Hemisphere, and are easily visible from mid-southern latitudes. They have been known since antiquity to cultures all around the world, including the Celts (Welsh: Tŵr Tewdws, Irish: Streoillín); pre-colonial Filipinos (who called it Mapúlon, Mulo‑pulo or Muró‑púro, among other names), for whom it indicated the beginning of the year; Hawaiians (who call them Makaliʻi), Māori (who call them Matariki); Indigenous Australians (from several traditions); the Achaemenid Empire, whence in Persians (who called them Parvīn پروین or Parvī پروی); the Arabs (who call them al-Thurayyā; الثريا); the Chinese (who called them mǎo; 昴); the Quechua (who call them Qullqa or the storehouse); the Japanese (who call them Subaru; 昴); the Maya; the Aztec; the Sioux; the Kiowa; and the Cherokee. In Hinduism, the Pleiades are known as Kṛttikā; कृत्तिका and are scripturally associated with the war deity Kartikeya(कार्त्तिकेय) and are also identified or associated with the Saptamatrika(s) (Seven Mothers). Hindus celebrate the first day (new moon) of the month of Kartik (month) as Diwali, a festival of abundance and lamps. The Pleiades are also mentioned three times in the Bible, using the constellation's Hebrew name Kimah; כִּימָה.
The earliest known depiction of the Pleiades is likely a Northern German Bronze Age artifact known as the Nebra sky disk, dated to approximately 1600 BC. The Babylonian star catalogues name the Pleiades MULMUL (𒀯𒀯), meaning 'stars' (literally 'star star'), and they head the list of stars along the ecliptic, reflecting the fact that they were close to the point of the vernal equinox around the twenty-third century BC. The Ancient Egyptians may have used the names "Followers" and "Ennead" in the prognosis texts of the Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days of papyrus Cairo 86637. Some Greek astronomers considered them to be a distinct constellation, and they are mentioned by Hesiod's Works and Days, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and the Geoponica. The Pleiades was the most well-known "star" among pre-Islamic Arabs and so often referred to simply as "the Star" (an-Najm; النجم). Some scholars of Islam suggested that the Pleiades are the "star" mentioned in Surah An-Najm ('The Star') in the Quran.
On numerous cylinder seals from the beginning of the first millennium BC, M45 is represented by seven points, while the Seven Gods appear, on low-reliefs of Neo-Assyrian royal palaces, wearing long open robes and large cylindrical headdresses surmounted by short feathers and adorned with three frontal rows of horns and a crown of feathers, while carrying both an ax and a knife, as well as a bow and a quiver.
As noted by scholar Stith Thompson, the constellation was "nearly always imagined" as a group of seven sisters, and their myths explain why there are only six. Some scientists suggest that these may come from observations as far back as 100,000 BC when Pleione was farther from Atlas and hence, more visible as a separate star to the unaided eye.
=== Subaru ===
In Japan, the cluster is mentioned under the name Mutsuraboshi ("six stars") in the eighth-century Kojiki. The cluster is now known in Japan as Subaru, from the intransitive verb subaru, meaning "to cluster together".
The Subaru Telescope, the 8.2-meter (320 in) flagship telescope of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, located at the Mauna Kea Observatory on the island of Hawaii, was named after the cluster. It had the largest monolithic primary mirror in the world from its commissioning in 1998 until 2005.
It also was chosen as the brand name of Subaru automobiles to reflect the origins of the firm as the joining of five companies, and is depicted in the firm's six-star logo.
=== Tolkien's Legendarium ===
In J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, where The Lord of the Rings is set, Pleiades is referred to as Remmirath, the netted stars, as are several other celestial bodies, such as the constellation Orion as Menelvagor, swordsman of the Sky.
== Observational history ==
Galileo Galilei was the first astronomer to view the Pleiades through a telescope. He thereby discovered that the cluster contains many stars too dim to be seen with the naked eye. He published his observations, including a sketch of the Pleiades showing 36 stars, in his treatise Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610.
The Pleiades have long been known to be a physically related group of stars rather than any chance alignment. John Michell calculated in 1767 that the probability of a chance alignment of so many bright stars was only 1 in 500,000, and so surmised that the Pleiades and many other clusters must consist of physically related stars. When studies were first made of the proper motions of the stars, it was found that they are all moving in the same direction across the sky, at the same rate, further demonstrating that they were related.
Charles Messier measured the position of the cluster and included it as "M45" in his catalogue of comet-like objects, published in 1771. Along with the Orion Nebula and the Praesepe cluster, Messier's inclusion of the Pleiades has been noted as curious, as most of Messier's objects were much fainter and more easily confused with comets—something that seems scarcely possible for the Pleiades. One possibility is that Messier simply wanted to have a larger catalogue than his scientific rival Lacaille, whose 1755 catalogue contained 42 objects, and so he added some bright, well-known objects to boost the number on his list.
Edme-Sébastien Jeaurat then drew in 1782 a map of 64 stars of the Pleiades from his observations in 1779, which he published in 1786.
== Distance ==
The distance to the Pleiades can be used as a key first step to calibrate the cosmic distance ladder. As the cluster is relatively close to the Earth, the distance should be relatively easy to measure and has been estimated by many methods. Accurate knowledge of the distance allows astronomers to plot a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for the cluster, which, when compared with those plotted for clusters whose distance is not known, allows their distances to be estimated. Other methods may then extend the distance scale from open clusters to galaxies and clusters of galaxies, and a cosmic distance ladder may be constructed. Ultimately astronomers' understanding of the age and future evolution of the universe is influenced by their knowledge of the distance to the Pleiades. Yet some authors argue that the controversy over the distance to the Pleiades discussed below is a red herring, since the cosmic distance ladder can (presently) rely on a suite of other nearby clusters where consensus exists regarding the distances as established by the Hipparcos satellite and independent means (e.g., the Hyades, the Coma Berenices cluster, etc.).
Measurements of the distance have elicited much controversy. Results prior to the launch of the Hipparcos satellite generally found that the Pleiades were approximately 135 parsecs (pc) away from Earth. Data from Hipparcos yielded a surprising result, namely a distance of only 118 pc, by measuring the parallax of stars in the cluster—a technique that should yield the most direct and accurate results. Later work consistently argued that the Hipparcos distance measurement for the Pleiades was erroneous: In particular, distances derived to the cluster via the Hubble Space Telescope and infrared color–magnitude diagram fitting (so-called "spectroscopic parallax") favor a distance between 135 and 140 pc; a dynamical distance from optical interferometric observations of the inner pair of stars within Atlas (a bright triple star in the Pleiades) favors a distance of 133 to 137 pc. However, the author of the 2007–2009 catalog of revised Hipparcos parallaxes reasserted that the distance to the Pleiades is ~120 pc and challenged the dissenting evidence. In 2012, Francis and Anderson proposed that a systematic effect on Hipparcos parallax errors for stars in clusters would bias calculation using the weighted mean; they gave a Hipparcos parallax distance of 126 pc and photometric distance of 132 pc based on stars in the AB Doradus, Tucana-Horologium and Beta Pictoris moving groups, which are all similar in age and composition to the Pleiades. Those authors note that the difference between these results may be attributed to random error.
More recent results using very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) (August 2014), and preliminary solutions using Gaia Data Release 1 (September 2016) and Gaia Data Release 2 (August 2018), determine distances of 136.2 ± 1.2 pc, 134 ± 6 pc and 136.2 ± 5.0 pc, respectively. The Gaia Data Release 1 team were cautious about their result, and the VLBI authors assert "that the Hipparcos-measured distance to the Pleiades cluster is in error".
The most recent distance estimate of the distance to the Pleiades based on the Gaia Data Release 3 is 135.74±0.10 pc.
== Composition ==
The cluster core radius is approximately 8 light-years and tidal radius is approximately 43 light-years. The cluster contains more than 1,000 statistically confirmed members, not counting the number that would be added if all binary stars could be resolved. Its light is dominated by young, hot blue stars, up to 14 of which may be seen with the naked eye, depending on local observing conditions and visual acuity of the observer. The brightest stars form a shape somewhat similar to that of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. The total mass contained in the cluster is estimated to be approximately 800 solar masses and is dominated by fainter and redder stars. An estimate of the frequency of binary stars in the Pleiades is approximately 57%.
The cluster contains many brown dwarfs, such as Teide 1. These are objects with less than approximately 8% of the Sun's mass, insufficient for the nuclear fusion of hydrogen to start in their cores and become proper stars. They may constitute up to 25% of the total population of the cluster, although they contribute less than 2% of the total mass. Astronomers have made great efforts to find and analyze brown dwarfs in the Pleiades and other young clusters, because they are still relatively bright and observable, while brown dwarfs in older clusters have faded and are much more difficult to study.
== Brightest stars ==
The brightest stars of the cluster are named the Seven Sisters in early Greek mythology: Sterope, Merope, Electra, Maia, Taygeta, Celaeno, and Alcyone. Later, they were assigned parents, Pleione and Atlas. As daughters of Atlas, the Hyades were sisters of the Pleiades.
The following table gives details of the brightest stars in the cluster:
== Age and future evolution ==
Ages for star clusters may be estimated by comparing the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for the cluster with theoretical models of stellar evolution. Using this technique, ages for the Pleiades of between 75 and 150 million years have been estimated. The wide spread in estimated ages is a result of uncertainties in stellar evolution models, which include factors such as convective overshoot, in which a convective zone within a star penetrates an otherwise non-convective zone, resulting in higher apparent ages.
Another way of estimating the age of the cluster is by looking at the lowest-mass objects. In normal main-sequence stars, lithium is rapidly destroyed in nuclear fusion reactions. Brown dwarfs can retain their lithium, however. Due to lithium's very low ignition temperature of 2.5 million K, the highest-mass brown dwarfs will burn it eventually, and so determining the highest mass of brown dwarfs still containing lithium in the cluster may give an idea of its age. Applying this technique to the Pleiades gives an age of about 115 million years.
The cluster is slowly moving in the direction of the feet of what is currently the constellation of Orion. Like most open clusters, the Pleiades will not stay gravitationally bound forever. Some component stars will be ejected after close encounters with other stars; others will be stripped by tidal gravitational fields. Calculations suggest that the cluster will take approximately 250 million years to disperse, because of gravitational interactions with giant molecular clouds and the spiral arms of our galaxy hastening its demise.
== Reflection nebulosity ==
With larger amateur telescopes, the nebulosity around some of the stars may be easily seen, especially when long-exposure photographs are taken. Under ideal observing conditions, some hint of nebulosity around the cluster may be seen even with small telescopes or average binoculars. It is a reflection nebula, caused by dust reflecting the blue light of the hot, young stars.
It was formerly thought that the dust was left over from the formation of the cluster, but at the age of approximately 100 million years generally accepted for the cluster, almost all the dust originally present would have been dispersed by radiation pressure. Instead, it seems that the cluster is simply passing through a particularly dusty region of the interstellar medium.
Studies show that the dust responsible for the nebulosity is not uniformly distributed, but is concentrated mainly in two layers along the line of sight to the cluster. These layers may have been formed by deceleration due to radiation pressure as the dust has moved toward the stars.
== Possible planets ==
Analyzing deep-infrared images obtained by the Spitzer Space Telescope and Gemini North telescope, astronomers discovered that one of the stars in the cluster, HD 23514, which has a mass and luminosity a bit greater than that of the Sun, is surrounded by an extraordinary number of hot dust particles. This could be evidence for planet formation around HD 23514.
== Videos ==
== Star chart ==
== See also ==
Australian Aboriginal astronomy § Seven Sisters
Stozhary
Matrikas
The Seven Sages
== References ==
== External links ==
The Pleiades on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS, GALEX, IRAS, Hydrogen α, X-Ray, Astrophoto, Sky Map, Articles and images
Information on the Pleiades from SEDS |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Faesal | Shah Faesal | Shah Faesal (born 17 May 1983) is an Indian bureaucrat currently posted as Deputy Secretary in the Ministry of Culture (India) In 2010, Faesal secured Rank 1 and became the first Kashmiri to top the Indian Civil Services Examination. He tendered his resignation from the Indian bureaucracy in protest on 9 January 2019, citing "unabated killings" in Kashmir among other things, which, reportedly, was "never accepted" by the central government and he even withdrew the same later.
On 4 February 2019, Shah Faesal began his momentary political life by giving a public speech in his hometown of Kupwara. Shortly after, on 16 March 2019, he announced his own political party, the Jammu and Kashmir People's Movement (JKPM). He left politics on 10 August 2020 and quit the JKPM.
He was reinstated in the Indian Administrative Service in April 2022 by the Modi government. In August 2022, he was posted as Deputy Secretary in Union Ministry for Tourism.
== Early life and education ==
Faesal Shah was born in the Sogam area of Lolab Valley, located in Kupwara district of Jammu and Kashmir. His father, Ghulam Rasool Shah, was a teacher who was killed by militants in 2002. Shah Faesal was 19 at the time. Not only was his father a teacher, but his mother, Mubeena Shah, as well as grandfather were teachers.
He is a 2008 batch graduate of the Jhelum Valley Medical College. He holds an MBBS degree from Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS), Srinagar as well as has a master's degree in Urdu. He finished MBBS at 26 and left IAS at 35. In 2018, he was a recipient of the Fulbright-Fellowship at Harvard Kennedy School.
== Bureaucrat career ==
Before cracking Civil Service exam, Faesal was the gold medalist at Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS), Srinagar, where he studied medicine. In 2009, he became the first Kashmiri to get first place in the UPSC civil services exam, which he also cleared on his first attempt. He was also the first candidate from Kashmir in several years to be selected to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) through open merit. He was the fourth Muslim (after Independence) to top the civil service exam.
On 16 August 2012, Faisal was appointed as the assistant commissioner, revenue, of Pulwama district. He was transferred to the deputy commissioner of Bandipora district on 8 February 2014. He was transferred to the position of Director School Education, Kashmir, on 22 August 2015, replacing Showkat Ahmad Beigh. Sajad Hussain Ganai replaced him as deputy commissioner of Bandipora. Faesal on 26 March 2016 was temporarily given the additional charge of the vice-chairman of J&K Lakes and Waterways Development Authority while Sarmad Hafeez had been sent to Hyderabad for the IAS Induction Training Programme.
During his stint as director of school education, he faced a months-long shutdown of schools during the 2016 Kashmir unrest, causing him to sarcastically post on Facebook that he needed a job, which invited varied comments. Ajaz Ahmad Bhat took over the charge from him on 18 October 2016, after he had been transferred to J&K State Power Development Corporation and made its managing director. He was transferred from his post to that of an administrative secretary to the state tourism department in May 2018, however, was later asked to remain on his current post.
Faesal also received the Fulbright-Nehru Masters's Fellowship in May 2018 to study at the Harvard Kennedy School. He tendered his resignation from the IAS on 9 January 2019 citing "unabated killings" in Kashmir among other things, through a Facebook post. He was also generally disillusioned with his role as a bureaucrat, which included jailing people and imposing curfews.
In April 2022, he presented an application for withdrawing his resignation & was reinstated in the service, and in August 2022, he was posted as Deputy Secretary in Union Ministry for Tourism.
== Political career ==
On 4 February 2019, Faesal Shah began his political life by giving a public speech in his hometown of Kupwara. During this speech he compared his experience in the IAS with feeling like having "spent the last 10 years in a jail." On 25 February 2019, he announced during a live debate on NDTV that he is launching his own political party and has already applied to the Election Commission regarding this. On 16 March 2019, he announced through Facebook that he would be launching his own political party on 17 March, the Jammu & Kashmir Peoples' Movement (JKPM), at a football ground in Rajbagh area, Srinagar.
Faesal formed the JKPM on 21 March and stated it would provide a political platform to the youth as well as veteran politicians with a clean image. He later announced that it will not contest the 2019 Indian general election to focus more on outreach, and encouraged people to vote for the right politicians. He also said the party would focus on safeguarding Article 370 and Article 35A of the Constitution of India. On 18 June, he and Engineer Rashid announced that their parties, JKPM and Awami Ittehad Party, would be entering into a political alliance called Peoples United Front. The main points of its agenda were the resolution of the Kashmir dispute based on the wishes of Kashmiris, peaceful relations between India and Pakistan, protecting the state's special status, return of Kashmiri Pandits and release of all politicians from detention.
Faesal was one of the political leaders detained after the revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir. As he tried to take a flight to Turkey on 14 August 2019, he was stopped and later taken into preventive detention. He was first kept at the Centaur Hotel in Srinagar and then shifted to the MLA hostel where he spent the next six months.
Faesal later in August filed a habeas corpus plea before the Delhi High Court, stating that he was going to the United States to complete his studies, but had been illegally detailed. The government of the union territory stated that he had no student visa, and upon being brought to Srinagar Airport, provoked the people to protest against India. It additionally claimed that he had refused to guarantee that he won't create any such situation again if released. The plea was withdrawn by his wife after she met him in September 2019.
He was booked under the Public Safety Act in February 2020, being accused of subtly advocating separatism. The detention under PSA was extended by three months on 13 May. On 3 June, PSA against Faesal was revoked and he was released after a detention of 10 months. He was, however, put under house arrest on the very next day.
Faesal has also written for the Greater Kashmir newspaper and was a part of Jammu & Kashmir's Right to Information movement along with Dr. Raja Muzaffar Bhat.
JKPM announced on 10 August 2020 that Faisal had told them he couldn't remain in politics any longer and asked to be relieved from being a member of the party, which they acceded to. Chairman Javaid Mustafa Mir was chosen as his replacement.
== Controversies ==
Faesal Shah wrote bold social media posts even as a bureaucrat. In July 2018, when he was a civil servant, he had posted a tweet, writing:
"Population +patriarchy +illiteracy +alcohol +porn +technology +anarchy = rapistan".
People had said his tweet was in relation to India, but he had later clarified it was not. However disciplinary action was taken by the Jammu and Kashmir government as well as the central government's Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions and the inquiry was still going on before his resignation.
During the 2016 Kashmir unrest, Faesal had urged the national media not to use his pictures for drawing a comparison with Burhan Wani, a Kashmiri militant and commander of Hizbul Mujahideen. During this episode he had threatened to resign through a Facebook post if such primetime propaganda did not stop. In 2019, Hizbul Mujahideen circulated a poster warning people about Shah Faesal.
In February 2019, the Ministry of Home Affairs withdrew the security cover of 155 people in Jammu and Kashmir, and this included Shah Faesal, who had until then had been provided security as a bureaucrat.
On 14 August 2019 he was detained while flying out of IGI Airport to Turkey and sent back to Kashmir.
== Views ==
Apart from the Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan, Shah Faesal has also named Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal as a role model. Mani Shankar Aiyar, another Indian bureaucrat turned politician who went on to become a Union Minister, wrote an article on Shah Faesal called "Kashmir's Arvind Kejriwal".
On 3 March 2019, Shah Faesal recommended the Nobel Peace Prize for Imran Khan for "saving South Asia from a nuclear catastrophe."
Faesal, during a talk in New Delhi in February 2019 at the India International Center, said that Kashmir is like a "High Altitude Graveyard". He has suggested ways forward including "humanising the discourse" and advising people not to see the Kashmir issue as a mere "law and order problem".
On 5 March 2021, taking to Twitter, Faesal wrote, "Friends let’s sort it out for once. I have always been pro-India. But now I am single-mindedly, shamelessly, helplessly and unapologetically pro-India. I stick to my side. It is a long story and I have to tell this story one day. But this is how it is going to be. Peace."
== Personal life ==
Shah Faesal is married to Iram Rashid, an officer of KAS, and has a son named Jami Faesal.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Khalid Shah (2019). Shah Faesal and the paradox of Kashmir. Observer Research Foundation
Murtaza Shibli (2019). Shah Faesal: A Forged Journey. Countercurrents.org
== External links ==
Shah Faesal on Facebook |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_58 | Studio 58 | Studio 58 is the professional theatre training school at Langara College in Vancouver, British Columbia. The school offers a three-year diploma program for acting students and a three-year diploma program for production students. It is regarded as one of the top theatre schools in Canada and the only conservatory-style theatre training program in Western Canada.
The school auditions hundreds of people across Canada with sixteen accepted per semester (there are intakes in both fall and spring). Studio 58 operates a small theatre and presents 4 full-length productions annually as well as a smaller presentation of a student devised show, called Risky Nights. Professional directors and designers are hired to work on each production, and occasionally guest performing artists. Studio 58 productions are open to the public and reviewed by the Vancouver media.
== History ==
The school was founded in 1965 as a small theatre arts course first held on the King Edward Campus of Vancouver City College, now Vancouver Community College. Led by Antony Holland, the course grew into a full program. In 1970 the program moved to new facilities on the Langara Campus and became known as Studio 58, named after the room number of the original theatre space.
In 1985 Holland left and was replaced as Artistic Director by Kathryn Shaw, who retired in 2020 and was replaced by Courtenay Dobbie, who died in 2024 and was replaced by Interim Co-Artistic Directors Raes Calvert and Shizuka Kai.Shizuka Kai was replaced by Interim Co-Artistic Director Stephanie Elgersma.
Studio 58's 2015/2016 season celebrated their 50th anniversary.
== Notable staff ==
Aaron Bushkowsky - Playwriting
Andrew McNee - Acting
Kathryn Shaw - Former Artistic Director; Acting
== Notable alumni ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Studio 58 Website Langara College
[1] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_national_cricket_team | India national cricket team | The India men's national cricket team represents India in international cricket. It is governed by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and is a full member nation of the International Cricket Council with Test, One Day International and Twenty20 International status. India are the current holders of the T20 World Cup, the ICC Champions Trophy and the Asia Cup.
The team has played 598 Test matches, winning 185, losing 188, with 224 draws and 1 tie. As of August 2025, India is ranked fourth in the ICC Men's Test Team Rankings with 107 rating points. India have played in two of the three World Test Championship finals, finishing runners-up in 2021 and 2023.
The team has played 1,072 ODI matches, winning 570, losing 448, tying 10 and with 44 ending in a no-result. As of September 2025, India is ranked first in the ICC Men's ODI Team Rankings with 124 rating points. India have appeared in the World Cup final four times and have won the title twice. India have also won the Champions Trophy three times.
The team has played 261 Twenty20 International matches, winning 173, losing 73, tying 7 and with 8 ending in a no-result. As of August 2025, India is ranked first in the ICC Men's T20I Team Rankings with 271 rating points. India have won the T20 World Cup twice.
== History ==
=== Early history (1700s–1918) ===
The British first brought cricket to India in the early 1700s, with the first cricket match played in 1721. It was played and adopted by Kolis of Gujarat who were sea pirates and outlaws who often looted the British ships. The East India Company tried to manage the Kolis through cricket and were successful, In 1848, the Parsi community in Mumbai formed the Oriental Cricket Club, the first cricket club to be established by Indians. After slow beginnings, the Europeans eventually invited the Parsis to play a match in 1877. By 1912, the Parsis, Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims of Bombay played a quadrangular tournament with the Europeans every year. In the early 1900s, some Indians went on to play for the England cricket team. Some of these, such as Ranjitsinhji and Duleepsinhji were greatly appreciated by the British and their names went on to be used for the Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy – two major first-class tournaments in India. In 1911, an Indian men's cricket team, captained by Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, went on their first official tour of the British Isles, but only played English county teams and not the England cricket team.
=== Test match status (1918–1970) ===
India was invited to the International Cricket Council in 1926, and made their debut as a Test playing nation in England in 1932, led by C. K. Nayudu, who was considered the best Indian batsman at the time. The one-off Test match between the two sides was played at Lord's in London. The team was not strong in their batting at this point and went on to lose by 158 runs. India hosted its first men's Test cricket series in 1933 when England toured India. The visitors won the three-test series 2–0 with the matches held at Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Madras (now Chennai). The Indian team continued to improve throughout the 1930s and 1940s but did not achieve an international victory during this period. In the early 1940s, India did not play any men's Test cricket due to World War II. The team's first series as an independent country was in late 1947 against Don Bradman's Australia. It was also the first Test series India played which was not against England. Australia men's cricket team won the five-match series 4–0, with Bradman tormenting the Indian bowling in his final Australian summer. India subsequently played their first Test series at home not against England, but against the West Indies in 1948. West Indies won the five Test series 1–0. India recorded their first Test victory, in their 24th match, against England at Madras in 1952. Later in the same year, they won their first Test series, which was against Pakistan. They continued their improvement throughout the early 1950s with a series win against New Zealand in 1956. However, they did not win again in the remainder of the decade and lost badly to strong Australian and English sides. On 24 August 1959, India lost by an innings in the Test to complete the only 5–0 whitewash ever inflicted by England. The next decade saw India's reputation develop as a team with a strong record at home. They won their first Test series against England at home in 1961–62 and also won a home series against New Zealand. They managed to draw home series against Pakistan and Australia and another series against England. In this same period, India also won its first series outside the subcontinent, against New Zealand in 1967–68.
The key to India's bowling in the 1970s were the Indian spin quartet – Bishan Singh Bedi, E. A. S. Prasanna, B. S. Chandrasekhar and Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan. This period also saw the emergence of two of India's best ever batsmen, Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath. Indian pitches have had the tendency to support spin and the spin quartet exploited this to create collapses in opposing batting line-ups. These players were responsible for the back-to-back series wins in 1971 in the West Indies and in England, under the captaincy of Ajit Wadekar. Gavaskar scored 774 runs in the West Indian series while Dilip Sardesai's 112 played a big part in their one Test win.
=== One-day cricket and ICC Cricket World Cup success (1970–1985) ===
The advent of men's One Day International (ODI) cricket in 1971 created a new dimension in the cricket world. However, India was not considered strong in ODIs at this point and batsmen such as the captain Gavaskar were known for their defensive approach to batting. India began as a weak team in ODIs and did not qualify for the knockout stage in the first two editions of the Cricket World Cup. Gavaskar infamously blocked his way to 36 not out of 174 balls against England in the inaugural 1975 Cricket World Cup; India scored just 132 for 3 and lost by 202 runs.
In contrast, India fielded a strong team in Test matches and was particularly strong at home, where their combination of stylish batsmen and beguiling spinners were at their best. India set a then Test record in the third Test against the West Indies at Port-of-Spain in 1976, when they chased 403 to win, thanks to 112 from Viswanath. In November 1976, the team established another record by scoring 524 for 9 declared against New Zealand at Kanpur without any individual batsman scoring a century. There were six fifties, the highest being 70 by Mohinder Amarnath. This innings was only the eighth instance in Test cricket where all eleven batsmen reached double figures. India performed worse in the 1979 Cricket World Cup, failing to win a single match.
During the 1980s, India developed a more attack-minded batting line-up with stroke makers such as the wristy Mohammad Azharuddin, Krishnamachari Srikanth, Dilip Vengsarkar and all-rounders Kapil Dev and Ravi Shastri. On 25 June 1983, India won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, defeating the favourites and the two-time defending champions West Indies in the final at Lord's, owing to a strong bowling performance. Bowler Roger Binny was the leading wicket taker of the tournament with 18 scalps. In spite of this, the team performed poorly in the Test arena, including 28 consecutive Test matches without a victory. In 1984, India won the inaugural edition of the Asia Cup and in 1985, won the World Championship of Cricket in Australia.
=== Late 20th century (1985–1999) ===
Despite winning major tournaments in the first half of the 1980s, India remained a weak test team. India's Test series victory in 1986 against England remained the last Test series win by India outside the subcontinent for the next 19 years. The 1980s saw Gavaskar and Kapil Dev (India's best all-rounder to date) at the pinnacle of their careers. Gavaskar made a Test record 34 centuries as he became the first man to reach the 10,000 run mark. Kapil Dev later became the highest wicket-taker in Test cricket with 434 wickets. The period was also marked by an unstable leadership, with Gavaskar and Kapil exchanging the captaincy several times. India co-hosted the 1987 Cricket World Cup, the first instance when the tournament was hosted outside England. In the semi-finals, the India was defeated by England, after having defeated them on the same stage four years prior.
The addition of Sachin Tendulkar and Anil Kumble to the national side in 1989 and 1990 further improved the team. The following year, Javagal Srinath, India's fastest bowler since Amar Singh made his debut. Under Azharuddin, India played in the 1992 Cricket World Cup, failing to make the knockout stage in the tournament for the first time since 1979. During the 1990s, India did not win any of its 33 Tests outside the subcontinent while it won 17 out of its 30 Tests at home. Notably, India won a hat-trick of Asia Cups in 1988, 1991 and 1995.
India was eliminated by neighbours Sri Lanka on home soil at the disastrous 1996 Cricket World Cup semi-final, where rioters burnt section of the stadium at Kolkata after India were set to face a crushing defeat. Tendulkar was the tournament's leading run scorer, with this the first time an Indian being one in the tournament; and Kumble leading the wicket-taking charts. Following the World Cup, the team underwent a year of change as Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid, later to become captains of the team, made their debut in the same test at Lord's. Tendulkar replaced Azharuddin as captain in late 1996, but after a personal and team form slump, Tendulkar relinquished the captaincy and Azharuddin was reinstated at the beginning of 1998. India lost the final of the 1997 Asia Cup, losing the tournament for the first time in editions they had participated in. In order to play a bilateral ODI series against Pakistan, India split its squad into two and sent a weak squad to feature in the cricket tournament of the 1998 Commonwealth Games. As a result, India failed to progress from the group stage. In the inaugural edition of the Champions Trophy in 1998, India were knocked out in the semi-finals by West Indies.
The team had yet another disastrous World Cup in 1999. Despite Dravid being the tournament's leading run scorer, India failed to reach the knockouts. Following this, Tendulkar was again made captain, and had another poor run, losing 3–0 on a tour of Australia and then 2–0 at home to South Africa. Tendulkar resigned, vowing never to captain the team again.
=== Captaincy changes and dominance on global stage (2000–2013) ===
The team was further damaged in 2000 when former captain Azharuddin and fellow batsman Ajay Jadeja were implicated in a match-fixing scandal and given life and five-year bans respectively. This period was described by the BBC as "the Indian cricket's worst hour". However, the new core – Tendulkar, Dravid, Kumble and Ganguly – swore not to let this happen to them again, and led Indian cricket out of the dark times. The first three put aside personal ambitions to let Ganguly lead them into a new era.
The Indian team underwent major improvements under the captaincy of Ganguly and the guidance of John Wright, India's first foreign coach. Ganguly led India to the final of the 2000 Champions Trophy, India's first ICC final after the 1983 World Cup. Despite his century, India was defeated in the final by New Zealand. He was the leading run scorer in the tournament, and Venkatesh Prasad the leading wicket taker. In the Kolkata Test match, India became only the third team in the history of Test cricket to win a Test match after following on. Australian captain Steve Waugh labelled India as the "Final Frontier" because of his side's inability to win a Test series in India. In 2002, India took part in the 2002 NatWest Series against England and Sri Lanka, where after topping the table they faced hosts England in the final. India ended up chasing 326 to win what is widely regarded as one of the greatest ODI matches of all time, winning the series. On 30 September 2002, India and Sri Lanka were crowned undefeated joint-winners of the 2002 Champions Trophy after the final was rained off following 2 days of play. This was India's first ICC title after the 1983 World Cup, and India and Sri Lanka became the only countries to have won both the tournaments. Virender Sehwag was the tournament's leading run scorer.
India then went to the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa, where they reached the final, India's third consecutive ICC final, only to be beaten by Australia. Tendulkar, the player of the tournament, set the record for the most runs scored in a single world cup. A convincing ODI series win in Pakistan in early 2006, following a loss in the Test series, gave India the world record of 17 successive ODI victories while batting second. India had poor performances at the Champions Trophies in 2004 and 2006, and most notably at the 2007 Cricket World Cup under Dravid's leadership which led to significant changes in the team's structure. India found a new core in players like MS Dhoni, Yuvraj Singh, Harbhajan Singh and Zaheer Khan.
In 2007, Dhoni was made captain in limited-overs. On 24 September 2007, India won the inaugural edition of the Men's T20 World Cup held in South Africa, beating Pakistan by five runs in the final. This victory was a dominant factor in the introduction of the Indian Premier League. Despite this, India failed to reach the knockout stages of the 2009 Champions Trophy and the 2009 and 2010 editions of the T20 World Cup.
India won the 2010 Asia Cup, winning the tournament for the first time in fifteen years. Tendulkar became the first cricketer to score 200 in ODIs. On 2 April 2011, India won the 2011 Cricket World Cup by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, thus becoming the third team after West Indies and Australia to win the World Cup twice. India also became the first team to win the World Cup on home soil. This was Tendulkar's last of six world cups, having equalled Javed Miandads record of having played in the most editions of the tournament. Zaheer Khan was the joint-highest wicket taker of the tournament. Sehwag, Yuvraj and Harbhajan became the first set of players to win all three ICC white-ball tournaments. Later that year, Sehwag broke Tendulkar's record of having the highest individual score in ODIs. The following year, the team failed to reach the knockouts for the 2012 T20 World Cup, for the third time in a row.
On 19 June 2013, India won the 2013 Champions Trophy undefeated after overcoming England in the rain-affected final and Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three ICC trophies in white-ball cricket, namely the Cricket World Cup, T20 World Cup and Champions Trophy. Player of the tournament Shikhar Dhawan was the leading run scorer, and won the 'golden bat'. Ravindra Jadeja won the 'golden ball' for being the highest wicket-taker.
=== ICC tournament drought (2014–2023) ===
In the 2014 T20 World Cup hosted in Bangladesh, India narrowly missed out on another ICC trophy by losing to Sri Lanka in the final. Player of the tournament Kohli was the leading run scorer, having set the record for most runs scored in a single edition of the tournament (319). In late 2014, Dhoni stepped down as captain in tests to focus on white-ball cricket, paving way for Kohli, the vice-captain, to succeed him. In a match against Sri Lanka, Rohit overtook Sehwag to become the leading run-scorer in an inning in ODIs (264), being the first player to cross 250.
India was knocked out of the 2015 Cricket World Cup in the semi-final to eventual winners Australia. With the inclusion of pacer Jasprit Bumrah and all-rounder Hardik Pandya in the squad, India began 2016 by winning the 2016 Asia Cup, remaining unbeaten throughout the tournament. The team were favourites to win the 2016 T20 World Cup, which was being held at home, but lost in the semi-final to eventual champions West Indies. Kohli became the first player to be player of the tournament in back to back editions of a major cricket tournament.
After Dhoni stepped down from white-ball captaincy, Kohli stepped in as full-time captain across formats. India lost to arch rivals Pakistan in the final of the 2017 Champions Trophy by 180 runs, the worst defeat in the final of an ICC ODI tournament. Dhawan again won the 'golden bat' after being the leading run scorer, becoming the first to win the award twice.
In 2018, India won a test series in Australia for the first time in their history, under Kohli and coach Shastri. After winning the 2018 Asia Cup and the 2018 Nidahas Trophy, the team's next major global tournament was the 2019 Cricket World Cup where they made the semi-finals but lost to New Zealand by 18 runs. After Dhoni's retirement, KL Rahul took over as wicket-keeper and became a team regular. Vice-captain Rohit was the highest run-scorer of the tournament with 648 runs, and set the record for most centuries scored in a tournament (5). Following being dismissed for 36 in a test against Australia, India managed to turn-around and again win a series in Australia for the second time.
India played the first ever final of the World Test Championship in 2021 against New Zealand in which they lost by eight wickets. The team had a disappointing performance at the 2021 T20 World Cup, failing to reach the knockout stage of an ICC tournament for the first time since 2012 and also notably losing to rivals Pakistan by 10 wickets, their first defeat against the team in a World Cup match. After this tournament, Kohli was sacked as captain, being succeeded by Rohit across formats; and Dravid replacing Shastri as coach. They qualified for the semi-finals in the 2022 T20 World Cup, but lost to England by ten wickets. India played the final of the 2023 World Test Championship against Australia in which they lost by 209 runs. Following these losses, Rohit notably mentioned to Dinesh Karthik that "something needed to change", and he changed to having a more aggressive batting style as well as directing a more targeting batting approach in the team.
India went on to win the 2023 Asia Cup by notably dismissing Sri Lanka for 50 runs in the final and winning by ten wickets. India also secured the gold medal at the 2022 Asian games held in 2023 due to higher seeding after the final against Afghanistan was washed out. They were deemed favourites to win the home 2023 Cricket World Cup. Rohit broke Tendulkar's record of the most World Cup centuries in the match against Afghanistan. Tendulkar conceded more records to Kohli, who overtook him to score the most centuries in ODI cricket; as well as for scoring the most runs in a single edition of the tournament (765). India was ultimately defeated in the final by Australia. Shami was the leading wicket taker of the tournament.
=== Resurgence (2024–present) ===
In January, India played the longest-ever T20i in a match against Afghanistan, which got extended to two rounds of super overs in an eventual Indian triumph. On 29 June 2024, India won the 2024 T20 World Cup by defeating South Africa in the final. They became the third team after England and West Indies to win the cup twice and also the first team to win the tournament undefeated. Arshdeep Singh (cricketer) was the joint-highest wicket taker at 17 wickets, while Bumrah became the player of the tournament. This was Rohit's last of nine T20 World Cups, having participated in every edition up until 2024 alongside Shakib al Hasan of Bangladesh. On 9 March 2025, India won the 2025 Champions Trophy undefeated. The team defeated New Zealand in the final, defeating them for the first time at this stage in an ICC tournament. This was India's third consecutive final of the tournament, as well as fourth consecutive ICC final. India became the first team to win the tournament thrice, with Rohit and Kohli being the only Indians to win four ICC tournaments.
Despite the successes in ODIs and T20Is, India had a poor season of test cricket in 2024. Following the series win against England and Bangladesh, India lost 3–0 to New Zealand in a home series, followed by failing to win a hat-trick of a test series in Australia. Due to these losses, India missed out on qualifying for the 2025 World Test Championship final, although the team was in a comfortable position to qualify prior to the 2 series, thereby failing to reach the final for the first time.
In the 2025 Anderson–Tendulkar Trophy, India drew the 5 match test series 2–2 with England. Later in the year, India comfortably won 2–0 at home against the West Indies, and then lost 0–2 at home against South Africa.
== Gallery ==
== Governing body ==
The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) is the governing body for the Indian cricket team and first-class cricket in India. The Board has been operating since 1929 and represents India at the International Cricket Council (ICC). Its headquarters is situated in the 'Cricket centre' at Churchgate in Mumbai, Maharashtra. Amongst the richest sporting organisations in the world, it sold media rights for India's matches from 2006 to 2010 for $612,000,000. Roger Binny is present BCCI president and Devajit Saikia is secretary.
The International Cricket Council determines India's upcoming matches through its future tours program. However, the BCCI, with its influential financial position in the cricketing world, has often challenged the ICC's program and called for more series between India, Australia and England which are more likely to earn more revenue as opposed to tours with Bangladesh or Zimbabwe. In the past, the BCCI has also come into conflict with the ICC regarding sponsorships.
=== Selection committee ===
Selection for the Indian cricket team occurs through the BCCI's zonal selection policy, where each of the five zones is represented by one selector and one of the members nominated by BCCI as the chairman of the selection committee. This has sometimes led to controversy as to whether these selectors are biased towards their zones.
Until 18 November 2022, Chetan Sharma was the chief selector and Debashish Mohanty, Harvinder Singh and Sunil Joshi were members. The entire panel was sacked after the unsuccessful performance of the team in 2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. On 7 January 2023, Sharma was again appointed as the chief selector along with Shiv Sunder Das, Subroto Banerjee, Salil Ankola, and Sridharan Sharath. On 17 February 2023, Sharma resigned from his post after a sting operation by a private news channel saw him make several loose comments on the Indian team with Shiv Sunder Das replacing him and acting as an interim chief selector. On 4 July 2023, Ajit Agarkar was appointed as the new chief selector and replaced Sharma. He joined Das, Banerjee, Ankola and Sharath on the selection committee.
== Team colours ==
India plays its Test cricket matches with the traditional cricket whites with navy blue caps and helmets. The uniforms worn in limited-overs matches have different shades of blue for ODIs and T20Is, with sometimes a splash of the colours that are present in the Indian flag.
During the 1992 and 1999 Cricket World Cups, the Indian team's kit was sponsored by ISC and Asics respectively, but had been without an official kit sponsor until 2001. With no official kit sponsor for the Indian team, Omtex manufactured the shirts and pants for the team, while some players chose to wear pants provided to them by their individual sponsors like Adidas and Reebok until December 2005. In December 2005, Nike outbid its competitors Adidas and Reebok, and acquired the contract for five years which started in January 2006 ahead of Indian team's tour to Pakistan. Nike was a long time kit supplier to team India with two extensions for a period of five years each time; in 2011 and 2016 respectively.
After Nike ended its contract in September 2020, MPL Sports Apparel & Accessories, a subsidiary of online gaming platform Mobile Premier League replaced Nike as the kit manufacturer in November 2020 ahead of Indian team's tour to Australia, which was supposed to run until December 2023.
In November 2022, MPL Sports decided to exit the deal before the end of their contract and hand over their rights to Kewal Kiran Clothing Limited (KKCL). In January 2023, MPL appointed Kewal Kiran Clothing Limited (KKCL) and Killer Jeans (a brand owned by KKCL) as interim sponsors until May 2023. In February 2023, it was announced that Adidas will begin a five-year sponsorship deal in June 2023 ahead of ICC World Test Championship final, replacing KKCL. In May 2023, BCCI officially announced Adidas as their kit sponsor for the next five years running until March 2028.
== Sponsorship ==
=== Team sponsorship ===
Apollo Tyres is the new
official sponsor of Indian cricket team from 16 September 2025. Apollo Tyres first international mileage will be in the two-match home Test series against the West Indies, which begins on October 2. Sponsorship period is set to run until 2027. Dream11 (Sporta Technologies Pvt. Ltd.) was announced as the sponsor for the team on 1 July 2023. Their sponsorship was supposed to run until 31 March 2026 for a period of three years, but ended prematurely in August 2025, when Dream11 pulled out following the passage of the Online Gaming Act. Previously, Byju's was the sponsor for the Indian team from 5 September 2019 until 31 March 2023, after Oppo handed over the rights to them. Oppo's sponsorship was supposed to run from 2017 until 2022, but they handed over to Byju's. On 7 March 2022, Byju's extended its sponsorship for one year. Previously, the Indian team has been sponsored by Byju's from September 2019 until March 2023, Oppo from May 2017 until August 2019, Star India from January 2014 until March 2017, Sahara India Pariwar from June 2001 until December 2013 and ITC Limited (with Wills and ITC Hotels brands) from June 1993 until May 2001.
=== Official partners ===
On 9 January 2024, BCCI announced Campa and Atomberg Technologies as official partners for its domestic & international season during 2024–26. On 20 September 2023, BCCI announced SBI Life as the official partner for its domestic & international season during 2023–26. In August 2023, IDFC First Bank replaced Mastercard as the current title sponsor for all international and domestic matches played in India for the 2023–26 season. The title sponsorship was initially given to Paytm for all matches played between 2015 and 2023 but they handed over to Mastercard in 2022. On 30 August 2019, following the conclusion of the expression of interest process for official partners' rights, the BCCI announced that Sporta Technologies Pvt. Ltd. (Dream11), LafargeHolcim (ACC Cements, and Ambuja Cements) and Hyundai Motors India Ltd. have acquired the official partners' rights for the BCCI International and Domestic matches during 2019–2023. Disney Star and Airtel have been title sponsors previously.
=== Official broadcasters ===
JioHotstar is the official broadcaster until March 2028 for all the men's international and domestic matches played in India. Star Sports telecasts the international and domestic matches on TV, while it is live streamed on JioHotstar as OTT (over the top) platform.
== Fixtures ==
== International grounds ==
There are numerous world-renowned cricket stadiums located in India. Most grounds are under the administration of various state cricket boards as opposed to being under the control of the BCCI. The Bombay Gymkhana Ground was the first ground in India to host a full-scale cricket match featuring an Indian cricket team. This was between the Parsis and the Europeans in 1877. The first stadium to host a Test match in India was also the Gymkhana Ground in Mumbai in 1933, the only Test it ever hosted. The second and third Tests in the 1933 series were hosted at the Eden Gardens in Kolkata and the Chepauk in Chennai. The Arun Jaitley Cricket Stadium in Delhi was the first stadium to host a Test match after independence, a draw against the West Indies in 1948, the first of a five-Test series. There are 21 stadiums in India that have hosted at least one official Test match. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of world-class cricket stadiums in India.
India currently has the world's largest cricket stadium (which is also the world's largest stadium), The Narendra Modi Stadium, located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. It is currently recognised as one of the world's premier cricket venues and has hosted several high-profile matches. Eden Gardens has hosted the most Tests, and also has the third-largest seating capacity of any cricket stadium in the world. Founded in 1864, it is one of the most historical stadiums in India, having hosted numerous historical matches. Other major stadiums in India include the Arun Jaitley Cricket Stadium, which was established in 1883 and hosted memorable matches including Anil Kumble's ten wickets in an innings haul against Pakistan.
The Bombay Gymkhana Ground hosted the first Test match in India which is the only Test it has hosted to date. Wankhede Stadium, established in 1974, has a capacity to hold 33,100 spectators and is currently the most popular venue in the city. It has hosted 24 Test matches. It also hosted the 2011 World Cup final, in which India became the first team to win the World Cup at home soil. It was the unofficial successor of the Brabourne Stadium, which is also located in Mumbai. Mumbai is often considered the cricketing capital of India because of its fans and the talent it produces via the domestic Mumbai cricket team. Thus the stadium regularly hosts major Test matches. The M. A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chennai is also considered to be an important historical Indian cricket ground, established in the early 1900s, it was the site of India's first Test victory. The first ODI match in India was hosted by the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Stadium, Ahmedabad during the series against England on 25 November 1981. India played the first T20I match in India at the Brabourne Stadium in Mumbai on 20 October 2007 against the visiting Australian team.
== Captains ==
A total of 35 men have captained the Indian men's cricket team in at least one Test match, although only six have led the team in more than 25 matches, and six have captained the team in men's ODIs but not Tests. India's first captain of the men's cricket team was C. K. Nayudu, who led the team in four matches against England: one in England in 1932 and a series of three matches at home in 1933–34. Lala Amarnath, India's fourth captain of the men's cricket team and the first Indian to score a century in Test cricket while playing for India, led the team in its first Test match after Indian independence. He also captained the side to its first Test victory and first series win, both in a three-match series at home against Pakistan in 1952–53. From 1952 until 1961–62, India men's cricket team had a number of captains such as Vijay Hazare, Polly Umrigar and Nari Contractor.
The Nawab of Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, was the men's team's captain for 36 Test matches from 1961–62 to 1969–70, returning for another four matches against West Indies in 1974–75. In the early years of his captaincy tenure, the team was whitewashed in the West Indies, England and Australia. However, in 1967–68, Pataudi led India men's cricket team on its maiden New Zealand tour, which ended in India winning the Test series 3–1. In 1970–71, Ajit Wadekar took over the captaincy from Pataudi. Under Wadekar's captaincy, India registered its first Test series win in the West Indies and England. India played its first men's ODI in 1974, also under his captaincy. India won its first men's ODI under the captaincy of Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan in the 1975 World Cup, against East Africa. Between 1975–76 and 1978–79, Bishan Singh Bedi captained the team in 22 men's Tests and four ODIs, winning six Tests and one ODI.
Sunil Gavaskar took over as men's Test and ODI captain in 1978–79, leading India in 47 Test matches and 37 ODIs, winning nine Tests and 14 ODIs. He was succeeded by Kapil Dev in the 1980s, who captained for 34 Test matches, including four victories. Kapil Dev led India to victory in 39 of his 74 ODIs in charge, including the 1983 Cricket World Cup. Kapil Dev also captained India's 2–0 Test series victory in England in 1986. The captaincy shuffled between Dev and Gavaskar, with Gavaskar captaining India to triumph in the inaugural 1984 Asia Cup and 1985 World Championship of Cricket.
Between 1987–88 and 1989–90, India had three captains in Dilip Vengsarkar, Ravi Shastri and Krishnamachari Srikkanth. Vengsarkar took over the captaincy from Kapil Dev after the 1987 World Cup. Although he started with two centuries in his first series as captain, his captaincy period was turbulent and he lost the job following a disastrous tour of the West Indies in early 1989 and a stand-off with the Indian Cricket Board (BCCI).
India has had six regular Test captains of the men's cricket team since Mohammad Azharuddin took charge in 1989. Azharuddin led the team in 47 Test matches from 1989–90 to 1998–99, winning 14, and in 174 ODIs, winning 90. He was followed by Sachin Tendulkar, who captained the men's cricket team in 25 Test matches and 73 ODIs in the late 1990s; Tendulkar was relatively unsuccessful as a captain, winning only four Test matches and 23 ODIs.
Sourav Ganguly became the regular captain of the men's team in both Tests and ODIs in 2000. He remained captain until 2005–06 and became the then most successful Indian captain, winning 21 of his 49 Test matches in charge and 76 of his 146 ODIs. Under his captaincy, India became the joint-winners of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and through three consecutive ICC finals - the Champions Trophy finals of 2000 and 2002 along with the World Cup final of 2003. India lost only three Tests at home under Ganguly and managed to draw Test series in England and Australia.
Rahul Dravid took over as men's Test captain in 2005. In 2006, he led India to its first Test series victory in the West Indies in more than 30 years.
In September 2007, MS Dhoni was named as the new captain of the men's ODI and T20I teams, after Dravid stepped down from the post. Soon after taking up the captaincy, Dhoni led the team to the inaugural T20 World Cup title. Anil Kumble was appointed Test captain in November 2007, but retired from international cricket in November 2008 after captaining in 14 Tests. Dhoni succeeded him as the men's Test captain, making him the captain in all formats. Under the captaincy of Dhoni, the Indian men's cricket team held the number one position in the ICC Men's Test Team Rankings for 21 months (from November 2009 to August 2011), and set a national record for most back-to-back ODI wins (nine straight wins). Dhoni also led the team to victory in 2011 Cricket World Cup and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Thus, Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies. Dhoni also took the team to the final of the 2014 T20 World Cup. However, the team performed poorly in away Tests from 2011 to 2014 and Dhoni retired from Test cricket in December 2014, with Virat Kohli being named as the new Test captain. Dhoni resigned as captain of the ODI and T20I teams in January 2017 and Kohli succeeded him at the position.
Under Kohli's captaincy, India was unbeaten in 19 Test matches, starting from a 3–0 series win over New Zealand and ending with a 2–1 series win over Australia. India also had an unbeaten streak of winning nine consecutive Test series, starting with a 3–0 series win over Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka and ending with a 1–0 series win over Sri Lanka at home. India also became only the third team after Australia and South Africa to have won their most recent Test series simultaneously against all the other Test-playing nations. As per winning percentage in Test matches, Kohli was India's second most successful Test captain, behind Ajinkya Rahane, having won more than 58% of Test matches (at least two games). He took India to the 2017 Champions Trophy and 2021 World Test Championship finals.
In November 2021, Rohit Sharma was appointed as the new T20I captain of the Indian men's cricket team after Kohli resigned from the role. Kohli led India one last time in T20Is at the T20 World Cup 2021. Under Rohit Sharma's first series as permanent captaincy, India whitewashed New Zealand at home in the T20I series 3–0. In December 2021, Sharma was also appointed as the new ODI captain of the Indian men's cricket team, replacing Kohli ahead of their away series against South Africa. Kohli later quit as Test captain as well, after their Test series loss to South Africa. Sharma replaced Kohli as Test captain before the Test series against Sri Lanka and was then the full-time captain of the Indian men's cricket team. Rohit took India to the finals of the 2023 World Test Championship and 2023 World Cup, and victories in the 2024 T20 World Cup and 2025 Champions Trophy. Sharma was then succeeded as Test and ODI captain by Shubman Gill, and T20I captain by Suryakumar Yadav.
=== Most matches as captain in all formats ===
== Current squad ==
The BCCI released the list of their 2023–24 annual player contracts on 28 February 2024. Players can still be upgraded to a Grade C annual player contract on a pro-rata basis by meeting the criteria of playing a minimum of three Tests or eight ODIs or ten T20Is in the specified period (1 October 2023 to 30 September 2024).
This is a list of every active player who is contracted to BCCI, has played for India since November 2024 or was named in the recent Test, ODI or T20I squads. Uncapped players are listed in italics.
Last updated: 30 November 2025
Key
=== Pay grade ===
BCCI awards central contracts to its players, their pay is graded according to the importance of the player. Players' salaries are as follows:
Grade A+ – ₹10 crore (US$0 million)
Grade A – ₹5 crore (US$591,000)
Grade B – ₹3 crore (US$355,000)
Grade C – ₹1 crore (US$118,000)
Grade F – Fast Bowling Contracts
Match fees
Players also receive a match fee of ₹15 lakh (US$18,000) per Test match, ₹6 lakh (US$7,100) per ODI, and ₹3 lakh (US$3,500) per T20I.
== Coaching staff ==
== Tournament history ==
A red box around the year indicates tournaments played within India
=== Cricket World Cup ===
=== T20 World Cup ===
=== World Test Championship ===
=== Champions Trophy ===
=== Asia Cup ===
=== Asian Games ===
=== Commonwealth Games ===
=== Defunct tournaments ===
== Honours ==
=== ICC ===
Titles
World Test Championship
Runners-up (2): 2019–2021, 2021–2023
World Cup
Champions (2): 1983, 2011
Runners-up (2): 2003, 2023
T20 World Cup
Champions (2): 2007, 2024
Runners-up (1): 2014
Champions Trophy
Champions (3): 2002, 2013, 2025
Runners-up (2): 2000, 2017
Awards
ICC Test Championship Mace
Winners (5): 2010, 2011, 2017, 2018, 2019
ICC ODI Championship
Winners (1): 2013
=== ACC ===
Asia Cup
Champions (9): 1984, 1988, 1990–91, 1995, 2010, 2016, 2018, 2023, 2025
Runners-up (3): 1997, 2004, 2008
Asian Test Championship
Third place (1): 1998–99
=== Multi-sport events ===
Asian Games
Gold medal (1): 2022
== Statistics ==
=== Tests ===
Head-to-head record
=== One-Day Internationals ===
Head-to-head record
=== Twenty20 Internationals ===
Head-to-head record
== Individual records ==
Sachin Tendulkar, who began playing for India as a 16-year-old in 1989 and has since become the most prolific run-scorer in the history of both Test and ODI cricket, holds a large number of national batting records. He holds the record of most appearances in both Tests and ODIs, most runs in both Tests and ODIs and most centuries in Tests. The highest score by an Indian is the 319 scored by Virender Sehwag in Chennai. It is the second triple century in Test cricket by an Indian, the first being a 309 also made by Sehwag although against Pakistan. The team's highest ever score was a 759/7 against England at MA Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai in 2016, while its lowest score was 36 against Australia in 2020. In ODIs, the team's highest score is 418/5 against West Indies at Indore in 2011–12. India scored 413–5 in a match against Bermuda in 2007 World Cup which was the highest score ever in Cricket World Cup history at the time. In the same match, India set a world record of the highest winning margin in an ODI match of 257 runs.
India has also had some very strong bowling figures, with spin bowler Anil Kumble being a member of the elite group of four bowlers who have taken 600 Test wickets. In 1999, Kumble emulated Jim Laker to become the second bowler to take all ten wickets in a Test match innings when he took 10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan at the Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
Many of the Indian cricket team's records are also world records, for example Tendulkar's century tally (in Tests and ODIs) and run tally (also in both Tests and ODIs). Dhoni's 183 not out against Sri Lanka in 2005 is the world record score by a wicketkeeper in ODIs. The Indian cricket team also holds the record sequence of 17 successful run-chases in ODIs, which ended in a dramatic match against the West Indies in May 2006, which India lost by just one run.
Tendulkar was the first batsman to score 200 runs (he was unbeaten on 200 from 147 deliveries including 25 fours and 3 sixes) in a single ODI innings, on 24 February 2010 against South Africa in Gwalior. On 8 December 2011, this achievement was eclipsed by compatriot Virender Sehwag, who scored 219 runs from 149 deliveries (25 fours and 7 sixes) versus the West Indies in Indore. On 13 November 2014 the record was broken by another Indian opening batsmen, Rohit Sharma, who scored 264 runs from 173 deliveries (33 fours and 9 sixes) against Sri Lanka in Kolkata, West Bengal. In 2013, Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies- ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013.
In 2014, Kohli became the first cricketer to win back-to-back Man of the Series awards in the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 and 2016 ICC World Twenty20. Rohit is the most runs scorer in T20Is as of July 2024 and also hold joint most T20I centuries. In 2017, Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer in history to reach 250 wickets.
== Fan following ==
Owing to the massive Indian diaspora in nations like Australia, England and South Africa, a large Indian fan turnout is expected whenever India plays in each of these nations. There have been a number of official fan groups that have been formed over the years, including the Bharat Army, the Indian equivalent of the Barmy Army, that were very active in their support when India toured Australia in 2003/2004. They are known to attribute a number of popular Indian songs to the cricket team.
Fan rivalry and cross-border tension has created a strong rivalry between the Indian and the Pakistani cricket teams. In tours between these two nations, cricket visas are often employed to accommodate for the tens of thousands of fans wishing to cross the border to watch cricket. This intense fan dedication is one of the major causes of the BCCI's financial success.
However, there are downsides to having such a cricket-loving population. Many Indians hold cricket very close to their hearts and losses are not received well by the Indian population. In some cases, particularly after losses to Pakistan or after a long string of weak performances, there have been reports of player effigies being burnt in the streets and vandalism of player homes. In many cases, players have come under intense attention from the media for negative reasons, this has been considered one of the reasons for Ganguly being left out of the Indian team. At times, when a match is surrounded by controversy, it has resulted in a debacle. For example, when India slid to defeat against Australia at Brabourne Stadium in 1969, fans began throwing stones and bottles onto the field as well as setting fire to the stands, before laying siege to the Australian dressing rooms. During the same tour, a stampede occurred at Eden Gardens when tickets were oversold and India fell to another loss; the Australian team bus was later stoned with bricks. A similar event occurred during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where India were losing the semi-final to Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens. In this case, the fan behaviour was directed at the Indian team in disappointment at their lacklustre performance. An armed guard had to be placed at the home of captain Mohammad Azharuddin to ensure his safety. In 1999, a riot occurred in a Test against Pakistan at Eden Gardens after a collision with Pakistani paceman Shoaib Akhtar saw Sachin run out, forcing police to eject spectators and the game to be played in an empty stadium. In 2006, a string of low scores resulted in Tendulkar being booed by the Mumbai crowd when he got out against England.
Often, fans engage in protests regarding players if they believe that regionalism has affected selection, or because of regional partisan support for local players. In 2005, when Ganguly was dropped from the team, Ganguly's home town Kolkata erupted in protests. India later played a match against South Africa in Kolkata. The Indian team was booed by the crowd who supported South Africa instead of India in response to Ganguly's dropping. Similar regional divisions in India regarding selection have also caused protests against the team, with political activists from the regional Kalinga Kamgar Sena party in Odisha disrupting the arrival of the team in Cuttack for an ODI over the lack of a local player in the team, with one activist manhandling coach Greg Chappell. Similar treatment was handed to Sunil Gavaskar in the 1987 World Cup Semi Finals by crowds at Wankhede Stadium when he got bowled by Phillip DeFreitas.
A successful string of results, especially victories against the arch-rival Pakistan or victories in major ICC tournaments such as the World Cup, the T20 World Cup and the Champions Trophy are greeted with particular ecstasy from the Indian fans. Test rivalries include the Border–Gavaskar Trophy with Australia, the Gandhi–Mandela Trophy with South Africa, and the Anderson–Tendulkar Trophy with England.
== See also ==
Cricket in India
BCCI Awards
Glossary of cricket terms
India A cricket team
India national under-19 cricket team
India–Pakistan cricket rivalry
Australia–India cricket rivalry
National Cricket Academy (NCA)
Sport in India – Overview of sports in India
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
=== Bibliography ===
Majumdar, Boria (2018). Eleven Gods and a Billion Indians: The On and Off the Field Story of Cricket in India and Beyond. New Delhi: Simon & Schuster India. ISBN 978-93-86797-18-6.
Guha, Ramachandra (2020). The Commonwealth of Cricket. Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-93-90327-28-7.
Guha, Ramachandra (2003). A Corner of a Foreign Field. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-49117-4.
Sen, Ronojoy (2015). Nation at Play. Contemporary Asia in the World. ISBN 978-0-231-16490-0.
=== Cited sources ===
"Chronology of Important Sports Events — West Bengal". wbsportsandyouth.gov.in. Kolkata: Government of West Bengal – Department of youth services and sports. 2017. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
"Board of Control for Cricket in India — History of cricket in India". icc-cricket.com. International Cricket Council. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina_Republican_Party | South Carolina Republican Party | The South Carolina Republican Party (SCGOP) is the state affiliate of the national Republican Party in South Carolina. It is one of two major political parties in the state, along with the South Carolina Democratic Party, and is the dominant party. Incumbent governor Henry McMaster, as well as senators Tim Scott and Lindsey Graham, are members of the Republican party. Graham has served since January 3, 2003, having been elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2008, 2014, and 2020; Tim Scott was appointed in 2013 by then-governor Nikki Haley, who is also a Republican.
Since 2003, every governor of South Carolina has been a Republican. Additionally, Republicans hold a supermajority in both the South Carolina Senate and South Carolina House of Representatives. In 2020, District 1, which was represented by Democrat Joe Cunningham, was won by Republican Nancy Mace; the party now represents six out of seven of the state's congressional districts.
== History ==
In 1868, legislation prohibition racial discrimination in public accommodations was passed by the state house, but failed in the state senate. Benjamin F. Randolph, a state legislator and chair of the party, and another legislator were murdered that year.
The Republican Party of the United States was founded during the 1850s in response to the political tensions that revolved around slavery and came to define that era. The Republican Party's goal was to abolish slavery and preserve the hierarchy of the national government over that of the states. The ensuing years were marked by an increasing divide between northern and southern states that eventually boiled over when the state of South Carolina seceded from the Union in 1860. Other southern states followed and the American Civil War began in 1861 between the Union and the newly minted Confederacy. In 1865, the conflict ended with the Union as the victor. Following this, the southern and formerly Confederate states were gradually reintroduced back into the Union of the United States with a process that came to be called the Reconstruction Era of the United States. Northern Republicans and freed slaves came to control the politics of South Carolina during this era, as Confederates were temporarily disenfranchised. The planter elite struggled to adapt to a free labor system. The Republican Party of South Carolina was established during this time and controlled the politics of South Carolina throughout Reconstruction. Democrats mounted increasing violence and fraud at elections from 1868 through the period, in an effort to suppress the black and Republican vote. In 1874, the paramilitary Red Shirts arose as a paramilitary group working openly to disrupt Republican meetings, suppress black voting and return Democrats to power. The most violence occurred in counties where blacks were a strong minority, as Democrats tried to reduce their challenge.
White Democrats led by Wade Hampton won the governorship and control of the state legislature in 1876. They dominated the state government for decades, controlling most candidates for governor and for national office. Freedmen were still able to elect Republicans to local office in some counties, giving them a say in daily government.
Following a brief coalition between the Republican Party and Populists in the late 19th century, the South Carolina legislature followed others in the South in passing a constitution to disenfranchise most blacks and many poor whites. The Constitution of 1895 was a departure from the Reconstruction Constitution of 1868 that aimed to keep the majority black population from voting. However, the poll tax, property requirements and literacy requirements also keep poor whites from voting. By excluding blacks from politics, the Democrats secured their power and ended the Republican challenge. The legislatures passed such laws and constitutions from 1890 to 1908, turning most of the South into a one-party region dominated by Democrats. The Solid South disenfranchised large portions of its states' populations. The exclusion of freedmen and their descendants from the political system resulted in the South Carolina Republican Party with very little influence within the state for generations after. This control would last until the second half of the twentieth century.
In the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement intensified in the South, and in early July 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed. The Act, passed with the support of Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson, ended legal segregation in public accommodations.
On September 16, 1964, Senator Strom Thurmond announced to a statewide television audience that he had switched parties from the Democrats to the Republicans, saying the Democratic "party of our fathers is dead." He said it had "forsaken the people to become the party of minority groups, power-hungry union leaders, political bosses, and businessmen looking for government contracts and favors". The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed the following year, restoring the ability of minorities to vote through federal oversight of registration and electoral processes.
In 1967, Carolyn Frederick was elected to represent House District 22 in Greenville County. Frederick the first Republican woman elected to the House.
In 1974, James B. Edwards became the first Republican to be elected the Governor of South Carolina since Reconstruction. Since the late 20th century, South Carolina's voters have increasingly supported Republican candidates for local, state and national offices.
In 2010, Republican Mick Mulvaney was elected as the representative of South Carolina's 5th congressional district, the first Republican to represent that district since Robert Smalls, the party's co-founder, last held the seat in 1883. The election of Mulvaney was the first break in 100+ years of Democratic control in the State Legislature.
Also in 2010, Republican Nikki Haley was elected the first female Governor of South Carolina and the second Indian-American, after fellow Republican Bobby Jindal, to serve as a governor in the United States.
South Carolina's January 21, 2012 Republican Presidential Preference Primary was the party's then-largest ever, drawing more than 600,000 voters. Newt Gingrich won the race with 40.4% of the vote. The highly contested election set multiple state records for a presidential primary cycle; candidates held five presidential debates and spent $13.2 million in television ads. Governor Haley, mentioned above, appointed Republic Tim Scott to the U.S. Senate. Scott is the first African-American senator from South Carolina and the first from the South since 1881.
The state's February 20, 2016 Republican Presidential Preference Primary saw a new turnout record of over 740,000 voters. Donald Trump won the primary with 32.5% of the vote.
As President Donald Trump faced no significant primary opposition, the SCGOP cancelled the 2020 Republican Presidential Preference Primary.
In the 2024 Republican primary election, President Trump received the most votes in the history of the state's primaries.
== Leadership ==
The party is led by an elected group of state party officers, the South Carolina Republican Party State Executive Committee and paid staff. The state party organization is headquartered in Columbia, South Carolina.
The current state party officers are:
Chairman: Drew McKissick
National Committeewoman: Cindy Costa
National Committeeman: Glenn McCall
First Vice Chairman: Cindy Risher
Second Vice Chairman: Leon Winn
Third Vice Chairman: Tyler Griffin
Treasurer and Comptroller: Sharon Thomson
Recording Secretary: Cindy Risher
Parliamentarian: Nate Leupp
Executive Director: Hope Walker
First Congressional District Chairman: Peggy Bangle
Second Congressional District Chairman: Craig Caldwell
Third Congressional District Chairman: Susan Aiken
Fourth Congressional District Chairman: Beverly Owensby
Fifth Congressional District Chairman: Freddie Gault
Sixth Congressional District Chairman: Sandra Bryan
Seventh Congressional District Chairman: Jerry Rovner
South Carolina Teenage Republicans Chairman: Patton Byars
South Carolina College Republicans Chairman: Emma Scott
South Carolina Federation of Republican Women President: Beverly Owensby
South Carolina Young Republicans Chairman: Sarah Jane Walker
== Current elected officials ==
The South Carolina Republican Party controls all nine of the nine statewide offices and holds large majorities in the South Carolina Senate and the South Carolina House of Representatives. Republicans also hold both of the state's U.S. Senate seats and six of the state's seven U.S. House of Representatives seats.
In 2012, Republican Tom Rice became the representative of South Carolina's 7th congressional district, newly re-established because of population gains. He is the first person to represent that district since it was eliminated in 1933.
In a 2013 special election, former Republican Governor Mark Sanford was elected as the representative of South Carolina's 1st congressional district, returning to the seat he previously held from 1995 to 2001.
=== Members of Congress ===
==== U.S. Senate ====
==== U.S. House of Representatives ====
== Important past elected officials ==
Strom Thurmond (December 5, 1902 – June 26, 2003) was a United States Senator from South Carolina from 1954 to 2003. Thurmond served as a city and county attorney before he was elected to the South Carolina state senate in 1932. Following completion of military duty during World War II, Thurmond served as the governor of South Carolina from 1947 to 1951. He was a member of the Democratic Party for a decade; it dominated all southern states until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s. With other Dixiecrats, he resisted changes for social justice after the US Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. In 1964 he switched to the Republican Party. He has held the records for longest senate career, oldest voting member of the Senate in history, the only Senator to reach 100 years of age while in office, the record for longest filibuster in senate history at 24 hours and 18 minutes, and the longest-serving Dean of the United States Senate, after maintaining the position for 14 years.
Robert Smalls (April 5, 1839- February 23, 1915), one of the founders of the South Carolina Republican Party, was an African-American slave in South Carolina who escaped to become a free man, war hero, and a politician. Born into slavery, Smalls was taken by his masters to Charleston, South Carolina in 1851; there he worked at several different labor jobs. At the onset of the Civil War in 1861, Smalls was hired to work aboard a steamship named Planter, which served as an armed transport for the Confederate Army carrying guns and ammunition. On May 13, 1862, he and other black crew aboard the Planter seized control of the ship and successfully turned it and its cargo over to the Union Army. Smalls gained heroic status and was appointed as the first African-American captain of a U. S. military vessel. After the war, Smalls entered politics and joined the Republican Party. He was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives from 1868 to 1870 and the South Carolina State Senate from 1870 to 1874. Next, he was elected to three terms in the US House of Representatives from South Carolina's 5th congressional district. He was the last Republican to be elected from that district until 2010, as Democrats suppressed black voting and disenfranchised blacks at the turn of the century, fatally weakening the Republican Party.
== List of Chairs ==
Robert B. Elliott (1874–80)
Edmund William McGregor Mackey (1880–84)
Thomas E. Miller (1884)
Rev. R. W. Memminger (1892)
Joseph W. Tolbert (1925–31)
D. A. Gardner (1932–36)
J. Bates Gerald (1938–50)
D. F. Merrill (1950–1956)
David Dows (1956–58)
Gregory D. Shorey, Jr. (1958–61)
Robert F. Chapman (1961–63)
J. Drake Edens Jr. (1963–65)
Harry S. Dent (1965–68)
Raymond A. Harris (1968–71)
C. Kenneth Powell (1971–74)
Jesse L. Cooksey (1974–76)
Daniel I. Ross Jr. (1976–80)
Dr. George G. Graham (1980–86)
Van Hipp Jr. (1987–89)
Barry Wynn (1990–93)
Henry D. McMaster (1993–2002)
Katon Dawson (2002–09)
Karen Floyd (2009–11)
Chad Connelly (2011–13)
Matt Moore (2013–17)
Drew McKissick (2017–present)
== See also ==
Republican National Committee
South Carolina Democratic Party
List of governors of South Carolina
United States congressional delegations from South Carolina
List of United States senators from South Carolina
List of United States representatives from South Carolina
== References ==
== Works cited ==
Abbott, Richard (1986). The Republican Party and the South, 1855-1877: The First Southern Strategy. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807816809.
== External links ==
South Carolina Republican Party
South Carolina College Republicans
Republican Party of South Carolina Records at the University of South Carolina's South Carolina Political Collections |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Belafonte#:~:text=Belafonte%20was%20born%20Harold%20George,%E2%80%931988)%2C%20a%20housekeeper. | Harry Belafonte | Harry Belafonte ( BEL-ə-FON-tee; born Harold George Bellanfanti Jr.; March 1, 1927 – April 25, 2023) was an American singer, actor, and civil rights activist who popularized calypso music with international audiences in the 1950s and 1960s. Belafonte's career breakthrough album Calypso (1956) was the first million-selling LP by a single artist.
Belafonte was best known for his recordings of "Day-O (The Banana Boat Song)", "Jump in the Line (Shake, Senora)", "Jamaica Farewell", and "Mary's Boy Child". He recorded and performed in many genres, including blues, folk, gospel, show tunes, and American standards. He also starred in films such as Carmen Jones (1954), Island in the Sun (1957), Odds Against Tomorrow (1959), Buck and the Preacher (1972), and Uptown Saturday Night (1974). He made his final feature film appearance in Spike Lee's BlacKkKlansman (2018).
Harry Belafonte considered the actor, singer, and activist Paul Robeson to be a mentor. Belafonte was also a close confidant of Martin Luther King Jr. during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s and acted as the American Civil Liberties Union celebrity ambassador for juvenile justice issues. He was also a vocal critic of the policies of the George W. Bush and first Donald Trump administrations.
Belafonte won three Grammy Awards, including a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, and a Tony Award. In 1989, he received the Kennedy Center Honors. He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1994. In 2014, he received the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award at the academy's 6th Annual Governors Awards and in 2022 was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early Influence category. He is one of the few performers to have received an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony (EGOT), although he won the Oscar in a non-competitive category.
== Early life ==
Belafonte was born Harold George Bellanfanti Jr. on March 1, 1927, at Lying-in Hospital in Harlem, New York City, the son of Jamaican-born parents Harold George Bellanfanti Sr. (1900–1990), who worked as a chef, and Melvine Love (1906–1988), a housekeeper. There are disputed claims of his father's place of birth, which is also stated as Martinique. Belafonte had also a younger brother named Dennis.
His mother was the child of a Scottish Jamaican mother and an Afro-Jamaican father, and his father was the child of an Afro-Jamaican mother and a Dutch-Jewish father of Sephardic Jewish descent. Belafonte was raised Catholic and attended parochial school at St. Charles Borromeo.
From 1932 to 1940, Belafonte lived with one of his grandmothers in her native country of Jamaica, where he attended Wolmer's Schools. Upon returning to New York City, he had a brief, unsuccessful stay at George Washington High School. It was later reported that undiagnosed dyslexia and blindness in one eye contributed to his academic difficulties. After dropping out of high school, he joined the U.S. Navy and served during World War II. In the 1940s, he worked as a janitor's assistant, during which a tenant gave him, as a gratuity, two tickets to see the American Negro Theater. He fell in love with the art form and befriended Sidney Poitier, who was also financially struggling. They regularly purchased a single seat to local plays, trading places in between acts, after informing the other about the progression of the play.
At the end of the 1940s, Belafonte took classes in acting at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York City with German director Erwin Piscator alongside Marlon Brando, Tony Curtis, Walter Matthau, Bea Arthur, and Poitier, while performing with the American Negro Theater. He subsequently received a Tony Award for his participation in the Broadway revue John Murray Anderson's Almanac (1954).
He also starred in the 1955 Broadway revue 3 for Tonight with Gower Champion.
== Musical career ==
=== Early years (1949–1955) ===
Belafonte started his career in music as a club singer in New York to pay for his acting classes. The first time he appeared in front of an audience, he was backed by the Charlie Parker band, which included Charlie Parker, Max Roach, and Miles Davis, among others. He launched his recording career as a pop singer on the Roost label in 1949, but quickly developed a keen interest in folk music, learning material through the Library of Congress' American folk songs archives. Along with guitarist and friend Millard Thomas, Belafonte soon made his debut at the jazz club The Village Vanguard. In 1953, he signed a contract with RCA Victor, recording exclusively for the label until 1974. Belafonte also performed during the Rat Pack era in Las Vegas. Belafonte's first widely released single, which went on to become his "signature" audience participation song in virtually all his live performances, was "Matilda", recorded April 27, 1953. Between 1953 and 1954, he was a cast member of the Broadway musical revue and sketch comedy show John Murray Anderson's Almanac where he sang "Mark Twain", of which he was also the songwriter.
=== Rise to fame (1956–1958) ===
Following his success in the film Carmen Jones (1954), Belafonte had his breakthrough album with Calypso (1956), which became the first LP in the world to sell more than one million copies in a year. He stated that it was the first million-selling album ever in England. The album is number four on Billboard's "Top 100 Album" list for having spent 31 weeks at number 1, 58 weeks in the top ten, and 99 weeks on the U.S. chart. The album introduced American audiences to calypso music, which had originated in Trinidad and Tobago in the early 19th century, and Belafonte was dubbed the "King of Calypso", a title he wore with reservations since he had no claims to any Calypso Monarch titles.
One of the songs included in the album is "Banana Boat Song", listed as "Day-O" on the Calypso LP, which reached number five on the pop chart and featured its signature lyric "Day-O".
Many of the compositions recorded for Calypso, including "Banana Boat Song" and "Jamaica Farewell", gave songwriting credit to Irving Burgie.
In the United Kingdom, "Banana Boat Song" was released in March 1957 and spent ten weeks in the top 10 of the UK singles chart, reaching a peak of number two, and in August, "Island in the Sun" reached number three, spending 14 weeks in the top 10. In November, "Mary's Boy Child" reached number one in the UK, where it spent seven weeks.
=== Middle career (1959–1970) ===
While primarily known for calypso, Belafonte recorded in many different genres, including blues, folk, gospel, show tunes, and American standards. His second-most popular hit, which came immediately after "The Banana Boat Song", was the comedic tune "Mama Look at Bubu", also known as "Mama Look a Boo-Boo", originally recorded by Lord Melody in 1955, in which he sings humorously about misbehaving and disrespectful children. It reached number 11 on the pop chart.
In 1959, Belafonte starred in Tonight With Belafonte, a nationally televised special that featured Odetta, who sang "Water Boy" and performed a duet with Belafonte of "There's a Hole in My Bucket" that hit the national charts in 1961. Belafonte was the first Jamaican American to win an Emmy, for Revlon Revue: Tonight with Belafonte (1959). Two live albums, both recorded at Carnegie Hall in 1959 and 1960, enjoyed critical and commercial success. From his 1959 album, "Hava Nagila" became part of his regular routine and one of his signature songs. He was one of many entertainers recruited by Frank Sinatra to perform at the inaugural gala of President John F. Kennedy in 1961, which included Ella Fitzgerald and Mahalia Jackson, among others. Later that year, RCA Victor released another calypso album, Jump Up Calypso, which went on to become another million seller. During the 1960s he introduced several artists to U.S. audiences, most notably South African singer Miriam Makeba and Greek singer Nana Mouskouri. His album Midnight Special (1962) included Bob Dylan as harmonica player.
As the Beatles and other stars from Britain began to dominate the U.S. pop charts, Belafonte's commercial success diminished; 1964's Belafonte at The Greek Theatre was his last album to appear in Billboard's Top 40. His last hit single, "A Strange Song", was released in 1967 and peaked at number 5 on the adult contemporary music charts. Belafonte received Grammy Awards for the albums Swing Dat Hammer (1960) and An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba (1965), the latter of which dealt with the political plight of black South Africans under apartheid. He earned six Gold Records.
During the 1960s, Belafonte appeared on TV specials alongside artists such as Julie Andrews, Petula Clark, Lena Horne, and Nana Mouskouri. In 1967, Belafonte was the first non-classical artist to perform at the Saratoga Performing Arts Center (SPAC) in Upstate New York, soon to be followed by concerts there by the Doors, the 5th Dimension, the Who, and Janis Joplin.
From February 5 to 9, 1968, Belafonte guest hosted The Tonight Show substituting for Johnny Carson. Among his interview guests were Martin Luther King Jr. and Senator Robert F. Kennedy.
=== Later recordings and subsequent activities (1971–2017) ===
Belafonte's fifth and final calypso album, Calypso Carnival, was issued by RCA in 1971. Belafonte's recording activity slowed down after releasing his final album for RCA in 1974. From the mid-1970s to early 1980s, Belafonte spent most of his time on tour, which included concerts in Japan, Europe, and Cuba. In 1977, Columbia Records released the album Turn the World Around, with a strong focus on world music.
In 1978, he appeared as a guest star on an episode of The Muppet Show, on which he performed his signature song "Day-O". However, the episode is best known for Belafonte's rendition of the spiritual song "Turn the World Around" from the album, which he performed with specially made Muppets that resembled African tribal masks. It became one of the series' most famous performances and was reportedly Jim Henson's favorite episode. After Henson's death in May 1990, Belafonte was asked to perform the song at Henson's memorial service. "Turn the World Around" was also included in the 2005 official hymnal supplement of the Unitarian Universalist Association, Singing the Journey.
From 1979 to 1989, Belafonte served on the Royal Winnipeg Ballet's board of directors.
In December 1984, soon after Band Aid, a group of British and Irish artists, released "Do They Know It's Christmas?", Belafonte decided to create an American benefit single for African famine relief. With fundraiser Ken Kragen, he enlisted Lionel Richie, Kenny Rogers, Stevie Wonder, Quincy Jones and Michael Jackson. The song they produced and recorded, "We Are the World", brought together some of the era's best-known American musicians and is the eighth-best-selling single of all time, with physical sales in excess of 20 million copies. In 1986 the American Music Awards named "We Are the World" Song of the Year, and honored Belafonte with the Award of Appreciation.
Belafonte released his first album of original material in over a decade, Paradise in Gazankulu, in 1988, which contained ten protest songs against the South African Apartheid policy, and was his last studio album. In the same year Belafonte, as UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, attended a symposium in Harare, Zimbabwe, to focus attention on child survival and development in Southern African countries. As part of the symposium, he performed a concert for UNICEF. A Kodak video crew filmed the concert, which was released as a 60-minute concert video titled Global Carnival.
Following a lengthy recording hiatus, An Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends, a soundtrack and video of a televised concert, were released in 1997 by Island Records. The Long Road to Freedom: An Anthology of Black Music, a multi-artist project recorded by RCA during the 1960s and 1970s, was finally released by the label in 2001. Belafonte went on the Today Show to promote the album on September 11, 2001, and was interviewed by Katie Couric just minutes before the first plane hit the World Trade Center. The album was nominated for the 2002 Grammy Awards for Best Boxed Recording Package, for Best Album Notes, and for Best Historical Album.
Belafonte received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1989. He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1994 and he won a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2000. He performed sold-out concerts globally through the 1950s to the 2000s. His last concert was a benefit concert for the Atlanta Opera on October 25, 2003. In a 2007 interview, he stated that he had since retired from performing.
On January 29, 2013, Belafonte was the keynote speaker and 2013 honoree for the MLK Celebration Series at the Rhode Island School of Design. Belafonte used his career and experiences with King to speak on the role of artists as activists.
Belafonte was inducted as an honorary member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity on January 11, 2014.
In March 2014, Belafonte was awarded an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music in Boston.
In 2017, Belafonte released When Colors Come Together, an anthology of some of his earlier recordings, produced by his son David, who wrote lyrics for an updated version of "Island In The Sun", arranged by longtime Belafonte musical director Richard Cummings, and featuring Harry Belafonte's grandchildren Sarafina and Amadeus and a children's choir.
== Film career ==
=== Early film career (1953–1956) ===
Belafonte starred in numerous films. His first film role was in Bright Road (1953), in which he supported female lead Dorothy Dandridge. The two subsequently starred in Otto Preminger's hit musical Carmen Jones (1954). Ironically, Belafonte's singing in the film was dubbed by an opera singer, as was Dandridge's, both voices being deemed unsuitable for their roles.
=== Rise as an actor (1957–1959) ===
Realizing his own star power, Belafonte was subsequently able to land several (then) controversial film roles. In Island in the Sun (1957), there are hints of an affair between Belafonte's character and the character played by Joan Fontaine; the film also starred James Mason, Dandridge, Joan Collins, Michael Rennie, and John Justin. In 1959, Belafonte starred in and produced (through his company HarBel Productions) Robert Wise's Odds Against Tomorrow, in which Belafonte plays a bank robber uncomfortably teamed with a racist partner (Robert Ryan). Belafonte also co-starred with Inger Stevens in The World, the Flesh and the Devil. Belafonte was offered the role of Porgy in Preminger's Porgy and Bess, where he would have once again starred opposite Dandridge, but refused the role because he objected to its racial stereotyping; Sidney Poitier played the role instead.
=== Later film and theatre involvement (1972–2018) ===
Dissatisfied with most of the film roles offered to him during the 1960s, Belafonte concentrated on music. In the early 1970s, Belafonte appeared in more films, among which are two with Poitier: Buck and the Preacher (1972) and Uptown Saturday Night (1974). In 1984, Belafonte produced and scored the musical film Beat Street, dealing with the rise of hip-hop culture. Together with Arthur Baker, he produced the gold-certified soundtrack of the same name. Four of his songs appeared in the 1988 film Beetlejuice, including "Day-O" and "Jump in the Line (Shake, Senora)".
Belafonte next starred in a major film in the mid-1990s, appearing with John Travolta in the race-reverse drama White Man's Burden (1995); and in Robert Altman's jazz age drama Kansas City (1996), the latter of which garnered him the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor. He also starred as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States in the TV drama Swing Vote (1999). In 2006, Belafonte appeared in Bobby, Emilio Estevez's ensemble drama about the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy; he played Nelson, a friend of an employee of the Ambassador Hotel (Anthony Hopkins).
His final film appearance was in Spike Lee's Academy Award-winning BlacKkKlansman (2018) as an elderly civil rights pioneer.
== Political activism ==
Belafonte is said to have married politics and pop culture. Belafonte's political beliefs were greatly inspired by the singer, actor, and civil rights activist Paul Robeson, who mentored him. Robeson opposed not only racial prejudice in the United States but also western colonialism in Africa. Belafonte refused to perform in the American South from 1954 until 1961.
Belafonte gave the keynote address at the ACLU of Northern California's annual Bill of Rights Day Celebration in December 2007 and was awarded the Chief Justice Earl Warren Civil Liberties Award. The 2011 Sundance Film Festival featured the documentary film Sing Your Song, a biographical film focusing on Belafonte's contribution to and his leadership in the civil rights movement in America and his endeavors to promote social justice globally. In 2011, Belafonte's memoir My Song was published by Knopf Books.
=== Involvement in the civil rights movement ===
Belafonte supported the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s and was one of Martin Luther King Jr.'s confidants. After King had been arrested for his involvement in the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955, he began traveling to Northern cities to spread awareness and acquire donations for those struggling with social segregation and oppression in the South. The two met at the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, New York, in March of the following year. This interaction led to years of joint political activism and friendship. Belafonte joined King and his wife, Coretta Scott King, during the 1958 Washington D.C. Youth March for Integrated Schools, and in 1963, he backed King in conversations with Robert F. Kennedy, helping to organize the 1963 March on Washington—the site of King's famous "I Have a Dream" Speech. He provided for King's family since King earned only $8,000 ($80,000 in today's money) a year as a preacher. As with many other civil rights activists, Belafonte was blacklisted during the McCarthy era. During the 1963 Birmingham campaign, Belafonte bailed King out of the Birmingham, Alabama jail and raised $50,000 to release other civil rights protesters. He contributed to the 1961 Freedom Rides, and supported voter registration drives He later recalled, "Paul Robeson had been my first great formative influence; you might say he gave me my backbone. Martin King was the second; he nourished my soul." Throughout his career, Belafonte was an advocate for political and humanitarian causes, such as the Anti-Apartheid Movement and USA for Africa. From 1987 until his death, he was a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador.
During the Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964, Belafonte bankrolled the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, flying to Mississippi that August with Sidney Poitier and $60,000 in cash and entertaining crowds in Greenwood. In 1968, Belafonte appeared on a Petula Clark primetime television special on NBC. In the middle of a duet of On the Path of Glory, Clark smiled and briefly touched Belafonte's arm, which prompted complaints from Doyle Lott, the advertising manager of the show's sponsor, Plymouth Motors. Lott wanted to retape the segment, but Clark, who had ownership of the special, told NBC that the performance would be shown intact or she would not allow it to be aired at all. Newspapers reported the controversy, Lott was relieved of his responsibilities, and when the special aired, it attracted high ratings.
Belafonte taped an appearance on an episode of The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour to be aired on September 29, 1968, performing a controversial Mardi Gras number intercut with footage from the 1968 Democratic National Convention riots. CBS censors deleted the segment. The full unedited content was broadcast in 1993 as part of a complete Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour syndication package.
=== Involvement in the Kennedy campaign ===
In the 1960 election between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, notable Black athlete Jackie Robinson advocated his support for the Nixon campaign. His reasoning for doing so was his perception of Kennedy's championing of the Civil Rights movement as disingenuous. Because of Robinson's social impact on Black Americans, the Democratic Party was determined to find a comparable Black endorser for Kennedy's campaign. Fresh off of his win as the first Black man to receive an Emmy Award for his work on Tonight with Belafonte, Belafonte was Kennedy's pick to fill the endorsement position.
The two met in Belafonte's apartment, where Kennedy had hoped to convince Belafonte to mobilize support for his campaign. He thought to accomplish this by having Belafonte mobilize his influence amongst other Black entertainers of the era, persuading them to rally for Kennedy's presidential nomination. Unexpectedly, Belafonte was not so impressed by the candidate, sharing the same sentiments as Robinson about Kennedy's role (or lack thereof) in maintaining civil rights as an essential part of his campaign. To improve his engagement with Black America, Belafonte suggested to Kennedy that he contact Martin Luther King, making a connection to a viable source of leadership within the movement. Kennedy, though, was hesitant with this suggestion, questioning the social impact the preacher could make on the campaign. After much convincing–as Kennedy and King would later meet in June 1960–the two men negotiated a deal that if Nixon became the nominee for the Republican party, Belafonte would support Kennedy's presidential pursuits. Belafonte's endorsement of the campaign was further substantiated after both Kennedy brothers had worked to bail King out of jail in Atlanta after a sit-in, engaging with a Georgia judge.
Joining the Hollywood for Kennedy committee, Belafonte appeared in a 1960 campaign commercial for Democratic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy. Unfortunately, the commercial was shown on television for one broadcasting. Belafonte also attended and performed at Kennedy's inaugural ball. Kennedy later named Belafonte cultural advisor to the Peace Corps. After Kennedy's assassination, Belafonte supported Lyndon B. Johnson for the 1964 United States presidential election.
=== The Baldwin–Kennedy Meeting ===
Renowned author James Baldwin contacted Belafonte three years after John F. Kennedy's election. The purpose of the call was to invite Belafonte to a meeting to speak with Attorney General Robert Kennedy about the continued plight of the Black people in America. This event was known as the Baldwin-Kennedy Meeting. Belafonte met with fifteen others, including Kennedy and Baldwin, in Kennedy's Central Park South apartment on May 24, 1963.
The other members included were Thais Aubrey, David Baldwin, Edwin Berry, Kenneth Clark, Eddie Fales, Lorraine Hansberry, Lena Horne, Clarence Jones, Burke Marshall, Henry Morgenthau III, June Shagaloff, Jerome Smith, and Rip Torn.
The guests engaged in cordial political and social conversation. Later, the talk led to an investigation of the position of Black people in the Vietnam War. Offended by Kennedy's implication that Black men should serve in the war, Jerome Smith scolded the young Attorney General. Smith, a Black man and Civil Rights advocate had been severely beaten while fighting for the movement's cause, which enforced his strong resistance to Kennedy's assertion, frustrated that he should fight for a country that did not seem to want to fight for him.
A short time after the confrontation, Belafonte spoke with Kennedy. Belafonte then told him that even with the meeting's tension, he needed to be in the presence of a man like Smith to understand Black people's frustration with patriotism that Kennedy and other leaders could not understand.
=== Obama administration ===
In the 1950s, Belafonte was a supporter of the African American Students Foundation, which gave a grant to Barack Obama Sr., the late father of 44th U.S. president Barack Obama, to study at the University of Hawaii in 1959.
In 2011, Belafonte commented on the Obama administration and the role that popular opinion played in shaping its policies. "I think [Obama] plays the game that he plays because he sees no threat from evidencing concerns for the poor."
On December 9, 2012, in an interview with Al Sharpton on MSNBC, Belafonte expressed dismay that many political leaders in the United States continue to oppose Obama's policies even after his reelection: "The only thing left for Barack Obama to do is to work like a third-world dictator and just put all of these guys in jail. You're violating the American desire."
On February 1, 2013, Belafonte received the NAACP's Spingarn Medal, and in the televised ceremony, he counted Constance L. Rice among those previous recipients of the award whom he regarded highly for speaking up "to remedy the ills of the nation."
In November 2014, Belafonte attended "Revolution and Religion," a dialogue between Bob Avakian and Cornel West at Riverside Church in New York City.
=== Support for Bernie Sanders ===
In 2016, Belafonte endorsed Vermont U.S. senator Bernie Sanders in the Democratic primaries, saying: "I think he represents opportunity, I think he represents a moral imperative, I think he represents a certain kind of truth that's not often evidenced in the course of politics."
Belafonte was an honorary co-chairman of the Women's March on Washington, which took place on January 21, 2017, the day after the inauguration of Donald Trump as president.
=== The Sanders Institute ===
Belafonte was a fellow at the Sanders Institute.
== Humanitarian activism ==
=== HIV/AIDS crisis ===
In 1985, Belafonte helped organize the Grammy Award-winning song "We Are the World", a multi-artist effort to raise funds for Africa. He performed in the Live Aid concert that same year. In 1987, he received an appointment to UNICEF as a goodwill ambassador. Following his appointment, Belafonte traveled to Dakar, Senegal, where he served as chairman of the International Symposium of Artists and Intellectuals for African Children. He also helped to raise funds—along with more than 20 other artists—in the largest concert ever held in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1994, he embarked on a mission to Rwanda and launched a media campaign to raise awareness of the needs of Rwandan children.
In 2001, Belafonte visited South Africa to support the campaign against HIV/AIDS. In 2002, Africare awarded him the Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award for his efforts. In 2004, Belafonte traveled to Kenya to stress the importance of educating children in the region.
=== Prostate Cancer awareness ===
Belafonte had been involved in prostate cancer advocacy since 1996, when he was diagnosed and successfully treated for the disease. On June 27, 2006, Belafonte received the BET Humanitarian Award at the 2006 BET Awards. He was named one of nine 2006 Impact Award recipients by AARP: The Magazine.
=== Work with UNICEF ===
On October 19, 2007, Belafonte represented UNICEF on Norwegian television to support the annual telethon (TV Aksjonen) and helped raise a world record of $10 per Norwegian citizen.
=== Various Activist work ===
Belafonte was also an ambassador for the Bahamas. He sat on the board of directors of the Advancement Project. He also served on the advisory council of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation.
=== New York City Pride Parade ===
In 2013, Belafonte was named a grand marshal of the New York City Pride Parade alongside Edie Windsor and Earl Fowlkes.
== Belafonte and foreign policy ==
Belafonte was a longtime critic of U.S. foreign policy. He began making controversial political statements on the subject in the early 1980s. At various times, he made statements opposing the U.S. embargo on Cuba; praising Soviet peace initiatives; attacking the U.S. invasion of Grenada; praising the Abraham Lincoln Brigade; honoring Ethel and Julius Rosenberg; and praising Fidel Castro. Belafonte is also known for his visit to Cuba that helped ensure hip-hop's place in Cuban society. According to Geoffrey Baker's article "Hip hop, Revolucion! Nationalizing Rap in Cuba", in 1999, Belafonte met with representatives of the rap community immediately before meeting with Castro. This meeting resulted in Castro's personal approval of, and hence the government's involvement in, the incorporation of rap into his country's culture. In a 2003 interview, Belafonte reflected upon this meeting's influence:
"When I went back to Havana a couple years later, the people in the hip-hop community came to see me and we hung out for a bit. They thanked me profusely and I said, 'Why?' and they said, 'Because your little conversation with Fidel and the Minister of Culture on hip-hop led to there being a special division within the ministry and we've got our own studio.'."
Belafonte was active in the Anti-Apartheid Movement. In 1987, he was the master of ceremonies at a reception honoring African National Congress President Oliver Tambo at Roosevelt House, Hunter College, in New York City. The reception was held by the American Committee on Africa (ACOA) and The Africa Fund. He was a board member of the TransAfrica Forum and the Institute for Policy Studies.
=== Opposition to the George W. Bush administration ===
Belafonte achieved widespread attention for his political views in 2002 when he began making a series of comments about President George W. Bush, his administration and the Iraq War. During an interview with Ted Leitner for San Diego's 760 KFMB, on October 10, 2002, Belafonte referred to Malcolm X. Belafonte said:
There is an old saying, in the days of slavery. There were those slaves who lived on the plantation, and there were those slaves who lived in the house. You got the privilege of living in the house if you served the master, do exactly the way the master intended to have you serve him. That gave you privilege. Colin Powell is permitted to come into the house of the master, as long as he would serve the master, according to the master's dictates. And when Colin Powell dares to suggest something other than what the master wants to hear, he will be turned back out to pasture. And you don't hear much from those who live in the pasture.
Belafonte used the quotation to characterize former United States Secretaries of State Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice. Powell and Rice both responded, with Powell calling the remarks "unfortunate" and Rice saying: "I don't need Harry Belafonte to tell me what it means to be black."
The comment resurfaced in an interview with Amy Goodman for Democracy Now! in 2006. In January 2006, Belafonte led a delegation of activists including actor Danny Glover and activist/professor Cornel West to meet with Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez. In 2005, Chávez, an outspoken Bush critic, initiated a program to provide cheaper heating oil for poor people in several areas of the United States. Belafonte supported this initiative. He was quoted as saying, during the meeting with Chávez: "No matter what the greatest tyrant in the world, the greatest terrorist in the world, George W. Bush says, we're here to tell you: Not hundreds, not thousands, but millions of the American people support your revolution." Belafonte and Glover met again with Chávez in 2006. The comment ignited a great deal of controversy. Hillary Clinton refused to acknowledge Belafonte's presence at an awards ceremony that featured both of them. AARP, which had just named him one of its 10 Impact Award honorees 2006, released this statement following the remarks: "AARP does not condone the manner and tone which he has chosen and finds his comments completely unacceptable."
During a Martin Luther King Jr. Day speech at Duke University in 2006, Belafonte compared the American government to the hijackers of the September 11 attacks, saying: "What is the difference between that terrorist and other terrorists?" In response to criticism about his remarks, Belafonte asked: "What do you call Bush when the war he put us in to date has killed almost as many Americans as died on 9/11 and the number of Americans wounded in war is almost triple? ... By most definitions Bush can be considered a terrorist." When he was asked about his expectation of criticism for his remarks on the war in Iraq, Belafonte responded: "Bring it on. Dissent is central to any democracy."
In another interview, Belafonte remarked that while his comments may have been "hasty", he felt that the Bush administration suffered from "arrogance wedded to ignorance" and its policies around the world were "morally bankrupt." In a January 2006 speech to the annual meeting of the Arts Presenters Members Conference, Belafonte referred to "the new Gestapo of Homeland Security", saying: "You can be arrested and have no right to counsel!" During a Martin Luther King Jr. Day speech at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina in January 2006, Belafonte said that if he could choose his epitaph, it would read "Harry Belafonte, Patriot."
In 2004, he was awarded the Domestic Human Rights Award in San Francisco by Global Exchange.
== Business career ==
Belafonte liked and often visited the Caribbean island of Bonaire. He and Maurice Neme of Oranjestad, Aruba, formed a joint venture to create a luxurious private community on Bonaire named Belnem, a portmanteau of the two men's names. Construction began on June 3, 1966. The neighborhood is managed by the Bel-Nem Caribbean Development Corporation. Belafonte and Neme served as its first directors. In 2017, Belnem was home to 717 people.
== Personal life, health and death ==
Belafonte and Marguerite Byrd were married from 1948 to 1957. They had two daughters: Adrienne and Shari. They separated when Byrd was pregnant with Shari. Belafonte had an affair with actress Joan Collins during the filming of Island in the Sun. Adrienne and her daughter Rachel Blue founded the Anir Foundation/Experience, focused on humanitarian work in southern Africa.
On March 8, 1957, Belafonte married his second wife Julie Robinson (1928–2024), a dancer with the Katherine Dunham Company who was of Jewish descent. They had two children: Gina and David. After 47 years of marriage, Belafonte and Robinson divorced in 2004. In April 2008, he married Pamela Frank, a photographer.
In 1953, Belafonte was financially able to move from Washington Heights, Manhattan, "into a white neighborhood in East Elmhurst, Queens." In fall 1958, Belafonte was looking for an apartment to rent on the Upper West Side. After he had been turned away from other apartment buildings due to being black, he had his white publicist rent an apartment at 300 West End Avenue for him. When he moved in, and the owner realized that he was an African American, he was asked to leave. Belafonte not only refused, but he also used three dummy real estate companies to buy the building and converted it into a co-op, inviting his friends, both white and black, to buy apartments. He lived in the 21-room, 6-bedroom apartment for 48 years.
Belafonte had five grandchildren: Rachel and Brian through his children with Marguerite Byrd, and Maria, Sarafina and Amadeus through his children with Robinson. He had two great-grandchildren by his oldest grandson Brian. In October 1998, Belafonte contributed a letter to Liv Ullmann's book Letter to My Grandchild.
In 1996, Belafonte was diagnosed with prostate cancer and was treated for the disease. He suffered a stroke in 2004, which took away his inner-ear balance. From 2019, Belafonte's health began to decline, but he remained an active and prominent figure in the civil rights movement.
Belafonte died from congestive heart failure at his home on the Upper West Side on April 25, 2023, at the age of 96.
== Discography ==
Belafonte released 27 studio albums, 8 live albums, and 6 collaborations, and achieved critical and commercial success.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
Documentary
=== Television ===
=== Concert videos ===
En Gränslös Kväll På Operan (1966)
Don't Stop The Carnival (1985)
Global Carnival (1988)
An Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends (1997)
== Theatre ==
John Murray Anderson's Almanac (1953)
3 for Tonight (1955)
Moonbirds (1959) (producer)
Belafonte at the Palace (1959)
Asinamali! (1987) (producer)
== Accolades and legacy ==
Belafonte is an EGOT honoree, having received three Grammy Awards, an Emmy Award, a Tony Award, and, in 2014, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' 6th Annual Governors Awards.
Belafonte won an Emmy in 1960 for his performance on Revlon Revue. He was nominated four other times.
He also received various honours including the Kennedy Center Honors in 1989, the National Medal of Arts in 1994 and was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early Influence category in 2022.
Belafonte celebrated his 93rd birthday on March 1, 2020, at Harlem's Apollo Theater in a tribute event that concluded "with a thunderous audience singalong" with rapper Doug E. Fresh to 1956's "Banana Boat Song". Soon after, the New York Public Library's Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture announced it had acquired Belafonte's vast personal archive of "photographs, recordings, films, letters, artwork, clipping albums," and other content.
== See also ==
List of peace activists
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Sharlet, Jeff (2013). "Voice and Hammer". Virginia Quarterly Review (Fall 2013): 24–41. Archived from the original on January 25, 2014. Retrieved October 4, 2013.
Smith, Judith. Becoming Belafonte: Black Artist, Public Radical. University of Texas Press, 2014. ISBN 9780292729148.
Wise, James. Stars in Blue: Movie Actors in America's Sea Services. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997. ISBN 1557509379. OCLC 36824724.
== External links ==
SNCC Digital Gateway: Harry Belafonte, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside out
Harry Belafonte at IMDb
Harry Belafonte at the TCM Movie Database
Harry Belafonte at the Internet Broadway Database
Harry Belafonte at the Internet Off-Broadway Database (archived)
Harry Belafonte discography at Discogs
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EverQuest_II | EverQuest II | EverQuest II is a 3D fantasy massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) originally developed and published by Sony Online Entertainment for Microsoft Windows PCs and released in November 2004. It is the sequel to the original EverQuest, released five years earlier, and features updated graphics and more streamlined gameplay compared to the previous entry, as well as an abundance of voice acting with contributions from actors such as Christopher Lee and Heather Graham. In February 2015, Sony Online Entertainment's parent corporation Sony Computer Entertainment sold it to investment company Inception Acquisitions, where it continues to develop and publish the game under its new name, Daybreak Game Company.
The game is set in an alternate future 500 years after the events of the first EverQuest, and is meant to run alongside its predecessor without interfering with the original story. It features characters and locations from the original that have been altered by centuries of war and cataclysmic destruction. While the title did receive favorable reviews upon release, it was notably less influential to the genre than the previous installment, and it faced heavy competition from other MMORPGs, such as World of Warcraft, which was released two weeks after EverQuest II. While originally subscription-based since its launch, a free-to-play version with its own dedicated server was released in July 2010 called EverQuest II Extended. In November 2011, the subscription service was cancelled in favor of making all remaining servers free-to-play with microtransactions as the revenue stream.
== Gameplay ==
Within EverQuest II, each player creates a character to interact in the 3D, fictional world of Norrath. The character can adventure (complete quests, explore the world, kill monsters and gain treasures and experience) and socialize with other players. The game also has a 'tradeskill' system that allows players to create items for in-game use. Players can make items such as spells, potions, armor and many other items. The player chooses their character's race and type, which affects their abilities. Characters collect experience to advance in level. EverQuest II enables social interaction with other players through grouping and the creation of guilds. Like players, guilds can gain experience and levels, partially from players completing special tasks called Heritage quests, but primarily from guild-oriented quests and tasks called "writs", and gaining guild experience by killing epic monsters. Higher guild levels open up special rewards unavailable to non-guilded characters, and cause certain other rewards to cost less. These rewards include housing options, mounts, house items, apparel, and special titles. Although EverQuest II focuses on player versus environment (PvE), dedicated player versus player (PvP) servers were added in February 2006. EverQuest II has a heavy focus on quests; more than 6,000 exist. The EverQuest II feature set has expanded since its release in 2004.
Players must choose a 'race' when creating a character. The choice of races include human, barbarian, dwarf, erudite, ogre, iksar, troll, gnome, half elf, high elf, halfling, Vah Shir, wood elf and dark elf (which were available in the original EverQuest) along with new options such as the Kerra (a cat-person similar to the Vah Shir of the original EverQuest), the Ratonga (a rat-like people), the Sarnak (a dragon-like people) and the Fae and Arasai (fairy-like people). The Froglok race was originally locked until a special server-wide quest was completed to make them playable. Some races are restricted to certain starting cities, based on their alignment, but can turn traitor and move to the opposing city. There are four "archetypes" in EverQuest II - Fighter, Scout, Priest and Mage. When EverQuest 2 was launched, a player chose the character's archetype during the initial character creation and then chose a 'class' at level 10 and a 'sub-class' at level 20. This system was changed in 2006 so that a character's final class is chosen at creation.
Acquisition of equipment is a major focus of character progression. EverQuest II has no experience loss or lost levels from dying. Upon death, characters respawn with their gear intact at specific revival locations, with a minor experience debt to be repaid. Gear is fully functional until its condition runs out after 10 consecutive deaths, and is repaired to 100% for a fee. Players can form groups of up to 6 players, or raids of up to 24 players (i.e., four groups). Monster encounters are classified into corresponding categories of difficulty, and tend to drop corresponding tiers of treasure. Player interaction is encouraged by integrated voice chat, a built-in mail system, global chat channels, and a global marketplace. A looking-for-group tool is provided for adventurers, and looking-for-work for crafters. EverQuest II has strong support for guilds. Each guild has an experience bar and earns guild levels (up to 150). The guild gains experience when its members perform tasks that earn city status. Higher guild levels unlock new items, mounts, houses, guild halls, and other privileges for its members. Guilds get a hosted website and forum, as well as a guild bank with officer controls. Guild recruitment tools are integrated into the game. Players can also maintain houses. A secure commission system allows players to sell their crafting skills to other players, or use the common market system to sell finished items.
== History ==
SOE markets EverQuest II not as a direct sequel, but as a "parallel universe" to the original EverQuest. It is set in an alternate future of the original game's setting, having diverged at the conclusion of the Planes of Power expansion (the lore is explained in an in-game book). This allows both development teams to pursue whatever direction they want to take without impacting the other, and allows players of the original EverQuest to continue receiving updates without forcing players down a specific path. In that sense, they are two completely separate games bound together by name only. Players of the original EverQuest will find many familiar places and characters, as well as "heritage items" that are similar in name and function to items known from EverQuest and can be gained via heritage quests.
In Europe, the game was published by Ubisoft, followed by Koch Media. As of 2010 it lacks any European publisher and is distributed in Europe only as a digital download.
In February 2005, EverQuest II ran a promotion with Pizza Hut to allow players to order pizza from within the game. Players could type "/pizza" into the chat bar, which would open the online ordering section of the Pizza Hut website. This promotion has since ended, but generated significant press for the game.
In June 2005, SOE introduced Station Exchange to EverQuest II. Station Exchange is an official auction system - only on designated servers - allowing real money to be transferred for in-game money, items or characters.
In March 2006, SOE ended its Chinese/Korean operations for EverQuest II, which were supported in the region by Gamania. The beta period for the game in China/Korea ended on 29 March, and on 30 March, all Chinese/Korean accounts were moved to the US servers of the game.
EQuinox, an official magazine of EverQuest II published by SOE, was released on August 9, 2007.
In December 2008, SOE introduced Station Cash, a real-money trading (RMT) feature.
In January 2009, SOE together with Valve made EverQuest II available on Steam.
In July 2010, SOE released a separate version of EverQuest II called EverQuest II Extended, a free to play version of the game funded by micro-transactions or optional subscription play. The free to play version was run on a separate server from the subscription servers.
By November 2011, EverQuest II was going free to play following a similar path as EverQuest II Extended. As of the following month, with the release of GU62 and Age of Discovery, EverQuest II was updated from being a subscription based game to a free to play title with optional subscription.
Later, in February 2015, SOE's parent corporation, Sony Computer Entertainment, sold the studio to investment company Columbus Nova and it was rebranded as Daybreak Game Company, which continues to develop and publish EverQuest.
At the end of October 2012, Krono was added as an experiment. Krono works like the Plex currency in EVE Online: it allows players to buy an in-game item for real money that adds 30 days of Gold subscription to the account. Krono can also be traded between players, sold via the Broker or gifted to another player's account. Krono is also a much safer way of purchasing game time than purchasing SC cards from players in the game, which may or may not sell a valid code for the players.
=== Audio ===
A small number of NPCs use actual voices. The actors used for these parts included Hollywood stars such as Heather Graham (as Queen Antonia Bayle), Christopher Lee (as Overlord Lucan D'Lere) and Minnie Driver (as 'Dancer'). Wil Wheaton, Dwight Schultz, Richard Horvitz, Alan Dale and Danica McKellar are also part of the cast. According to SOE, in October 2004, EverQuest II featured 130 hours of spoken dialog recorded by 266 voice actors. More dialog has been added since release as part of regular game updates. In September 2005, EverQuest II: Desert of Flames added player voice emotes. It also features voice actors Peter Renaday, Colleen O'Shaughnessey, and Nick Jameson.
The music for the game, over ninety minutes' worth, was composed by Emmy-award-winning composer Laura Karpman and recorded by the FILMharmonic Orchestra Prague under her direction. Karpman said that every place has a theme, its own separate, unique feeling - from a quasi-African savanna to a Babylonian city. Their goal was to bring a cinematic feel in the music. Purchasers of the EverQuest II Collector's Edition received a soundtrack CD as part of the package. The expansions, Echoes of Faydwer and Rise of Kunark, included many themes from the corresponding zones in the original EverQuest, arranged by Inon Zur. With the Rise of Kunark expansion came a major update to the combat music. A new system was added with 14 contextual combat themes. The strength of the enemy or enemies and tide of the battle determine the tone of the combat music. The previous combat music consisted of just a few linear pieces.
=== Expansions ===
With EverQuest II, Sony Online Entertainment introduced the concept of Adventure Packs (an innovation created by Sean Kauppinen, who was the head of international Product PR at the time). Adventure Packs are meant to be smaller "mini-expansions" to the game, adding a plot line with several zones, new creatures and items to the game via digital download. These smaller Adventure Packs come with a smaller fee ranging from US$4.99 to US$7.99, but recently the development team has decided to release free zones and content instead of making adventure packs. Some recent releases include a new starting city, Neriak, with a new starting race, Arasai; and new high level dungeons, The Throne of New Tunaria and the Estate of Unrest.
Similar to other games, expansions can be bought in stores or downloaded through a digital service. The retail versions often come packaged with a bonus feature such as a creature that the player can put in their in-game house. Expansions generally introduce many new zones with new plot lines, features, creatures, items, cities and often come with a boost in the level cap or a new player race. Currently, all players have been given the expansions preceding Destiny of Velious as part of the base game. Access to levels above 92 and their respective zones require the purchase of the Tears of Veeshan expansion, which includes the previous Chains of Eternity expansion. Free to Play accounts have access to the same areas as subscription accounts, but have certain restrictions in place. Many of the free to play restrictions have been removed, including bag slot restrictions, coin restrictions, quest journal limits, race and class restrictions, and gear restrictions, but other restrictions such as the inability to buy or sell items on the broker as a free player, having spell tier restrictions, and being unable to move the alternate advancement slider remain.
EverQuest II: East was created for the East Asian market (mainland China, Taiwan, South Korea) but it was terminated as a separate edition on 29 March 2006. EverQuest II: East players were moved to standard servers. The special character models created for the game had already been included in the standard edition as a client-side option since 2005.
EverQuest II Extended - in early 2010, Sony Online Entertainment consulted the EverQuest II player population to determine the extent of support for adding a free-to-play model to EverQuest II. The resulting product, EverQuest II Extended, was unveiled in the summer at FanFaire 2010. A significant game update coincided with the beta release of EverQuest II Extended, which revamped the game's user interface and newbie experience and revised many of the previous rules related to character creation. In December 2011, free-to-play access was added to the existing EverQuest II Extended servers and the former EverQuest II Extended Freeport server was added among them.
=== Scholarly research ===
EverQuest II has been used by academics to study a variety of phenomena; for example, that virtual economic behavior in EverQuest II follows real-world patterns in terms of production, consumption and money supply; and observations that less than one percent (0.43%) of all the players are Platinum Farmers and more than three quarters (77.66%) of all Platinum Farmers are Chinese.
== Reception ==
EverQuest II had mostly positive reception from critics, earning an 83 out of 100 average score from aggregate review website Metacritic. Many reviewers compared the title to the original EverQuest, which was viewed as one of the best and most influential examples of the genre. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot said that EverQuest II isn't the massive step for the genre that its predecessor was, but it can still be a fun and addictive online role-playing experience that provides to offer for new and experienced players. Mario Lopez of GameSpy commented that it was "much more inviting, convenient, and forgiving" relative to the first game, but that it was less groundbreaking. The reviewer would find that the breadth of voice acting, however, was its biggest advancement. Lopez would ultimately declare that EverQuest II was "extremely fun to play, frequently rewarding, and designed with just the right amount of user convenience in mind".
The game's presentation and photorealistic graphics were often praised, with Computer and Video Games declaring that "there are off-line games equally or even more spectacular in immediate scenery or character models, but what game can offer such outrageous landscapes on such a grandiose scale?" Computer Games Magazine similarly felt that the game's setting was a "brilliantly" reworked world with that technology. According to GameSpot, however, the high system requirements of the title meant that performance issues were common, and that a player would need a "monster system" in order to experience the game in its highest quality. Kasavin additionally commented that the developers of this engine were presumably thinking ahead towards to the future when they built EverQuest II's technology, but that game's visuals were not so impressive to justify the extreme system requirements. Steve Butts of IGN likewise found that attempting to play the game on higher graphic settings resulted in "terrible performance", but that a consistent frame rate with high graphic quality was possible with an appropriate gaming computer. While the editor was "not as huge a fan" of the title's visual style, he commended its high level of detail.
EverQuest II was nominated for "Best Massively Multiplayer Online Game" in GameSpot's Best and Worst of 2004 awards, and was runner-up for "Best Persistent World Game" in IGN's Best of 2004 awards, losing both to World of Warcraft. Computer Games Magazine named it the seventh-best computer game of 2004, with its editors declaring it an improvement "upon not only its own predecessor, but just about every predecessor out there". GameSpy granted EQII the title of "Most Improved Game" during its 2006 annual PC awards due to the addition of PvP servers and the release of the Echoes of Faydwer expansion that same year. After adopting a free-to-play model in 2011, the title was named "Best Bang for the Buck" in Massively's annual awards that same year.
=== Sales and subscriptions ===
EverQuest II reached 100,000 active accounts within 24 hours of release, which grew to over 300,000 two months later in January 2005. As of 2012, the game had an estimated subscriber peak of 325,000 achieved sometime in 2005. As of September 2020, EverQuest II had 21,000 subscribers and 29,000 monthly active players.
== East Asian version ==
EverQuest II: East (Simplified Chinese: "无尽的任务2: 东方版"; Traditional Chinese: "無盡的任務2: 東方版"; Korean: "에버퀘스트2: 이스트") was an alternate edition of EverQuest II, developed for the China, Taiwan and South Korea markets. Sony Online Entertainment developed and shipped EverQuest II: East to East Asia in April 2005. There were some proprietary missions for EverQuest II: East. Sony Online Entertainment developed a separate character model for EverQuest II: East called "SOGA Model", which it also imported to the original version on LiveUpdate 16 on November 9, 2005.
EverQuest II: East used settings similar to those from the original version. Gamania and SOE added some entities and quests only for the Eastern Version, unlike SOE's servers. In EverQuest II: East, players could name their character in their local language. In EverQuest II: East, most dialogue continued to use English, except the novice tutorial. Gamania localized the novice tutorials as a special feature of EverQuest II: East.
Because of the bad reputation of localization, EverQuest II: East failed in Asia. Gamania declared its termination on March 29, 2006. All Chinese accounts were transferred to the Mistmoore server, all Taiwanese accounts to the Najena server and all Korean accounts to Unrest.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Station Exchange website via Internet Archive
EverQuest II at MobyGames
EverQuest II at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Delhi_gang_rape_and_murder | 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder | The 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder, commonly known as the Nirbhaya case, involved the gang rape and fatal assault that occurred on 16 December 2012 in Munirka, a neighbourhood in Delhi. The incident took place when Jyoti Singh, a 22-year-old physiotherapy intern, was beaten, gang-raped, and tortured in a private bus in which she was travelling with her friend, Avnindra Pratap Pandey. There were six others in the bus, including the driver, all of whom raped the woman and beat her friend. She was rushed to Safdarjung Hospital in Delhi for treatment and, as the public outrage mounted, the government had her transferred to Mount Elizabeth Hospital, Singapore eleven days after the assault, where she died from her injuries two days later. The incident generated widespread national and international coverage and was widely condemned, both in India and abroad. Subsequently, public protests against the state and central governments for failing to provide adequate security for women took place in New Delhi, where thousands of protesters clashed with security forces. Similar protests took place in major cities throughout the country. Since Indian law does not allow the press to publish a rape victim's name, the victim was widely known as Nirbhaya, meaning "fearless", and her struggle and death became a symbol of women's resistance to rape around the world.
All the accused were arrested and charged with sexual assault and murder. One of the accused, Ram Singh, died in police custody from possible suicide on 11 March 2013. According to some published reports and the police, Ram Singh hanged himself, but the defence lawyers and his family allege he was murdered. The rest of the accused went on trial in a fast-track court; the prosecution finished presenting its evidence on 8 July 2013. On 10 September 2013, the four adult defendants – Pawan Gupta, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Mukesh Singh (Ram Singh's brother) – were found guilty of rape and murder and three days later were sentenced to death. In the death reference case and hearing appeals on 13 March 2014, Delhi High Court upheld the guilty verdict and the death sentences. On 18 December 2019, the Supreme Court of India rejected the final appeals of the condemned perpetrators of the attack. The four adult convicts were executed by hanging on 20 March 2020. The juvenile Mohammed Afroz was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, as per the Juvenile Justice Act.
As a result of the protests, in December 2012, a judicial committee was set up to study and take public suggestions for the best ways to amend laws to provide quicker investigation and prosecution of sex offenders. After considering about 80,000 suggestions, the committee submitted a report which indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women. In 2013, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee, several new laws were passed, and six new fast-track courts were created to hear rape cases. Critics argue that the legal system remains slow to hear and prosecute rape cases, but most agree that the case has resulted in a tremendous increase in the public discussion of crimes against women and statistics show that there has been an increase in the number of women willing to file a crime report. However, in December 2014, two years after the attack, the victim's father called the promises of reform unmet and said that he felt regret in that he had not been able to bring justice for his daughter and other women like her.
== Incident ==
The victims, a 22-year-old woman, Jyoti Singh, and her male friend were returning home on the night of 16 December 2012 after watching the film Life of Pi at PVR Select City Walk, Saket. They took an auto rickshaw to Munirka bus stand, then boarded the bus at Munirka for Dwarka at about 9:30 pm (IST). There were only six others in the bus, including the driver. One of the men, identified as a minor, had called for passengers telling them that the bus was going towards their destination. They took ₹10 each as fare from both the victims. The victim's male friend became suspicious when the bus deviated from its normal route and its doors were shut. When he objected, the group of six men already on board, including the driver, taunted the couple, asking what they were doing alone at such a late hour.
During the argument, a scuffle ensued between her friend and the group of men. He was beaten, gagged and knocked unconscious with an iron rod. The men then dragged Jyoti to the rear of the bus, beating her with the rod and raping her while the bus driver continued to drive. A medical report later said that she suffered serious injuries to her abdomen, intestines and genitals due to the assault, and doctors said that the damage indicated that a blunt object (suspected to be the iron rod) may have been used for penetration. That rod was later described by police as being a rusted, L-shaped implement of the type used as a wheel jack handle.
According to police reports, Jyoti attempted to fight off her assailants, biting three of the attackers and leaving bite marks on the accused men.
After the beatings and rape ended, the attackers threw both victims from the moving bus. One of the perpetrators later cleaned the vehicle to remove evidence. Police impounded it the next day.
The partially clothed victims were found on the road by a passerby at around 11 pm. The passerby called the Delhi Police who took the couple to Safdarjung Hospital, where Jyoti was given emergency treatment and placed on mechanical ventilation. She was found with injury marks, including numerous bite marks, all over her body. According to reports, one of the accused men admitted to having seen a rope-like object, assumed to be her intestines, being pulled out of the woman by the other assailants on the bus. Two blood-stained metal rods were retrieved from the bus and medical staff confirmed that "it was penetration by this that caused massive damage to her genitals, uterus and intestines".
== Victims ==
Jyoti Singh was born in Delhi on 10 May 1990, the eldest of three children and the only daughter of a lower-middle-class family. Her parents hailed from a small village in Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh. While Jyoti's mother is a homemaker, her father worked double shifts (two jobs) to support his family and send his children to good schools. In an interview, he related that as a youth, he had dreamed of becoming a schoolteacher, but his family could not afford to support his education beyond high school. After moving to Delhi, he worked at a pressure cooker factory, as a security guard and eventually a luggage loader. He said, "when I left [his village] 30 years ago, I vowed never deny my children so sending them to school was fulfilling my desire for knowledge." He said, "It never entered our hearts to ever discriminate. How could I be happy if my son is happy and my daughter isn't? And it was impossible to refuse a little girl who loved going to school."
Jyoti Singh graduated in physiotherapy from the Sai Institute of Paramedical & Allied Sciences in Dehradun, and had just applied for an intern's position at St Stephen's Hospital in Delhi. She lived in Delhi and only sometimes visited her family's ancestral village.
In compliance with Indian law, the real name of the victim was initially not released to the media, so pseudonyms were used for her by various media houses instead, including Jagruti (awareness), Amanat (treasure), Nirbhaya (fearless one), Damini (lightning, after the hit 1993 Hindi film) and Delhi braveheart.
The male victim, Awindra Pratap Pandey, was a software engineer from Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, who lived in Ber Sarai, New Delhi; he suffered broken limbs but survived.
Delhi police registered a criminal case against the editor of a Delhi-based tabloid, Mail Today, for disclosing the female victim's identity, as such disclosure is an offence under section 228(A) of Indian Penal Code. Shashi Tharoor, then a union minister, suggested that if the parents had no objection, her identity could be made public, as a mark of respect for her courageous response, with the possibility of naming future laws after her. Speaking to a British reporter on 5 January, the victim's father was quoted as saying, "We want the world to know her real name. My daughter didn't do anything wrong, she died while protecting herself. I am proud of her. Revealing her name will give courage to other women who have survived these attacks. They will find strength from my daughter." Indian law forbids revealing the name of a rape victim unless the family agrees to it and, following the news article which published the father's reported quote and the victim's name, some news outlets in India, Germany, Australia, and the United States also revealed her name. However, the following day Zee News quoted the father as saying, "I have only said we won't have any objection if the government uses my daughter's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed than the existing one." During a protest against the juvenile convict's release on 16 December 2015, the victim's mother stated that her daughter's name was Jyoti Singh and she was not ashamed of disclosing her name.
== Medical treatment and death ==
On 19 December 2012, Singh underwent her fifth surgery, which removed most of her remaining intestine. Doctors reported that she was in "stable but critical" condition. On 21 December, the government appointed a committee of doctors to ensure she received the best medical care. By 25 December, she remained intubated, on life support and in critical condition. Doctors stated that she had a fever of 102 to 103 °F (39 °C) and that internal bleeding due to sepsis was somewhat controlled. It was reported that she was "stable, conscious and meaningfully communicative".
At a cabinet meeting chaired by then-Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 26 December, a decision was made to fly her to Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore for further treatment. Mount Elizabeth is a multi-organ transplant specialty hospital. Some doctors criticised the decision as political, questioning the need to transfer an intensive care unit (ICU) patient for organ transplants that were not scheduled for weeks or even months. Government sources indicated that then Chief Minister of Delhi, Sheila Dikshit, was personally behind the decision. Hours earlier, then-Union Minister P. Chidambaram had stated that Jyoti was not in a condition to be moved.
During the six-hour air-ambulance flight to Singapore on 27 December, Jyoti suddenly went into a "near collapse", which a later report described as cardiac arrest. The doctors on board inserted an arterial line to stabilise her, but she had been without a pulse and blood pressure for nearly three minutes and never regained consciousness in Singapore.
On 28 December, at 11 am (IST), Jyoti's condition was extremely critical. The chief executive officer of the Mount Elizabeth Hospital said that the victim suffered brain damage, pneumonia, and abdominal infection, and that she was "fighting for her life." Her condition continued to deteriorate, and she died at 4:45 am on 29 December, Singapore Standard Time (2:15 am, 29 December, IST; 8:45 pm, 28 December, UTC). Her body was cremated on 30 December in Delhi under high police security. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), then the country’s main opposition party, criticised the high-security measures, stating that they were reminiscent of the Emergency era, during which civil liberties were suspended. One of Jyoti's brothers later remarked that the decision to fly her out to Singapore had come too late, and they had held high hopes for her recovery prior to her death.
== Arrests ==
A Special Investigation Team was formed to investigate the case, which was led by Pramod Kumar Kushwaha, the Deputy Commissioner of Delhi Police's Special Cell.
Police found and arrested some suspects within 24 hours of the crime. From recordings made by a highway CCTV, a description of the bus, a white charter bus with a name written on it, was broadcast. Other operators identified it as being contracted by a South Delhi private school. They then traced it and found its driver, Ram Singh. Police obtained sketches of the assailants with the help of the male victim, and used a mobile phone stolen from the two victims to find one of the assailants.
Six men were arrested in connection with the incident. They included 30-year-old Ram Singh, the bus driver, and his 26-year-old brother, Mukesh Singh, who were both arrested in Rajasthan. Ram and Mukesh Singh lived in Ravidas camp, a slum in South Delhi. 20-year-old Vinay Sharma, an assistant gym instructor, and 19-year-old Pawan Gupta, a fruit seller, were both arrested in UP and Bihar. A 17-year-old juvenile named Mohammed Afroz, from Badayun, Uttar Pradesh, was arrested at the Anand Vihar terminal in Delhi. The juvenile had only met the others that day. 28-year-old Akshay Thakur, who had come to Delhi seeking employment, was the final suspect to be arrested in Aurangabad, Bihar; he was married with one son at the time of his arrest.
According to reports, the group had been eating and drinking together and "having a party" earlier in the day. Although the charter bus which Ram Singh drove on weekdays was not permitted to pick up public passengers or even to operate in Delhi because of its tinted windows, they decided to take it out "to have some fun". A few hours before committing the gang rape, the attackers had robbed a carpenter. The carpenter was 35-year-old Ramadhir Singh (unrelated to Ram, Mukesh and Jyoti), who boarded the bus that was being driven by Mukesh Singh. The juvenile convict had lured him into the bus saying it was going to Nehru Place. He was then beaten up and robbed of his mobile phone and ₹1500 in cash. After robbing him, the group dumped him at the IIT Flyover. He reported the robbery to three police constables: Kailash, Ashok and Sandeep, who were passing nearby. They refused to take any action in response, saying that the crime scene wasn't under their purview as they were from the Hauz Khas police station, and that he would have to report the incident to the station in Vasant Vihar.
Shortly after the attacks, Pawan Gupta said he accepted his guilt and should be hanged. Mukesh Singh, who was placed in Tihar Jail after his arrest, was assaulted by other inmates and was kept in solitary confinement for his own protection.
Ram Singh was presented before the Metropolitan Magistrate on 18 December 2012. He refused to participate in an identification process.
Investigation revealed a history of frequent drinking that resulted in "blinding rage", "bad temper", and quarrels with employers, that had led friends to call him "mental". On 11 March, Ram Singh was discovered hanging from a ventilator shaft in his cell which he shared with 3 other prisoners, at about 5:45 a.m. Authorities said it was unclear whether it was a suicide or a murder.
== Trial ==
The male victim, Awindra Pratap Pandey, testified in court on 19 December 2012. Pandey recorded his statement with a sub-divisional magistrate at the Safdarjung Hospital on 21 December, in the presence of the Deputy Commissioner of police. He was reportedly plagued with guilt and trauma over the incident.
On 21 December, the government promised to file the chargesheet quickly and seek the maximum penalty of life imprisonment for the perpetrators. Following public outrage and a demand for a speedy trial and prosecution, on 24 December, the police promised to file the charge sheet within one week. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs met on 27 December to discuss the issue, and Union Home Secretary R. K. Singh and Delhi Police Commissioner Neeraj Kumar were summoned to appear. The Delhi High Court approved the creation of five fast-track courts to try rape and sexual assault cases. The first of the five approved fast-track courts was inaugurated on 2 January 2013 by Altamas Kabir, Chief Justice of India, in Saket court complex in South Delhi.
On 21 December, the Delhi High Court reprimanded the Delhi police for being "evasive" in a probe status report providing details of officers on patrol duty in the area covered by the bus route. A further court hearing on the matter was scheduled for 9 January 2013. The following day, the Delhi Police initiated action against three Hauz Khas police station personnel for their inaction in responding to the robbery of the carpenter that took place earlier on the bus in the day. On 24 December, two Assistant Commissioners of Police were suspended for failing to prevent the gang rape incident.
=== Juvenile defendant ===
The juvenile defendant Mohammed Afroz, whose name was later changed to Raju in the media due to his age, was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the Juvenile Justice Board (JJB), which relied on his birth certificate and school documents. The JJB rejected a police request for a bone ossification (age determination) test for a positive documentation of his age.
On 28 January 2013, the Juvenile Justice Board determined that Afroz would not be tried as an adult. A petition launched by Janata Party president Subramanian Swamy seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult due to the violent nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB. The minor was tried separately in a juvenile court.
A verdict in the case was scheduled to be announced on 25 July, but was deferred until 5 August and then deferred again to 19 August. On 31 August, he was convicted of rape and murder under the Juvenile Justice Act and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial. Reportedly, Jyoti's younger brother had impulsively tried to attack the juvenile convict after hearing the verdict but the crowd in the courtroom managed to restrain him. The juvenile was released on 20 December 2015.
For the rehabilitation and mainstreaming of Afroz as mandated by the Juvenile Justice Act, 2000 management committees were set up before the release of juvenile convicts. Accordingly, a 'post-release plan' was submitted to the Delhi high court in December 2015. The plan was prepared and submitted by the management committee, headed by the officer of the District Child Protection Unit, and had recommended that "(Afroz) should lead a new life with a new identity provided by the appropriate government as applicable in his case if permissible to avoid any backlash or violent reaction". According to the report, the juvenile had learnt cooking and tailoring while staying in the reform house. The report further said that Afroz would need a tailoring shop, a sewing machine and other tailoring equipment. The report also mentioned that a one-time grant of ₹10,000 (US$120) from the government should be sufficient to support him initially. The department of women and child development (WCD) of the government stated that it would provide the money and would arrange the machine from an NGO. Afroz's family had ostracized him for the crime and refused to accept him. However, after his release it was reported that he was working as a cook.
=== Adult defendants ===
Five days after Jyoti's death, on 3 January 2013, the police filed charges against the five adult men for rape, murder, kidnapping, destruction of evidence, and the attempted murder of the woman's male companion. Senior lawyer Dayan Krishnan was appointed as the special public prosecutor. Mukesh Singh, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta denied the charges. Some of the men had confessed earlier; however, their lawyers said that their clients had been tortured and that their confessions had been coerced.
On 10 January, one of their lawyers, Manohar Lal Sharma, said in a media interview that the victims were responsible for the assault because they should not have been using public transportation and, as an unmarried couple, they should not have been on the streets at night. He went on to say: "Until today I have not seen a single incident or example of rape with a respected lady. Even an underworld don would not like to touch a girl without respect." He also called the male victim "wholly responsible" for the incident because he "failed in his duty to protect the woman".
The Delhi police filed a charge sheet against the defendants on 13 March in the robbery of Ramadhir.
The four surviving adult defendants went on trial in a fast-track court. The prosecution presented evidence including witness statements, the victim's statement, fingerprints, DNA testing, and dental modelling. It completed its case on 8 July.
=== Conviction, sentencing, and imprisonment ===
On 10 September 2013, in the fast track court of Delhi, the four adult defendants were found guilty of rape, murder, unnatural offences and destruction of evidence. The four men faced the death penalty, and demonstrators outside the courthouse called for the hanging of the defendants. The victim's father also called for the defendants to be hanged, stating, "We will get complete closure only if all the accused are wiped off from the face of the earth." Lawyers for three of the four stated that their clients intended to appeal the verdict. The four men were sentenced on 13 September to death by hanging. Judge Yogesh Khanna rejected pleas for a lesser sentence saying the case has "shocked the collective conscience of India" and that "courts cannot turn a blind eye to such crimes." The victim's family was present for the sentencing and her mother expressed satisfaction over the verdict saying, "We were waiting with bated breath, now we are relieved. I thank the people of my country and the media." After the verdict was delivered, the people waiting outside the courtroom applauded.
Upon hearing that he would be executed, Vinay Sharma collapsed and pleaded with the judge, saying, "Please sir, please sir." As the men left the courtroom, they shouted out to the crowd, "Brothers, save us!"
While on death row, Mukesh Singh blamed Jyoti for being raped, saying "You can't clap with one hand – it takes two hands. A decent girl won't roam around at 9 o'clock at night. A girl is far more responsible for rape than a boy. Boy and girl are not equal. Housework and housekeeping is for girls, not roaming in discos and bars at night doing wrong things, wearing wrong clothes. About 20 percent of girls are good." Singh also blamed Jyoti for her death, saying "When being raped, she shouldn't fight back. She should just be silent and allow the rape. Then they'd have dropped her off after 'doing her', and only hit the boy."
On 13 March 2014, the Delhi High Court found each of the defendants guilty of rape, murder, unnatural offences and destruction of evidence. With the verdict, the High Court confirmed the death sentences for the four men convicted in September 2013. The court noted that the crime, which stirred widespread protests over sexual crimes against women in the country, fell into the judicial system's "rarest of the rare category" that allows capital punishment. The lawyers of the four men said they would appeal to the Supreme Court.
== Supreme Court appeal ==
On 15 March 2014, the Supreme Court of India stayed the execution of two of the four convicts, Mukesh Singh and Pawan Gupta, to allow them to make their appeal against their conviction on 31 March. This was further extended by the court to the second week of July. On 2 June, the two other convicts, Sharma and Thakur, also asked the Supreme Court to stay their execution to allow them to make an appeal of their convictions. On 14 July, their execution was also stayed by Supreme Court. On 27 August 2015, Vinay, Akshay, Mukesh and Pawan were convicted of robbing Ramadhir and were later sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment.
On 5 May 2017, the Supreme Court rejected the convicts' appeal and, saying they had committed "a barbaric crime" that had "shaken society's conscience", the court upheld the death sentence of the four who had been charged in the murder. The verdict was well received by the family of the victim and the civil society. According to legal experts, the convicts still had the right to file a review petition to the Supreme Court. On 9 July 2018, the Supreme Court rejected a review petition by three of the convicts.
In November 2019, the Supreme Court dismissed a review petition from Akshay pleading for mercy. In doing so, the court retained the death sentence. After the verdict, Akshay's lawyer told the Supreme Court that he would appeal to the president. For this, he should be given three weeks' time. In January 2020, a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court rejected the curative petitions of convicts, Vinay Sharma and Mukesh.
On 7 January 2020 a death warrant was issued for the Nirbhaya rapists by a Delhi court, setting an execution date of 22 January 2020 at 7:00 a.m. IST in Tihar Jail.
Government authorities and the victim's mother alleged that the four convicts were "intentionally delaying" and "frustrating" the legal process in this case by filing their pleas in stages, so that the execution could be postponed. Under prison rules, if any one particular case results in more than one death penalty conviction (as here) and any one of those convicted in the case petitions for a mercy plea, the execution dates of all others convicted in the case must be postponed until a decision is made on the pending mercy plea.
=== Mercy plea to the President of India ===
Mukesh Singh filed a mercy plea in January 2020. The Delhi government made a recommendation to reject the plea and forwarded it to the Lieutenant Governor. On 17 January 2020, the President of India rejected the mercy plea. Both the Government of Delhi and home ministry had recommended the president that the plea should be rejected.
=== Second, third and fourth death warrants ===
On 17 January 2020, hours after the rejection of the mercy plea, Judge Dharmender Rana issued a second death warrant for the convicts to be hanged after a mandatory fourteen-day gap on 1 February at 6:00 a.m. The fourteen days' reprieve was provided in accordance with law which states that the convicts awaiting an execution must have a reprieve after their mercy plea is rejected. During the same hearing, the court also rejected a plea by the convict Mukesh to postpone the execution.
On 17 January, Pawan appealed to the Supreme Court against the Delhi High Court order that rejected his claim that Pawan was a juvenile during the crime in 2012. On 31 January, a Delhi court stayed the death warrant. The judge did not issue a fresh warrant for their execution. The lawyer cited Rule 836 of the prison manual which says that in a case where more than one person has been sentenced to death, the execution cannot take place unless all the convicts have exhausted their legal options.
On 17 February 2020, a third death warrant was issued by the court with the execution date as 3 March 2020 at 6:00 a.m. On 4 March 2020, a fourth death warrant was issued by court with the execution date as 20 March 2020 at 5:30 a.m. Numerous pleas and appeals were made by both the families of the convicts and the convicts themselves, including three of the convicts moving the International Court of Justice for a stay on the death sentence; however, the date for the execution remained the same.
== Execution of convicts ==
On 20 March 2020, at 5:30 a.m. IST, Mukesh Singh, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta were executed at Tihar Jail. The gallows used for the execution had been specially designed for four people. According to prison officials, the four convicts refused the offers of a last meal and new clothes prior to the execution. They were blindfolded and did not resist as they were led to the gallows; however, Vinay Sharma suffered a breakdown prior to his execution and began pleading with the guards. The four convicts were pronounced dead after hanging for 30 minutes. Mukesh Singh reportedly requested to donate his organs.
== Public protests ==
=== After the incident ===
Public protests took place in New Delhi on 21 December 2012 at India Gate and Raisina Hill, the latter being the location of both the Parliament of India and Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India. Thousands of protesters clashed with police and battled Rapid Action Force units. Demonstrators were baton charged, shot with water cannon and tear gas shells, and arrested.
Similar protests occurred throughout the country. More than 600 women belonging to various organisations demonstrated in Bangalore. Thousands of people silently marched in Kolkata. Protests occurred online as well on the social networking sites Facebook and WhatsApp, with users replacing their profile images with a black dot symbol. Tens of thousands signed an online petition protesting the incident.
Yoga guru Baba Ramdev and former Army chief General Vijay Kumar Singh were among the demonstrators who clashed with Delhi Police at Jantar Mantar. On 24 December, activist Rajesh Gangwar started a hunger strike, saying about the accused men, "If my death shakes the system and gets them hanged, I am ready to die". Gangwar ended his fast after 14 days, saying, "My fight to demand a strict law against rape will be continued in the future... I have dedicated myself for this cause". Middle Finger Protests, a Chandigarh-based pressure group and NGO headed by human rights and social activist Prabhloch Singh, also played a key role in the agitations and protests in New Delhi.
Seven metro rail stations in New Delhi were closed on 22 December to discourage protesters from gathering at Raisina Hill. On 24 December, police blocked roads leading to India Gate and Raisina Hill to prevent possible mass protests, and closed nine metro stations, affecting thousands of transit patrons. News reporters were not allowed to reach India Gate and Raisina Hill. In addition to CrPC section 144, which disallows assembly of groups larger than five, curfew was imposed near the presidential residence. The Hindustan Times accused police of using excessive force against the protestors, reporting that 375 tear gas canisters were used at India Gate and elsewhere in Delhi to disperse the crowds. An article in First Post criticised the Indian government as well, saying that they failed to act positively or give credible assurances to the protesters and instead used police force, lathi-charging, pushing the media out of the scene, and shutting down metro rail stations.
Police stated that peaceful protests had been "hijacked" by hooligans and political activists.
During one protest, a police constable named Subhash Tomar collapsed and later died in hospital. Two witnesses claimed that Tomar collapsed without being hit by any protesters, while a third disputed this. Hospital doctors and the post-mortem gave contradictory reports: he died due to cardiac arrest, but it is not known if the heart attack was caused by blunt-force injuries that he suffered to his chest and neck. Some experts state that his chest injuries may have been a side effect of the administration of CPR. The Delhi Police arrested 8 young men and charged them with Tomar's murder and rioting at India Gate. Later in March 2013, the police admitted in the Delhi High Court they had no evidence against the eight and dropped the murder charges against them. The youths said the move by the commissioner of police to charge them with murder had been "irresponsible".
=== After the victim's death ===
After Jyoti Singh's death on 29 December 2012, protests were staged throughout India, including Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Bhubaneswar and Visakhapatnam. Many of the mourners carried candles and wore black dresses; some pasted black cloth across their mouths.
The following day a large number of people staged protests near Jantar Mantar, New Delhi. There were minor clashes between some groups of protesters and the police; the police then removed some protesters from the area. One group of protesters also observed a one-day hunger strike at Jantar Mantar. All roads leading to India Gate were closed by police and areas where protesters had gathered during the previous week were out of bounds to the public. Some of the protesters drew graffiti and slogans on papers spread on the road, condemning the incident and demanding stricter laws and speedy judgement. The BJP renewed its demand for a special parliament session to discuss the case and to adopt stricter laws on crime against women.
New Year's celebrations were scaled down to a large extent, with the Indian armed forces and some clubs and hotels in Delhi cancelling their New Year parties.
The Indian protests also sparked protests across South Asia, including marches and rallies in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In Nepal, hundreds of demonstrators in Kathmandu called for legal reforms and an overhaul of attitudes to women. In Bangladesh the human rights group Ain o Salish Kendra (ASK) said the protests in Delhi had given fresh impetus to protests against sexual violence. According to an ASK spokesperson, "although previous demonstrations on similar issues were largely dominated by women, men were now protesting too. The protests had also drawn people from a broad range of society."
In Paris, people participated in a march to the Indian embassy where a petition was handed over asking for action to make India safer for women.
An author for the South Asia Analysis Group explained the protests as expressions of middle-class angst arising out of a collapse of a social contract between them and the liberal state.
New Delhi has the highest number of sex crimes among India's major cities. Police figures show a rape reported on average every 18 hours; reported rape cases rose by nearly 17 percent between 2007 and 2011. Only one of the 706 rape cases filed in Delhi in 2012 saw a successful conviction against the attacker. Between 16 December and 4 January 501 calls for harassment and 64 calls for rape were recorded by the Delhi Police, but only four were followed up by inquiries. The regional program director for U.N. Women South Asia said, "There are rape cases in almost all cities and rural areas, where the victim dies immediately because of the brutality of the crime... This time, it was like, 'Wake up.'"
== Reactions ==
Members of the Indian parliament demanded severe punishment for the perpetrators. The then Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, Sushma Swaraj, stated: "The rapists should be hanged". Chairperson of the then ruling United Progressive Alliance Sonia Gandhi visited the Safdarjang Hospital and met doctors on duty in the anesthesia and surgery departments for an update on the woman's health. Bahujan Samaj Party chief, Mayawati, said that proper investigation was required, and that "action should be so strict that no one should dare to act in such a manner again". Actress and member of the Rajya Sabha Jaya Bachchan said that she was "terribly disturbed" over the incident, and felt "ashamed" sitting in the House, feeling "helpless" for "not being able to do anything". Meira Kumar, the then Speaker of the Lok Sabha, told reporters a "new law should be brought in and must get passed to ensure the safety of women." She went on to say: "The laws at present are not enough, we need stricter laws."
The then Chief Minister of Delhi Sheila Dixit, said that she did not have the courage to meet the victim and described Delhi as a "rape capital" in interviews. She said that senior police officials should be held accountable for the failure to take adequate measures to stop such incidents and called for "immediate setting up of fast-track courts to try rape cases and to get justice in a time-bound manner". The three constables who had refused to take action upon Ram Adhar's complaint of robbery were suspended for dereliction of duty.
On 24 December 2012, in his first official reaction after the incident, then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh appealed for calm, stressing that "violence will serve no purpose". In a televised address, he assured that all possible efforts would be made to ensure the safety of women in India. Singh expressed empathy, saying: "As a father of three daughters I feel as strongly about the incident as each one of you". As a tribute to Nirbhaya, the prime minister cancelled all his official events to celebrate the new year. Then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, Akhilesh Yadav, announced a package of financial assistance ₹2 million (US$24,000) and a government job to her family.
Speaking out against the protesters, President Pranab Mukherjee's son Abhijit Mukherjee argued that the women protesters did not appear to him to be students. He said
What's basically happening in Delhi is a lot like Egypt or elsewhere, where there's something called the Pink Revolution, which has very little connection with ground realities. In India, staging candle-lit marches, going to discothèques ... I can see many beautiful women among them – highly dented-painted ... [but] I have grave doubts whether they're students ...
The remark was widely condemned as sexist. His sister Sharmistha said that she and their father, the president both disapproved. Then Maharashtra Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan also expressed disapproval. Abhijit quickly withdrew his comment and apologised. Spiritual guru Asaram Bapu also provoked extensive criticism from the public by saying that the victim was also to blame for her own assault because she could have stopped the attack if she had "chanted God's name and fallen at the feet of the attackers".
Following the gruesome crime, several celebrities like Preity Zinta, Shah Rukh Khan, Kareena Kapoor, Amitabh Bachchan, Farhan Akhtar and many more expressed outrages on social medial platforms like Twitter. Many of them demanded that the rapists be castrated or hanged. The incident was later featured in the first episode of second season of Satyamev Jayate. Hosted by Aamir Khan, the episode also dealt with other incidents of rape, as well as the sufferings of rape survivors at the hands of police officers, medical personnel, judicial system, and the general public.
=== International ===
The American embassy released a statement on 29 December 2012, offering their condolences to Nirbhaya's family and stated, "we also recommit ourselves to changing attitudes and ending all forms of gender-based violence, which plagues every country in the world". Nirbhaya was posthumously awarded one of the 2013 International Women of Courage Awards of the US State Department. The citation stated that "for millions of Indian women, her personal ordeal, perseverance to fight for justice, and her family's continued bravery is helping to lift the stigma and vulnerability that drive violence against women."
The crime of rape became a capital offence in India following the rape. Indian politician Mulayam Singh Yadav opposed this change in the law, saying that "Boys will be boys. Boys commit mistakes". Two years later, in response to these comments and another incident of rape that took place in Uttar Pradesh where Yadav's party was governing, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said "We say no to the dismissive, destructive attitude of, 'Boys will be boys'" and stated, "Violence against women must never be accepted, never excused, never tolerated. Every girl and woman have the right to be respected, valued and protected". UN Women called on the Government of India and the Government of Delhi "to do everything in their power to take up radical reforms, ensure justice and reach out with robust public services to make women's lives more safe and secure".
In the wake of remarks against India in Western media, Jessica Valenti, writing in The Nation, argued that such rapes are also common in the United States, but US commentators exhibit a double standard in denying or minimising their systemic nature while simultaneously attacking India for an alleged rape culture. Author and activist Eve Ensler, who organised One Billion Rising, a global campaign to end violence against women and girls, said that the gang rape and murder was a turning point in India and around the world. Ensler said that she had travelled to India at the time of the rape and murder, and she commented:
After having worked every day of my life for the last 15 years on sexual violence, I have never seen anything like that, where sexual violence broke through the consciousness and was on the front page, nine articles in every paper every day, in the centre of every discourse, in the centre of the college students' discussions, in the centre of any restaurant you went in. And I think what's happened in India, India is really leading the way for the world. It's really broken through. They are actually fast-tracking laws. They are looking at sexual education. They are looking at the bases of patriarchy and masculinity and how all that leads to sexual violence.
=== Tourism ===
In the aftermath of the rape case the number of female tourists to India fell by 35% compared to the same period the previous year, according to an industry survey by ASSOCHAM. The Foreign Office of the UK modified its travel advice and advised women against travelling alone.
In 2014, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley commented "one small incident of rape in Delhi' advertised world-over is enough to cost us billions of dollars in terms of lower tourism".
== Results of protests ==
In the view of widespread protests, governments at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women. The Government of Karnataka announced the launch of a 24/7 dedicated helpline (1091) to be operated by the state police to register sexual abuse complaints from women. It is also checking the possibility of setting up fast-track courts to dispose of pending cases pertaining to crimes against women. The Government of Tamil Nadu also announced a 13-point action plan to ensure safety of women in Tamil Nadu and said that incidents of sexual assault would be treated as a grave crime, and probes would be entrusted to top police officials. The Tamil Nadu chief minister also said that daily hearings would be conducted in all sexual abuse cases in the state for speedy trials at specially constituted fast-track courts, and women prosecutors would be appointed as government counsels. The Jammu and Kashmir government also announced plans to change the state's laws against sexual offenses and gender crimes. The Government of Himachal Pradesh decided to set up state and district-level committees to review progress of all cases of crimes against women.
Despite these state government responses, Singh herself endured great hardship during and after the protests. As one scholar put it, she continued to be "raped" (literally and figuratively): Singh faced a demeaning medical examination, a harsh cross-examination by the court, as well as "salacious media reports" and an insensitive response from society as a whole, including from people who knew her.
=== Justice Verma Committee and changes in law ===
On 22 December 2012, a judicial committee headed by J. S. Verma, a former Chief Justice of India and one of India's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists was appointed by the Central government to submit a report within 30 days to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with sexual assault cases. The committee urged the public in general and particularly eminent jurists, legal professionals, NGOs, women's groups and civil society to share "their views, knowledge and experience suggesting possible amendments in the criminal and other relevant laws to provide for quicker investigation, prosecution and trial, and also enhanced punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault of an extreme nature against women." The Committee held its first meeting on 26 December 2012; it had received more than 6,000 emails with suggestions by then. The Justice Verma Committee report was submitted after 29 days, after considering 80,000 suggestions received during the period. The report indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women. Suggestions in the report included the need to review the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 (AFSPA) in conflict areas, and setting the maximum punishment for rape as death penalty rather than life imprisonment. The committee did not favour lowering the age of an adult from 18 to 16.
On 26 December 2012, a Commission of Inquiry headed by former Delhi High Court judge Usha Mehra was set up to identify lapses, determine responsibility in relation to the incident, and suggest measures to make Delhi and the wider National Capital Region safer for women. On 1 January 2013, a task force headed by the Union Home Secretary was established to look into women's safety issues in Delhi and review the functioning of the city police force on a regular basis.
On 3 February 2013, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Ordinance, 2013 was promulgated by then President Pranab Mukherjee. It provides for amendment of the Indian Penal Code, Indian Evidence Act, and Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, on laws related to sexual offences. The ordinance provides for the death penalty in cases of rape. According to Minister of Law and Justice Ashwani Kumar, 90 percent of the suggestions given by the Verma Committee Report were incorporated into the Ordinance. However, critics state that many key suggestions of the commission have been ignored, including the criminalisation of marital rape and trying military personnel accused of sexual offences under criminal law.
In a December 2013 interview, Nirbhaya's parents, Badri Nath Singh and Asha Devi, said they were trying to get the juvenile law changed in such crimes as the rape and murder of their daughter. They petitioned the Supreme Court to try the juvenile in a criminal court instead of a Juvenile Justice court. The juvenile defendant was sent to borstal youth detention for three years and then released. He was just short of 18 years when he committed the crime.
In a March 2015 interview with The Tribune, Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi said that Government is going ahead with a law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes.
On 22 December 2015, Rajya Sabha passed the revised Juvenile Justice Act, which proposed that the accused of heinous crimes who are above 16 years of age will be treated as an adult in the court of law.
== Legacy ==
=== Anniversary memorials ===
On 16 December 2013, the first anniversary of the attack, activists held memorials throughout New Delhi in memory of the victim widely known as Nirbhaya, meaning "fearless". Members of women's organizations lit candles in her memory and protested against exploitation of women. University students and others organized a candlelight march at the bus stand in South Delhi where Nirbhaya and her friend Pandey boarded the bus in which the rape and beatings took place. At a commemorative prayer meeting political leaders resolved to increase efforts to improve women's security. Speaking with the victim's mother, former chief minister Sheila Dikshit said that Delhi's society and the various authorities will work together to build a permanent legacy to her daughter: "... whatever you will want in her memory, we will try to fulfil. And we will try with a conviction that such an incident is not repeated with anybody else in the future". The victim's parents spoke at a memorial saying that they were proud of the courage that their daughter showed, which they believe "has spurred more women to speak out instead of hiding the crimes committed against them".
In December 2014, the second anniversary of the attack, referring to a woman who was raped in a car operated by an Uber driver, the parents remarked to the press that not much had changed: "Nothing in India has changed since 16 December 2012. All promises and statements made by our leaders and ministers have turned out to be shallow. Our suffering gives them their moment in limelight. My daughter asks me what I have done to get her justice. She asks what am I doing so that many more like her get justice and I wake up to realise how helpless and trivial I am..."
"Nirbhaya Chetna Diwas", a public event organised by women's and citizens groups, candlelight vigils, prayer meetings, and other events were held on 16 December 2015 at the Jantar Mantar to pay homage to Jyoti on the third anniversary of her death. In what was called "a brave homage to her daughter", Jyoti's mother, Asha Devi, said, "My daughter's name was Jyoti Singh and I am not ashamed to name her. Those who commit heinous crimes like rape, their heads should hang in shame, not the victims' or their families'."
Devi spoke out against the upcoming release of the juvenile and put forth four demands for justice:
On the third death anniversary of our death, we are seeing the release of the juvenile convict. Where is justice in that? I do not know whether he is 16 or 18. I only know that he has committed a brutal crime and there should be no age limit for punishment; [...] the juvenile convict should be sentenced to death, fast-track courts be set up in all the courts to offer speedy justice to sexual assault victims, amendments to the Juveniles Justice Act be passed and utilisation of Nirbhaya Fund for setting up high quality forensic labs in all states.
=== Changes to the legal system ===
The outpouring of anger and grief following the rape and murder gave rise to hopes for change in India. The government responded with the passage of several new sexual assault laws, including a mandatory minimum sentence of 20 years for gang rape, and six new fast-track courts created solely for rape prosecutions. As an indicator of the scope of the problem of rape prosecution, the "Nirbhaya" case was the only conviction obtained among the 706 rape cases filed in New Delhi in 2012. Between 16 December 2012 and 4 January 2013, Delhi police recorded 501 allegations of harassment and 64 of rape, but only four inquiries were launched. However, it appears that the "Nirbhaya" case has had an effect on the willingness of rape or molestation victims to report the crime; police records show that during the final nine months of 2013 almost twice as many rape victims filed a police report and four times as many allegations of molestation were made. A recent report released by the National Crime Records Bureau shows that 95 percent of the cases brought to the police were classified as a crime. However, there is a large backlog of cases with fewer than 15 percent of those charged tried in 2012, leaving 85 percent waiting to come to trial.
On 16 December 2013, the first anniversary of the rape was commemorated in London with a public memorial to honour the victim. Speakers included Meera Syal, whose parents are from New Delhi. Speaking of the anger that was expressed at the time of the rape, she said, "We need to hold onto that anger and demand that the Indian Government enforces all the promised changes of its recent Criminal Law Amendment Act, which changed laws to expand the definition of rape and incorporated new offences including acid attack, sexual harassment, voyeurism and stalking". She also said that activists need to act in solidarity with other organisations to stop violence against women and girls around the world.
Following the incident the government set up the Nirbhaya Fund for "empowerment, safety and security of women and girl children." The Fund is administered by Department of Economic Affairs of the finance ministry. However, an Oxfam India report published in 2021 shows that the fund remains underused and underutilized.
=== Public discussions about violence against women ===
Observers agree that the victim's ordeal has brought a change to public conversations about women's issues, with men joining in the discussions as well. A young woman who had taken part in the protests at the time of the rape said a year later, "A welcome change is that the taboo on discussing rape and sexual violence has been broken. The protests brought debates and discussions to our homes." She also said that since the rape and protests the media is now providing coverage of sexual violence. However, she saw "absolutely no change in the rape culture and related brutality. The streets are not safe. Teasing and catcalling or worse are to be found everywhere. Sexual harassment in public places as well as inside the home is still rampant." She added, "I do acknowledge, however, that a year is too less to undo what patriarchy has done over centuries. It is too embedded in our homes, our institutions and in our laws. The police may be a little more receptive, but it is not out of a sense of duty but out of the fear of censure".
Women in urban spaces in India yet feel unsafe. They report needing to wear clothing that covers their bodies in order to "make them feel safe". Public officials and commentators in India often claim that women who wear "skimpy" clothing and go around partying with other guys "invite these attacks" and thus cannot claim it is rape. In reality, the majority of women actually do not wear Western clothing in public because of the fear of provoking sexual assault.
The discussion surrounding women's attire "provoking assault" is described as victim blaming by government officials, social commentators, men, and even other women. As society and the Indian government have not been able to successfully address the root of the issue, women resort to strategies to feel safe. Some of these "strategies" include ignoring sexual commentary, avoiding direct eye-contact with men, dressing more modestly, and "refrain[ing] from going out at night". This has escalated to women avoiding public spaces altogether including public transportation, feeding into the expectation that women should stay at home and that they belong there. Critics claim that these avoidance tactics are just a band-aid solution to a much deeper issue relating in victim-blaming and lack of accountability for men in Indian society.
A poll in October 2017, the first of its kind in the world, which was published by Thomson Reuters Foundation, found that Delhi was the fourth most dangerous city in the world for women and it was also the worst city in the world for women when it came to sexual violence, rape and harassment.
=== Nirbhaya Trust ===
In December 2013, the family of the victim along with social entrepreneur Sarvesh Kumar Tiwari established the Nirbhaya Trust, an institute formed to assist women who have experienced violence to find shelter and legal assistance. Due to the fact that Indian laws do not allow the publishing of a rape victim's name, it was named Nirbhaya which means fearless in Hindi, after the name used by the media. The victim's father stated, "So many people supported us, so... we want [to] help those girls who have no one."
=== Women of India Summit ===
Inspired by the protests and international attention, women's rights activists organized the first Women of India Leadership Summit, later renamed the Women of India Summit, in 2013. It is an annual summit that gathers activists together in order to develop strategies that empower women, especially in the National Capital Region, so that Delhi is no longer known as the "rape capital of the world."
== Artistic depictions of Nirbhaya ==
=== BBC Storyville: India's Daughter ===
India's Daughter (2015) is a documentary film directed and produced by Leslee Udwin, and is part of the BBC's ongoing Storyville series. It was scheduled to be broadcast on International Women's Day, 8 March 2015, in India on NDTV 24x7 and in UK on BBC Four. On 1 March it was revealed that the filmmakers had interviewed one of the rapists while he was being held in the Tihar jail. Soon, the news was picked up by Indian media outlets. The Indian government blocked its broadcast in India by obtaining a court order on 4 March. The BBC said it would comply with the order and did not broadcast the film in India. In the UK however, the BBC moved the transmission forward to 4 March, and it was shown on that date. The film was also uploaded on YouTube and soon went viral with various shares on social media. On 5 March, the Indian government directed YouTube to block the video in India and YouTube complied with the order. The film has generated a great deal of controversy in both India and worldwide.
Because India does not permit a rape victim's name to be published, the victim was called "Nirbhaya", which means fearless, because of her efforts to fight off her rapists and her insistence on making a detailed statement to the police before she died. However, following the death of their daughter, the parents were quoted in several media articles as saying they had no objections to using their daughter's name. In the film the father states he is "happy" to reveal her name, Jyoti Singh, and on 5 March the father was quoted as saying he thought "everyone should watch the documentary, which showed 'the bitter truth' about attitudes to women in India". Even still, on 6 March, the news outlet The Hindu ran an article "Father objects to revealing gangrape victim's name in 'India's Daughter'" in which they quoted the father as saying that he planned to take legal action because her name was used.
The film's director and producer Leslee Udwin said that it was the courage and bravery shown by the unprecedented numbers of men and women who protested the rape and murder that inspired her to make the film. Speaking in an interview, Udwin said:
Courageous and impassioned ordinary men and women of India braved the December freeze to protest in unprecedented numbers, withstanding an onslaught of teargas shells, lathi charges [baton charges] and water cannons, to make their cry of "enough is enough" heard. In this regard, India led the world by example. In my lifetime, I can't recall any other country standing up with such commitment and determination for women's rights.
In reference to the actual film, Nirbhaya's father, Badrinath Singh, said that India's Daughter "holds up a mirror to society", and that the screening of the film holds a significance in the sense "that the struggle that my daughter was part of continues." Singh has also said that since the death of his daughter "every girl on the street is [now] like a daughter" to him and his wife, and that people in general need to understand that their sons need to be taught to respect women. Speaking on 5 March, Singh said:
My wife and I brought up our children with the sole intention of making them good citizens. I can proudly say that we have achieved that. Our daughter has shown society its true face. She has changed the lives of many young girls. She remains an inspiration even after her death. She fought back those devils. We are proud of our daughter.
=== Anatomy of Violence by Deepa Mehta ===
Indian-Canadian filmmaker Deepa Mehta's 2016 film Anatomy of Violence was also based on the incident, exploring the social conditions and lack of mental and sexual education in Indian society that made it possible.
=== Crime Patrol: "A Nation Awakens" ===
"A Nation Awakens" is the 296th and 297th special two-part episode of the fourth season of the Sony TV television series Crime Patrol (which features real crime stories) and the 546th and 547th episodes overall. Originally aired in two parts on 21 September and 22 September 2013, the episodes were written by Subramanian S. Iyer and director by R. Amit Kumar Jha. The principal photography of the episodes was held in Mumbai, India and was commenced in the first week of January 2013. The episode was hosted by Anup Soni and role of head police inspector was played by Sanjeev Tyagi.
=== Netflix series Delhi Crime ===
Richie Mehta, a Canadian filmmaker, made a seven-part web television series titled Delhi Crime in 2019. It was based on the aftermath and the subsequent manhunt of the perpetrators of the case. Starring Shefali Shah, Rasika Duggal and Adil Hussain, the series was released on Netflix. This 7-episode series won the Best Drama Series at the 48th International Emmy Awards.
=== Literary works ===
The comic book Priya's Shakti was inspired by the Nirbhaya case. The protagonist fights against gender-based sexual violence in India and around the world.
A book on the Nirbhaya case titled Courting Injustice: The Nirbhaya Case and its Aftermath was authored by Rajesh Talwar, and published by Hay House in 2013
On 5 September 2014, Bandaru Dattareya, a member of Parliament and BJP National Vice President, inaugurated "Wo Desh Ki Beti" (Nation's Daughter), a social event at Hyderabad showcasing a collection of sixteen poems authored by Sunil Kumar Verma which depicted the pain of a nation at the gang rape of its daughters.
=== Art ===
Several artists have been inspired to create artworks based on Nirbhaya's story. In January 2014, artists from all over the country came together to hold an art exhibition about Nirbhaya and sexual assault in India. Contemporary scroll painter, Kalam Patua created a painting titled Nirbhaya that was exhibited in The 8th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art. Feminist artist Pritika Chowdhry has created several artworks reimagining Nirbhaya as a superheroine. To depict the large number of rape victims every year, she has created a Nirbhaya superheroine, an Anonymous Nirbhaya mask, and more art projects to advocate against sexual assault through art. Polish-American artist Monica Weiss has created an art memorial for Nirbhaya.
== See also ==
=== General ===
=== Rape crimes ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Fast-track courts
Timeline of the incident |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Nigerien_constitutional_referendum#:~:text=A%20constitutional%20referendum%20was%20held,as%20the%20sole%20legal%20party. | 1989 Nigerien constitutional referendum | A constitutional referendum was held in Niger on 24 September 1989. The new constitution would make the country a one-party state with the National Movement for the Society of Development as the sole legal party. The government would have a presidential system, as well as the continued involvement of the Armed Forces, which had ruled the country since the military coup in 1974.
It was approved by 99.3% of voters with a 94.9% turnout. The first elections under the new constitution were held later in the year on 12 December.
== Results ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics#:~:text=In%20these%20second%20two%20parts,painting%2C%20music%2C%20and%20poetry. | Lectures on Aesthetics | Lectures on Aesthetics or Lectures on Fine Art (German: Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik) is a compilation of notes from university lectures on aesthetics given by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in Heidelberg in 1818 and in Berlin in 1820/21, 1823, 1826 and 1828/29. It was compiled in 1835 by his student Heinrich Gustav Hotho, using Hegel's own hand-written notes and notes his students took during the lectures, but Hotho's work may render some of Hegel's thought more systematic than Hegel's initial presentation.
== Content ==
Hegel develops his account of art as a mode of absolute spirit that he calls "the beautiful ideal," which he defines most generally as Now when truth in this its external existence [Dasein] is present to consciousness immediately, and with the concept remains immediately in unity with its external appearance, the Idea is not only true but beautiful. Beauty is determined as the sensible shining of the Idea. This ideal is developed throughout the Lectures in accordance to Hegel's Logic:
The first universal part is devoted to the concept of the artistic ideal.
The second particular part examines this ideal as it actualizes itself in three stages:
Symbolic art, understood to encompass everything before Classical Greek art
Classical art
Romantic art, understood to emerge with the advent of Christianity on the world stage
The third singular part concerns itself with an examination of each of the five major arts in ascending order of "inwardness":
architecture
sculpture
painting
music
poetry
In these second two parts of the Lectures, Hegel documents the development of art from the paradigmatically symbolic architecture to the paradigmatically classical sculpture to the romantic arts of painting, music, and poetry. At the time it was noted for the wealth of pictures included with it.
Contrary to once-common belief, Hegel nowhere declares art to be "dead." What he says, in a representative statement is, "For us art counts no longer as the highest mode in which truth procures existence for itself." He speaks frequently of its "dissolution" [Auflösung], not its end [Ende], despite Hotho's use of the latter for the heading of the final moment of the Romantic art form.
== Transcripts ==
Lydia Moland states that understanding Hegel's theory of aesthetics presents a significant challenge with Hegel scholarship due to the nature of the surviving materials on aesthetics. Although Hegel lectured on art several times , he died before he was able to publish the handbook that he intended to use to accompany the lectures. Apart from his treatment of the "Art Religion" in the Phenomenology of Spirit, he only published a brief section on art in the Encyclopedia.
After his death, one of his former Berlin students, Heinrich Gustav Hotho, gathered the lecture notes that Hegel had intended to adapt for publication and combined them with a significant number of student notes. While this work has been the standard text for almost 200 years, more recent studies by Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert have shown that there is a significant amount of material in Hotho's text that is not represented in the student notes, and it is unclear how much of the material is originally based on manuscripts that have been lost. Additionally, the student notes show that Hegel's views on aesthetics evolved over time, while Hotho's text only presents a compiled, synthesized version of Hegel's thought.
A resolution of these interpretative challenges may come from the discovery in 2022 made by Hegel's biographer Klaus Vieweg. More than 4,000 pages of notes from Hegel's lectures at Heidelberg University have been discovered in the library of the Archdiocese of Munich and Freising. These notes mainly deal with aesthetics and were written by Friedrich Wilhelm Carové between 1816 and 1818. Vieweg argues that this material will help scholars resolve the issue relating to the authenticity of Hotho's transcriptions, which are so far the only source on Hegel's philosophy of art. These new notes are the only ones available dating back to Hegel's teaching period in Heidelberg and will be of use reconstructing the genesis of Hegelian thought on art and its relationship with religion and philosophy.
== Influence ==
Hegel's Aesthetics is regarded by many as one of the greatest aesthetic theories to have been produced since Aristotle. Hegel's thesis about the historical dissolution of art has been the subject of much scholarly debate and influenced such thinkers like Theodor W. Adorno, Martin Heidegger, György Lukács, Jacques Derrida, and Arthur Danto. Hegel was himself influenced by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Schiller, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. Heidegger calls Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics "the most comprehensive reflection on the essence of art that the West possesses".
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
=== Lecture Trancripts ===
Vorlesung über Ästhetik. Berlin 1820/21. Eine Nachschrift, ed. H. Schneider. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1995.
Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Kunst, ed. A. Gethmann-Siefert. Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag, 2003.
Philosophie der Kunst oder Ästhetik. Nach Hegel. Im Sommer 1826. Mitschrift Friedrich Carl Hermann Victor von Kehler, eds. A. Gethmann-Siefert and B. Collenberg-Plotnikov. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2004.
Philosophie der Kunst. Vorlesung von 1826, eds. A Gethmann-Siefert, J.-I. Kwon and K. Berr. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 2004.
==== Translations ====
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1998). Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. Translated by T.M. Knox. Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823816-4. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
Hegel, G.W.F. (29 July 2004). Introductory Lectures on Aesthetics. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-14-191561-6. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
=== Sources ===
Houlgate, Stephen (ed.), 2007, Hegel and the Arts. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press.
Desmond, William (1 January 1986). Art and the Absolute: A Study of Hegel's Aesthetics. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-150-9. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
Houlgate, Stephen. "Hegel's Aesthetics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
James, David (3 November 2011). Art, Myth and Society in Hegel's Aesthetics. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-6471-1. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
Moland, Lydia L. (15 May 2017). "Hegel's Philosophy of Art". In Moyar, Dean (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Hegel. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-935523-5. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
Moland, Lydia L. (2019). Hegel's Aesthetics: The Art of Idealism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-084732-6. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
Peters, Julia (20 November 2014). Hegel on Beauty. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-63523-9. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
Rutter, Benjamin (29 July 2010). Hegel on the Modern Arts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48978-2.
Robert Wicks (29 January 1993). "Hegel's aesthetics: An overview". In Beiser, Frederick C. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199355228.013.26. ISBN 978-1-139-82495-8. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
=== Further reading ===
Bungay, Stephen, 1984, Beauty and Truth. A Study of Hegel's Aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Desmond, William, 1986, Art and the Absolute. A Study of Hegel's Aesthetics. Albany: SUNY Press.
Geulen, Eva, 2006, The End of Art. Readings in a Rumor after Hegel, trans. J. McFarland. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Lukács, György, 2002, Hegel's Aesthetics, Graduate Faculty Philosophy Journal, vol. 23, Nr 2, 87-124.
Maker, W. (ed.), 2000. Hegel and Aesthetics. New York.
Pippin, Robert, 2009. "The Absence of Aesthetics in Hegel’s Aesthetics", The Cambridge Companion to Hegel and Nineteenth-Century Philosophy , New York [1].
Roche, Mark-William, 1998. Tragedy and Comedy. A Systematic Study and a Critique of Hegel. Albany. New York.
Rutter, Benjamin (2010), Hegel on the Modern Arts, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Winfield, Richard Dien, 1995. Systematic Aesthetics. Gainesville, FL, University Press of Florida.
Wyss, Beat, 1999, Hegel's Art History and the Critique of Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
== External links ==
Hegel’s Lectures on Aesthetics web version of Selections from Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics, by Bernard Bosanquet & W.M. Bryant, "The Journal of Speculative Philosophy", 1886; published by Marxists Internet Archive
[2] German text in .pdf format. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ln_Frankfurter_Stra%C3%9Fe_station#:~:text=K%C3%B6ln%20Frankfurter%20Stra%C3%9Fe%20is%20a,loop%20on%2013%20June%202004. | Köln Frankfurter Straße station | Köln Frankfurter Straße is a station situated at Gremberghoven, Cologne in western Germany on the Cologne Airport Loop and the Cologne–Overath railway. It was opened with the Cologne Airport loop on 13 June 2004.
It is served by the S19 services of the Cologne S-Bahn, which run at 20-minute intervals on weekdays and every 30 minutes on the weekend. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 4 station.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gake_no_Ue_no_Ponyo_(song)#:~:text=%22Gake%20no%20Ue%20no%20Ponyo,the%20film%20in%20August%202008). | Gake no Ue no Ponyo (song) | "Gake no Ue no Ponyo" (崖の上のポニョ; "Ponyo on the Cliff") is the theme song to the Studio Ghibli film Ponyo, released on December 5, 2007 (though gaining popularity with the release of the film in August 2008). It was performed by folk group Fujioka Fujimaki and then eight-year-old Nozomi Ōhashi.
== Writing ==
The song was written in collaboration between veteran Ghibli composer Joe Hisaishi, with lyrics by the film's supervisor Katsuya Kondō and director Hayao Miyazaki. When Hisaishi originally saw the storyboards for the film, he immediately thought up the melody for the song. However, as he believed it was too simple a melody, he did not mention it for two to three months. He eventually showed the song to Miyazaki and producer Toshio Suzuki as he could not get it out of his head. They both believed such a simple song was fitting for the film.
== Promotion ==
Other than being promoted in commercials and in the film Ponyo, the song was used in commercials for Mitsuya Cider. Fujioka Fujimaki and Nozomi Ōhashi performed the song on the new year's song contest Kōhaku Uta Gassen, making Ōhashi the youngest participant after 59 years of airing.
== Chart reception ==
The song was an extremely successful long-seller on Oricon's physical single charts. The song initially only charted for one week at #115 after its initial release in December 2007. It began charting again lowly in below the 100 mark at the beginning of July, and broke into the top ten at #6 by the end of July. The song then spent 11 weeks in the top 10, peaking at #3 for four weeks. The song charted in the top 50 for 15 further weeks (breaking into the top 20 around new years, due to Kōhaku Uta Gassen), and finally stopped charting in the top 200 August 2009, spending more than an entire year on the charts.
On the Billboard Japan Hot 100 (combined physical sales and airplay), the song peaked at #4, and was the 17th most successful song in 2008. Digitally, the song peaked at #1 on RIAJ's monthly ringtone chart, and has been certified platinum for full-length cellphone downloads and double-platinum for ringtone downloads.
== Track listing ==
== Chart positions ==
== Certifications ==
== English version ==
For the overseas release of the film, an English version retitled as "Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea" was released, sung by Noah Cyrus and Frankie Jonas (siblings of Disney teen stars Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers). The song was released as a digital download in May 2010, despite the film being released in North America in August 2009.
Two versions of this cover were created: one, a direct stylistic cover of the original version, and another upbeat pop rock remix of the song.
=== Track listing ===
== Other versions ==
Joe Hisaishi (2009, self cover performed on piano, album Another Piano Stories: The End of the World)
Nana Hiwatari (2008, compilation album Ghibli the Best)
Yūko Kanzaki & Kentarō Hayami, (2009, compilation album Kodomo no Uta: Gake no Ue no Ponyo Hi wa, Mata Noboru)
Meja (2010, album AniMeja: Ghibli Songs)
Takashi Obara (2009, performed on piano on album Ghibli in Classic: Gake no Ue no Ponyo, Tonari no Totoro)
Sumi Shimamoto (2009, album Sumi Shimamoto Sings Ghibli)
Yumiko Tamura, Takashi Irie (2009, compilation album Kazoku Minna no Family Song: Fāmi Son Gake no Ue no Ponyo)
Kenji Yamahira, Keiichi Hosokawa (2008, performed on erhu, album Erhu Chūgoku Dentō Gakki de Kiku Studio Ghibli Sakuhinshū Best Selection)
== References ==
== External links ==
Yamaha profile (in Japanese) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brighton,_New_Zealand | New Brighton, New Zealand | New Brighton is a coastal suburb of Christchurch, New Zealand, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) east of the city centre. It is one of eastern Christchurch's main entertainment and tourist centres. The 2011 Christchurch earthquakes caused significant damage in the area.
== History ==
=== Māori connections ===
New Brighton is of cultural significance for the local iwi or tribe Ngāi Tahu who are the kaitiaki (guardians) of this takiwā (or area). Ngāi Tūāhuriri hapū, a sub-tribe of Ngāi Tahu, hold mana whenua status (territorial rights) in respect to this area. Te Tai o Mahaanui refers to the coast and surrounding land of which New Brighton is a part.
=== Naming ===
The naming of New Brighton was apparently done on the 'spur of the moment' by William Free, an early settler of the area. When Guise Brittan, the Waste Lands Commissioner, visited the area in December 1860, he was recognised and Free chalked 'New Brighton' on a wooden plank, supposedly in reference to his fellow settler Stephen Brooker, who had come from Brighton in England. The suburb is frequently referred to simply as Brighton, occasionally leading to confusion with Brighton near Dunedin.
=== Early settlement ===
Māori people were the first settlers in Canterbury and arrived around the 13th century according to western archaeological evidence, though Māori whakapapa (genealogies) date settlement before this period of time with the discovery of the South Island by Waitaha ancestor, Rākaihautū. Traditional food gathering or mahinga kai sites of Waitaha, Rapuwai, Kāti Mamoe and subsequently Ngāi Tahu iwi included Ihutai (Avon Heathcote Estuary) nearby to New Brighton. Walking trails between Ngāi Tahu settlements (kāika) passed close to New Brighton's present day commercial centre. A sand dune track called Pohoareare ran around Ihutai between Ōpāwaho kāika (settlement) on the Heathcote River and South New Brighton, a popular iwi destination for swimming and catching horihori (sole).
The first English settler's home in the area was built in the 1850s by William Walker in Herring Bay Ihutai Avon Heathcote Estuary (South New Brighton). From 1860 on, increasingly more settlers started to be interested in New Brighton. The first settlers built their houses from mānuka scrub and clay. These cob and sod houses were quite simple with one big room which was partitioned later, weatherboards on the outside walls, beaten clay floor and an oil drum for cooking purposes. Beside the lack of infrastructure, the first settlers had to deal with the nature of the area which consisted of sand dunes with nearly no vegetation. Strong winds could deposit a foot of sand on the first improvised New Brighton roads. Shifting sand was managed by vegetation planting. After a lot of trial and error during which many grass types were planted, it was decided that lupins and marram-grass were the best for stabilising the sand dunes. By 1899, officials had planted a ton of marram-grass.
One of the first businessmen who saw potential in New Brighton was English settler Joseph Harrop Hopkins. On 7 November 1872, Hopkins purchased 150 acres for £300. Within two years, Hopkins built a boarding house and a hotel. After approval from the Licensing Authority on 28 April 1874, the hotel was named "New Brighton". In order to attract new visitors to the area and provide a comfortable and attractive mode of transport, Hopkins purchased an expensive 170-passenger paddle steamer which run daily from central Christchurch (Wards Brewery) to New Brighton. However the steamer didn't attract as much attention as desired and Hopkins fell into financial troubles. In 1875, he had to sell the steamer and his land.
Another person who played a prominent part in the development of the 'Beach' settlement in its early days was George Thomas Hawker (1840–1924) nicknamed "The Father of New Brighton". He arrived from England to Lyttelton in 1865 and operated a bakery in Caledonian Road. He moved to the Beach district in 1869 opening a bakery. Mr Hawker had great faith that the area would become a great seaside resort building one of the first houses on Seaview Road. He bought a lot of land in New Brighton and Bexley area (naming it after Bexley, Kent, England). He owned donkeys for beach rides and belonged to the Pleasant Point Boat Club, New Brighton Library Committee, Rifle Club and Commodore of the local Power Boat Club. As a New Brighton Borough Councillor, in 1907 he moved to rename many of the local streets to what they are now. His Great Grandson Wayne Hawker remembers that he gave land for Central New Brighton Primary School as the Government was trying to get it to be part of the local Church.
Early development of the area was slow. By 1884, according to official records, only 16 houses were present. From 1885, a gradual increase in the number of houses occurred, roads and streets were planned, and the first shops appeared. Development accelerated in the following years. The area used be known simply as the "Beach", which was part of the Avon River Road Board District. As the development continued, the area became a borough in 1897. By 1901, New Brighton reached 1,008 residents. This number further increased to around 4,000 by 1922. In 1941 the borough was annexed by Christchurch City.
== Transportation ==
Before the first roads were built, it was challenging to get to the area. New Brighton was originally separated from the then outer suburbs of Christchurch by the swampy areas adjoining the Avon River / Ōtākaro. Later on, urban expansion, land reclamation and drainage led to New Brighton being connected to Christchurch city. The first English settlers carried goods to and from New Brighton on a galvanised cart drawn by an ox. Mānuka scrub was frequently used as a ground cover to prevent the cart from being bogged. The first road to New Brighton followed the Avon River / Ōtākaro. In 1874, the poor quality of the roading, due to the moving sands of the area, led to the matter being brought to the urgent attention of the Superintendent of the Canterbury Provincial Council, in order to secure funding to improve the roads. Maintenance and improvement of the area's roading was affected by the borough's income. From 1897, a water cart was used on dirt roads, and in 1896 gravel began to be laid on some of the roads.
=== Early public transport ===
In 1861, the first commercial coach service commenced, and from 1872, there were daily coach services from Christchurch which attracted more settlement in the area including boarding houses, baches (holiday homes) and permanent houses.
=== Trams ===
Trams were first introduced to Christchurch thanks to the Canterbury Tramway Company, which was founded in 1878. The first tram services commenced in central Christchurch in 1880, with the tramway system consisting of several lines and stations. Buoyed by its success, the New Brighton Tramway Company was formed in 1885 with the purpose of providing a tram connection from the eastern end of the central Christchurch tramway network, at Linwood, out to New Brighton. Construction of the line, which followed Pages Road, commenced in 1887 and was completed early the following year, with fare-paying services commencing on 15 February 1888. The service proved to be popular, garnering between 3,000 and 5,000 passengers per week. A second tram route, which became known as the North Beach tramline, was constructed by the City and Suburban Tramway Company, passing through Linwood, Avonside, Shirley, Avondale, Rawhiti, before ending at the New Brighton Pier, was completed in 1894.
In this era, the trams on both routes were horse-drawn. It was only with the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in 1905 and which took over the assets of the local tramway companies, that steam engines were introduced to the New Brighton lines. Electrification of the New Brighton tramway lines was completed in August 1906.
=== Trolley buses ===
Over time, the North Beach route proved uneconomic, mainly due to the poor state of the track not enabling the trams to compete with the private Inter City Motors' buses which ran along the same route. The tramline was closed in 1931, with a new electric trolley bus service commencing in its place. The bus company was eventually purchased by the board in 1935, allowing the Board to have a monopoly on that route.
The fate of the main New Brighton tramway line followed that of the economy. The Great Depression of the 1930s caused a decline in patronage, but increased during World War II due to the restrictions placed on other forms of motorised transport. By the late 1940s, the growth of the Christchurch urban and suburban areas, along with increased rates of car ownership meant that the trams were no longer the best mode for public transport. In a process lasting from 1947 to 1951, the Christchurch Transport Board made a series of decisions to phase out the trams, and replace them with diesel-powered buses.
=== Buses ===
The transition away from trams proceeded apace in 1951 when the Christchurch Tramway Board ordered 57 diesel buses, with their routes following that of the former tram and trolley bus network. The Christchurch-New Brighton line was closed down on 18 October 1952. The 5 Brighton bus route, following the same route along Pages Road, commenced the same day. The use of buses allowed other routes to be incorporated into public transport network; these included 5A Aldwins Road, 5B Breezes Road, and 5S South Brighton. The 10 Marshland Road and Richmond bus service, which fed into the North Beach route, commenced on 31 May 1956. The 19 North Beach bus service, which followed what had been the North Beach tram, and then trolley bus, route, commenced on 8 November 1956.
In 1984, two new services, the 30 & 31 Seaside Specials were started to bring people from the southern and northern suburbs, respectively, to New Brighton on Saturdays for shopping. With the introduction of weekend trading, the demand for these services wained, and the buses were discontinued.
As of 2024, New Brighton is serviced by the following bus routes, all operated under the Metro brand:
== Christchurch earthquakes aftermath ==
Due in part to the ground on which it was built, the consequences for New Brighton of the 2011 earthquake did not only relate to building damage.
In December 2012, residents held a protest against the perceived slow progress of rebuilding in the area following the region's damaging earthquakes, in which 80 people bared their bottoms. Christchurch Mayor Bob Parker said he wasn't offended, but the residents were "wrong". These feelings of neglect by the Christchurch City Council would continue to persist. The People's Independent Republic of New Brighton was formed by Paul Zaaman, a New Brighton businesses and landowners association spokesperson, in order to protest a perceived lack of investment by the Christchurch City Council into New Brighton.
New Brighton was named to be the host of the finish of the annual Coast to Coast multisport race in February 2015. The previous finishing point of the race was in Sumner.
Redevelopment of the town centre after the earthquakes based on the New Brighton Centre Master Plan has commenced with He Puna Taimoana hot pools opening, alongside beachside playground, Marine Parade and streetscape enhancements.
== Location ==
The suburb is divided into three sections spread along the southern coast of Pegasus Bay: North New Brighton; New Brighton; and South New Brighton, which lies at the northern end of a narrow peninsula between the bay and the Avon Heathcote Estuary. A 300 metres (980 ft) pier was built here in the 1990s, and opened on 1 November 1997.
New Brighton was originally a distinct coastal village, separated from the then outer suburbs of Christchurch by the swampy areas adjoining the Avon River. However, urban expansion, land reclamation and drainage have led to New Brighton being connected to Christchurch city.
== Demographics ==
New Brighton covers 3.70 km2 (1.43 sq mi). It had an estimated population of 6,510 as of June 2025, with a population density of 1,759 people per km2.
New Brighton had a population of 6,099 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 153 people (2.6%) since the 2013 census, and a decrease of 498 people (−7.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 2,544 households, comprising 3,018 males and 3,084 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.98 males per female, with 1,134 people (18.6%) aged under 15 years, 1,143 (18.7%) aged 15 to 29, 2,952 (48.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 876 (14.4%) aged 65 or older.
Ethnicities were 88.7% European/Pākehā, 14.2% Māori, 4.0% Pasifika, 3.4% Asian, and 2.5% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.
The percentage of people born overseas was 18.5, compared with 27.1% nationally.
Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 59.7% had no religion, 27.1% were Christian, 0.6% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.4% were Hindu, 0.3% were Muslim, 0.5% were Buddhist and 3.3% had other religions.
Of those at least 15 years old, 846 (17.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 1,065 (21.5%) people had no formal qualifications. 567 people (11.4%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 2,454 (49.4%) people were employed full-time, 708 (14.3%) were part-time, and 234 (4.7%) were unemployed.
== Economy ==
For several decades, New Brighton had the distinction of being the only place in Christchurch where general retail shops were permitted to open on Saturdays (remaining closed on Mondays), and the business district thrived as a result. With the introduction of nationwide Saturday trading in 1980, and then seven-day trading in 1990, retail activity declined significantly.
The 2011 Christchurch earthquake compounded New Brighton's struggle for economic wellbeing creating vacant derelict sites in its main retail centre. As part of the New Brighton Regeneration Project, the Beachside Playground has been upgraded and He Puna Taimoana saltwater hot pools built.
Housing projects are planned by a range of developers including Williams Corporation who sold 37 townhouses situated in 180 Marine Parade within 24 hours in March 2022 and The Home Foundation who are building over 60 terraced homes in a development called Te Pakau Maru on Beresford Street. Paradigm Group are planning a mix of ground floor retail with 16 upstairs apartments at the vacant site of 101 Brighton Mall.
== Landmarks ==
=== New Brighton Pier ===
On 18 January 1894, the first New Brighton pier was opened by the Governor of New Zealand, the Earl of Glasgow. In his opening speech, the Earl said:The 180 m (590 ft) long timber structure took three years to build and its opening was a significant achievement in promoting New Brighton as a health and recreational resort. Some commentators believe that this potential of New Brighton as a recreational and health resort similar to English New Brighton has not been realised, possibly because of its prevalent harsh winds, poor soils and the somewhat shabby image of the suburb. The pier stood until 1965 when it was demolished as the run down structure wasn't deemed safe by the City Council.
A new 300 m (980 ft) long concrete pier was constructed and opened on 1 November 1997. In 1999, a library and cafe building was erected at the pier's base. The building received awards from New Zealand Institute of Architects. The pier was closed for earthquake repairs in 2016 and reopened again in May 2018.
=== St Faith's Anglican church ===
St Faith's is an Anglican church located on Hawke street. The original wooden church was built in 1886 and enlarged in 1909. The present church was built between 1924 and 1925. It was constructed using Port Hills’ basalt, a slate roof and Oamaru stone dressings and linings. It was badly damaged in the 2010/11 Christchurch earthquakes. After work to restore and strengthen the church building, it was reopened in May 2022.
=== He Puna Taimoana Hot Pools ===
Developed for $19.2m and opening in April 2020, the hot pools have five outdoor pools for year-round use, as well as a café, sauna and steam room. The name, translated as “coastal pools” or “seaside pools”, reflects the location of the pools and surrounding environment, and was gifted by Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tūāhuririri and Matapopore. In March 2024, the complex welcomed its 500,000th visitor.
== Education ==
There were no schools in the New Brighton district up until 1889, the nearest school was located 2 miles away in Burwood. At present time, New Brighton contains no secondary schools. The nearest secondary schools are situated side by side being Shirley Boys' High School and Avonside Girls' High School in the suburb of North New Brighton. New Brighton contains three primary schools:
New Brighton Catholic School: a state-integrated full primary school for years 1 to 8, established in 1935.
Nova Montessori School: a private full primary school for years 1 to 8, established in 1988.
Rāwhiti School: a state full primary school for years 1 to 8, opened in January 2015 as the result of a merger of Central New Brighton, Freeville, and North New Brighton schools.
The suburb also has a number of kindergarten and childcare facilities, including New Brighton Community Preschool and Nursery.
== Sport and recreation ==
Rāwhiti Domain is the main sports field in the suburb, and has facilities for the Rawhiti Golf Club, New Brighton Rugby Football Club, New Brighton Cricket Club, and the New Brighton Olympic Athletic Club. The suburb also has a bowling club, located at the Returned Services' Association building.
The New Brighton Surf Bathing and Life Saving Club is the oldest surf life saving club in New Zealand, having been established in July 1910.
== References ==
== Cited works ==
== External links ==
Media related to New Brighton, New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons
NIWA: Pier-cam hourly image
New Brighton Pier, circa 1915, Christchurch City Libraries
New Brighton Surf Club
Edge of the East 2016, Christchurch City Libraries |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._M._Krishna | S. M. Krishna | Somanahalli Mallaiah Krishna (1 May 1932 – 10 December 2024) was an Indian politician who served as Minister of External Affairs of India from 2009 to October 2012. He was the 10th Chief Minister of Karnataka from 1999 to 2004 and the 19th Governor of Maharashtra from 2004 to 2008. S. M. Krishna served as the Speaker of the Karnataka Vidhana Soudha from December 1989 to January 1993. He was also a Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha member from 1971 to 2014. He is widely credited with putting Bengaluru on the world map by building the foundation for it to become the IT Hub that it is today during his tenure as Chief Minister. In 2023, Krishna was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award of India.
== Early life and education ==
S. M. Krishna was the son of S. C. Mallaiah, born on 1 May 1932 to a Vokkaliga family in a village named Somanahalli in the Maddur Taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka. He finished his High School in Sri Ramakrishna Vidyashala, Mysore. He completed his Bachelor of Arts from Maharaja's College, Mysore. He obtained a law degree from University Law College, which was then known as Government Law College in Bangalore. Krishna studied in the United States, graduating with Master of Laws degree from Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas and The George Washington University Law School in Washington D.C, where he was a Fulbright Scholar.
== Political career ==
Krishna was politically active as a student in the US. During the 1960 United States presidential election, he campaigned for John F. Kennedy in areas dominated by Indian Americans. After being elected President, Kennedy wrote to Krishna, in 1961, conveying his "warm appreciation of your efforts during the campaign." Upon returning to India, Krishna worked as a professor of international law at Renukacharya Law College, Bangalore.
Krishna began his electoral political career in 1962 when he was elected to the Mysore Legislative Assembly from Maddur. Krishna ran as an independent, defeating K. V. Shankar Gowda, the prominent politician from the Indian National Congress (INC) for whom Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru had campaigned.
Krishna then joined the Praja Socialist Party (PSP) but lost to M. Manchegowda of the INC in the 1967 election. However, he was elected to the Lok Sabha in 1968 at the by-polls from Mandya, following the death of the sitting parliamentarian.
In 1968, Krishna was influential in reconciling members of the Indian National Congress and the PSP. He served three terms as an member of parliament from Mandya, starting from the 1968 by-poll as a PSP candidate. His following terms were as a Congressman, winning elections in 1971 and 1980. Mandya remained a Congress stronghold, represented in Lok Sabha later by his political proteges such as Ambareesh and Divya Spandana (also known as Ramya). Krishna resigned from the Lok Sabha in 1972, and became a member of the Karnataka Legislative Council and was appointed a minister by Devaraj Urs.
After he went back to Lok Sabha in 1980, Krishna served as a minister under Indira Gandhi between 1983–84. He lost his run for the Mandya Lok Sabha seat in the 1984 elections. He was reelected to the Karnataka legislative assembly in 1985. He served as Speaker of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly between 18 December 1989 and 20 January 1993. He served as Deputy Chief Minister of Karnataka from 1993 to 1994. Later, he became a member of the Rajya Sabha between April 1996 and 1999.
In 1999, as Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee president, he led his party to victory in the 1999 assembly polls and took over as Chief Minister of Karnataka, a post he held until being defeated in 2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly elections. He was also instrumental in creating power reforms with the ESCOMS and digitization of land records (BHOOMI) and many other citizen-friendly initiatives. He encouraged private-public participation and was a sponsor of the Bangalore Advance Task Force.
Krishna was appointed Governor of Maharashtra on 6 December 2004. Krishna resigned as Governor of Maharashtra on 5 March 2008. It was reported that this was due to his intention to return to active politics in Karnataka. President Pratibha Patil accepted his resignation on 6 March.
Krishna entered the Rajya Sabha and subsequently took the oath of office as Union Cabinet Minister of External Affairs in the Council of Ministers under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 22 May 2009. In his tenure as the external affairs minister, he visited a number of countries including Tajikistan in 2012 to strengthen economic and energy ties. Krishna resigned as External Affairs Minister on 26 October 2012 indicating a return to Karnataka state politics.
Krishna resigned as a member of INC on 29 January 2017, stating that the party was in a "state of confusion" on whether it needed mass leaders or not. He also complained of having been sidelined by the party and that the party was "dependent on managers and not time-tested people like himself". After speculation concerning his joining the Bharatiya Janata Party, he formally joined the party in March 2017. He announced his retirement from politics in January 2023, citing age-related issues.
== Positions held ==
== Personal life ==
Krishna was married to Prema. They had two daughters. His daughter Malavika Krishna was married to the Late V. G. Siddhartha, a businessman and the founder of Cafe Coffee Day. He had a younger brother, Shankar (died 2019), who was a member of the Karnataka Legislative Council.
At the dusk of his political life, he released his biography, Smritivahini, in the presence of many dignitaries. He penned many interesting incidents, including Veerappan Kidnapping of Rajkumar during his tenure as the chief minister. He also quoted that the former prime minister of India and national president of Janata Dal (Secular) H. D. Devegowda had strong plans of joining Indian National Congress twice during the period of National emergency.
Krishna died from a long illness at his residence in Bengaluru, on 10 December 2024, at the age of 92. He was cremated with state honours complete with gun salute at his ancestral village of Somanahalli in Maddur taluk of Mandya district on 11 December. The Karnataka Government announced a three day mourning period.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to S. M. Krishna at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_Power_Party_(South_Korea) | People Power Party (South Korea) | The People Power Party (PPP; Korean: 국민의힘; lit. Power of Nationals) is a conservative and right-wing political party in South Korea. It is the second-largest party in the National Assembly. The PPP, along with its historic rival the Democratic Party, make up the two largest political parties in South Korea.
The PPP was founded as the United Future Party (UFP) on 17 February 2020 through the merger of the Liberty Korea Party, New Conservative Party, and Onward for Future 4.0, as well as several minor parties and political organizations. It contested the 2020 legislative election together with its satellite party, the Future Korea Party; the alliance achieved the worst conservative result since 1960. The party renamed to the People Power Party on 31 August 2020. It achieved electoral success in the 2021 by-elections. In 2022, PPP presidential candidate Yoon Suk Yeol was elected as the president of South Korea, followed by PPP victories in the 2022 local elections. Due to the unpopularity of the Yoon administration, the party lost the 2024 legislative election. Yoon declared martial law in December 2024, prompting his impeachment. In 2025, PPP candidate Kim Moon-soo lost the presidential election to Democratic Party candidate Lee Jae Myung, returning PPP to the opposition.
The PPP is generally seen as right-wing and conservative. It supports economic liberalism and fiscal conservatism, and has been described as socially conservative, hostile towards feminism and anti-communist. It favors strengthening South Korea's alliance with the United States, as well as improving relations with Japan. The PPP takes a hawkish stance towards North Korea, as well as an ambigious stance on relations with China.
== History ==
=== Background ===
Due to the political scandal in 2016, President Park Geun-hye was impeached, and several members of parliament (MPs) quit the then-ruling Liberty Korea Party (LKP) to form the Bareun Party. Following the impeachment of Park on 10 March 2017, the LKP de jure lost its ruling party position. After the Democratic presidential candidate Moon Jae-in was elected on 9 May, the LKP officially became the main opposition. Although several Bareun MPs returned to the LKP, the party did not fully recover, losing ground in the 2018 local elections. The LKP president, Hong Joon-pyo, resigned to take responsibility for the defeat. The Bareunmirae Party, formed from a merger between the Bareun Party and the smaller, centrist People's Party, also faced a defeat in the 2018 local elections.
The two conservative parties held snap leadership elections. On 2 September 2018, the Bareunmirae Party elected Sohn Hak-kyu as its new president. On 27 February 2019, the Liberty Korea Party elected former Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-ahn as its new leader. Lee Un-ju, a Bareunmirae MP, quit her party and was widely expected to join the LKP, but formed a new party named Onward for Future 4.0. With the exit of the Bareunmirae Party's President Sohn, other former Bareunmirae MPs faced conflicts and founded the New Conservative Party. As a "conservative union", the Liberty Korea Party, Onward for Future 4.0, and the New Conservative Party agreed to merge and establish a new party.
The new party's name was initially set as the Grand Unified New Party (대통합신당), but soon changed to United Future Party (미래통합당). Park Heong-joon, who led the merger and re-foundation, explained that the name shows support for youths and political solidarity.
=== Founding congress ===
Following the merger and re-foundation of the three conservative parties into the United Future Party (UFP) on 17 February 2020, it elected the Liberty Korea Party's President Hwang Kyo-ahn as the president. Though much of the UFP's leadership resembles that of the LKP, Vice Presidents Won Hee-ryong and Kim Young-hwan are not from the LKP.
South Korean President Moon Jae-in and the Democratic Party Leader Lee Hae-chan congratulated the new party's founding, but the move was not welcomed by other members. Some sources reported that the party was planning to file a lawsuit against Moon. Yoo Seong-min, the former Bareunmirae president, did not attend the founding congress. Yoo Young-ha, who is in support of Park Geun-hye, exited the LKP before the formation of the new party.
=== 2020–2021 ===
The party contested the 2020 elections with its sister satellite party, the Future Korea Party (FKP). However, some UFP candidates, such as Cha Myong-jin and Kim Dae-ho, provoked controversies for defamatory remarks. The party was defeated in the election with some of the worst results historically for a conservative party in South Korea. The UFP won 103 out of 300 seats in the National Assembly, slightly over one-third of the seats. The party lost several key figures, including Oh Se-hoon, Na Kyung-won, Shim Jae-chul, and Kim Jin-tae. Party Leader Hwang Kyo-ahn, who contested for Jongno, was defeated by former Prime Minister Lee Nak-yeon.
After the election, Hwang announced that he would stand down as the party president. Following Hwang's resignation, it was reported that the party would temporarily establish the Emergency Planning Committee, led by Kim Chong-in. Several members, such as Kim Young-woo, disagreed with the establishment of the committee. Hong Jun-pyo, who showed an intention to return to the UFP, also opposed the proposal and revealed Kim's past corruption allegations.
On 8 May, Joo Ho-young was elected the UFP's Floor Leader, automatically becoming the party's interim Leader. On 22 May, the party held an election to nominate Kim Chong-in as the interim President until the next by-elections on 7 April 2021, which he accepted. The same day, the FKP announced its merger by 29 May. On 28 May, both the UFP and FKP officially declared their merger as the unified UFP.
On 13 August, Realmeter had revealed an opinion poll showing that the party has gained more supporters than the ruling Democratic Party (UFP: 36.5%–DP: 33.4%). This was the first time that a conservative party gained more support than a liberal party since the political scandal of regarding President Park Geun-hye in October 2016.
On 31 August, the party decided to change its name to the People Power (국민의힘; the "Party" was added later). The party requested that the name be changed to the National Election Commission. It has been argued that the new proposed name was similar to the minor centrist People Party of Ahn Cheol-soo. There were speculations that the party was willing to form an electoral alliance with the People Party in the 2021 by-elections. Jung Chung-rae, an MP of the Democratic Party, criticised the name for being too similar to a civic organisation established in 2003, where he used to serve as the first co-president.
On 2 September, the party officially changed its name to the People Power Party, its current name. The PPP declared that it would be a centrist and pragmatic party. On 14 September, the party revealed its logo and its 3 colors—red, yellow, and blue, based on temporary decisions. These colors were officially confirmed on 23 September, although yellow was replaced with white.
On 17 September, Kweon Seong-dong, the MP for Gangneung, officially returned to the PPP, leading the party to have 104 seats. He left the party before the 2020 elections, where he ran as an independent candidate. The PPP's total seats were reverted to 103 after Park Duk-hyum, the MP for Boeun-Okcheon-Yeongdong-Goesan, quit the party on 23 September following corruption allegations. He denied all allegations related to him and his family. On 22 December, Jeon Bong-min, the MP for Suyeong, quit the party following corruption allegations against himself and his father. On 7 January 2021, Kim Byong-wook, the MP for Pohang South-Ulleung, withdrew from the PPP due to a controversy related to sexual harassment. The same day, Kim Tae-ho, the former Governor of South Gyeongsang and the incumbent MP for Sancheong-Hamyang-Geochang-Hapcheon, officially rejoined the party.
=== 2021 by-elections ===
Before the 2021 by-elections, the party elected the former Mayor of Seoul Oh Se-hoon as its Seoul mayoral candidate, as well as the former MP for Suyeong, Park Heong-joon as its Busan mayoral candidate on 4 March 2021. In the by-elections on 7 April, the party achieved an outright victory due the Moon government's low popularity, with both Oh and Park being elected by a large margin. Oh Se-hoon, who formerly stepped down as the Mayor of Seoul in 2011, defeated the Democratic candidate Park Young-sun and successfully came back to the position. Park Hyung-joon also defeated the Democratic candidate Kim Young-choon and was elected the Mayor of Busan, despite his several controversies, such as Haeundae LCT The Sharp. The same day, the MP for Gimcheon Song Eon-seok, faced public backlash after it was reported that he was cursing and assaulting office workers. He quit the party on 14 April.
=== Opposition (2021–2022) ===
On 8 April 2021, Joo Ho-young returned as the interim President of the party. He announced his intention to resign as the parliamentary leader on 16 April, adding that he would not serve until his term finishes on 29 May, but instead, until a new person is elected. The same day, the party declared that they will continue the processes to merge the minor People Party. On 30 April, the former Mayor of Ulsan Kim Gi-hyeon was elected the new parliamentary leader of the party, defeating Kim Tae-heum, Kweon Seong-dong, and Yu Eui-dong. He served as the acting party President until the leadership election that was held on 11 June.
On 21 May, Kim Byong-wook, who quit the party in January following a sexual harassment controversy, officially returned to the PPP. On 11 June, Lee Jun-seok was elected the new President of the party, defeating Na Kyung-won and others. On 24 June, the party approved an independent MP Hong Joon-pyo's bid to rejoin. On 15 July, Choi Jae-hyung, one of the potential candidate for the 2022 presidential election, officially joined the party. On 30 July, the former Prosecutor General Yoon Suk Yeol, who was also the most favorable candidate for the 2020 presidential election, officially joined the party. On 5 August, Yoon Sang-hyun, the MP for Incheon East-Michuhol 2nd, rejoined the party, and therefore all 4 PPP-friendly independent MPs successfully returned.
=== 2022 presidential election and by-elections ===
On 5 November 2021, Yoon Suk Yeol won the PPP presidential primary, defeating Hong Joon-pyo. In the presidential election on 9 March 2022, Yoon was elected President of South Korea, defeating Lee Jae Myung by a margin of 0.73%. The party also had significant wins at the March 2022 by-elections that was held along with the presidential election; the party regained 4 out of 5 National Assembly constituencies. Although the party did not contest for Daegu Central-South, Lim Byung-hun, a pro-PPP independent candidate, was elected. This increased the total number of the PPP MPs, from 106 to 110.
On 8 April, Kweon Seong-dong was elected parliamentary leader of the People Power Party, defeating Cho Hae-jin. On 18 April 2022, the minor People Party led by Ahn Cheol-soo merged into the PPP.
=== In government (2022–2025) ===
Following Yoon's inauguration as the President on 9 May, the PPP achieved an outright victory in the local elections on 1 June.
In August 2022, the party leader Lee Jun-seok, who took a critical stance towards Yoon, was removed from his position. The rules of the party convention were limited to 100% of the party member vote, excluding public opinion polls. Yoo Seong-min, a moderate candidate who ranked first in public opinion polls, criticised the change as a way to discredit him. After the Hanbyeon rule change, a number of far-right politicians who insisted on conspiracy theories about fraudulent elections ran for the PPP primary.
Yoon was criticised for attempting to influence the primary in the party leadership race. The rule account for 100% party vote to prevent the election of a candidate critical of the president was also made after the president addressed party lawmakers. Na Kyung-won, who wanted to run for the primary, declared that she would not run. Yoo Seong-min, who was judged to have no chance of winning due to the rule change, also gave up running for the primary. Criticisms were raised in various media outlets that the president intervened excessively in the primary by not maintaining neutrality and excessively pushing certain candidates.
After Na Kyung-won resigned from her candidacy in favour of Kim Gi-hyeon, the election turned into a two-way race between Ahn Cheol-soo and Kim. In this situation, the presidential office sent a friendly message to Kim and called Ahn an "enemy". In addition, members of the "pro-Yoon" faction who supported Kim argued that Ahn took a friendly stance toward progressive intellectuals in the past, saying that he was "a person who respects communists" and "pro-North Korea leftists". The final four candidates for the primary party presidency elections were Cheon Ah-ram, Hwang Kyo-ahn, Kim Gi-hyeon, and Ahn Cheol-soo. On 8 March 2023, Kim Gi-hyeon was elected President of the party. In the primary for the supreme council, all five out of five pro-Yoon candidates were elected. Non-Yoon candidates inside the party criticised that the primary was conducted very unfairly.
On 7 April, Yoon Jae-ok, the MP for Dalseo B, was elected parliamentary leader of the party, defeating Kim Hack-yong. The party brought in the Ihn Yo-han Innovation Committee after losing in the by-election for Gangseo-gu mayor. Party leader Kim Gi-hyeon said he would hand over full authority to the innovation committee chairman. Due to the unpopularity of the Yoon administration, the party lost the 2024 legislative election, with prime minister Han Duck-soo heading a minority government.
==== Martial law crisis ====
After President Yoon declared martial law on 4 December 2024, six opposition parties proposed an impeachment bill against President Yoon. However, the PPP opposed the impeachment of President Yoon and adopted this as its party line. The impeachment bill was submitted to a vote in the National Assembly on 7 December 2024. Due to the PPP boycotting the vote, the impeachment motion failed as it could not be voted on due to a failed quorum of 200 members. Amid public anger over the motion's failure, several PPP lawmakers' offices were vandalized, while others received funeral wreaths with messages such as "insurrection accomplices" written. A box cutter was also found at the residence of MP Kim Jae-sub. A petition filed at the National Assembly website calling for the PPP's dissolution garnered more than 171,000 signatures, exceeding the 50,000 needed to have the proposal submitted to the relevant standing committee.
On 14 December 2024, a second impeachment motion against Yoon passed in the National Assembly with 204 out of 300 lawmakers in favor. This time, 12 of its members supported the measure. As a result, all five members of the PPP's Supreme Council resigned, prompting the formation of an emergency response committee system to lead the party in accordance with its regulations. This was followed by the resignation of PPP leader Han Dong-hoon on 16 December. Kweon Seong-dong became acting party leader. On 24 December, the party nominated Kwon Young-se to head its emergency committee.
Following the termination of Yoon's presidency by the Constitutional Court of Korea, Kim Moon-soo was nominated as the party's candidate in the general election in 2025. On 10 May, Kim's nomination was cancelled and he was replaced by former acting president and prime minister Han Duck-soo, but was later reinstated as the party's nominee. Former PPP leader Hwang Kyo-ahn initially ran as an Independent, but withdrew shortly before election day, endorsing Kim. Ahead of South Korea's 2025 presidential election, Yoon Suk Yeol called for unity among conservatives. However, his appeal drew criticism from reformist members, including Han Dong-hoon and Cho Kyoung-tae, who argue that his past actions have deepened internal divisions and hindered the party's electoral prospects. Kim lost the election to former DPK leader Lee Jae Myung, with former PPP leader and Reform Party candidate Lee Jun-seok splitting many conservative-leaning votes.
=== Opposition (2025–present) ===
The PPP did not fully reject Yoon in the aftermath of the martial law crisis, and its popularity has declined among the public due to its association with the martial law. In August 2025, the PPP elected Jang Dong-hyeok, who had previously opposed the impeachment of Yoon Suk Yeol. The PPP Supreme Council also continued to be dominated by pro-Yoon politicians.
Both the PPP and the Democratic Party (DPK) are embroiled in a political scandal involving allegations of receiving illegal political funds and donations from the Unification Church (sometimes informally called Moonies). On 11 September 2025, the National Assembly approved a motion to arrest former PPP floor leader Kweon Seong-dong on charges of bribery from the Unification Church.
== Main factions ==
Currently, the party is mainly divided between pro-Yoon and non-Yoon factions. However, there are cases where factions are divided into pro-Yoon, non-Yoon, and anti-Yoon. The pro-Yoon faction is friendly toward the former president and follows his agenda. The non-Yoon faction is neutral regarding Yoon, and the anti-Yoon faction opposes Yoon and has often clashed with him.
=== Pro-Yoon ===
"Chin-Yoon" (친윤; lit. 'pro-Yoon') is the faction of the PPP that supports former President Yoon Suk Yeol. The pro-Yoon faction currently has the most power in the party and supreme council and is mainly supported by older party members. The Chin-Yoon faction holds national conservative positions and is sometimes referred to as right-wing to far-right. It has been speculated that former lawmaker Na Kyung-won was criticised for disobeying Yoon's advice not to run for the party leader election in 2023.
=== Non-Yoon ===
"Bi-Yoon" (비윤; lit. non-Yoon) refers to those neutral toward or critical of Yoon. Members who are neutral to Yoon are classified as Bi-Yoon and more critical members as "ban-Yoon" (반윤; lit. anti-Yoon). They are ideologically inconsistent except their opposition towards Yoon Suk Yeol, and there are economically liberal, or paternalistic conservatives similar to the one-nation conservatism present within the UK Conservative Party. Bi-Yoon faction tends to be economically liberal, but moderates like Yoo Seong-min and Choung Byoung-gug support welfare programmes more than the other politicians in the PPP.
== Ideology and political positions ==
The People Power Party is a big tent conservative political party. The PPP is broadly considered to be conservative, national-conservative, and anti-communist, though political spectrums inside it range from moderate conservative to ultraconservative. The People's Power Party is mainly described as right-wing. The party has also been described as far-right, especially since the 2024 martial law crisis.
=== Economic policies ===
In the past, conservative political parties in South Korea supported economic interventionism due to the historical influence of Park Chung Hee. However, the PPP is now more economically liberal, pro-business and supports fiscal conservatism.
=== Social policies ===
The PPP is socially conservative and advocates traditional family values, and national patriotism. PPP and its politicians have taken a hostile stance against feminism. Some young right-wing politicians in the PPP also support Idaenam.
PPP has voiced opposition to the Democratic Party's policy of attempting to regulate dog meat consumption. Yang Joon-woo, a spokesman for PPP, said in 2021 that the "state does not have the right to regulate individual tastes or eating habits". However, in 2023, PPP announced their plans to introduce a bill that would ban dog meat consumption by 2027, with the bill is enacted by the end of 2023. The PPP advocates for the abolishment of the "Korean age" and the standardisation of age counting in South Korea. Lee Yong-ho, the chief of Yoon's transition committee, said the different age counting methods in the country creates "persistent confusion" and "unnecessary social and economic costs".
As South Korea's birthrate continued dropping lower, key politicians in the PPP have started moving away from the conservative immigration policies of the past and have begun to support a more liberal approach. The Yoon administration supported the creation of "Korea Border and Immigration Agency" (이민청); proposals regarding the agency were discussed and failed during the past liberal Kim Dae-jung government. On the other hand, the party's position on foreign voting rights is more restrictive, arguing that "foreigners from countries that do not grant voting rights to South Koreans living abroad should be deprived of all voting rights."
=== Foreign policy ===
PPP has generally taken a friendly stance towards the United States. PPP's conservative wing is generally more pro-United States. President Yoon has taken an overwhelmingly pro-American policy compared to previous presidents by moving high-tech supply chains and production to the United States, as well as signing military agreements with the US.
PPP's position on China is ambiguous, but sometimes critical. However, conservatives in South Korea place more importance on economic pragmatism than liberals, meaning they try to avoid friction with China. PPP has stated that it views China and North Korea separately; after Yoon wrote an Instagram caption signalling "myeolkong", meaning "destroy communists". However, the PPP has politically exploited anti-Chinese sentiment for political gains, including by spreading conspiracy theories about Chinese nationals, which has led to an increase to hate speech and violence against Chinese people. PPP officials have also supported restrictions on Chinese nationals and opposed an increase in Chinese tourists, as well as opposing measures to give Chinese tourists visa-free access.
In regards to Japan, the PPP has a more conciliatory approach compared to the more hawkish Democratic Party. The PPP does not seek direct compensation or apology from the Japanese government and companies for victims of forced labor, a war crime committed by the Empire of Japan and Japanese companies during World War II, instead supporting receiving voluntary donations from South Korean companies through a foundation. The PPP is fiercely anti-communist and advocates a hawkish policy against North Korea. This has led them to usually perform well electorally in constituencies that border the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Many PPP politicians support South Korea having nuclear weapons on its own in order to counter North Korea's nuclear weapons.
== Leadership ==
=== Leaders ===
Note: ERC – as head of Emergency Response Committee
=== Floor Leaders ===
=== Secretary-General ===
== Election results ==
=== President ===
=== Legislature ===
=== Local ===
=== By-elections ===
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Esquivel#:~:text=He%20attended%20St%20John's%20College,education%20at%20Bristol%20University%2C%20England. | Manuel Esquivel | Sir Manuel Amadeo Esquivel (2 May 1940 – 10 February 2022) was a Belizean politician. As leader of the United Democratic Party, he served as the second prime minister of Belize from 1984 to 1989, and then again from 1993 to 1998. His party's victory in 1984 was the first time an opposition party had won a general election in Belize.
== Early life ==
Esquivel was born in Belize City when it was the capital of the British Crown Colony of British Honduras. He attended St John's College and later earned a Bachelor of Science degree in physics at Loyola University New Orleans; he subsequently pursued a postgraduate certificate in physics education at Bristol University, England.
== Politics ==
After the 1969 British Honduras election, Esquivel became head of the pro-business Liberal Party, which later merged with two other parties in 1973 to form the United Democratic Party (UDP). He was elected to the Belize City Council for two terms, and served as UDP chairman from 1976 to 1982. In the 1979 election, Esquivel was the UDP nominee for the Belize House of Representatives in the Freetown constituency. He was defeated by the incumbent Premier of Belize George Cadle Price, leader of the People's United Party (PUP). Esquivel was then appointed a minority member of the Belize Senate. He defeated Philip Goldson for the open UDP leadership post in January 1983, becoming the first and thus far only politician to be elected leader of a major Belizean political party as a senator. Acting opposition leader Curl Thompson stayed on as the UDP's House leader until the following election.
Esquivel was elected in December 1984 to the House of Representatives from the newly formed constituency of Caribbean Shores in Belize City, becoming prime minister for the first time shortly thereafter. The UDP's victory was the first time an opposition party had won since the introduction of universal suffrage in 1954. He held the seat until the 1998 election, in which he was defeated by the PUP's Jose Coye.
Earlier in 1984, the Price government was faced with a financial crisis, and had nearly depleted its financial reserves. After increasing tax rates twice, they entered into a standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Upon becoming prime minister, Esquivel proceeded with economic reforms under the advice of domestic experts such as Edney Cain. Esquivel began moving the economy of Belize away from his predecessor's mixed economy model, encouraging foreign direct investment and the growth of tourism. In his second term, he implemented unpopular austerity measures such as public sector retrenchment. His government suspended pay raises from 1995 to 1997, but transferred 450,000 shares of Belize Telecommunications to a trust for the affected workers. The opposition PUP dubbed Esquivel as "VATMAN" for introducing a 15% value-added tax (VAT) in 1995. While Esquivel's successor Said Musa repealed the VAT in 1999, Musa introduced a similar 10% goods and services tax (GST) in 2005.
After the UDP won the February 2008 election, Esquivel was appointed by Prime Minister Dean Barrow as senior advisor to government with the rank of minister on 12 February 2008. He was also appointed Chairman of the Central Bank of Belize on 18 January 2011. He stepped down as Chairman in September 2013, and resigned from the Cabinet in March 2014.
Esquivel continued to provide opinions on public issues after retiring. Having served on the national flag design committee, he advocated for a standardized definition of the flag and the coat of arms. Although his government had opposed cannabis trafficking, Esquivel expressed support for decriminalization of small amounts in 2017. He published an editorial in the Amandala newspaper supporting the 2019 Belizean territorial dispute referendum. When the government began administering COVID-19 vaccine to citizens over 60, Esquivel and his wife were among the first recipients.
== Personal life ==
Esquivel met his future wife, Kathleen Levy, while he was studying in Bristol. They wed in 1971 and had three children: David, Laura, and Ruth. Laura followed in her father's footsteps as a public servant, serving as a Belize City councilor (2006-2012), Director of the Belize Tourism Board (2012-2014), and Deputy Chief of Mission at the Embassy of Belize in Washington, D.C.
Esquivel was a passenger in vehicle rollovers in 1996 and 2009 on the Western Highway. Both accidents were caused by wet road conditions. While he only sustained minor injuries from the first accident, Esquivel underwent facial surgery after the second.
Kathleen, Lady Esquivel, wrote a biography of Esquivel entitled Still Waters, which was published in 2021. Esquivel died on 10 February 2022, at the age of 81.
== Honours ==
Esquivel was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II in 1986. This life-time appointment confers the title "Right Honourable". He also held an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Loyola University.
Esquivel was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in the 2010 New Year Honours.
In 2021, the Belize City Council renamed an overpass after Esquivel. The coastal road connecting Belize District and Stann Creek District is also named after him.
== See also ==
Politics of Belize
Ministry of Finance (Belize)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_Kufuor | Theresa Kufuor | Theresa Aba Kufuor (née Mensah; 25 October 1935 – 1 October 2023) was the wife of John Kufuor, the second President of the Fourth Republic of Ghana, and First Lady of Ghana from 2001 to 2009. She was a nurse and midwife.
== Early life and education ==
Kufuor, the youngest child in her family, was born Theresa Mensah on 25 October 1935. Her older brother was the economist and New Patriotic Party politician, Joseph Henry Mensah.
She started her education at the Catholic Convent, OLA, at Keta in the Volta Region of Ghana. She later went to London, where she was educated as a Registered General Nurse, in the Southern Hospital Group of Nursing. Edinburgh, Scotland.
After further study at the Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford and Paddington General Hospital, London, she qualified as a State Certified Midwife with a Certificate in Premature Nursing.
== Personal life ==
Theresa married John Kufuor when he was at age 23 after they met at a Republic Day Anniversary Dance in London in 1961. They got married in 1962. She had five children with John Kufuor, former president of Ghana; J. Addo Kufuor, Nana Ama Gyamfi, Saah Kufuor, Agyekum Kufuor and Owusu Afriyie Kufuor. She was a mother of five, and a grandmother of eight. She was a devout Roman Catholic.
Despite being the first lady of Ghana for eight years between 2001 and 2009, she managed to maintain a low profile in the political arena. In 2007 she pushed for policy changes in the Government's white paper on Educational Reforms towards the implementation of UNESCO's Free compulsory universal basic education (FCUBE) program for kindergarten children.
Kufuor founded the Mother and Child Community Development Foundation (MCCDF), a non-governmental organisation operating in Ghana and Canada that supports work in prevention of mother to child transmission.
=== Death ===
Theresa Kufuor died at her home in Peduase on 1 October 2023, at the age of 87.
==== Funeral Rite ====
On November 16, the funeral for Theresa Aba Kufuor, the former First Lady, took place at Accra's State House. The ceremony included hymns and tributes, followed by the transportation of her remains to Kumasi for the final stage of the three-day funeral at Heroes Park, culminating in her burial in the Ashanti Regional capital.
== Honours ==
On 25 October 2010, Pope Benedict XVI conferred on her husband President John Kufuor, the Papal Award of Knight Commander of St. Gregory the Great, for his dedicated service to mankind and the Catholic Church in general. Theresa Kufuor, on her part, was awarded the Papal Award Dame of St Gregory the Great for her commitment to the plight of poor children and their mothers.
== See also ==
Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings
First Lady of Ghana
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Beamer | Frank Beamer | Franklin Mitchell Beamer (born October 18, 1946) is an American former college football player and coach, most notably for the Virginia Tech Hokies.
Beamer was a defensive cornerback for Virginia Tech from 1966 to 1968. He began coaching as a graduate assistant at the University of Maryland in 1972, and was the head football coach at Murray State University from 1981 to 1986. He became the head football coach at Virginia Tech in 1987, where he stayed for the remainder of his coaching career until 2015. He was one of the longest tenured active coaches in NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision and was the winningest active coach at that level at the time of his retirement. Upon retiring, Beamer accepted a position as special assistant to the Virginia Tech athletic director, where he focuses on athletic development and advancement. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2018.
== Early life and playing career ==
Beamer was born in Mount Airy, North Carolina, and grew up on a farm in Fancy Gap, Virginia.
Beamer is a direct descendant of the notorious Allen clan of Carroll County, Virginia. In 1912, during a court trial, his great-uncle, Floyd Allen, fired rounds in a spasm of violence. The courtroom shooting left five people dead, including the judge, a prosecutor, and the county sheriff.
In 1953, at the age of seven, Beamer suffered a life-altering accident. After using a push broom to keep a pile of burning trash in place, he returned the broom to its place in the garage, unaware that it was smoldering. A spark ignited a nearby can of gasoline, which exploded in front of him. His 11-year-old brother Barnett saved him by rolling him around on the ground. He was left with burns on his shoulders, chest, and the right side of his neck. Over the next several years, Beamer underwent dozens of skin graft procedures, leaving him with permanent scarring.
Beamer attended high school in Hillsville, Virginia, and earned 11 varsity letters in three different sports: football, basketball, and baseball. In 1966, he attended Virginia Tech and played football. He was a starting cornerback for 3 years, playing in the 1966 and 1968 Liberty Bowls. He graduated from Virginia Tech in 1969 with Omicron Delta Kappa distinction. After graduating, Beamer was an assistant football coach at Radford High School, while attending Radford University for graduate school.
== Coaching career ==
=== Early coaching positions ===
Beamer began as an assistant at Radford High School from 1969 through 1971. His college coaching experience started in 1972, when he became a graduate assistant for the University of Maryland, College Park. After one season, he became an assistant coach at The Citadel under Bobby Ross. He spent seven seasons at The Citadel, the last two as the defensive coordinator.
=== Murray State ===
Beamer was hired as the defensive coordinator at Murray State University in 1979 under head coach, Mike Gottfried. In 1981, after two seasons as defensive coordinator, he was promoted to head coach. In his six years as head coach, Beamer compiled a record of 42–23–2 (.642). He hired former Murray State defensive back Bud Foster as a graduate assistant in 1981. Foster later joined Beamer's coaching staff at Virginia Tech in 1987.
=== Virginia Tech ===
==== Early years (1987–1992) ====
On December 22, 1986, Beamer was hired as the head coach at Virginia Tech, replacing Bill Dooley, the winningest coach in school history to date. However, Dooley had been forced to resign due to numerous NCAA violations. Beamer signed a four-year contract worth $80,000 annually, hired by Virginia Tech's new athletic director, Dale Baughman, also replacing Dooley in that capacity. Beamer took over a Virginia Tech football program that had reached six bowl games to that point (three under Dooley).
As a result of the violations uncovered under Dooley's watch, the Hokies were limited to 85 total scholarships in 1988 and 1989, and 17 initial scholarships in 1989. The sanctions hampered the Hokies, and Beamer went a combined 5–17 in 1987 and 1988. Beamer's record in his first six seasons was 24-40-2, a win percentage of .385. After the team went 2–8–1 in 1992, athletic director Dave Braine believed in Beamer and thought he deserved more time. It proved to be a wise decision; the Hokies would not suffer another losing season under Beamer's watch. At his hall of fame induction, Beamer said he would have been unlikely to survive his early years had he been coaching in the 2010s.
==== Big East (1993–2003) ====
In 1993, the Hokies would go 9-3 and won the Independence Bowl; at the time, it was only the fourth time in school history that the Hokies had won as many as nine games in a season. The Hokies would go on to a combined record of 75–21 from 1993 to 2000. This included the Hokies' first major-bowl appearances in school history, after the 1995, 1996 and 1999 seasons. The peak year in this stretch was 1999, when the Hokies went 11–0 in the regular season earning a spot to the 2000 Sugar Bowl to play Florida State for the BCS National Championship. Behind the play of quarterback Michael Vick, Virginia Tech led Florida State 29–28 early in the fourth quarter, but lost 46–29. The Hokies finished second in the AP Poll and third in the Coaches' Poll–the highest final rankings in school history, and the highest for a Division I team from Virginia.
In 2000, Virginia Tech had its second straight 11-win season, only losing to Miami when Heisman candidate Michael Vick was suffering a severe ankle sprain and did not start. Using a simple mathematical formula used by College Football Reference to rate every season for every major college football team, it was Tech's best year in history, and remains the best in 2023. As Tech was in a bye week preparing for its annual game with UVA, Beamer says he was contacted by the University of North Carolina and offered the job to replace soon-to-be fired coach Carl Torbush. Beamer reports in his book, Let me be Frank: My Life at Virginia Tech, that he told UNC that he would accept the job on the off-Saturday the week before the UVA game. "It would be one of the biggest mistakes of my life," he says in the book. He visited Chapel Hill on the Sunday following the UVA win to, as he says in the book, "work out the details." "I never signed a contract, and they wanted me to stay that Sunday night and have the introductory press conference on Monday morning....I know they were thinking if we got on that airplane to come home, I would change my mind. And that's exactly what I did." On the eve of the UVA game, Tech had made a very public announcement (including a press release with a statement from Tech president Charles Steger) that Beamer had been offered a $1 million salary if he stayed. What Beamer says made the difference was a $100,000 bump in his assistant coaches' salaries that made them one of the top three paid coaching staffs in the nation, and a commitment to continue expanding the football facilities at his alma mater. He woke up Monday morning in Blacksburg, and wrote in his book that he said to himself "(t)his is my alma mater. This is where I want to be. And this is where we will be as long as I am coaching."
==== ACC (2004–2015) ====
Virginia Tech continued its bowl eligibility streak into the new millennium and won the 2004 ACC Championship in its first season in the league. Over the course of the next seven seasons, from 2005 to 2011, Virginia Tech won at least 10 games every season. The Hokies were the only team in the country to do so. Beamer's record from 1993 to 2011 was 185–58 for a winning percentage of .761. This was the 4th highest win percentage in the country over this period. Although Virginia Tech went just 28–23 from 2012 to 2015, the Hokies still finished each season with a winning record and a bowl bid.
On November 1, 2015, Beamer announced his retirement from coaching, effective at the end of the 2015 season. He was carried off the field after beating Virginia in the final regular season game to become bowl eligible. Beamer's last game was a 55–52 win over Tulsa in the Independence Bowl on December 26. Memphis' Justin Fuente replaced Beamer as the head football coach at Virginia Tech at the end of the 2015 season.
==== Coaching records and awards ====
Beamer amassed an overall record of 238–121–2 (.663) in his 29 years at the school. His teams went to postseason play after every season from 1993 until his retirement in 2015. The Hokies' consecutive bowl appearances streak—the longest in the nation at the time—continued under his successor, Justin Fuente, until the 2020 season. At the time of his retirement, Beamer owned all of the Hokies' 11-win seasons in school history, as well as all of the seasons in which the Hokies won 10 games on the field. Bill Dooley's last team, in 1986, finished with nine wins on the field, but was awarded a tenth win by forfeit.
Beamer's teams won three Big East championships and four ACC titles. Beamer won many awards over his career. He was named the Big East Coach of the Year three times, in 1995, 1996, and 1999. He also was named the ACC Coach of the Year in 2004 and 2005.
==== Bowl games ====
Beamer led the Virginia Tech Hokies to 23 consecutive bowl games beginning in his seventh season in 1993 until he retired in 2015. It was the second-longest active consecutive bowl streak in the country at the time of his retirement.
* Assistant Head Coach, Shane Beamer was the acting Head Coach for the 2014 Military Bowl.
== Retirement and post-coaching career ==
On November 1, 2015, after 29 seasons as head coach of Virginia Tech, Beamer announced his retirement from coaching, effective at the end of the 2015 season. During his tenure, he coached the Hokies to 23 consecutive bowl games, including a national championship appearance, along with seven conference championship titles. At the time of his retirement, he was the winningest active coach in Division I FBS with 280 career victories. and is the sixth winningest coach in history at the Division I FBS level.
=== Special assistant to the Virginia Tech athletic director ===
In late 2015, shortly after announcing his retirement at the end of the season, Beamer signed an eight-year contract with Virginia Tech, serving as a special assistant to Whit Babcock, director of athletics at Virginia Tech, focusing on athletic development and advancement.
=== College Football Playoff Committee ===
On January 17, 2017, Beamer was appointed to the College Football Playoff Committee. Beamer joined the 13-member panel, which was formed when the College Football Playoff was implemented in 2013. It is a 3-year appointment and he was the 14th person to be named to the committee. The members meet each of the final six weeks of the regular season to create a weekly poll of the top 25 teams in the country. The panel determines the top four college football teams for the playoff games to decide the national champion.
== Legacy ==
=== Hall of Fame Inductions ===
=== Honors and tributes ===
==== "Beamerball" ====
During Beamer's tenure at Virginia Tech, putting points on the scoreboard has become a full team effort with the offensive, defensive and special teams units. Often when the team scores one or more non-offensive touchdowns, the style of play is described as "Beamerball". Since Beamer's first season in 1987, a player at every position on the defensive unit has scored at least one touchdown, and 35 different players have scored touchdowns on Virginia Tech's special teams.
==== Beamer Way ====
On August 6, 2015, Virginia Tech renamed Spring Road to Beamer Way in honor of Beamer. Located on the west side of Lane Stadium, it is the primary access route to the campus sports facilities. The Virginia Tech Athletics Department also changed its mailing address to 25 Beamer Way to commemorate his jersey number as a player at the school.
==== #25 Beamer Jersey ====
Before the beginning of the 2016 football season, new coach Justin Fuente and his staff collaborated on ideas of how to honor Beamer during the season. On August 29, 2016, the team announced that as an homage to Beamer's transcendent contributions and dedication to special teams, one deserving special teams player would be chosen to wear the number 25 jersey for each game of the 2016 season, earning the title Special Teams Player of the Week. Beamer wore the number 25 when he played at Virginia Tech as a cornerback from 1966 to 1968. The honorary jersey became so popular with the players, fans, and coaches that the team continued the tradition beyond the 2016 season.
==== Frank Beamer Day ====
February 4, 2016, was declared Frank Beamer Day in Virginia by Governor Terry McAuliffe. In a ceremony on the steps of the Virginia State Capitol in front of a crowd of Virginia Tech students, faculty, and alumni—including his wife, Cheryl Beamer, government affairs directors, Paul Rice and Harvey Creasey III, and university president, Timothy Sands—Governor McAuliffe presented Beamer with a framed certificate to honor his achievements as the head coach of the Virginia Tech football program.
==== Beamer–Lawson Indoor Practice Facility' ====
On October 6, 2018, Virginia Tech renamed its indoor practice facility to the Beamer–Lawson Indoor Practice Facility. The building, constructed in 2016 was renamed for Beamer and the family of John Lawson, a former rector of the Virginia Tech Board of Visitors and longtime donor
==== Frank Beamer Statue ====
On October 6, 2018, a permanent bronze statue, honoring Beamer's legendary coaching career at Virginia Tech, was unveiled on Moody Plaza outside the southwest entrance to Lane Stadium, on Virginia Tech's campus.
==== Ut Prosim Medal ====
On May 11, 2023, and Virginia Tech's spring commencement ceremony, Beamer received the Ut Prosim Medal, the university's highest honor, which recognizes "those who embody service, sacrifice, generosity, and esteemed accomplishment that reflect honor on both the individual and the university".
==== Other honors ====
On July 29, 2016, Beamer was initiated into Alpha Sigma Phi fraternity at the organization's 54th Grand Chapter in Norfolk, Virginia.
On February 1, 2017, Beamer accepted an invitation from Virginia Tech Men's Basketball Coach, Buzz Williams to be an honorary assistant basketball coach and travel with the team for a game at the University of Virginia.
On September 3, 2017, Beamer served as an honorary captain for the Virginia Tech football team for the season opener against West Virginia played at FedEx Field in Landover, MD.
On January 25, 2018, the Virginia House of Delegates issued a joint resolution (2018- No.158) commending Hall of Fame Coach Frank Beamer on his many lifelong accomplishments.
On January 9, 2019, Beamer was awarded the Paul "Bear" Bryant Lifetime Achievement Award at a ceremony in Houston, Texas. Beamer became the award's 23rd recipient.
On December 10, 2019, The College Football 150 ranked Beamer #19 on its Top 25 Coaches in Bowl History list. Beamer was also listed #45 on the 150 greatest coaches in college football's 150-year history.
== Personal life ==
Beamer married Cheryl (née Oakley) on April 1, 1972. The two met on a blind date, arranged by Cheryl's sister Sheila, while Beamer was a senior at Virginia Tech. They have two children, Shane and Casey, and six grandchildren. His son, Shane played football at Virginia Tech as a long snapper, and was a member of the 1999 team that played for the national championship. After assistant coaching stops at four different universities, Shane was hired by Virginia Tech in 2011 as the running backs coach and associate head coach. Shane left Virginia Tech in 2015 to be the running backs coach at the University of Georgia and later became an assistant at Oklahoma University. He is currently the head coach at the University of South Carolina.
In 2006, Beamer and his wife Cheryl published the children's book Yea, It's a Hokie Game Day! under Virginia publisher Mascot Books, Inc.
After the April 16, 2007, Virginia Tech shooting, Beamer was a powerful voice in the Blacksburg community, stating that the most important thing that the Virginia Tech and surrounding community could do was to disallow the act of violence to define the university. Beamer is quoted as saying, "We can't let one person destroy what goes on here every day, the caring, the thoughtfulness. We can't let one person destroy that."
== Head coaching record ==
== See also ==
List of college football career coaching wins leaders
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
College Football Hall of Fame profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_College#:~:text=It%20was%20founded%20in%201875%20and%20Colonel%20Sir%20Oliver%20St,an%20%22Eton%20of%20India%22. | Mayo College | Mayo College (informally Mayo) is a boys-only private boarding school in Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. It was founded in 1875 and named after the 6th Earl of Mayo, who was the Viceroy of India from 1869 to 1872, making it one of the oldest public boarding schools in India.
The idea for the college was proposed in 1869 by Colonel Walter. It was founded in 1875 and Colonel Sir Oliver St John became its first principal. The founder intended to create an "Eton of India". The 2nd Baron Lytton, Viceroy of India, said in a speech on campus in 1879:
"The idea was well expressed long ago by Colonel Walter in an excellent and most suggestive report which may have influenced Lord Mayo when he founded the present college. In that very sensible report, Colonel Walter pointed out that what was then most needed for the education of India's young rulers and nobles was an Indian Eton. Mayo is India's Eton and you are India's Eton boys".
It aimed to provide the leaders of the princely states with an education similar to that given by Eton College. The British built Mayo for the sons of the Indian upper classes, particularly the princes and nobles of India. Mayo College holds the privilege of educating many members of the Indian Royal Families and also the Royal family of Oman, Said bin Taimur (the 13th Sultan of Muscat and Oman) attended Mayo College from 1922 to 1927 where he mastered English and Urdu.
== Coat of arms ==
The coat of arms was composed from the design furnished by Lockwood Kipling, a former principal of the School of Arts, Lahore, and father of Rudyard Kipling.
In the upper centre of the shield are Mayo Arms and Quarterings, a Lion Rampant and an open hand. On the right and left are the sun and the moon, typical of Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi, the two great families of Rajputs. Below are the Panch Rang, the five sacred colours of the Rajputs, Red, Gold, Blue, White and Green. In the centre is a Rajput fort – two towers connected by a curtain. The supports are on the right: a Bhil warrior with string bow and full quiver of arrows. On the left a Rajput, armed at all points, wearing a steel helmet with three plumes, a shield on his back, a dagger and katar in his belt, and a suit of chain covered with embroidered cloth and gauntlet on his hand.
The motto "Let there be Light" is derived from the Bible. The badge is a peacock, the sacred bird of Rajputana, standing on a double-edged, two-handed Rajput sword called Khanda.
== History and traditions ==
Mayo's first student, H.H. Maharaja Mangal Singh of Alwar, arrived at the school gates in October 1875 on the back of an elephant accompanied by 300 retainers and a menagerie of tigers, camels and horses.
One of the school's traditions is meeting for tea on the lawns known as Mughal Gardens immediately after the Annual Prizegiving ceremony. It is believed that M.N. Kapur (who went on to become one of Modern School New Delhi's most respected principals) did away with using a rope to divide English and Indian guests at this ceremony.
The Annual Prizegiving, one of the oldest ceremonies at Mayo, has seen chief guests including Lord Irwin, Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford, governor general of India, Maharaja Hari Singh, last ruler of Kashmir, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, ex-president of India, Sawai Man Singh II of Jaipur, Gayatri Devi of Jaipur, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Zakir Hussain, ex-president of India, Karan Singh, Indira Gandhi, ex-prime minister of India, field marshal Sam Manekshaw, Sayyid Faher Bin Taimur of Oman, Birendra Shah, King of Nepal, Khushwant Singh, Madhavrao Scindia, Peter Ustinov, Jaswant Singh and LK Advani.
Other traditions at Mayo include an annual horseback parade by the students and sporting fixtures between Old Boys and current students, including a polo match.
== Mayo College General Council ==
There are more than 40 members of the Mayo College General Council including patron, life members, old boys' association representatives and MCGS old girls' representatives.
=== Council of monitors and sports captains ===
The school has a council of monitors consisting of students with posts dealing with school and house duties. There is a monitor and a prefect from each senior house. There are positions held by the students who excel in fields like academics, sports and co-curricular activities. Apart from the council of monitors, there are captains for each sport. Positions are held by the students of 12th class or, rarely, by juniors.
== Houses ==
There are twelve houses of which Eight are senior houses, 1 holding house (for Class 7) and three junior houses (for Class 4, 5 and 6)
The senior houses are Ajmer, Bharatpur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kashmir and Rajasthan, Bikaner & Tonk, Colvin. The holding house is Oman. The junior houses are Ajaypal, Durgadas and Prithviraj.
Each house can accommodate 60–75 students, except for Oman which has a capacity of 120–130 students.
== Sports ==
Mayo College has sporting facilities afor students and staff consisting of playing fields for football and hockey and a cricket ground with a view of the Aravali Hills and an old red sandstone pavilion.
Horse riding was discontinued after Independence and revived again in 1993 with ten horses. Today, Mayo College has more than 60 horses and close to 250 boys and girls are trained. Mayo has ten polo players who practice at the Sawai Man Singh II polo ground. Students are trained in events like Show Jumping, Pig Sticking, Tent Pegging, Dressage, etc. Mayo College has participated in national level polo competitions and produced players like Himmat Singh Bedla, Nagender Singh, Pratap Singh, Sarveshwar Singh, Dhruv Singh. The school participated in the SUPA International Polo Tournament held in the UK in 2008. Mayo College actively participates in the Jodhpur polo season and the Delhi Horse Show.
There are sports facilities for students and staff consisting of playing fields for football, hockey and a cricket ground with a view of the Aravali Hills and a beautiful old red sandstone pavilion called Bikaner Pavilion.
The modern glass-backed courts for squash or the historic Fanshawe courts, open to the sky. Mayo College has a nine-hole golf course which was built recently. It also has many basketball courts. There is a standard 400m track. Athletics is one of the major seasonal and coaching sports. There are around 17 tennis courts on the campus. There are 5 all-weather synthetic courts and 4-5 clay courts in the senior school. The junior school has 4 clay courts. The 10m Shooting Range is used by boys and girls (from Mayo Girls) of all classes and is one of the best shooting range available at any school in India.
=== Cricket ===
Mayo College Ground has hosted 19 first-class match stating in 1926 to 1986; since then, the ground has not first-class matches but regularly hosts other matches.
== Publications ==
Publications are supplied internally and sent to other public schools in India and abroad.
=== Mayoor ===
Mayoor was established in the late 1960s by the principal, Jack Gibson. It is a major bi-monthly newsletter with college news, updates and photos. The editorial team consists of an editor-in-chief who is an English teacher in the school and a team of editors from the student community. Mayoor used to have a Hindi section with articles and poems. This was removed when an independent Hindi newsletter called Paridrishya was established in 2006.
=== The Mayo Mail ===
The Mayo Mail is a weekly newsletter, established in 2008 by a group of students of Grade 7. It has become a publication which prints four fresh sheets every week and is called the "newspaper" of Mayo College. It consists of write-ups on school happenings and activities like the trademark Mayo "Tweets" and "Howlers".
=== Paridrishya ===
The independent Hindi magazine called Paridrishya was established in 2006. The magazine consists of articles, poems and jottings written by the school community. It has an editor-in-chief, who is a Hindi teacher in the school, and student editors.
=== Reflection ===
Reflection, established in 2007, is the student magazine. It is filled with poems, articles and facts that are illustrated with pictures. Reflection comes out three times a year.
=== College Magazine ===
The College Magazine is the yearbook of Mayo College. It has English and Hindi sections and contains reports, speeches, photographs, poems, articles and case studies of the school.
=== Other publications ===
Cyber Quest is the IT magazine of Mayo College that contains technology-related articles and answers.
Euphoria is an annual publication that reports on activities happening in the prize-giving function of the school.
Zephyr – An Anthology of Poems is an annual publication that comes out in the prizegiving and contains the best poems written by the students.
The Mayo Gazette is an annual publication that comes out during the prize-giving and contains the latest trivia of the school.
== School museum ==
The Danmal Mathur Museum is housed in Jhalawar House, which it shares with the Art School. The museum showcases antiques and an armoury section. It is considered one of the best collections found in any in-school museum of the world.
=== Postage stamp ===
On 12 April 1986, the Indian Postal Service released a stamp showing the main building of Mayo College. The multicoloured stamp was designed by India Security Press. The first-day cover shows the emblem of the college. The cancellation was designed by Nenu Bagga.
== Notable alumni ==
Alumni of Mayo College are known as Old Boys or Mayoites.
Additionally, the school has educated two sultans of Oman, one of whom is Said bin Taimur.
Mayo College has educated members of royal families including Bikaner, Alwar, Jammu and Kashmir, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Benares, Kangra, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Kutch, Kota and Dewas (Junior).
Sadashiv Rao II Puar of Dewas (Junior), Muhammad Mahabat Khan III of Junagadh, Yeshwant Rao Puar of Dewas (Junior), Sawai Man Singh II of Jaipur, Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharana Mahendra Singh Mewar, Arvind Singh Mewar of Mewar-Udaipur, Pragmulji III of Kutch, Prince Shivraj Singh of Jodhpur of Marwar-Jodhpur and Kirit Bikram Kishore Deb Barman, erstwhile Maharaja of Tripura from the second oldest continuing ruling lineage after the Mikados of Japan.
Alumni from Mayo have served in the armed forces and others serve as members of parliament and senior civil servants. Jaswant Singh is one of the few Indian politicians to have been the Minister for Defence, Finance and External Affairs; K. Natwar Singh of the Indian Foreign Service was India's Ambassador to Pakistan and as External Affairs Minister, Admiral Sunil Lanba is the former Navy Chief.
Lt. Gen. Nathu Singh Rathore, the second Indian officer to graduate from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, was a distinguished strategist who served as a Division Commander in Burma during the Second World War. He was offered the position of Commander in Chief of the Indian Army in 1949 but declined the position in favour of his senior, K M Cariappa.
Alumni have been Indian ambassadors to Morocco, Spain, Norway, Brazil, Libya, Switzerland and France.
The vice-chairman of Tata Motors, Ravi Kant, erstwhile chairman of Shell Oil-India, Vikram Singh Mehta, erstwhile chairman emeritus of Nestlé-India, Narendra Singh of Sarila, former chairman of Air India and Indian Airlines, Probir Sen, erstwhile chairman and MD of Axis Bank, P.J. Nayak, member of the Bank of England Monetary Policy Committee, Sushil Wadhwani, the retired chief general manager and executive director of the Reserve Bank of India and erstwhile managing director of NABARD, Yashwant Thorat, as well as Rakesh Mohan, who was deputy governor of the Reserve Bank of India all studied at Mayo. Mayo also has produced academic economists like Alok Bhargava who researches on food policy issues in developing and developed countries for formulating public policies. Mayo has produced scientists such as the eminent scientist in the field of electronic materials, Amit Goyal.
Tikaraj Aishwarya Katoch of Kangra, director of Indiabulls, donated the Kangra Amphitheatre in memory of his great-grandfather Maharaja Jai Chand Katoch who was one of the first few students of Mayo College.
Actors who attended Mayo include Bobby Deol, Vivek Oberoi, Ajay Mehta, Tinnu Anand, the filmmakers Pradip Krishen (also an environmentalist and writer of Trees of Delhi), Samir Karnik, Goldie Behl, Heeraz Marfatia and the theatre personality, Amir Raza Husain.
Journalists who studied here include Vir Sanghvi, Siddharth Varadarajan and Manvendra Singh. Writers include Vikram Chandra (Red Earth & Pouring Rain, Sacred Games) and Indra Sinha (Animal's People, shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize).
Red Fashion designer Raghuvendra Rathore, Celebrity Chef Jiggs Kalra and Artist Jaideep Mehrotra also studied here.
The school has produced sportsmen including Charu Sharma, cricketer Arun Lal, Col. Bhawani Singh, HH Sawai Padmanabh Singh of Jaipur and Lokendra Singh Ghanerao (all 3 captained India at polo over the years).
Eknath Ghate, a mathematician and winner of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, is an alumnus of Mayo College.
Jai Pratap Singh, politician and cabinet minister in the Government of Uttar Pradesh.
== See also ==
Mayo College Girls School
Daly College
Scindia School
Rajkumar College, Raipur
Rajkumar College, Rajkot
Baldwin Boys High School
Aitchison College
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Mayp College
ESPNcricinfo
cricketarchive
wikimapia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Vice_Chancellors_of_the_University_of_Kashmir | List of Vice Chancellors of the University of Kashmir | List of vice chancellors of the University of Kashmir.
The vice chancellors are as follows:
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga_Prasad_Dhar#:~:text=He%20was%20appointed%20as%20the,for%20Planning%20in%20July%2C%201972. | Durga Prasad Dhar | Durga Prasad Dhar, commonly known as D. P. Dhar (1918–1975), was an Indian politician and diplomat who is considered as the chief architect of the Indian intervention in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. Dhar was a close adviser and confidant of Indira Gandhi. He served as the Ambassador of India to the Soviet Union, and as a minister in the Government of Jammu and Kashmir as well as the Government of India.
== Early life and education ==
Dhar was born on May 10, 1918, in Srinagar in the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir in British India into a Kashmiri Pandit family. He studied at the Tyndale Biscoe School in Sheikh Bagh. He earned his bachelor's degree from the University of the Punjab in Lahore and went on to complete his LLB from the University of Lucknow.
== Career ==
=== Political ===
Dhar joined the Quit Kashmir movement in 1946, which was led by Sheikh Abdullah against Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir. He is reported to have played a key role in assisting the Indian Army during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. He helped the Indian officers interact with the population and collect porters, mules and other kinds of administrative help which facilitated the soldiers' job.
Dhar was subsequently appointed the Home Secretary and then the Deputy Home Minister of Jammu and Kashmir in 1948, when Sheikh Abdullah was the Prime Minister. He was a Member of the Jammu and Kashmir State Constituent Assembly from 1951 to 1957 which endorsed Kashmir's accession to India. He was also a Member of the State Assembly from 1957 to 1967, and was appointed Cabinet Minister, in-charge of various portfolios. He was later elected to the Rajya Sabha from Jammu and Kashmir in 1972. He was appointed as the Union Minister for Planning in July, 1972.
Dhar was a close associate of Indira Gandhi and was instrumental in finalising the 1972 Indo-Bangladesh treaty of peace, friendship and co-operation. He became one of the closest confidants of the Nehru-Gandhi family and also played a significant role in the 1972 Simla agreement between India and Pakistan.
=== Diplomacy ===
Dhar was a member of the Indian delegation to the United Nations security council meeting in 1949 and the Indian delegation to United Nations General Assembly in the Paris Session of 1952. He was the ambassador of India to the Soviet Union between 1969-1971 and then again from 1975 till his death.
He negotiated the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation and was a principal architect of India's military intervention in neighbouring East Pakistan's civil war, which led to the creation of independent Bangladesh.
The D.P. Dhar Hall at Embassy of India in Moscow is named in his honour.
=== Death ===
D.P. Dhar died of a heart attack on 12 June 1975.
== Awards ==
In 2012, Bangladesh president Zillur Rahman conferred the Liberation War Friendship Honour (posthumous) to Durga Prasad Dhar in recognition of his pioneering role in concluding the 1971 Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty, mobilising international support in favour of Bangladesh and playing a special role in support of the Liberation War. Vijay Dhar, son of D.P. Dhar received the honour on his behalf in Dhaka.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Table_Pizza | Round Table Pizza | Round Table Pizza is a chain and franchise of pizza parlors in the Western United States. The first Round Table Pizza restaurant was opened in 1959, and the company has over 400 restaurants. The company is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia.
== Overview ==
The company currently operates two formats. Traditional Round Table Pizza restaurants serve primarily pizza, salads, and beverages. A new format, Round Table Pizza Clubhouse - Pizza Pub Play, features expanded entertainment with arcade games for children and big-screen TVs with sports programming, as well as an expanded menu and craft beer selection.
== History ==
Round Table Pizza was founded by William R. Larson. Larson was born in San Jose, California, on January 30, 1933, and was raised in Palo Alto, California. After serving 4 years in the U.S. Navy, Larson worked several different jobs, gaining experience that ultimately led him to create his own restaurant. He opened his first pizza parlor in Menlo Park, California on December 21, 1959 located at 1235 El Camino Real. He called his new restaurant Round Table Pizza. He named the restaurant Round Table Pizza after the round redwood tables he and his father constructed.
This original location in Menlo Park would eventually be moved to 1225 El Camino Real a few years later, where it still stands today and is owned and operated by Bob Larson, William's son. As of 2020, Bob Larson still owns and operates the original Menlo Park location.
According to PizzaMarketPlace.com, "William's developed recipe & crust soon brought Round Table Pizza a strong following from customers and entrepreneurs." By 1978 under Larson's direction, Round Table had amassed over 225 stores. In 2011, the company filed for protection under Chapter 11 with the U.S. bankruptcy court and emerged from bankruptcy the same year. The Consensual Plan of Reorganization provides for 100% repayment of obligations to its secured and unsecured creditors and for its employee owners to retain 100% ownership of the company. Since then, the company met all obligations and its financial strength steadily improved with the retirement of debt and the increase in cash flow.
In 2014, the company signed a 35-store development agreement to build restaurants in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait, and Qatar. As of 2016, more than 450 franchised and company-owned locations were in Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. On September 15, 2017, Round Table Pizza announced that it was acquired by Global Franchise Group. In the same month, September 2017, Round Table Pizza closed all of the seven branches in Dubai.
In 2019, Round Table Pizza rebranded on its 60th anniversary, including a new logo and a new motto: "Pizza Royalty". The chain also expanded to the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex for the first time in 2019, with new locations in Frisco and near the Southern Methodist University campus in University Park.
On June 28, 2021, Global Franchise Group announced that it would be acquired by FAT Brands, owners of Fatburger and Johnny Rockets. The acquisition was completed on July 22.
== Marketing ==
William Larson penned the slogan for Round Table "share a little pizza with someone you love." This was later changed to "The Last Honest Pizza." In 1961, a friend of Larson's drew some sketches of members of King Arthur's court eating pizza, and Larson then adopted the King Arthur theme for his restaurants. The three banners in the official logo were added in 1970, and are intended to symbolize the letters "F-U-N". Round Table Pizza began to expand through franchising.
Larson sold a portion of Round Table stock to a group of investors in 1979. The investors formed an employee stock ownership plan in 1985, and by 1992, Round Table Pizza was wholly employee owned. Larson sold about 75% of the private franchise corporation to partners in 1978. In 1995 the controlling partners bought out Larson's remaining 25%.
From around 2003 until 2005, Round Table Pizza's official mascots were two puppets, Matt and Marcus, that appeared in the company's television commercials. In 2007, Round Table Pizza's mascot became the Pizza Knight, "defender of family night." Since that time, other spokespersons have been featured, including actor Billy Gardell.
== See also ==
List of pizza chains of the United States
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Round Table Pizza at entrepreneur.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Unity | Statue of Unity | The Statue of Unity is the world's tallest statue, with a height of 182 metres (597 feet), located in Narmada valley, near Kevadia in the state of Gujarat, India. It depicts Indian politician and independence activist Sardar Patel (1875–1950), who was the first deputy prime minister and home minister of independent India. Patel played a significant role in the political integration of India. The statue is on the Narmada River in the Kevadiya colony, facing the Sardar Sarovar Dam, 100 kilometres (62 miles) southeast of the city of Vadodara.
The project was first announced in 2010 by Narendra Modi, then Chief Minister of Gujarat, and construction started in October 2013 by Indian company Larsen & Toubro, with a total construction cost of ₹27 billion (US$422 million). It was designed by Indian sculptor Ram V. Sutar and was inaugurated by Modi, then Prime Minister of India, on 31 October 2018, on what would have been Patel's 143rd birthday.
== History ==
Then chief minister of Gujarat, Narendra Modi announced the project on 7 October 2013 to mark the beginning of his tenth year as the chief minister of the state.
A society named Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Rashtriya Ekta Trust (SVPRET) was formed under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister of Gujarat, to execute the project.
The Statue of Unity Movement was started in 2013 to collect the iron needed for the statue by asking farmers to donate their used farming instruments. By 2016, a total of 135 metric tonnes of scrap iron had been collected and about 109 tonnes of it was used to make the foundation of the statue after processing. A marathon titled Run For Unity was held on 15 December 2013 in Surat and Vadodara in support of the project.
== Design and construction ==
=== Design ===
After studying statues of Patel across the country a team of historians, artists, and academics chose a design submitted by the Indian sculptor Ram V. Sutar. The Statue of Unity is a larger version of a statue of the leader installed at Ahmedabad International Airport. Three models of the design measuring 0.91 metres (3 ft), 5.5 metres (18 ft), and 9.1 metres (30 ft) were initially created. Once the design of the largest model was approved, a detailed 3D scan was produced which formed the basis for the bronze cladding cast in a foundry in China.
The design showing Patel's dhoti-clad legs and sandalled feet make the statue narrower at the base with a slenderness ratio that varies between 16 and 19, significantly higher than most tall buildings with ratios between 8 and 14. This presents a challenge to the stability which was addressed in part through the use of two 250-tonne tuned mass dampers. The statue is built to withstand winds of up to 180 kilometres per hour (110 mph) and earthquakes measuring 6.5 on the Richter scale which are at a depth of 10 km and within a radius of 12 km of the statue.
The total height of the structure is 240 m (790 ft), with a base of 58 m (190 ft) and the statue measuring 182 m (597 ft). The height of 182 metres was specifically chosen to match the number of seats in the Gujarat Legislative Assembly.
=== Funding ===
The Statue of Unity was built by a Public-Private Partnership, with most of the money coming from the Government of Gujarat. The Gujarat state government had allotted ₹500 crore (equivalent to ₹755 crore or US$89 million in 2023) for the project in its budget from 2012 to 2015. In the 2014–15 Union Budget, ₹200 crore (equivalent to ₹320 crore or US$38 million in 2023) was allocated for the construction of the statue. Funds were also contributed by Public Sector Undertakings under the Corporate Social Responsibility scheme.
=== Construction ===
A consortium comprising Turner Construction, Michael Graves and Associates and the Meinhardt Group supervised the project. The project took 57 months to complete – 15 months for planning, 40 months for construction and 2 months for handing over by the consortium. The total cost of the project was estimated to be about ₹2,063 crore (equivalent to ₹33 billion or US$390 million in 2023) by the Government. The tender bids for the first phase were invited in October 2013 and were closed in November 2013.
Narendra Modi, then serving as the Chief Minister of Gujarat, laid the statue's foundation stone on 31 October 2013, the 138th anniversary of Patel's birth.
Indian infrastructure company Larsen & Toubro won the contract on 27 October 2014 for its lowest bid of ₹2,989 crore (equivalent to ₹48 billion or US$560 million in 2023) for the design, construction and maintenance of the statue. L&T commenced the construction on 31 October 2014. In the first phase of the project, ₹1,347 crore was earmarked for the main statue, ₹235 crore for the exhibition hall and convention centre, ₹83 crore for the bridge connecting the memorial to the mainland and ₹657 crore for the maintenance of the structure for a duration of 15 years after its completion. The Sadhu Bet hillock was flattened from 70 metres to 55 metres to lay the foundation of the statue.
L&T employed over 3000 workers and 250 engineers in the statue's construction. The core of the statue used 210,000 cubic metres (7,400,000 cu ft) of cement and concrete, 6,500 tonnes of structural steel, and 18,500 tonnes of reinforced steel. The outer façade is made up of 1,700 tonnes of bronze plates and 1,850 tonnes of bronze cladding which in turn consists of 565 macro and 6000 micro panels. The bronze panels were cast in Jiangxi Tongqing Metal Handicrafts Co. Ltd (the TQ Art foundry) in China as facilities large enough for such casting were unavailable in India. The bronze panels were transported over sea and then by road to a workshop near the construction site where they were assembled.
Local tribals belonging to the Tadvi tribe opposed the land acquisition for the development of tourism infrastructure around the statue. Around 300 activists were arrested ahead of unveiling of the statue. People of Kevadia, Kothi, Waghodia, Limbdi, Navagam, and Gora villages opposed the construction of the statue and demanded the restitution of the land rights over 375 hectares (927 acres) of land acquired earlier for the dam as well as for the formation of a new Garudeshwar subdistrict. They also opposed the formation of the Kevadia Area Development Authority (KADA) and the construction of the Garudeshwar weir-cum-causeway project. The government of Gujarat accepted most of their demands.
Construction of the monument was completed in mid-October 2018; and the inaugural ceremony was held on 31 October 2018 (143rd birth anniversary of Vallabhbhai Patel), and was presided over by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The statue has been described as a tribute to Indian engineering skills.
== Features ==
The Statue of Unity is the world's tallest statue at 182 metres (597 ft). It rises 54 metres (177 ft) higher than the previous record holder, the Spring Temple Buddha in China's Henan province. The previous tallest statue in India was the 41 m (135 ft) tall statue of Lord Hanuman at the Paritala Anjaneya Temple near Vijayawada in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The statue can be seen within a 7 km (4.3 mi) radius.
The monument is constructed on a river island named Sadhu Bet, 3.2 km (2.0 mi) away from and facing the Narmada Dam downstream. The statue and its surroundings occupy more than 2 hectares (4.9 acres), and are surrounded by a 12 km (7.5 mi) long artificial lake formed by the Garudeshwar weir downstream on the Narmada river.
The statue is divided into five zones, of which only three are accessible to the public. From its base to the level of Patel's shins is the first zone which has three levels and includes the exhibition area, mezzanine and roof. The first zone also contains a memorial garden and a museum. The second zone reaches up to Patel's thighs, while the third extends up to the viewing gallery at a height of 153 metres. The fourth zone is the maintenance area while the final zone comprises the head and shoulders of the statue.
The museum in the first zone catalogues Patel's life and contributions. An adjoining audio-visual gallery provides a 15-minute-long presentation on Patel and also describes the tribal culture of the state. The concrete towers which form the statue's legs contain two elevators each. Each lift can carry 26 people at a time to the viewing gallery in just over 30 seconds. The gallery is located at a height of 153 metres (502 ft) and can hold up to 200 people.
== Tourism ==
Over 128,000 tourists visited the statue in the first eleven days of its opening to the public on 1 November 2018. It has been included in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation's '8 Wonders of SCO' list. In its first year of operation, the Statue of Unity attracted 2,900,000 visitors and collected ₹82 crore (US$11.64 million) in ticket revenue. By 15 March 2021, 5 million tourists visited the venue. It was visited by 10 million people by November 2022. In five years since opening, the statue attracted over 15 million cumulative visitors.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Shiv Smarak
Statue of Ram, Ayodhya
List of tallest statues
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica#:~:text=On%207%20June%202018%2C%20Britannica,the%20right%20of%20Google's%20results. | Encyclopædia Britannica | The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for 'British Encyclopaedia') is a general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published since 1768, and after several ownership changes is currently owned by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia at the website Britannica.com.
Printed for 245 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland, in weekly instalments that came together to form three volumes. At first, the encyclopaedia, from edition to edition, grew quickly in size. The second edition was extended to 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), the Britannica had expanded to 20 volumes. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, its size (at least in terms of total word length) has remained roughly steady, at about 40 million words.
The Britannica's rising stature as an authoritative and scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.
In 1932, the Britannica adopted a policy of "continuous revision," in which the encyclopaedia is continually revised and reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule. The publishers of Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia had already pioneered such a policy.
The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The Micropædia was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles.
In the 21st century, the Britannica faced strong competition: in particular from the digital and multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta, and later from the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia. Despite (or perhaps because of) such competition, Britannica retained its reputation for authoritative, comprehensive, structured, and scholarly treatments of included subjects. While it continued to score well in assessments of its overall quality, as compared to its competitors, it could not (as an expert-authored compilation of a limited number of articles on only important subjects), match their breadth of coverage and continuous updating.
In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.
== History ==
Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Scottish printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, the Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, the Scottish publisher A. & C. Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck, William Benton, and Jacqui Safra, a Swiss billionaire residing in New York.
Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias. To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the Britannica, reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has also promoted spin-off reference works.
=== Editions ===
The Encyclopaedia Britannica has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd edition and to the 4th, 5th, and 6th editions as a group (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. For the 15th edition (1974), the Britannica underwent a massive reorganization and became the New Encyclopaedia Britannica. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were quite different from early ones.
Throughout its history, the Britannica has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material. In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.
The history of the Britannica can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management or reorganization of the encyclopaedia.
==== 1768–1824 ====
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1824), the Britannica was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others.
The Britannica was first published in serial instalments between December 1768 and about August 1771 in Edinburgh as the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan. The new plan in question was an organizational one, namely to include two kinds of typographically distinct entries (articles and longer "treatises") in a single alphabetical sequence. In principle, "treatises" were to cover the arts and sciences, leaving articles to deal with their subordinate objects. The idea may have been inspired by Dennis de Coetlogon's Universal History of Arts and Sciences, an alphabetical encyclopaedia that contained only treatises. Regardless, the Britannica continued to intermix formally distinguished articles and treatises through the 10th edition.
According to Arthur Herman's book How the Scots Invented the Modern World, the Encyclopaedia Britannica is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment. It is important to be more specific, however, about how the early Britannica was and was not Scottish and a monument to the Scottish Enlightenment. The two publishers and William Smellie, whom they engaged to compile the work, were all Scots. Much of the first edition was compiled by Smellie from Scottish sources. At the same time, despite working in Edinburgh, the centre of the Scottish Enlightenment, neither Smellie nor James Tytler, the editor of the second edition, arranged for contributions from any local luminaries. Nor does the work seem to have been much noticed by participants in the Scottish Enlightenment before its third edition. Likewise, it is significant that the title chosen was the Encyclopaedia Britannica (and not the Encyclopaedia Scotorum, or 'Scottish Encyclopaedia'). Indeed, by the time of the third edition, the Britannica was starting to evolve into a symbol of Britishness.
In this era, the Britannica grew significantly in size, sales, and reputation. Just as important were changes to the way it was compiled and edited. On his tombstone, Smellie was characterized as the editor of the first edition of the Britannica, but he was not an editor in anything like the sense in which Macvey Napier, who edited the Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions, was. Smellie compiled nearly all the articles in the first edition himself, although we know he had minor help from at least one contributor, James Anderson, who wrote the articles "Dictionary, "Pneumatics," and "Smoke." For the third edition and its Supplement, editors still compiled the bulk of the articles, but they were assisted by dozens of collaborators. We know of thirty-five who wrote for the third edition, for example, some of them named in the preface, including the chemist Joseph Black and the natural philosopher John Robison. Then, by the time of the Supplement, Napier had become mostly a managing editor. He still wrote some articles, but his main job was recruiting collaborators, for the prospectus stipulated that "the various articles, in the Supplement, shall be written by the most Eminent Men, in the different departments of Science."
Several other encyclopaedias competed with the Britannica throughout this period, among them editions of Ephraim Chambers' and Abraham Rees's Cyclopædia, Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana, and David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.
==== 1827–1901 ====
During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the Britannica's reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.
Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all Britannicas. After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith. No biographies of living persons were included. James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science. However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the Britannica faced financial difficulties.
==== 1901–1973 ====
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on the project.
When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the Britannica; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions. Powell developed new educational products that built upon the Britannica's reputation.
In 1943, Sears donated the Encyclopædia Britannica to the University of Chicago. William Benton, then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock. Benton became chairman of the board and managed the Britannica until his death in 1973. Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago. In 1968, the Britannica celebrated its bicentennial.
==== 1974–1994 ====
In the fourth era (1974–1994), the Britannica introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, and the Propædia. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965), the Britannica sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the Micro- and Macropædia) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition. In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised through the release of the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the New Encyclopædia Britannica, although it has also been promoted as Britannica 3.
On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.
==== 1994–present ====
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online.
In 1996, the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Incorporated, developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.
Britannica's final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set. Britannica Global Edition was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropædia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had. The following is Britannica's description of the work:
The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the Britannica Global Edition. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and essential articles drawn from the Encyclopædia Britannica itself, as well as from the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, the Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, and Compton's by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.
In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't, an encyclopaedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopaedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was Britannica's first encyclopaedia for children since 1984.
=== Dedications ===
The Britannica was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States. Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America." The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second."
== Print version ==
From 1985, the Britannica consisted of four parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, the Propædia, and a two-volume index. The Britannica's articles are contained in the Micro- and Macropædia, which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 Macropædia has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from two pages to 310 pages, with references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 Micropædia has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors. The Micropædia articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the Macropædia. The Macropædia articles are meant as authoritative, well-written commentaries on their subjects, as well as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere. The longest article (310 pages) is on the subject of the United States, and it resulted from merging separate articles on the individual US states. A 2013 "Global Edition" of Britannica contained approximately 40,000 articles.
Information can be found in the Britannica by following the cross-references in the Micropædia and Macropædia; these are sparse, however, averaging one cross-reference per page. Readers are instead recommended to consult the alphabetical index or the Propædia, which organizes the Britannica's contents by topic.
The core of the Propædia is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge. Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the Britannica's editors to decide which articles should be included in the Micro- and Macropædia. The Outline can also be used as a study guide, as it puts subjects in their proper perspective and suggests a series of Britannica articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth. However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used for this purpose, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia. The Propædia contains colour transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the Britannica.
Taken together, the Micropædia and Macropædia comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images. The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the Britannica, together with 474,675 subentries under those topics. The Britannica generally prefers British spelling over American; for example, it uses colour (not color), centre (not center), and encyclopaedia (not encyclopedia). There are some exceptions to this rule, such as defense rather than defence. Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: see Colour."
Since 1936, the contents (articles) of Britannica have been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of the articles considered for revision each year. According to one Britannica website, 46% of the articles in the 2007 edition were revised over the preceding three years; however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised over the same period.
The alphabetization of articles in the Micropædia and Macropædia follows strict rules. Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "1812, War of" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, listed in Britannica as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.
In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. This was part of a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution. The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990, when 120,000 sets were sold, but sales had dropped to 40,000 per annum by 1996. There were 12,000 sets of the 2010 edition printed, of which 8,000 had been sold by March 2012. By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store. As of 2016, a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is available via the online store.
== Related printed material ==
Britannica Junior was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed Britannica Junior Encyclopædia in 1963. It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.
A British Children's Britannica edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960. Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain. Britannica introduced the Children's Britannica to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.
In 1961, a 16-volume Young Children's Encyclopaedia was issued for children just learning to read. My First Britannica is aimed at children ages six to 12, and the Britannica Discovery Library is for children aged three to six (issued 1974 to 1991). Compton's by Britannica, first published in 2007, incorporating the former Compton's Encyclopedia, is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.
There have been, and are, several abridged Britannica encyclopaedias. The single-volume Britannica Concise Encyclopædia has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume Britannica; there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese created by Encyclopedia of China Publishing House and Vietnamese.
Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has also published an annual Book of the Year to 'update' the encyclopaedia proper: this covers the past year's events and presents a variety of updated statistics (eg as to national populations, Nobel Prize winners, and the like). A given edition of the Book of the Year is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the volume actually covers the events and statistics of the previous year.
The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard (2006).
== Optical disc, online, and mobile versions ==
The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD contains over 100,000 articles. This includes regular Britannica articles, as well as others drawn from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, and the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia. The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.
Britannica Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly. It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC. As of 2009, roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites. As of 2006, subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis. Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, the Britannica made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia. Users would be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow would search Britannica's 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones were also planned.
On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a wiki), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced. Approved contributions would be credited, though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. perpetual, irrevocable licence to those contributions.
On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online Britannica website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia would not be affected by the changes. Individuals wishing to edit the Britannica website would have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content. All edits submitted would be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff. Contributions from non-academic users would sit in a separate section from the expert-generated Britannica content, as would content submitted by non-Britannica scholars. Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, would also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles. Official Britannica material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.
On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K–12 market. On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopaedia as an iPad app. In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.
In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus on its online version.
On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, "Britannica Insights", which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online whenever the user performs a Google Search, in a box to the right of Google's results. Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue.
== Personnel and management ==
=== Contributors ===
The print version of the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey. Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.
While Britannica's authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Leon Trotsky, as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov, some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911, the historian George L. Burr wrote:
With a temerity almost appalling, [the Britannica contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the whole field of European history, political, social, ecclesiastical... The grievance is that [this work] lacks authority. This, too—this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning—may, alas, be also counted an "Americanizing": for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.
=== Staff ===
As of 2007, in the 15th edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as Britannica's Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938), Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991), and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).
As of 2007 Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor. Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.
Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.
The 2007 editorial staff of the Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the Micropædia and some sections of the Macropædia.
=== Editorial advisors ===
As of 2012, Britannica had an editorial board of advisors, which included a number of distinguished figures, primarily scholars from a variety of disciplines.
The Propædia and its Outline of Knowledge were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler. Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The Propædia also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned Micropædia articles.
=== Corporate structure ===
During much of the 20th century, the Britannica had a significant ownership stake from the University of Chicago, with many people associated with the university serving senior positions in the organization.331-332 During the mid-20th century, managers and executives at the Britannica company were lavishly rewarded due to the healthy profit encyclopaedia sales generated, with division managers at the top of the sales organization earning an average salary of $125,000 in 1958 (adjusting for inflation, some $1,362,313 in current USD).329
From 1974, the company was controlled by the Benton Foundation, of which the University of Chicago was the sole beneficiary. In January 1996, the Britannica was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra, who serves as its current chair of the board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In 1999, a new subsidiary company, Britannica.com Incorporated, was created to develop digital versions of the Britannica; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Incorporated was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses. In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies. Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc's Board of Directors.
In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the Britannica's Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the Britannica brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.
=== Sales and marketing ===
Although prior to 1920 the Britannica was primarily sold by mail-order, after that time the Britannica was almost exclusively sold by door-to-door salesmen, who often used high-pressure sales tactics or outright deception in order to secure purchases of the expensive work,317-330 from which they gained a significant commission. This commission in the United States in 1971 was $120–200 (around $932-$1553 adjusted for inflation) per sale. These high-pressure sales tactics resulted in high levels of turnover among Britannica salesmen, with the company often exaggerating the ease of making a sale to employees, as well as engaging in deceptive job advertising in order to entice people to become salesmen.317-330 The Britannica was sued several times by the American Federal Trade Commission for deceptive practices.317-330 These practices were common among American encyclopaedia companies.317-330 The development of the significant sales force began in 1932, with most senior leadership of the company by the late 20th century coming from the sales division.
While early on the Britannica was marketed to adults and in particular during the 19th and early 20th centuries, to an elite educated audience,152-153 by the mid 20th century, the Britannica (as well as other American encyclopaedias) were primarily marketed to middle-class parents who wished to seek a good education for their children, despite the text not being aimed at a child's reading level.317-330 During the 20th century, the Britannica differentiated itself from other encyclopaedias by using its long pedigree to present itself as a premium brand. Once the encyclopaedia was purchased, it was typically only opened a few times a year by an average owner.
== Competition ==
As the Britannica is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the Encyclopaedia of Mathematics or the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the Britannica's main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana. In the 20th century, successful competitors included Collier's Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, and the World Book Encyclopedia. Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the Britannica was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia, especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors. The print version of the Britannica was also thus significantly more expensive than its competitors.
Since the early 1990s, the Britannica has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine.
The Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated and then made available to users. In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the Britannica has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust. Eventually, the Britannica turned to focus more on its online edition.
=== Print encyclopaedias ===
The Encyclopædia Britannica has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively. A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 Britannica with two comparable encyclopaedias, Collier's Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia Americana. For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between B− and B+, chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, the Britannica received one "D" and seven "A"s, Encyclopedia Americana received eight "A"s, and Collier's received one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, Britannica received an average score of 92% for accuracy to Americana's 95% and Collier's 92%. In the timeliness category, Britannica averaged an 86% to Americana's 90% and Collier's 85%.
=== Digital encyclopaedias on optical media ===
The most notable competitor of the Britannica among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta, now discontinued, a modern multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: Funk & Wagnalls, Collier's, and the New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia. Encarta was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006. Both occupied the same price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing US$40–50 and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.
The Britannica disc contains 100,000 articles and Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (US only) and offers primary and secondary school editions. Encarta contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language, and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition. Like Encarta, the digital Britannica has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary. Like the Britannica, Encarta was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed for free.
=== Wikipedia ===
The main online alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia. The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopaedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is not-for-profit, does not carry advertising on its site, and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.
Britannica's articles either have known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most Britannica's contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates. By contrast, the articles on Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise; most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials. It is for this lack of institutional vetting or certification that former Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry noted his belief in 2004 that Wikipedia could not hope to rival the Britannica in accuracy.
In 2005, the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side, but were not told which article came from which site. Nature got back 42 usable reviews. The journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica, an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica.
Although Britannica was revealed as the more accurate encyclopaedia, with fewer errors, in its rebuttal, it called Nature's study flawed and misleading and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a Britannica yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia on the company's website).
Nature defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica, it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica's website. Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of Britannica UK said: Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has a lot of interesting entries on there, but their approach wouldn't work for Encyclopædia Britannica. My job is to create more awareness of our very different approaches to publishing in the public mind. They're a chisel, we're a drill, and you need to have the correct tool for the job.
For the 15th anniversary of Wikipedia, the Telegraph published two opinion pieces which compared Wikipedia to Britannica and falsely claimed that Britannica had gone bankrupt in 1996. In a January 2016 press release, Britannica responded by calling Wikipedia "an impressive achievement" but argued that critics should avoid "false comparisons" to Britannica in terms of differing models and purposes.
== Critical and popular assessments ==
=== Reputation ===
Since the 3rd edition, the Britannica has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence, though this reputation has not been without its critics. The 3rd and 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States, beginning with Dobson's Encyclopædia. On the release of the 14th edition, Time magazine dubbed the Britannica the "Patriarch of the Library". In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the Britannica was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor". References to the Britannica can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the Britannica.
The Britannica has a reputation for summarizing knowledge. To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire Britannica, taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so. When Fat'h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a set of the Britannica's 3rd edition; after reading the complete set, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the Encyclopædia Britannica".
Writer George Bernard Shaw has claimed to have read the complete 9th edition, except for the science articles; Richard Evelyn Byrd took the Britannica as reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934; and Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition. More recently, A. J. Jacobs, an editor at Esquire magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World. Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author C. S. Forester and Amos Urban Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.
=== Awards ===
The CD/DVD-ROM version of the Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers. On 15 July 2009, Encyclopædia Britannica was awarded a spot as one of "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.
=== Coverage of topics ===
Topics are chosen in part by reference to the Propædia "Outline of Knowledge". The bulk of the 15th edition of the Britannica is devoted to geography (26% of the Macropædia), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%). A complementary study of the Micropædia found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%. Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of coverage [of the Britannica] are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia."
The Britannica does not cover topics in equal detail; for example, the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single Macropædia article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles. The Britannica covers 50,479 biographies, 5,999 of them about women, with 11.87% being British citizens and 25.51% US citizens. However, the Britannica has been lauded as the least biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.
It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the Britannica accords non-Western cultural, social, and scientific developments more notice than any general English-language encyclopedia currently on the market.
=== Criticism of editorial decisions ===
Harvey Einbinder in the Myth of the Britannica criticized the 11th edition for the inaccessibility of the text for laymen, saying that many of its articles were too technical for people unfamiliar to the subject to understand.152-153 He made similar criticisms of many of the mathematics and science articles of the then-current 14th edition.236-250
On rare occasions, the Britannica has been criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies. Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the Micropædia and Macropædia. Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure ... [that] cares more for juggling its format than for preserving." More recently, reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 Macropædia, along with the article on psychology. Harvey Einbinder in The Myth of the Britannica criticized the practice of condensing entries in the 14th edition, which usually involved simply removing large amounts of the text rather than attempting to condense it by rewriting, resulting in what he considered to be considerable reduction in the quality of the articles.151-168
Some very few Britannica-appointed contributors are mistaken. A notorious instance from the Britannica's early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig, the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire. The Britannica has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with William Robertson Smith's articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).
=== Other criticisms ===
The Britannica has received criticism, particularly as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the Britannica, and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).
For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, The Myth of the Britannica, the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work. Editors have struggled at times to keep the Britannica current: one 1994 critic writes, "It is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer Macropædia articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter Micropædia articles. Information in the Micropædia is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding Macropædia article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other. The bibliographies of the Macropædia articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.
In 2005, a 12-year-old schoolboy in Britain found several inaccuracies in the Britannica's entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe. In 2010, an entry about the Irish Civil War, which incorrectly described it as having been fought between the north and south of Ireland, was discussed in the Irish press following a decision by the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.
Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), Britannica's chief editor George Gleig observed that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan and embracing such a variety of subjects." In March 2006, the Britannica wrote, "we in no way mean to imply that Britannica is error-free; we have never made such a claim". However, the Britannica sales department had previously made a well-known claim in 1962 regarding the 14th edition that "[i]t is truth. It is unquestionable fact." The sentiment of the 2006 statement was also reflected in the introduction to the first edition of the Britannica, written by its original editor William Smellie:
With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances. To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce.
== Edition summary ==
== See also ==
Encyclopædia Britannica Films
Great Books of the Western World
List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge
List of encyclopedias by date
List of encyclopedias by language § English
List of online encyclopedias
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website
Works by or about Encyclopædia Britannica at the Internet Archive
Works by Encyclopædia Britannica at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Encyclopaedia Britannica at the National Library of Scotland, first ten editions (and supplements) in PDF format.
Encyclopaedia Britannica at the Online Books Page, hosted by the library of University of Pennsylvania, currently including the 1st–13th editions in multiple formats.
3rd edition, (1797, first volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library
7th edition (1842) coloured scan via HathiTrust
8th edition (1860, index volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library
9th Edition (1878), published by Charles Scribner's Sons on the Internet Archive
9th and 10th (1902) editions; Archived 22 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine on 1902Encyclopedia.com
The Reader's Guide to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1913) on Project Gutenberg—A handbook containing sixty-six courses of systematic study or occasional reading. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prabhunath_Singh | Prabhunath Singh | Prabhunath Singh is a politician from Bihar, India and was a member of the 12th, 13th and 14th Lok Sabha. Singh represented the Masrakh assembly constituency from 1985 to 1995, and the Maharajganj Lok Sabha constituency of Bihar from 1998 to 2009. In 2013, he won the bypoll and remained as MP until 2014. Singh is a member of the JDU and currently serving life imprisonment in murder case.
== Early life and education ==
Singh was born in Mashrakh, Saran district, Bihar. He studied until class-12 from Bihar University, Muzaffarpur in 1972. His brothers Dina Singh, Madan Singh and Kedar Singh are also politicians.
== Family ==
He is married to Binda Devi. His son, Randhir Kumar Singh, is also a politician and lost in the 2019 Indian general election to Janardan Singh Sigriwal of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
== Career ==
Before entering into politics, Singh owned a brick-making factory. He won his first election for MLA as an independent candidate due to his support among Rajputs from his area. He is a four time member of parliament from the Saran district. In the 1995 elections, he ran as a member of BJP, but left for the Janata Dal (United) (JD(U)) party after losing. Singh won election as a member of the JD(U) party, but later joined RJD due to dictatorship of Nitish Kumar in JD(U). He represented the Maharajganj constituency of Bihar from 2004 to 2009 on the JD(U) ticket. In 2009, he contested on the JD(U) ticket, but narrowly lost to Uma Shankar Singh of RJD. After the death of Uma Shankar Singh, whose seat was now vacant, Singh contested on the RJD ticket, defeating JD(U)'s nominee P.K. Shahi.
== Conviction and controversies ==
On 23 May 2017, Singh was sentenced to life imprisonment by the Hazaribagh Court for his connection with the murder of MLA Ashok Singh 22 years prior.
== Positions held ==
Prabhunath Singh had been elected as MLA twice, and as Lok Sabha MP four times.
== References ==
Home Page on the Parliament of India's Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatsuo_Miyajima#Kaki_Tree_Project | Tatsuo Miyajima | Tatsuo Miyajima (宮島 達男, Miyajima Tatsuo; January 16, 1957 –) is a Japanese sculptor and installation artist who lives in Moriya, in Ibaraki prefecture, Japan. His work frequently employs digital LED counters and is primarily concerned with the function and significance of time and space, especially within the context of Buddhist thought.
== Early life ==
Miyajima was born in Edogawa City, Tokyo on January 16, 1957. He graduated from the Oil Painting course in the Fine Arts department of Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music in 1984, and completed his MA at the same university in 1986.
== Work ==
Although Miyajima originally trained as a painter, and briefly considered himself to be a performance artist, the majority of his work now takes the form of installation and sculpture. He has admitted that, in effect, his work now "performs" on his behalf. His core artistic concepts are: "Keep Changing, Connect with Everything, Continue Forever."
=== Early work ===
In 1970s, Miyajima practised performance art. He was initially influenced by the work of Joseph Beuys, Allan Krapow and Christo, and considered his performance work as an "action for society". The desire to create more enduring work - in contrast to the necessarily ephemeral nature of his performance and actions - motivated him to begin working on sculpture and installations.
=== LED works ===
Miyajima made his first LED counter in 1988; this has formed the basis for much of his later work. Typically, a block will display two digits in red or green, and count from 1 to 9. The counters never register zero, because, for Miyajima, the idea of zero is a purely Western concept. He has subsequently linked together different displays so that they can respond to each other; he calls these systems 'regions'.
== Kaki Tree Project ==
On the 9th of August, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped in Nagasaki. Tens of thousands of people died suffering from the intense blast and heat, and the city of Nagasaki was reduced to ashes. However, there was a kaki tree which miraculously survived while more than half of the trunk was burnt black, and barely standing and about to die at any moment. In 1994, Masayuki Ebinuma, an arborist, started to treat the fragile tree and restored its health as to be able to produce “seedlings” from the bombed tree. Then Ebinuma started to hand out the “saplings” from the survivor tree to children who visited Nagasaki as a symbol of peace. After Miyajima learned Ebinuma's activity, he wanted to support Ebinuma as an artist. So then he displayed the saplings and recruited foster parents at an art exhibition in 1995. They received ten applications and selected the former Ryuhoku Elementary School in Taito-ku, Tokyo as a planting site. Through the process, Miyajima had conceived an art project called “Revive Time: Kaki Tree Project” and launched the executive committee. In 1996, the first planting of the project took place at the former Ryuhoku Elementary School. Miyajima himself conducted a workshop at the tree-planting ceremony. The counters in some of his works, he has explained, represent the lives of anonymous individuals.
== Exhibitions ==
Miyajima's first solo exhibitions include "Human Stone" at Gallery Parergon, Tokyo in 1983, and "Time" at Maki Gallery, Tokyo in 1986. More recently he has shown at Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (1996), Fondation Cartier pour l'Art Contemporain (1996), San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1997), Miyanomori Art Museum, Hokkaido (2010), and Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing (2011).
He has exhibited as part of numerous group exhibitions, notably the Venice Biennale in 1988 and 1999, as well Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art (2008), and Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney (2012) and the Third Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane (1999)
In 2020, Miyajima's works will be featured in STARS: Six Contemporary Artists from Japan to the World exhibition in Tokyo. In this exhibition will feature a new work, "Sea of Time – TOHOKU" alongside documentary footage of members of the public helping to set the counter speeds.
== Collections ==
The following museums and institutions have works by Miyajima in their collection:
== References ==
== External links ==
http://tatsuomiyajima.com
http://www.buchmanngalerie.com/artists/tatsuo-miyajima/works
http://www.lissongallery.com/artists/tatsuo-miyajima |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangolin#:~:text=In%202020%2C%20two%20novel%20RNA,Manis%20javanica%20and%20Manis%20pentadactyla. | Pangolin | Pangolins, sometimes known as scaly anteaters, are mammals of the order Pholidota (). The one extant family, the Manidae, has three genera: Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia. Manis comprises four species found in Asia, while Phataginus and Smutsia include two species each, all found in sub-Saharan Africa. These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). Several extinct pangolin species are also known. In September 2023, nine species were reported.
Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales, similar in material to fingernails and toenails, covering their skin. Depending on the species, they live in hollow trees or burrows. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring, which they raise for about two years.
Pangolins are threatened by poaching (for their meat and scales, which are used in traditional medicine) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and are the most trafficked mammals in the world. As of January 2020, there are eight species of pangolin whose conservation status is listed in the threatened tier. Three (Manis culionensis, M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are critically endangered, three (Phataginus tricuspis, Manis crassicaudata and Smutsia gigantea) are endangered and two (Phataginus tetradactyla and Smutsia temminckii) are vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
== Etymology ==
The name of order Pholidota comes from Ancient Greek Φολιδωτός – "clad in scales" from φολίς pholís "scale".
The name "pangolin" comes from the Malay word pengguling meaning "one who rolls up" from guling or giling "to roll"; it was used for the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica). However, the modern name is tenggiling. In Javanese, it is terenggiling; and in the Philippine languages, it is goling, tanggiling, or balintong (with the same meaning).
In ancient India, according to Aelian, it was known as the phattáges (φαττάγης).
== Description ==
The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping, plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures. They are made of keratin, the same material from which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made, and are structurally and compositionally very different from the scales of reptiles. The pangolin's scaled body is comparable in appearance to a pine cone. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators. Despite their appearance, they are not closely related to armadillos, having both evolved scales by convergent evolution.
Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk. They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into ant and termite mounds and for climbing.
The tongues of pangolins are extremely long, and like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat, the root of the tongue is not attached to the hyoid bone but is in the thorax between the sternum and the trachea. Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only about 0.5 cm (1⁄5 in).
== Behaviour ==
Most pangolins are nocturnal animals which use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball ("volvation").
Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of 3.5 m (11 ft).
Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behavior, and may walk a few steps bipedally. Pangolins are also good swimmers.
=== Diet ===
Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available. A pangolin can consume 140–200 g (5–7 oz) of insects per day. Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats.
Pangolins have very poor vision. They also lack teeth. They rely heavily on smell and hearing, and they have other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites. Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they have strong front legs used for tearing into termite mounds. They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, soil, and vegetation to find prey, then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and to retrieve their prey.
The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects. Their saliva is sticky, causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels. Without teeth, pangolins also cannot chew; but while foraging, they ingest small stones (gastroliths), which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants. This part of their stomach is called the gizzard, and it is also covered in keratinous spines. These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin's prey.
Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.
=== Reproduction ===
Pangolins are solitary and meet only to reproduce, with mating typically taking place at night after the male and female pangolin meet near a watering hole. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While the mating season is not defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females find them. If competition over a female occurs, the males use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.
Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days. African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three. Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2+3⁄4 to 15+3⁄4 oz), and the average length is 150 mm (6 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although, in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around three months of age, when the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.
== Classification and phylogeny ==
=== Taxonomy ===
Order: Pholidota Weber, 1904
Genus: †Euromanis Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: †Eurotamanduidae Szalay & Schrenk, 1994
Suborder: Eupholidota Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Superfamily: Manoidea Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: Manidae Gray, 1821
Family: †Patriomanidae Szalay & Schrenk 1998 [sensu Gaudin, Emry & Pogue, 2006]
Incertae sedis
Genus: †Necromanis Filhol, 1893
Superfamily: †Eomanoidea Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: †Eomanidae Storch, 2003
=== Phylogeny ===
==== Among placentals ====
The order Pholidota was long considered to be the sister taxon to Xenarthra (neotropical anteaters, sloths, and armadillos), but recent genetic evidence indicates their closest living relatives are the carnivorans, with which they form a clade, the Ferae. Palaeanodonts are even closer relatives to pangolins, being classified with pangolins in the clade Pholidotamorpha. The split between carnivorans and pangolins is estimated to have occurred 79.47 Ma (million years) ago.
==== Among Manidae ====
The first dichotomy in the phylogeny of extant Manidae separates Asian pangolins (Manis) from African pangolins (Smutsia and Phataginus). Within the former, Manis pentadactyla is the sister group to a clade comprising M. crassicaudata and M. javanica. Within the latter, a split separates the large terrestrial African pangolins of the genus Smutsia from the small arboreal African pangolins of the genus Phataginus.
Asian and African pangolins are thought to have diverged about 41.37 Ma ago. Moreover, the basal position of Manis within Pholidota suggests the group originated in Eurasia, consistent with their laurasiatherian phylogeny.
== Threats ==
Pangolins are in high demand in southern China and Vietnam because their scales are believed to have medicinal properties in traditional Chinese and Vietnamese medicine. Their meat is also considered a delicacy. 100,000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam, amounting to over one million over the past decade. This makes them the most trafficked animal in the world. This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.
In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of evolutionarily distinct and endangered mammals. All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the IUCN, while three are classified as critically endangered. All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-commercial purposes and a permit has been granted.
China had been the main destination country for pangolins until 2018, where it was surpassed by Vietnam. In 2019, Vietnam was reported to have seized the largest volumes of pangolin scales, surpassing Nigeria that year.
Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine. A 2025 study in Nature Ecology & Evolution found that opportunistic hunting for meat, rather than hunting for scales used in traditional medicine, is the primary driver of pangolin population declines in Nigeria.
Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma. In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia. In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kg (22,000 pounds) of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines. In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property. The same threat is reported in Nigeria, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation. The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation caused by timber harvesting. The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption.
== Virology ==
=== COVID-19 infection ===
The nucleic acid sequence of a specific receptor-binding domain of the spike protein belonging to coronaviruses taken from pangolins was found to be a 99% match with SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus which causes COVID-19 and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Researchers in Guangzhou, China, hypothesized that SARS-CoV-2 had originated in bats, and prior to infecting humans, was circulating among pangolins. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins for use in traditional Chinese medicine was suggested as a vector for human transmission. However, whole-genome comparison found that the pangolin and human coronaviruses share only up to 92% of their RNA. Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering them further, which was similar to what happened to Asian palm civets during the SARS outbreak. It was later proved that the testing which suggested that pangolins were a potential host for the virus was flawed, when genetic analysis showed that the spike protein and its binding to receptors in pangolins had minimal effect from the virus, and therefore were not likely mechanisms for COVID-19 infections in humans.
=== Pestivirus and Coltivirus ===
In 2020, two novel RNA viruses distantly related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses have been detected in the genomes of dead Manis javanica and Manis pentadactyla. To refer to both sampling site and hosts, they were named Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV). The DYPV pestivirus was also identified in Amblyomma javanense nymph ticks from a diseased pangolin.
In addition to pestiviruses and coltiviruses, genomic surveys of healthy pangolins have revealed the presence of multiple potentially zoonotic viruses, including coronaviruses, flaviviruses, and circoviruses, indicating that pangolins naturally harbor diverse viral communities without showing disease symptoms.
== Folk medicine ==
Pangolin scales and flesh are used as ingredients for various traditional Chinese medicine preparations. While no scientific evidence exists for the efficacy of those practices, and they have no logical mechanism of action, their popularity still drives the black market for animal body parts, despite concerns about toxicity, transmission of diseases from animals to humans, and species extermination. The ongoing demand for parts as ingredients continues to fuel pangolin poaching, hunting and trading.
The first record of pangolin scales occurs in Ben Cao Jinji Zhu ("Variorum of Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica", 500 CE), which recommends pangolin scales for protection against ant bites; burning the scales as a cure for people crying hysterically during the night. During the Tang dynasty, a recipe for expelling evil spirits with a formulation of scales, herbs, and minerals appeared in 682, and in 752 CE the idea that pangolin scales could also stimulate milk secretion in lactating women, one of the main uses today, was recommended in the Wai Tai Mi Yao ("Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library"). In the Song dynasty, the notion of penetrating and clearing blockages was emphasized in the Taiping sheng hui fan ("Formulas from Benevolent Sages Compiled During the Era of Peace and Tranquility"), compiled by Wang Huaiyin in 992.
In the 21st century, the main uses of pangolin scales are quackery practices based on unproven claims the scales dissolve blood clots, promote blood circulation, or help lactating women secrete milk. The supposed health effects of pangolin meat and scales claimed by folk medicine practitioners are based on their consumption of ants, long tongues, and protective scales. The Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China included Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine formulations. Pangolins were removed from the Pharmacopoeia starting from the first half of 2020. Although pangolin scales have been removed from the list of raw ingredients, the scales are still listed as a key ingredient in various medicines.
Pangolin parts are also used for medicinal purposes in other Asian countries such as India, Nepal and Pakistan. In some parts of India and Nepal, locals believe that wearing the scales of a pangolin can help prevent pneumonia. Pangolin scales have also been used for medicinal purposes in Malaysia, Indonesia and northern Myanmar. Indigenous people in southern Palawan, Philippines, have held the belief that elders could avoid prostate illnesses by wearing belts made with the scales.
== Conservation ==
As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years. As of January 2020, the IUCN considered all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species as threatened. The IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed "Scaling up Pangolin Conservation", in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal while educating communities on its importance.
Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin (and general wildlife) trafficking consists in "following the money" rather than "the animal", which aims to disrupt smugglers' profits by interrupting money flows. Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool in protecting these animals, although this opportunity is often overlooked. In 2018, a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement, calling for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking. Wildlife conservation group TRAFFIC has identified 159 smuggling routes used by pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down.
Many attempts have been made to breed pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful. Pangolins have significantly decreased immune responses due to a genetic dysfunction, making them extremely fragile. They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications that can lead to an early death. In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.
The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the number being illegally trafficked is being explored with little success. The third Saturday in February is promoted as World Pangolin Day by the conservation NPO Annamiticus. World Pangolin Day has been noted for its effectiveness in generating awareness about pangolins.
In 2017, Jackie Chan made a public service announcement called WildAid: Jackie Chan & Pangolins (Kung Fu Pangolin).
In December 2020, a study found that it is "not too late" to establish conservation efforts for Philippine pangolins (Manis culionensis), a species that is only found on the island province of Palawan.
=== Taiwan ===
Taiwan is one of the few conservation grounds for pangolins in the world after the country enacted the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act. The introduction of Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers in places like Luanshan (Yanping Township) in Taitung and Xiulin townships in Hualien became important communities for protecting pangolins and their habitats and has greatly improved the survival of pangolins. These centers work with local aboriginal tribes and forest police in the National Police Agency to prevent poaching, trafficking, and smuggling of pangolins, especially to black markets in China. These centers have also helped to reveal the causes of death and injury among Taiwan's pangolin population. Today, Taiwan has the highest population density of pangolins in the world.
== See also ==
Mammal classification
Pholidotamorpha
== References ==
== External links ==
ZSL Pangolin Conservation
Pangolin: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
Tree of Life of Pholidota Archived 29 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
National Geographic video of a pangolin Archived 23 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Proceedings of the Workshop on Trade and Conservation of Pangolins Native to South and Southeast Asia (PDF)
The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
Bromley, Victoria (Director/Producer), Young, Nora (Narrator/Host), Diekmann, Maria (2018). Nature: The World's Most Wanted Animal. United States: PBS.
Coronavirus: Revenge of the Pangolins? The New York Times, 6 March 2020. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba | Patrice Lumumba | Patrice Émery Lumumba ( pə-TREESS luu-MUUM-bə; born Isaïe Tasumbu Tawosa; 2 July 1925 – 17 January 1961) was a Congolese politician and independence leader who served as the first prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then known as the Republic of the Congo) from June until September 1960, following the May 1960 election. He was the leader of the Congolese National Movement (MNC) from 1958 until his assassination in 1961. Ideologically an African nationalist and pan-Africanist, he played a significant role in the transformation of the Congo from a colony of Belgium into an independent republic.
Shortly after Congolese independence in June 1960, a mutiny broke out in the army, marking the beginning of the Congo Crisis. After a coup, Lumumba attempted to escape to Stanleyville to join his supporters who had established a new anti-Mobutu state called the Free Republic of the Congo. Lumumba was captured en route by state authorities under Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, sent to the State of Katanga and, with the help of Belgian mercenaries, tortured and executed by the separatist Katangan authorities of Moïse Tshombe. In 2002, Belgium formally apologised for its role in the execution, admitting "moral responsibility", and in 2022, they returned Lumumba’s tooth to his family. He is seen as a martyr for the pan-African movement.
== Early life and career ==
Patrice Lumumba was born on 2 July 1925 as Isaïe Tasumbu Tawosa to Julienne Wamato Lomendja and her husband, François Tolenga Otetshima, a farmer, in Onalua, in the Katakokombe region of the Kasai province of the Belgian Congo. He was a member of the Tetela ethnic group, where he was referred to with the name Élias Okit'Asombo. His original surname means "heir of the cursed" and is derived from the Tetela words okitá/okitɔ́ ('heir', 'successor') and asombó ('cursed or bewitched people who will die quickly'). He had three brothers (Charles Lokolonga, Émile Kalema, and Louis Onema Pene Lumumba) and one half-brother (Jean Tolenga). Raised in a Catholic family, he was educated at a Protestant primary school, a Catholic missionary school, and finally the government post office training school, where he passed the one-year course with distinction. He was known for being a vocal, precocious young man, regularly pointing out the errors of his teachers in front of his peers. This outspoken nature would come to define his life and career. Lumumba spoke Tetela, French, Lingala, Swahili, and Tshiluba.
Outside of his regular studies, Lumumba took an interest in the Enlightenment ideals of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire. He was also fond of Molière and Victor Hugo. He wrote poetry, and many of his works had anti-imperialist themes. He worked as a travelling beer salesman in Léopoldville and as a postal clerk in Stanleyville for eleven years. Lumumba was married three times. He married Henriette Maletaua a year after arriving in Stanleyville; they divorced in 1947. In the same year, he married Hortense Sombosia, but this relationship also fell apart. He began an affair with Pauline Kie. While he had no children with his first two wives, his relationship with Kie resulted in a son, François Lumumba. Though he remained close with Kie until his death, Lumumba ultimately ended their affair to marry Pauline Opangu in 1951.
In the period following World War II, young leaders across Africa increasingly worked for national goals and independence from the colonial powers. In 1952 he was hired to work as a personal assistant for French sociologist Pierre Clément, who was performing a study of Stanleyville. That year he also co-founded and subsequently became president of a Stanleyville chapter of the Association des Anciens élèves des pères de Scheut (ADAPÉS), an alumni association for former students at Scheut schools, despite the fact that he had never attended one. In 1955, Lumumba became regional head of the Cercles of Stanleyville and joined the Liberal Party of Belgium. He edited and distributed party literature. Between 1956 and 1957 he wrote his autobiography (which was published posthumously in 1962). After a study tour in Belgium in 1956, he was arrested on charges of embezzlement of $2500 from the post office. He was convicted and sentenced one year later to 12 months' imprisonment and a fine.
== Leader of the MNC ==
After his release, Lumumba helped found the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) party in 1958 and quickly became the organisation's leader. The MNC, unlike other Congolese parties developing at the time, did not draw on a particular ethnic base. It promoted a platform that included independence, gradual Africanisation of the government, state-led economic development, and neutrality in foreign affairs. Lumumba had a large popular following and as a result, he had more political autonomy than contemporaries who were more dependent on Belgian connections. Lumumba was one of the delegates who represented the MNC at the All-African Peoples' Conference in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958. At this international conference, hosted by Ghanaian president Kwame Nkrumah, Lumumba further solidified his pan-Africanist credentials. Nkrumah was personally impressed by Lumumba's intelligence and ability.
In 1959, the MNC split into the majority MNC-L, led by Lumumba, and the more radical and federalist MNC-K. In late October 1959, Lumumba, as leader of the MNC, was arrested for inciting an anti-colonial riot in Stanleyville during which 30 people were killed. He was sentenced to six months in prison. The trial's start date of 18 January 1960 was the first day of the Congolese Round Table Conference in Brussels, intended to make a plan for the future of the Congo. Despite Lumumba's imprisonment, the MNC won a convincing majority in the December local elections in the Congo. As a result of strong pressure from delegates upset by Lumumba's trial, he was released and allowed to attend the Brussels conference.
== Independence and election as prime minister ==
The conference culminated on 27 January 1960 with a declaration of Congolese independence. It set 30 June 1960 as the independence date with national elections to be held from 11 to 25 May 1960. The MNC won a plurality in the election. Six weeks before the date of independence, Walter Ganshof van der Meersch was appointed as the Belgian Minister of African Affairs. He lived in Léopoldville, in effect becoming Belgium's de facto resident minister in the Congo, administering it jointly with Governor-general Hendrik Cornelis. He was charged with advising King Baudouin on the selection of a formateur.
On 8 June 1960, Ganshof flew to Brussels to meet with Baudouin. He made three suggestions for formateur: Lumumba, as the winner of the elections; Joseph Kasa-Vubu, the only figure with a reliable national reputation who was associated with the coalescing opposition; or some to-be-determined third individual who could unite the competing blocs. Ganshof returned to the Congo on 12 June 1960. The following day he appointed Lumumba to serve as the delegate (informateur) tasked with investigating the possibility of forming a national unity government that included politicians with a wide range of views, with 16 June 1960 as his deadline.
The same day as Lumumba's appointment, the parliamentary opposition coalition, the Cartel d'Union Nationale, was announced. Though Kasa-Vubu was aligned with their beliefs, he remained distanced from them. The MNC-L was also having trouble securing the allegiances of the PSA, CEREA (Centre de Regroupement Africain), and BALUBAKAT (Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga). Initially, Lumumba was unable to establish contact with members of the cartel. Eventually several leaders were appointed to meet with him, but their positions remained entrenched. On 16 June 1960, Lumumba reported his difficulties to Ganshof, who extended the deadline and promised to act as an intermediary between the MNC-L leader and the opposition. Once Ganshof had made contact with the cartel leadership, he was impressed by their obstinacy and assurances of a strong anti-Lumumba polity. By evening, Lumumba's mission was showing even less chance of succeeding. Ganshof considered extending the role of informateur to Cyrille Adoula and Kasa-Vubu, but faced increasing pressure from Belgian and moderate Congolese advisers to end Lumumba's assignment.
The following day, on 17 June 1960, Ganshof declared that Lumumba had failed and terminated his mission. Acting on Ganshof's advice, Baudouin then named Kasa-Vubu formateur. Lumumba responded by threatening to form his own government and present it to parliament without official approval. He called a meeting at the OK Bar in Léopoldville, where he announced the creation of a "popular" government with the support of Pierre Mulele of the PSA. Meanwhile, Kasa-Vubu, like Lumumba, was unable to communicate with his political opponents.
He assumed that he would secure the presidency, so he began looking for someone to serve as his prime minister. Most of the candidates he considered were friends who had foreign support similar to his own, including Albert Kalonji, Joseph Iléo, Cyrille Adoula, and Justin Bomboko. Kasa-Vubu was slow to come to a final decision. On 18 June 1960, Kasa-Vubu announced that he had completed his government with all parties except the MNC-L. That afternoon Jason Sendwe, Antoine Gizenga, and Anicet Kashamura announced in the presence of Lumumba that their respective parties were not committed to the government. The next day, on 19 June 1960, Ganshof summoned Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba to a meeting so they could forge a compromise. This failed when Lumumba flatly refused the position of prime minister in a Kasa-Vubu government.
The following day, on 20 June 1960, the two rivals met in the presence of Adoula and diplomats from Israel and Ghana, but no agreement was reached. Most party leaders refused to support a government that did not include Lumumba. The decision to make Kasa-Vubu the formateur was a catalyst that rallied the PSA, CEREA, and BALUBAKAT to Lumumba, making it unlikely that Kasa-Vubu could form a government that would survive a vote of confidence. When the chamber met, on 21 June 1960, to select its officers, Joseph Kasongo of the MNC-L was elected president with 74 votes (a majority), while the two vice presidencies were secured by the PSA and CEREA candidates, both of whom had the support of Lumumba. With time running out before independence, Baudouin took new advice from Ganshof and appointed Lumumba as formateur.
Once it was apparent that Lumumba's bloc controlled parliament, several members of the opposition became eager to negotiate for a coalition government in order to share power. By 22 June 1960, Lumumba had a government list, but negotiations continued with Jean Bolikango, Albert Delvaux, and Kasa-Vubu. Lumumba reportedly offered the Alliance of Bakongo (ABAKO) the ministerial positions for foreign affairs and middle classes, but Kasa-Vubu instead demanded the ministry of finance, a minister of state, the secretary of state for the interior, and a written pledge of support from the MNC-L and its allies for his presidential candidacy. Kalonji was presented with the agriculture portfolio by Lumumba, which he rejected, although he was suitable due to his experience as an agricultural engineer. Adoula was also offered a ministerial position, but refused to accept it.
By the morning of 23 June 1960, the government was, in the words of Lumumba, "practically formed". At noon, he made a counter-offer to Kasa-Vubu, who instead responded with a letter demanding the creation of a seventh province for the Bakongo. Lumumba refused to comply and instead pledged to support Jean Bolikango in his bid for the presidency. At 14:45, Lumumba presented his proposed government before the press. Neither the ABAKO nor the MNC-Kalonji (MNC-K) were represented among the ministers, and the only PSA members were from Gizenga's wing of the party. The Bakongo of Léopoldville were deeply upset by their exclusion from Lumumba's cabinet. They subsequently demanded the removal of the PSA-dominated provincial government and called for a general strike to begin the following morning. At 16:00, Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu resumed negotiations. Kasa-Vubu eventually agreed to Lumumba's earlier offer, though Lumumba informed him that he could not give him a guarantee of support in his presidential candidacy.
The resulting 37-strong Lumumba government was very diverse, with its members coming from different classes, different tribes, and holding varied political beliefs. Though many had questionable loyalty to Lumumba, most did not openly contradict him out of political considerations or fear of reprisal. At 22:40 on 23 June 1960, the Chamber of Deputies convened in the Palais de la Nation to vote on Lumumba's government. After Kasongo opened the session, Lumumba delivered his main speech, promising to maintain national unity, abide by the will of the people, and pursue a neutralist foreign policy. It was warmly received by most deputies and observers.
The chamber proceeded to engage in a heated debate. Though the government contained members from parties that held 120 of the 137 seats, reaching a majority was not a straightforward task. While several leaders of the opposition had been involved in the formative negotiations, their parties as a whole had not been consulted. Furthermore, some individuals were upset they had not been included in the government and sought to personally prevent its investiture. In the subsequent arguments, multiple deputies expressed dissatisfaction at the lack of representation of their respective provinces and/or parties, with several threatening secession. Among them was Kalonji, who said he would encourage people of Kasaï to refrain from participating in the central government and form their own autonomous state. One Katangese deputy objected to the same person being appointed as premier and as head of the defence portfolio.
When a vote was finally taken, only 80 of the 137 members of the chamber were present. Of these, 74 voted in favour of the government, five against, and one abstained. The 57 absences were almost all voluntary. Though the government had earned just as many votes as when Kasongo won the presidency of the chamber, the support was not congruent; members of Cléophas Kamitatu's wing of the PSA had voted against the government while a few members of the PNP, PUNA, and ABAKO voted in favour of it. Overall, the vote was a disappointment for the MNC-L coalition.
The session was adjourned at 02:05 on 24 June 1960. The senate convened that day to vote on the government. There was another heated debate, in which Iléo and Adoula expressed their strong dissatisfaction with its composition. Confederation of Tribal Associations of Katanga (CONAKAT) members abstained from voting. When arguments concluded, a decisive vote of approval was taken on the government: 60 voted in favour, 12 against, while eight abstained. All dissident arguments for alternative cabinets, particularly Kalonji's demand for a new administration, were rendered impotent, and the Lumumba government was officially invested. With the institution of a broad coalition, the parliamentary opposition was officially reduced to only the MNC-K and some individuals.
At the onset of his premiership, Lumumba had two main goals: to ensure that independence would bring a legitimate improvement in the quality of life for the Congolese and to unify the country as a centralised state by eliminating tribalism and regionalism. He was worried that opposition to his government would appear rapidly and would have to be managed quickly and decisively.
To achieve the first aim, Lumumba believed that a comprehensive "Africanisation" of the administration, in spite of its risks, would be necessary. The Belgians were opposed to such an idea, as it would create inefficiency in the Congo's bureaucracy and lead to a mass exodus of unemployed civil servants to Belgium, whom they would be unable to absorb into the government there. It was too late for Lumumba to enact Africanisation before independence. Seeking another gesture that might excite the Congolese people, Lumumba proposed to the Belgian government a reduction in sentences for all prisoners and an amnesty for those serving a term of three years or less. Ganshof feared that such an action would jeopardise law and order, and he evaded taking any action until it was too late to fulfill the request. Lumumba's opinion of the Belgians was soured by this affair, which contributed to his fear that independence would not appear "real" to the average Congolese.
In seeking to eliminate tribalism and regionalism in the Congo, Lumumba was deeply inspired by the personality and undertakings of Kwame Nkrumah and by Ghanaian ideas of the leadership necessary in post-colonial Africa. He worked to seek such changes through the MNC. Lumumba intended to combine it with its parliamentary allies—CEREA, the PSA, and possibly BALUBAKAT—to form one national party, and to build a following in each province. He hoped it would absorb other parties and become a unifying force for the country.
Independence Day was celebrated on 30 June 1960 in a ceremony attended by many dignitaries, including King Baudouin of Belgium and the foreign press. Baudouin's speech praised developments under colonialism, his reference to the "genius" of his great-granduncle Leopold II of Belgium, glossing over atrocities committed during his reign over the Congo Free State. The King continued, "Don't compromise the future with hasty reforms, and don't replace the structures that Belgium hands over to you until you are sure you can do better. Don't be afraid to come to us. We will remain by your side, give you advice."
Lumumba, who had not been scheduled to speak, delivered an impromptu speech that reminded the audience that the independence of the Congo had not been granted magnanimously by Belgium:
For this independence of the Congo, although being proclaimed today by agreement with Belgium, an amicable country, with which we are on equal terms, no Congolese worthy of the name will ever be able to forget that it was by fighting that it has been won, a day-to-day fight, an ardent and idealistic fight, a fight in which we were spared neither privation nor suffering, and for which we gave our strength and our blood. We are proud of this struggle, of tears, of fire, and of blood, to the depths of our being, for it was a noble and just struggle, and indispensable to put an end to the humiliating slavery which was imposed upon us by force.
Most European journalists were shocked by the stridency of Lumumba's speech. The Western media criticised him. Time magazine characterised his speech as a "vicious attack".
== Prime minister ==
=== Independence ===
Independence Day and the three days that followed it were declared a national holiday. The Congolese were preoccupied by the festivities, which were conducted in relative peace. Meanwhile, Lumumba's office was overtaken by a flurry of activity. A diverse group of individuals, Congolese and European, some friends and relatives, hurried about their work. Some undertook specific missions on his behalf, sometimes without direct permission. Numerous Congolese citizens showed up at the office at whim for various reasons. Lumumba, for his part, was mostly preoccupied with a lengthy itinerary of receptions and ceremonies. On 3 July Lumumba declared a general amnesty for prisoners, but it was never implemented. The following morning he convened the Council of Ministers to discuss the unrest among the troops of the Force Publique.
Many soldiers hoped that independence would result in immediate promotions and material gains, but were disappointed by Lumumba's slow pace of reform. The rank-and-file felt that the Congolese political class—particularly ministers in the new government—were enriching themselves while failing to improve the troops' situation. Many of the soldiers were also fatigued from maintaining order during the elections and participating in independence celebrations. The ministers decided to establish four committees to study, respectively, the reorganisation of the administration, the judiciary, and the army, and the enacting of a new statute for state employees. All were to devote special attention to ending racial discrimination. Parliament assembled for the first time since independence and took its first official legislative action by voting to increase the salaries of its members to FC 500,000. Lumumba, fearing the repercussions the raise would have on the budget, was among the few to object, dubbing it a "ruinous folly".
=== Outbreak of the Congo Crisis ===
On the morning of 5 July 1960, General Émile Janssens, commander of the Force Publique, in response to increasing excitement among the Congolese ranks, summoned all troops on duty at Camp Léopold II. He demanded that the army maintain its discipline and wrote "before independence = after independence" on a blackboard for emphasis. That evening the Congolese sacked the canteen in protest of Janssens. He alerted the reserve garrison of Camp Hardy, 95 miles away in Thysville. The officers tried to organise a convoy to send to Camp Léopold II to restore order, but the men mutinied and seized the armoury. The crisis which followed came to dominate the tenure of the Lumumba government. The next day Lumumba dismissed Janssens and promoted all Congolese soldiers one grade, but mutinies spread out into the Lower Congo.
Although the trouble was highly localised, the country seemed to be overrun by gangs of soldiers and looters. The media reported that Europeans were fleeing the country. In response, Lumumba announced over the radio, "Thoroughgoing reforms are planned in all sectors. My government will make every possible effort to see that our country has a different face in a few months, a few weeks." In spite of government efforts, the mutinies continued. Mutineers in Leopoldville and Thysville surrendered only upon the personal intervention of Lumumba and President Kasa-Vubu.
On 8 July, Lumumba renamed the Force Publique as the "Armée Nationale Congolaise" (ANC). He Africanised the force by appointing Sergeant Major Victor Lundula as general and commander-in-chief, and chose junior minister and former soldier Joseph Mobutu as colonel and Army chief of staff. These promotions were made in spite of Lundula's inexperience and rumours about Mobutu's ties to Belgian and US intelligence services. All European officers in the army were replaced with Africans, with a few retained as advisers. By the next day the mutinies had spread throughout the entire country. Five Europeans, including the Italian vice-consul, were ambushed and killed by machine gun fire in Élisabethville, and nearly the entire European population of Luluabourg barricaded itself in an office building for safety. An estimated two dozen Europeans were murdered in the mutiny. Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu embarked on a tour across the country to promote peace and appoint new army commanders.
Belgium intervened on 10 July, dispatching 6,000 troops to the Congo, ostensibly to protect its citizens from the violence. Most Europeans went to Katanga Province, which possessed much of the Congo's natural resources. Though personally angered, Lumumba condoned the action on 11 July, provided that the Belgian forces acted only to protect their citizens, followed the direction of the Congolese armed forces, and ceased their activities once order was restored. The same day the Belgian Navy bombarded Matadi after it had evacuated its citizens, killing 19 Congolese civilians. This greatly inflamed tensions, leading to renewed Congolese attacks on Europeans. Shortly thereafter Belgian forces moved to occupy cities throughout the country, including the capital, where they clashed with Congolese soldiers. On the whole, the Belgian intervention made the situation worse for the armed forces.
The State of Katanga declared independence under regional premier Moïse Tshombe on 11 July, with support from the Belgian government and mining companies such as Union Minière. Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu were denied use of Élisabethville's airstrip the following day and returned to the capital, only to be accosted by fleeing Belgians. They sent a protest of the Belgian deployment to the United Nations, requesting that they withdraw and be replaced by an international peacekeeping force. The UN Security Council passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 143, calling for immediate removal of Belgian forces and establishment of the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC). Despite the arrival of UN troops, unrest continued. Lumumba requested UN troops to suppress the rebellion in Katanga, but the UN forces were not authorised to do so under their mandate. On 14 July Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu broke off diplomatic relations with Belgium. Frustrated at dealing with the West, they sent a telegram to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, requesting that he closely monitor the situation in the Congo.
=== Visit to the United States ===
Lumumba decided to travel to New York City in order to personally express the position of his government to the United Nations. Shortly before his departure, he announced that he had signed an economic agreement with a U.S. businessman who had created the Congo International Management Corporation (CIMCO). According to the contract (which had yet to be ratified by parliament), CIMCO was to form a development corporation to invest in and manage certain sectors of the economy. He also declared his approval of the second security council resolution, adding that "[Soviet] aid was no longer necessary" and announced his intention to seek technical assistance from the United States. On 22 July Lumumba left the Congo for New York City. He and his entourage reached the United States two days later after brief stops in Accra and London. There they rendezvoused with his UN delegation at the Barclay Hotel to prepare for meetings with UN officials. Lumumba was focused on discussing the withdrawal of Belgian troops and various options for technical assistance with Dag Hammarskjöld.
African diplomats were keen that the meetings would be successful; they convinced Lumumba to wait until the Congo was more stable before reaching any more major economic agreements (such as the CIMCO arrangement). Lumumba saw Hammarskjöld and other staff of the UN Secretariat over three days on 24, 25, and 26 July. Though Lumumba and Hammarskjöld were restrained towards one another, their discussions went smoothly. In a press conference, Lumumba reaffirmed his government's commitment to "positive neutralism".
On 27 July, Lumumba went to Washington, D.C. to meet with the US Secretary of State and appeal for financial and technical assistance. The US government informed Lumumba that they would offer aid only through the UN. The following day he received a telegram from Gizenga detailing a clash at Kolwezi between Belgian and Congolese forces. Lumumba felt that the UN was hampering his attempts to expel the Belgian troops and defeat the Katangan rebels. On 29 July, Lumumba went to Ottawa, the capital of Canada, to request help. The Canadians rebuffed a request for technicians and said that they would channel their assistance through the UN. Frustrated, Lumumba met with the Soviet ambassador in Ottawa and discussed a donation of military equipment. When he returned to New York the following evening, he was restrained towards the UN. The United States government's attitude had become more negative, due to reports of the rapes and violence committed by ANC soldiers, and scrutiny from Belgium. The latter was chagrined that Lumumba had received a high-level reception in Washington. The Belgian government regarded Lumumba as communist, anti-white, and anti-Western. Given its experience in the Congo, many other Western governments gave credence to the Belgian view.
Frustrated with the UN's apparent inaction towards Katanga as he departed the US, Lumumba decided to delay his return to the Congo. He visited several African states. This was apparently done to put pressure on Hammarskjöld and, failing that, to seek guarantees of bilateral military support to suppress Katanga. Between 2 and 8 August, Lumumba toured Tunisia, Morocco, Guinea, Ghana, Liberia, and Togo. He was well received in each country and issued joint communiques with their respective heads of state. Guinea and Ghana pledged independent military support, while the others expressed their desire to work through the United Nations to resolve the Katangan secession. In Ghana, Lumumba signed a secret agreement with President Nkrumah providing for a "Union of African States". Centred in Léopoldville, it was to be a federation with a republican government. They agreed to hold a summit of African states in Léopoldville between 25 and 30 August to further discuss the issue. Lumumba returned to the Congo, apparently confident that he could now depend upon African military assistance. He also believed that he could procure African bilateral technical aid, which placed him at odds with Hammarskjöld's goal of funnelling support through ONUC. Lumumba and some ministers were wary of the UN option, as it would supply them with functionaries who would not respond directly to their authority.
=== Attempts at re-consolidation ===
On 9 August, Lumumba proclaimed a state of emergency throughout the Congo. He subsequently issued several orders in an attempt to reassert his dominance on the political scene. The first outlawed the formation of associations without government sanction. A second asserted the government's right to ban publications that produced material likely to bring the administration into disrepute. On 11 August the Courrier d'Afrique printed an editorial which declared that the Congolese did not want to fall "under a second kind of slavery". The editor was summarily arrested and four days later publication of the daily ceased. Shortly afterward, the government shut down the Belga and Agence France-Presse wire services. The press restrictions garnered a wave of harsh criticism from the Belgian media.
Lumumba decreed the nationalisation of local Belga offices, creating the Agence Congolaise de Presse, as a means of eliminating what he considered a centre of biased reporting, as well as creating a service through which the government's platform could be more easily communicated to the public. Another order stipulated that official approval had to be obtained six days in advance of public gatherings. On 16 August Lumumba announced the installation of a régime militaire spécial for the duration of six months.
Throughout August, Lumumba increasingly withdrew from his full cabinet and instead consulted with officials and ministers he trusted, such as Maurice Mpolo, Joseph Mbuyi, Kashamura, Gizenga, and Antoine Kiwewa. Lumumba's office was in disarray, and few members of his staff did any work. His chef de cabinet, Damien Kandolo, was often absent and acted as a spy on behalf of the Belgian government. Lumumba was constantly being delivered rumours from informants and the Sûreté, encouraging him to grow deeply suspicious of others. In an attempt to keep him informed, Serge Michel, his press secretary, enlisted the assistance of three Belgian telex operators, who supplied him with copies of all outgoing journalistic dispatches.
Lumumba immediately ordered Congolese troops to put down the rebellion in secessionist South Kasai, which was home to strategic rail links necessary for a campaign in Katanga. The operation was successful, but the conflict soon devolved into ethnic violence. The army became involved in massacres of Luba civilians. The people and politicians of South Kasai held Lumumba personally responsible for the actions of the army. Kasa-Vubu publicly announced that only a federalist government could bring peace and stability to the Congo. This broke his tenuous political alliance with Lumumba and tilted the political favour in the country away from Lumumba's unitary state. Ethnic tensions rose against him (especially around Leopoldville), and the Catholic Church, still powerful in the country, openly criticised his government. Even with South Kasai subdued, the Congo lacked the necessary strength to retake Katanga. Lumumba had summoned an African conference in Leopoldville from 25 to 31 August, but no foreign heads of state appeared and no country pledged military support. Lumumba demanded once again that UN peacekeeping soldiers assist in suppressing the revolt, threatening to bring in Soviet troops if they refused. The UN subsequently denied Lumumba the use of its forces. The possibility of a direct Soviet intervention was thought increasingly likely.
== Dismissal ==
=== Kasa-Vubu's revocation order ===
President Kasa-Vubu began fearing a Lumumbist coup d'état would take place. On the evening of 5 September, Kasa-Vubu announced over radio that he had dismissed Lumumba and six of his ministers from the government for the massacres in South Kasai and for involving the Soviets in the Congo. Upon hearing the broadcast, Lumumba went to the national radio station, which was under UN guard. Though they had been ordered to bar Lumumba's entry, the UN troops allowed the prime minister in, as they had no specific instructions to use force against him. Lumumba denounced his dismissal over the radio as illegitimate, and in turn labelled Kasa-Vubu a traitor and declared him deposed. Kasa-Vubu had not declared the approval of any responsible ministers of his decision, making his action legally invalid. Lumumba noted this in a letter to Hammarskjöld and a radio broadcast at 05:30 on 6 September. Later that day Kasa-Vubu managed to secure the countersignatures to his order of Albert Delvaux, Minister Resident in Belgium, and Justin Marie Bomboko, Minister of Foreign Affairs. With them, he announced again his dismissal of Lumumba and six other ministers at 16:00 over Brazzaville radio.
Lumumba and the ministers who remained loyal to him ordered the arrest of Delvaux and Bomboko for countersigning the dismissal order. The latter sought refuge in the presidential palace (which was guarded by UN peacekeepers), but early in the morning on 7 September, the former was detained and confined in the Prime Minister's residence. Meanwhile, the Chamber of Deputies convened to discuss Kasa-Vubu's dismissal order and hear Lumumba's reply. Delvaux made an unexpected appearance and took to the dais to denounce his arrest and declare his resignation from the government. He was enthusiastically applauded by the opposition. Lumumba then delivered his speech. Instead of directly attacking Kasa-Vubu ad hominem, Lumumba accused obstructionist politicians and ABAKO of using the presidency as a front for disguising their activities. He noted that Kasa-Vubu had never before offered any criticism of the government and portrayed their relationship as one of cooperation. He lambasted Delvaux and Minister of Finance Pascal Nkayi for their role in the UN Geneva negotiations and for their failure to consult the rest of the government. Lumumba followed his arguments with an analysis of the Loi Fondemental and finished by asking Parliament to assemble a "commission of sages" to examine the Congo's troubles.
The Chamber, at the suggestion of its presiding officer, voted to annul both Kasa-Vubu's and Lumumba's declarations of dismissal, 60 to 19. The following day Lumumba delivered a similar speech before the Senate, which subsequently delivered the government a vote of confidence, 49 to zero with seven abstentions. According to Article 51, Parliament was granted the "exclusive privilege" to interpret the constitution. In cases of doubt and controversy, the Congolese were originally supposed to appeal constitutional questions to the Belgian Conseil d'État. With the rupture of relations in July this was no longer possible, so no authoritative interpretation or mediation was available to bring a legal resolution to the dispute. Numerous African diplomats and newly appointed ONUC head Rajeshwar Dayal attempted to get the president and prime minister to reconcile their differences, but failed. On 13 September, the Parliament held a joint session between the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Though several members short of a quorum, they voted to grant Lumumba emergency powers.
=== Mobutu's coup ===
On 14 September Mobutu announced over the radio that he was launching a "peaceful revolution" to break the political impasse and therefore neutralising the President, Lumumba's and Iléo's respective governments, and Parliament until 31 December. He stated that "technicians" would run the administration while the politicians sorted out their differences. In a subsequent press conference, he clarified that Congolese university graduates would be asked to form a government, and further declared that all Eastern Bloc countries should close their embassies. Lumumba was surprised by the coup and that evening he travelled to Camp Leopold II in search of Mobutu to try and change his mind. He spent the night there but was attacked in the morning by Luba soldiers, who blamed him for the atrocities in South Kasaï. A Ghanaian ONUC contingent managed to extricate him, but his briefcase was left behind. Some of his political opponents recovered it and published documents it supposedly contained, including letters from Nkrumah, appeals for support addressed to the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, a memorandum dated 16 September declaring the presence of Soviet troops within one week, and a letter dated 15 September from Lumumba to the provincial presidents (Tshombe excepted) entitled "Measures to be applied during the first stages of the dictatorship". Some of these papers were genuine, while others, especially the memorandum and the letter to the provincial presidents, were almost certainly forgeries.
Despite the coup, African diplomats still worked towards a reconciliation between Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu. According to the Ghanaians, a verbal agreement of principle concerning closer co-operation between the Head of State and the government was put into writing. Lumumba signed it, but Kasa-Vubu suddenly refused to reciprocate. The Ghanaians suspected that Belgium and the United States were responsible. Kasa-Vubu was eager to re-integrate Katanga back into the Congo through negotiation, and Tshombe had declared that he would not participate in any discussions with a government that included the "communist" Lumumba.
After consultation with Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba, Mobutu announced that he would summon a round table conference to discuss the political future of the Congo. His attempts to follow through were disrupted by Lumumba who, from his official residence, was acting as though he still held the premiership. He continued to hold meetings with members of his government, senators, deputies, and political supporters, and to issue public statements. On numerous occasions he left his residence to tour the restaurants of the capital, maintaining that he still held power. Frustrated by the way he was being treated by Lumumba and facing intense political pressure, by the end of the month Mobutu was no longer encouraging reconciliation; he had aligned with Kasa-Vubu. He ordered ANC units to surround Lumumba's residence, but a cordon of UN peacekeepers prevented them from making an arrest. Lumumba was confined to his home. On 7 October Lumumba announced the formation of a new government that included Bolikango and Kalonji, but he later proposed that the UN supervise a national referendum that would settle the split in the government.
On 24 November, the UN voted to recognise Mobutu's new delegates to the General Assembly, disregarding Lumumba's original appointees. Lumumba resolved to join Deputy Prime Minister Antoine Gizenga in Stanleyville and lead a campaign to regain power. On 27 November he left the capital in a convoy of nine cars with Rémy Mwamba, Pierre Mulele, his wife Pauline, and his youngest child. Instead of heading with all haste to the Orientale Province border—where soldiers loyal to Gizenga were waiting to receive him—Lumumba delayed by touring villages and making conversation with the locals. On 1 December Mobutu's troops caught up with his party as it crossed the Sankuru River in Lodi. Lumumba and his advisers had made it to the far side, but his wife and child were left to be captured on the bank. Fearing for their safety, Lumumba took the ferry back, against the advice of Mwamba and Mulele, who both, fearing they would never see him again, bid him farewell. Mobutu's men arrested him. He was moved to Port Francqui the next day and flown back to Léopoldville. Mobutu claimed Lumumba would be tried for inciting the army to rebellion and other crimes.
=== UN response ===
Hammarskjöld made an appeal to Kasa-Vubu asking that Lumumba be treated according to due process. The Soviet Union denounced Hammarskjöld and the First World as responsible for Lumumba's arrest and demanded his release.
The United Nations Security Council was called into session on 7 December 1960 to consider Soviet demands that the UN seek Lumumba's immediate release, the immediate restoration of Lumumba as head of the Congo government, the disarming of the forces of Mobutu, and the immediate evacuation of Belgians from the Congo. The Soviets also requested the immediate resignation of Hammarskjöld, the arrests of Mobutu and Tshombe, and the withdrawal of UN peacekeeping forces. Hammarskjöld, answering Soviet criticism of his Congo operations, said that if the UN forces were withdrawn from the Congo, "I fear everything will crumble."
The threat to the UN cause was intensified by the announcement of the withdrawal of their contingents by Yugoslavia, the United Arab Republic, Ceylon, Indonesia, Morocco, and Guinea. The pro-Lumumba resolution was defeated on 14 December 1960 by a vote of 8–2. On the same day, a Western resolution that would have given Hammarskjöld increased powers to deal with the Congo situation was vetoed by the Soviet Union.
== Final days and assassination ==
Lumumba was sent first on 3 December 1960 to the Thysville military barracks at Camp Hardy, 150 km (about 100 miles) from Léopoldville. He was accompanied by Maurice Mpolo and Joseph Okito, two political associates who had planned to assist him in setting up a new government. They were fed poorly by the prison guards, as per Mobutu's orders. In Lumumba's last documented letter, he wrote to Rajeshwar Dayal, head of the UN in the Congo: "In a word, we are living amid absolutely impossible conditions; moreover, they are against the law."
On the morning of 13 January 1961, discipline at Camp Hardy faltered. Soldiers refused to work unless they were paid; they received a total of 400,000 francs ($8,000) from the Katanga Cabinet. Some supported Lumumba's release, while others thought he was dangerous. Kasa-Vubu, Mobutu, Foreign Minister Justin Marie Bomboko, and Head of Security Services Victor Nendaka Bika personally arrived at the camp and negotiated with the troops. Conflict was avoided, but it became apparent that holding a controversial prisoner in the camp was too great a risk. Harold Charles d'Aspremont Lynden, the last Belgian Minister of the Colonies, ordered that Lumumba, Mpolo, and Okito be taken to the State of Katanga.
Lumumba was forcibly restrained on the flight to Elisabethville on 17 January 1961. On arrival, his associates and he were conducted under arrest to the Brouwez House, where they were brutally beaten and tortured by Katangan officers, while Tshombe and his cabinet decided what to do with him.
Later that night, Lumumba, Mpolo, and Okito were driven to an isolated spot where three firing squads had been assembled that were commanded by Belgian contract officer Julien Gat. The orders to murder Lumumba were given by Katangan leaders. The last stage of the execution was personally undertaken by the Belgian contracts led by Police Commissioner Frans Verscheure. Lumumba, Mpolo, and Okito were put up against a tree and shot one at a time. The execution is thought to have taken place on 17 January 1961, between 21:40 and 21:43 according to a later Belgian parliamentary inquiry. Tshombe, two other ministers, and four Belgian officers under the command of the Katangan authorities were present. The bodies were thrown into a shallow grave.
The following morning, on orders of Katangan Interior Minister Godefroid Munongo, who wanted to make the bodies disappear and prevent a burial site from being created, Belgian Gendarmerie officer Gerard Soete and his team dug up and dismembered the corpses, and dissolved them in sulfuric acid while the bones were ground and scattered.
Lumumba's assassination allowed the governments of Belgium, the U.S., and reportedly the United Kingdom, to abandon their own assassination plans. Allen Dulles, then the head of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) supported assassinating Lumumba, reportedly as he had heard Eisenhower wishing that Lumumba "fall into a river full of crocodiles." Eisenhower's involvement in the CIA's assassination plans remains speculative.
=== Announcement of death ===
No statement was released until three weeks later, despite rumours that Lumumba was dead. Katangan Secretary of State of Information Lucas Samalenge was one of the first people to reveal Lumumba's death, on 18 January. According to De Witte, Samalenge went to the bar Le Relais in Élisabethville and "told everyone willing to listen that Lumumba was dead and that he had kicked his corpse. He went around repeating the story until the police took him away."
On 10 February, the radio announced that Lumumba and two other prisoners had escaped. His death was formally announced over Katangan radio on 13 February: it was alleged that he was killed by enraged villagers three days after escaping from Kolatey prison farm.
After the announcement of Lumumba's death, street protests were organised in several European countries; in Belgrade, protesters sacked the Belgian embassy and confronted the police, and in London, a crowd marched from Trafalgar Square to the Belgian embassy, where a letter of protest was delivered and where protesters clashed with police. In New York City, a demonstration at the United Nations Security Council turned violent and spilled over into the streets.
== Foreign involvement in his execution ==
The ongoing Cold War affected both Belgium and the United States' perception of Lumumba, as they feared he was increasingly subject to communist influence due to his appeals for Soviet aid. However, according to journalist Sean Kelly, who covered the events as a correspondent for the Voice of America, Lumumba did this not because he was a communist, but because he felt that the Soviet Union was the only power which would support his government's effort to defeat Belgian-supported separatists and rid itself of colonial influence. The US was the first country from which Lumumba requested help. Lumumba, for his part, denied being a communist, stating that he found colonialism and communism to be equally deplorable, and publicly professed his personal preference for neutrality between the East and West.
=== Belgian involvement ===
On 18 January, panicked by reports that the burial of the three bodies had been observed, members of the execution team dug up the remains and moved them for reburial to a place near the border with Northern Rhodesia. Belgian Police Commissioner Gerard Soete later admitted in several accounts that he and his brother led the original exhumation. Police Commissioner Frans Verscheure also took part. On the afternoon and evening of 21 January, Commissioner Soete and his brother dug up Lumumba's corpse for a second time, cut it up with a hacksaw, and dissolved it in concentrated sulfuric acid.
In the late 20th and early 21st century, Lumumba's assassination was investigated. In a 1999 interview on Belgian television, in a program about his assassination, Soete displayed a bullet and two teeth that he claimed he had saved from Lumumba's body, one of which included a gold-capped tooth. According to the 2001 Belgian Commission investigating Lumumba's assassination: (1) Belgium wanted Lumumba arrested, (2) Belgium was not particularly concerned with Lumumba's physical well-being, and (3) although informed of the danger to Lumumba's life, Belgium did not take any action to avert his death. The report concluded that Belgium had not ordered Lumumba's execution. In February 2002, the Belgian government formally apologised to the Congolese people, and admitted to a "moral responsibility" and "an irrefutable portion of responsibility in the events that led to the death of Lumumba".
Lumumba's execution was carried out by a firing squad led by Belgian mercenary Julien Gat; Katangan Police Commissioner Verscheure, who was Belgian, had overall command of the execution site. The separatist Katangan regime was heavily supported by the Belgian mining conglomerate Union Minière du Haut-Katanga.
In the early 21st century, De Witte found documents challenging the idea that Belgian officers operating in Katanga only took orders from the Katangan authorities. Belgian officers were also following Belgian government policy and orders. The Belgian Minister of African Affairs Count Harold d'Aspremont Lynden, who had been tasked with organising Katanga's secession, on 6 October 1960 sent a cable to Katanga saying that policy from now on would be the "definitive elimination of Patrice Lumumba". Lynden had also insisted on 15 January 1961, that an imprisoned Lumumba should be sent to Katanga, which essentially would have been a death sentence.
In June 2025, Baudouin's close associate Étienne Davignon, a former Belgian junior diplomat to Congo, was requested to be tried for war crimes for his involvement in the unlawful detention, deprivation of a fair trial, and torture of Lumumba in 1960. It is expected to be decided in January 2026 whether a trial will take place. Davignon has denied the allegations.
=== United States involvement ===
The 2001 report by the Belgian Commission describes previous U.S. and Belgian plots to kill Lumumba. Among them was a CIA-sponsored attempt to poison him. Eisenhower authorised the assassination of Lumumba in 1960. However, the plot to poison him was abandoned. CIA chemist Sidney Gottlieb, a key person in the plan, devised a number of toxic materials to be used for the assassination. In September 1960, Gottlieb brought a vial of the poison to the Congo, and CIA station chief Larry Devlin developed plans to place it on Lumumba's toothbrush or in his food. The plot was abandoned because Devlin's agent was unable to carry out the assassination, and the replacement agent Justin O'Donnell refused to participate in an assassination plot.
According to Madeleine G. Kalb in her book, Congo Cables, many communications by Devlin at the time urged the elimination of Lumumba. Michael P. Holt writes that Devlin also helped to direct the search to capture Lumumba and also helped arrange his transfer to the separatist authorities in Katanga. John Stockwell, a CIA officer in the Congo and later a CIA station chief, wrote in 1978 that the CIA base chief in Elizabethville was in direct contact with Lumumba's killers on the night he was executed. Stockwell also wrote that a CIA agent had a body in the trunk of his car that they were trying to dispose of. Stockwell, who knew Devlin well, believed that Devlin knew more than anyone else about the murder.
The inauguration of John F. Kennedy in January 1961 caused fear among Mobutu's faction, and within the CIA, that the incoming Kennedy administration would favour the imprisoned Lumumba. While awaiting his presidential inauguration, Kennedy had come to believe that Lumumba should be released from custody, though not be allowed to return to power. Lumumba was killed three days before Kennedy's inauguration on 20 January, though Kennedy did not learn of the killing until 13 February. Kennedy was informed by United Nations ambassador Adlai Stevenson and according to Jacques Lowe who was with him at the time "his hand went to his head in utter despair, 'Oh, no,' I heard him groan".
==== Church Committee ====
In 1975, the Church Committee went on record with the finding that CIA chief Allen Dulles had ordered Lumumba's assassination as "an urgent and prime objective". Furthermore, declassified CIA cables quoted or mentioned in the Church report, and in Kalb (1982), mention two specific CIA plots to murder Lumumba: the poison plot and a shooting plot.
The Committee later found that while the CIA had conspired to kill Lumumba, it was not directly involved in the murder.
==== U.S. government documents ====
In the early 21st century, declassified documents revealed that the CIA had plotted to assassinate Lumumba. The documents indicate that the Congolese leaders who overthrew Lumumba and transferred him to the Katangan authorities, including Mobutu Sese Seko and Joseph Kasa-Vubu, received money and weapons directly from the CIA. The same disclosure showed that, at the time, the U.S. government believed that Lumumba was a communist, and feared him because of what it considered the threat of the Soviet Union in the Cold War.
In 2000, a newly declassified interview with Robert Johnson, who was the minutekeeper of the U.S. National Security Council at the time in question, revealed that Eisenhower had said "something [to CIA chief Allen Dulles] to the effect that Lumumba should be eliminated". The interview from the Senate Intelligence Committee's inquiry on covert action was released in August 2000.
In 2013, the U.S. State Department admitted that Eisenhower discussed plans at a NSC meeting on 18 August 1960 to assassinate Lumumba. However, documents released in 2017 revealed that an American role in Lumumba's murder was only under consideration by the CIA. CIA Chief Allan Dulles had allocated $100,000 to accomplish the act, but the plan was not carried out.
=== United Kingdom involvement ===
In June 2001, newly discovered documents by De Witte revealed that while the US and Belgium actively plotted to murder Lumumba, the British government secretly wanted him "got rid of" because they believed he posed a serious threat to British interests in the Congo, such as mining facilities in Katanga. Howard Smith, who was to become head of MI5 in 1979, said, "I can see only two possible solutions to the problem. The first is the simple one of ensuring Lumumba's removal from the scene by killing him. This should solve the problem".
In April 2013, in a letter to the London Review of Books, British parliamentarian David Lea reported having discussed Lumumba's death with MI6 officer Daphne Park shortly before she died in March 2010. Park had been posted to Leopoldville at the time of Lumumba's death, and was later a semi-official spokesperson for MI6 in the House of Lords. According to Lea, when he mentioned "the uproar" surrounding Lumumba's abduction and murder, and recalled the theory that MI6 might have had "something to do with it", Park replied, "We did. I organised it." The BBC reported that, subsequently, "Whitehall sources" described the claims of MI6 involvement as "speculative".
== Repatriation of his remains ==
On 30 June 2020, Lumumba's daughter, Juliana Lumumba, appealed directly in a letter to Philippe, King of the Belgians, the return of "the relics of Patrice Émery Lumumba to the ground of his ancestors", describing her father as "a hero without a grave". The letter stated: "Why, after his terrible murder, have Lumumba's remains been condemned to remain a soul forever wandering, without a grave to shelter his eternal rest?" On 10 September 2020, a Belgian judge ruled that Lumumba's remains – which then consisted of just a single gold-capped tooth (Gerard Soete had lost the other tooth of Lumumba between 1999 and 2020) – must be returned to his family.
In May 2021, Congolese President Félix Tshisekedi announced that there would be a repatriation of the last remains of Lumumba, however, the handover ceremony was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 9 June 2022, during a speech in the DRC to the country's parliament, King Philippe reiterated regrets for Belgium's colonial past in its former colony, describing Belgian rule as a "regime ... of unequal relations, unjustifiable in itself, marked by paternalism, discrimination and racism" that "led to violent acts and humiliations".
On 20 June, Lumumba's children received the remains of their father during a ceremony at Egmont Palace in Brussels, where the federal prosecutor formally handed custody to the family. The Belgian Prime Minister, Alexander De Croo, apologised on behalf of the Belgian government for his country's role in Lumumba's assassination: "For my part, I would like to apologise here, in the presence of his family, for the way in which the Belgian government influenced the decision to end the life of the country's first prime minister." "A man was murdered for his political convictions, his words, his ideals", he added. Later the full-sized coffin was brought in public and draped in the Congolese flag for the Congolese and wider African diaspora of Belgium to pay their respects before the return.
A special mausoleum was built in Kinshasa to house his remains. The government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo declared three days of national mourning. The burial coincided with the 61st anniversary of his famous independence day speech. An investigation by Belgian prosecutors for "war crimes" related to Lumumba's murder is ongoing. His remains were laid to rest 30 June 2022. On 18 November 2024, the mausoleum was vandalised and Lumumba's coffin broken, with the interior ministry saying that his tooth was safe.
== Political ideology ==
Lumumba did not espouse a comprehensive political or economic platform. According to Patricia Goff, Lumumba was the first Congolese to articulate a narrative of the Congo that contradicted traditional Belgian views of colonisation, and he highlighted the suffering of the indigenous population under European rule. Goff writes that Lumumba was alone among his contemporaries in encompassing all Congolese people in his narrative (the others confined their discussions to their respective ethnicities or regions), and he offered a basis for national identity that was predicated upon having survived colonial victimisation, as well as the people's innate dignity, humanity, strength, and unity. Lumumba's ideal of humanism included the values of egalitarianism, social justice, liberty, and the recognition of fundamental rights. He viewed the state as a positive advocate for the public welfare and its intervention in Congolese society necessary to ensure equality, justice, and social harmony.
== Legacy ==
=== Historiography ===
Full accounts of Lumumba's life and death were printed within weeks of his demise. Beginning in 1961 and continuing for several years thereafter, some biographies on him were published. Most were highly partisan. Several early works on the Congo Crisis also discussed Lumumba at length. In the years after his death, misconceptions of Lumumba persisted by both his supporters and his critics. Serious study of him faded over the following decades. Academic discussion of his legacy was largely limited until the later stages of Mobutu's rule in the Congo; Mobutu's opening of the country to multi-party politics beginning in 1990 revived interest in Lumumba's death.
Belgian literature in the decades following the Congo Crisis portrayed him as incompetent, demagogic, aggressive, ungrateful, undiplomatic, and communist. Most Africanists of the 20th century, such as Jean-Claude Willame, viewed Lumumba as an intransigent, unrealistic idealist without any tangible programme who distanced himself from his contemporaries and alienated the Western world with radical anti-colonial rhetoric. They saw him as greatly responsible for the political crisis that resulted in his downfall. A handful of other writers, such as Jean-Paul Sartre, shared the belief that Lumumba's goals were unattainable in 1960 but nevertheless viewed him as a martyr of Congolese independence at the hands of certain Western interests and the victim of events over which he had little control. According to sociologist De Witte, both of these perspectives overstate the political weaknesses and isolation of Lumumba.
A conventional narrative of Lumumba's premiership and downfall eventually emerged; he was an uncompromising radical who provoked his own murder by angering domestic separatists. Within Belgium, the popular narrative of his death implicated the involvement of some Belgian individuals, but stressed that they were acting "under orders" of African figures and that the Belgian government was uninvolved. Some Belgian circles peddled the notion that the United States—particularly the Central Intelligence Agency—had arranged the killing.
This narrative was challenged by De Witte's 2001 work, The Assassination of Patrice Lumumba, which provided evidence that the Belgian government—with the complicity of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the UN—was largely responsible for his death. Media discussion of Lumumba, spurred by the release of the book as well as a feature film in 2000, Lumumba, became significantly more positive afterwards. A new narrative subsequently emerged, holding Western espionage at fault for Lumumba's death, and emphasising the threat his charismatic appeal posed to Western interests. Lumumba's role in the Congolese independence movement is well-documented, and he is typically recognised as its most important and influential leader. His exploits are usually celebrated as the work of him as an individual and not that of a larger movement.
=== Political impact ===
Due to his relatively short career in government, quick removal from power, and controversial death, a consensus has not been reached on Lumumba's political legacy. His downfall was detrimental to African nationalist movements, and he is generally remembered primarily for his assassination.
Numerous American historians have cited his death as a major contributing factor to the radicalisation of the American civil rights movement in the 1960s, and many African-American activist organisations and publications used public comment on his death to express their ideology. Popular memory of Lumumba has often discarded his politics and reduced him to a symbol.
Within the Congo, Lumumba is primarily portrayed as a symbol of national unity, while abroad he is usually cast as a Pan-Africanist and anticolonial revolutionary. The ideological legacy of Lumumba is known as Lumumbisme (French for Lumumbism). Rather than a complex doctrine, it is usually framed as a set of fundamental principles consisting of nationalism, Pan-Africanism, nonalignment, and social progressivism. Mobutism built off of these principles. Congolese university students—who had up until independence held little respect for Lumumba—embraced Lumumbisme after his death. According to political scientist Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, Lumumba's "greatest legacy ... for the Congo is the ideal of national unity". Nzongola-Ntalaja further posited that, as a result of Lumumba's high praise of the independence movement and his work to end the Katangese secession, "the people of the Congo are likely to remain steadfast in their defense of national unity and territorial integrity, come hell or high water." Political scientist Ali Mazrui wrote, "It looks as if the memory of Lumumba may contribute more to the 'oneness' of the Congolese than anything Lumumba himself actually did while he was still alive."
Following the suppression of the rebellions of 1964 and 1965, most Lumumbist ideology was confined to isolated groups of intellectuals who faced repression under Mobutu's regime. By 1966 there was little popular devotion to him outside of the political elite. Centres of Lumumba's popularity in his lifetime underwent a gradual decline in fidelity to his person and ideas. According to Africanist Bogumil Jewsiewicki, by 1999 "the only faithful surviving Lumumbist nucleus is located in Sankuru and Maniema, and its loyalty is questionable (more ethnical, regional, and sentimental than ideological and political)." Lumumba's image was unpopular in southern Kasai for years after his death, as many Baluba remained aware of the military campaign he ordered in August 1960 that resulted in violent atrocities against their people.
At least a dozen Congolese political parties have claimed to bear Lumumba's political and spiritual heritage. Despite this, few entities have attempted or succeeded in incorporating his ideas into a comprehensible political program. Most of these parties have enjoyed little electoral support, though Gizenga's Parti Lumumbiste Unifié was represented in the Congolese coalition government formed under President Joseph Kabila in 2006. Aside from student groups, Lumumbist ideals play only a minor role in current Congolese politics. Congolese presidents Mobutu, Laurent-Désiré Kabila, and Joseph Kabila all claimed to inherit Lumumba's legacy and paid tribute to him early on in their tenures.
=== Martyrdom ===
The circumstances of Lumumba's death have led him to often be portrayed as a martyr. While his demise led to an outburst of mass demonstrations abroad and quick creation of a martyr image internationally, the immediate reaction to his death in the Congo was not as uniform. Tetela, Songye, and Luba-Katanga peoples created folks songs of mourning for him, but these were groups which had been involved in political alliances with him and, at the time, Lumumba was unpopular in large segments of the Congolese populace, particularly in the capital, Bas-Congo, Katanga, and South Kasai. Some of his actions and the portrayal of him as a communist by his detractors had also generated disaffection in the army, civil service, labour unions, and the Catholic Church. Lumumba's reputation as a martyr in the collective memory of the Congolese was only cemented later, partly due to the initiatives of Mobutu.
In Congolese collective memory, it is perceived that Lumumba was killed through Western machinations because he defended the Congo's self-determination. The killing is viewed in the context of the memory as a symbolic moment in which the Congo lost its dignity in the international realm and the ability to determine its future, which has since been controlled by the West. Lumumba's determination to pursue his goals is extrapolated upon the Congolese people as their own; securing the Congo's dignity and self-determination would thus ensure their "redemption" from victimisation by Western powers. Historian David Van Reybrouck wrote, "In no time Lumumba became a martyr of decolonisation ... He owed this status more to the horrible end of his life than to his political successes." Journalist Michela Wrong remarked that "He really did become a hero after his death, in a way that one has to wonder if he would have been such a hero if he had remained and run the country and faced all the problems that running a country as big as Congo would have inevitably brought." Drama scholar Peit Defraeya wrote, "Lumumba as a dead martyr has become a more compelling figure in liberationist discourse than the controversial live politician." Historian Pedro Monaville wrote that "his globally iconic status was not commensurate with his more complex legacy in [the] Congo." Cooptation of Lumumba's legacy by Congolese presidents and state media has generated doubts in the Congolese public about his reputation.
=== Commemoration and official tributes ===
In 1961 Adoula became Prime Minister of the Congo. Shortly after assuming office he went to Stanleyville and laid a wreath of flowers at an impromptu monument established for Lumumba. After Tshombe became Prime Minister in 1964, he also went to Stanleyville and did the same. On 30 June 1966, Mobutu rehabilitated Lumumba's image and proclaimed him a "national hero". He declared a series of other measures meant to commemorate Lumumba, though few of these were ever executed aside from the release of a banknote with his visage the subsequent year. This banknote was the only paper money during Mobutu's rule that bore the face of a leader other than the incumbent president. In following years state mention of Lumumba declined and Mobutu's regime viewed unofficial tributes to him with suspicion. Following Laurent-Désiré Kabila's seizure of power in the 1990s, a new line of Congolese francs was issued bearing Lumumba's image.
In January 2003, Joseph Kabila, who succeeded his father as president, inaugurated a statue of Lumumba. In Guinea, Lumumba was featured on a coin and two regular banknotes despite not having any national ties to the country. This was an unprecedented occurrence in the modern history of national currency, as images of foreigners are normally reserved only for specially-released commemorative money. As of 2020, Lumumba has been featured on 16 different postage stamps. Many streets and public squares around the world have been named after him. The Peoples' Friendship University of Russia in Moscow (then Peoples' Friendship University of the USSR) was renamed "Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University" in 1961. It was renamed again in 1992 and back in 2023.
In 2013, the planned community of Lumumbaville was named after him.
=== In popular culture ===
Lumumba is viewed as one of the "fathers of independence" of the Congo. The image of Lumumba appears frequently in social media and is often used as a rallying cry in demonstrations of social defiance. His figure is prevalent in art and literature, mostly outside of the Congo. He was referenced by numerous African-American writers of the American civil rights movement, especially in their works of the post-civil rights era. Malcolm X declared him "the greatest black man who ever walked the African continent".
Among the most prominent works featuring him are Aimé Césaire's 1966 play, Une saison au Congo, and Raoul Peck's 1992 documentary and 2000 feature film, Lumumba, la mort d'un prophète and Lumumba, respectively.
There is an Italian 1968 feature film 'Seduto alla sua destra' (lit. 'Sitting to his right') by Valerio Zurlini, where the last days of the character Maurice Lalubi (played by Woody Strode), based upon Patrice Lumumba, are presented as the Passion of Christ. This movie was included in the 1968 Cannes Film Festival, which was cancelled due to the events of May 68 in France.
The 2024 film Soundtrack to a Coup d'Etat depicts the Congolese independence process and Lumumba's death.
Congolese musicians Franco Luambo and Joseph Kabasele both wrote songs in tribute to Lumumba shortly after his death. Other musical works mentioning him include "Lumumba" by Miriam Makeba, "Done Too Soon" by Neil Diamond and "Waltz for Lumumba" by the Spencer Davis Group. His name is also mentioned in rap music; Arrested Development, Nas, David Banner, Black Thought, Damso, Baloji, Médine, Sammus and many others have mentioned him in their work.
In popular painting he is often paired with notions of sacrifice and redemption, even being portrayed as a messiah, with his downfall being his passion. Tshibumba Kanda-Matulu painted a series chronicling Lumumba's life and career. Lumumba is relatively absent from Congolese writing, and he is often portrayed with only subtle or ambiguous references. Congolese authors Sony Lab'ou Tansi's and Sylvain Bemba's fictional Parentheses of Blood and Léopolis, respectively, both feature characters with strong similarities to Lumumba. In written tributes to Mobutu, Lumumba is usually portrayed as an adviser to the former. Writer Charles Djungu-Simba observed, "Lumumba is rather considered as a vestige of the past, albeit an illustrious past". His surname is often used to identify a long drink of hot or cold chocolate and rum.
== Footnotes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
Chotiner, Isaac, "A Dangerous Man: Why Congo's independence leader Patrice Lumumba had to die" (review of Stuart A. Reid, The Lumumba Plot: The Secret History of the CIA and a Cold War Assassination, Knopf, 2023), The New Yorker, 6 November 2023, pp. 67–70.
Howard W. French, 'A Damn Nuisance' (review of Stuart A. Reid, The Lumumba Plot: The Secret History of the CIA and a Cold War Assassination, Knopf, 2023, 618 pp.; Andrée Blouin in collaboration with Jean MacKellar, My Country, Africa: Autobiography of the Black Pasionaria, Verso, 288 pp.; Soundtrack to a Coup d'Etat, a documentary film directed by Johann Grimonprez), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXII, no. 14 (25 September 2025), pp. 34–36. Lumumba "was overthrown and murdered ... because he came up against forces that were far too powerful for him to overcome. Belgium, driven by avarice and national pride, and the US, driven by paranoia about Soviet expansionism, were irremediably hostile to African leaders who sought to preserve a degree of nonalignment, used progressive rhetoric, and spoke defiantly and proudly about Africa's rightful place in the world." (p. 36.)
== External links ==
Speeches and writings by and about Patrice Lumumba, at the Marxists Internet Archive.
Patrice Lumumba: 50 Years Later, Remembering the U.S.-Backed Assassination – video report by Democracy Now!
Africa Within. A rich source of information on Lumumba, including a reprint of Stephen R. Weissman's 21 July 2002 article from the Washington Post.
BBC Lumumba apology: Congo's mixed feelings.
Mysteries of History Lumumba assassination.
Lumumba and the Congo on YouTube Documentary of Lumumba's life and work in the Congo.
BBC An "On this day" text. It features an audio clip of a BBC correspondent on Lumumba's death.
English translation of Lumumba's speech at the 1960 independence day ceremony
Patrice Lumumba, Royal Museum for Central Africa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_Pulis_Lathrop | Ida Pulis Lathrop | Ida F. Pulis Lathrop (1859–1937) was an American painter. She primarily worked on portraits, still life and landscapes as subjects. Lathrop was based in Albany, New York.
== About ==
She was born on October 27, 1859, as Ida F. Pulis in Troy, New York to Catherine (née Sheffér) and Abraham William Pulis. She married Cyprus Clark Lathrop in 1885. Together they had two daughters that became artists, Gertrude K. Lathrop, and Dorothy P. Lathrop. Ida Pullis Lathrop was a self-taught artist.
She died on September 7, 1937, in her home in Albany, she is buried in Albany Rural Cemetery.
Lathrop has work in the museum collection at Albany Institute of History and Art, Smithsonian American Art Museum, among others.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ida Pulis Lathrop at Find a Grave
Ida Pulis Lathrop on AskArt.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umlesh_Yadav#Personal_life | Umlesh Yadav | Umlesh Yadav (born 1958) is an Indian politician from Sarfabad village in Noida, Uttar Pradesh. She is the first politician to be disqualified by the Election Commission of India in 2011 for a period of 3 years for suppression of her election expenses incurred when she was elected as an MLA. Umlesh was MLA representing Bisauli constituency from 2007 to 2012.
Umlesh Yadav is married to D. P. Yadav, a former Member of Parliament of Sambhal (1996–98).
== Personal life ==
She is the wife of the politician D. P. Yadav. The Yadav family, who became wealthy through the liquor business, may be the richest political family in Uttar Pradesh, with declared net assets of ₹260 million (₹26 crores) as of 2007.
In her election affidavit of 2017, she has mentioned that her assets are worth ₹55.10 crores and liabilities are worth ₹7.95 crores.
== Family ==
She has 2 sons: Vikas Yadav and Kunal Singh Yadav and 2 daughters including Bharti Yadav.
Kunal Singh contested the Sahaswan seat in 2022 on Rashtriya Parivartan Dal ticket but he lost the election to a Samajwadi Party candidate.
Vikas Yadav is a convicted murderer of Nitish Katara, and convicted in the Jessica Lal murder case. The murder of Katara was perpetrated because her daughter Bharti Yadav had fallen in love with Nitish. Bharti Yadav got married on 1 November 2009 to a Gurgaon-based businessman Yatin Rao, who is a son of a Haryana government officer.
== Paid News ==
In October 2011, the Election Commission of India disqualified Yadav, the sitting MLA from Bisauli in Uttar Pradesh, under Section 10-A of the Representation of the People Act 1951 for a period of three years for failing to provide a "true and correct account" of her election expenses. She had failed to include in her official poll accounts the amount she spent on advertisements, dressed up as news, in two Hindi dailies, Dainik Jagran and Amar Ujala, during her 2007 election campaign.
The case arose out of an adjudication by the Press Council of India on the complaint of a losing candidate against the two dailies for publishing paid news. After holding the newspapers "guilty of ethical violations" and issuing a caution to them, the Council sent its adjudication to the ECI "for such action as deemed fit by them".
No sitting MP or MLA before Umlesh Yadav, wife of a liquor baron and strongman (D. P. Yadav), has ever been disqualified by the ECI on grounds of excessive expenditure – and certainly none on account of paid news. This is also the first verdict in the paid news saga – a scandal that has hurt the credibility of the Indian news media and demoralised journalists. In its 23-page order, the ECI made the wider and vital observation that "by suppressing expenditure on 'paid news' and filing an incorrect or false account, the candidate involved is guilty of not merely circumventing the law relating to election expenses but also of resorting to false propaganda by projecting a wrong picture and defrauding the electorate".
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ann_Arty | Mary Ann Arty | Mary Ann Arty-Majors (November 24, 1926 – October 26, 2000) was an American politician from Pennsylvania who served as a Republican member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives for the 165th district from 1979 to 1988.
== Early life and education ==
Arty was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She graduated from Philadelphia High School for Girls in 1944. She received a R.N degree from the Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1947 and a B.S. from West Chester State College (now West Chester University) in 1966.
== Career ==
Arty was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives for the 165th district in 1978 and was reelected to 4 consecutive terms. She was not a candidate for reelection in 1988.
She was elected to the Delaware County Council and served from 1989 to 1996 including as chair from 1991 to 1996. She worked as the director of Delaware County Human Services from 1996 to 1998.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbrandy_Tower | Gerbrandy Tower | The Gerbrandy Tower (Dutch: Gerbrandytoren) is a radio tower in IJsselstein, the Netherlands. It is also known as Lopik tower after the nearby town. It was built in 1961.
== Description ==
The Gerbrandy Tower is used for directional radio services and for FM- and TV-broadcasting. The Gerbrandy Tower consists of a concrete tower with a height of 100 meters (328') on which a guyed aerial mast is mounted. Its total height was originally 382.5 metres (1,255 ft), but in 1987 it was reduced to 375 metres (1,230 ft).
On August 2, 2007, its analog antenna was replaced by a digital one reducing its height by another 9 metres (30 ft). Its height is now 366.8 metres (1,203 ft).
This tower type is a partially guyed tower, which combines a lower free standing tower antennas with an upper guyed mast. If the structure is counted as a tower, it is the tallest tower in Western Europe. The Gerbrandy Tower is not the only tower which consists of a concrete tower on which a guyed mast is set. There is one similar but smaller tower with the same structure in the Netherlands, the radio tower of Zendstation Smilde, which consisted of an 80 metres (260 ft) high concrete tower, on which a 223.5 metres (733 ft) high guyed mast was mounted. This structure collapsed after a fire on July 15, 2011. Rebuilding of that tower started in late 2011 and was completed in October 2012; the replacement structure is also a partially guyed tower, now 303 metres (994 ft) high.
=== Naming ===
The tower is named after Pieter Gerbrandy, Prime Minister of the Netherlands during World War Two.
Nearby, there is another remarkable antenna: the KNMI-mast Cabauw, a mast used for meteorological measurements.
Another nearby antenna, the 196 metres (643 ft) high mediumwave transmitter Lopik, was demolished on September 4, 2015.
== Fires in Dutch TV masts ==
On July 15, 2011, there was a small fire in the Gerbrandy tower. Only hours later, a similar tower in Smilde caught fire and collapsed, after which all transmitters in the Gerbrandy tower were shut down as a precaution, leaving large parts of the Netherlands without FM-radio and digital TV (DVB-T) reception.
== Owner ==
The ownership of the tower is complex: the concrete main structure is owned by Alticom: a company established in 2007 that bought many assets from KPN. Alticom was part of the European TDG Group, but in June 2011 it was announced that all shares in Alticom were acquired by investment company Infracapital who are the infrastructure specialists of Prudential plc.
Alticom is the owner of the concrete base and the first three meters (10') of ground around this base. The metal mast on top of the structure is owned by NOVEC, which is a subsidiary of the electricity transmission operator TenneT. The ground on which the tower is built, excluding the first three meters (10') around the base, is (still) owned by KPN.
== Christmas tree ==
Every year since 1992 from 6 December till 6 January the tower is decorated with 120 LED lamps which are attached to the 12 guy-wires, so it looks like a giant Christmas tree in the dark. Furthermore bright lights at multiple sides of the mast as tree-topper and some spotlights to illuminate the lower part of the tower. In 1998 it was rewarded by The Guinness Book of Records as the tallest Christmas tree in the world in a construction. The Mount Ingino Christmas Tree is also named as the largest Christmas tree, however that is made on a hill slope.
== See also ==
List of towers
List of masts
== Sources ==
== External links ==
Gerbrandy Toren at Structurae
Drawings at SkyscraperPage.com
World's Greatest Christmas Tree Foundation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Baptism_of_Christ_(Verrocchio_and_Leonardo) | The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio and Leonardo) | The Baptism of Christ is an oil-on-panel painting finished around 1475 in the studio of the Italian Renaissance painter Andrea del Verrocchio and generally ascribed to him and his pupil Leonardo da Vinci. Some art historians discern the hands of other members of Verrocchio's workshop in the painting as well.
The picture depicts the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist as recorded in the Biblical Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. The angel to the left is recorded as having been painted by the youthful Leonardo, a fact which has excited so much special comment and mythology, that the importance and value of the picture as a whole and within the œuvre of Verrocchio is often overlooked. Modern critics also attribute much of the landscape in the background to Leonardo as well. The painting is housed in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.
== Subject matter ==
The picture depicts the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist on the banks of the Jordan River. There are two kneeling angels, one holding Jesus's garment, and the other with its hands folded, both in front of the symbolization of salvation and life, the palm tree. While barefoot in the river, John the Baptist is clothed in robes with a halo over his head. He is holding a staff with a gold cross at the top as he pours the river water on Jesus's head. Jesus has a halo over his head as he is depicted praying barefoot in the river. He has a small garment covering his genitals with visible pubic hair peeking through. The scroll by John's left hand contains the two Latin words "ECCE AGNIUS", a reference to a phrase in the description of Jesus' baptism in the Vulgate translation of John 1:29, Ecce agnus Dei, qui tollit peccata mundi ("Behold the Lamb of God which taketh away the sins of the world"). There is also a bright-eyed raptor that swoops down over the head of John and into the trees in the background. God's hands can be seen at the top of the painting coming from heaven as it opens up. A dove and rays of sunlight shine through which symbolize the holy spirit shining above them revealing Jesus's divine nature.
== History ==
Andrea del Verrocchio was a sculptor, goldsmith, painter and talented worker who ran a large and successful workshop in Florence in the second half of the 15th century. Verrocchio trained his apprentices by having them study surface anatomy, drawing, mechanics, sculpting, drapery studies, and the use of light and shade. He also introduced his students to subjects such as geography, Italian literature, and poetry. Verrocchio was known to set aside zones in his works for his apprentices to sketch on and eventually paint after he began them. Among his apprentices and close associates were the painters Botticelli, Francesco Botticini, Piero Perugino, Francesco di Simone, Lorenzo di Credi and Leonardo da Vinci.
Verrocchio was not himself a prolific painter and very few pictures are attributed to his hand, his fame lying chiefly in his sculptured works. Verrocchio's paintings, as are typical of Florentine works of that date, are in tempera on wooden panels. The technique of painting artworks in oil paint, previously used in Italy only for durable items like parade shields, was introduced to Florence by Dutch and Flemish painters and their imported works around the date that this painting was created.
According to Antonio Billi (1515), the painting was commissioned by Verrocchio's brother Don Simone, the head of the monastic Church of San Salvi around 1468. Verrocchio painted the general landscape along with Christ and St. John early in his career. Another contributor to the central landscape area was one of Verrocchio's assistants, Francesco Botticini. Subsequently, Verrocchio's pupil Leonardo da Vinci was asked to paint an angel in his master's composition. It is probable that Leonardo painted much of the background landscape as it is painted in oil, like the angel, while the rest of the painting is in tempera. According to Giorgio Vasari, who discussed this work in his Lives of both Verrocchio and Leonardo, Leonardo's angel and understanding of colors was so impressive that Verrocchio quit painting. Vasari did not personally know Leonardo, so the veracity of these stories is unknown, although Verrocchio's painting output seems to have ceased abruptly, with his last known painted work being the Virgin and Child with Two Angels, which he passed on to his assistant Lorenzo di Credi to complete.
William E. Wallace proposes that after Leonardo's creation of the first angel, Verrocchio added the second angel to accompany Leonardo's. Wallace concludes that Verrocchio's guidizio dell'occhio ("true eye") caught the need for this angel to be added to the right to rebalance the composition. Most Italian paintings from the 14th and 15th centuries of this religious subject include two or more angels. According to more recent technical analysis, Verrocchio began this altarpiece around 1468, which was then put aside for some years before Leonardo reworked portions of the painting's surface in the 1470s.
=== Provenance ===
The painting was at some point transferred from the Church of San Salvi to the Vallombrosan Sisterhood in Santa Verdiana. In 1810, it entered the collection of the Accademia and passed to the Uffizi in 1959.
== See also ==
List of works by Leonardo da Vinci
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Brown, David Alan (1998). Leonardo da Vinci: Origins of a Genius. New Haven: Yale University Press.
== External links ==
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on The Baptism of Christ (see index) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranuccio_Bianchi_Bandinelli | Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli | Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli (19 February 1900 – 17 January 1975) was an Italian archaeologist and art historian.
== Biography ==
Bianchi Bandinelli was born in Siena to Mario Bianchi Bandinelli (1859–1930) and Margherita Ottilie "Lily" von Korn (Bianchi Bandinelli, 1878–1905), who were descended from ancient aristocracy in Siena. His early research focused on the Etruscan centers close to his family lands, Clusium (1925) and Suana (1929). Disgusted with Italian fascism, despite being the man who showed Hitler around Rome under Mussolini, he converted to communism after World War II and became a Marxist. He founded a magazine, Società, together with Cesare Luporini and Romano Bilenchi in 1945.
As an anti-fascist, he was appointed to a number of important art-historical positions immediately after the war. For example, he was director of the new government's fine arts and antiquities ministry (Antichità e Belle Arti, 1945–48). His memoir of fascism in Italy was published in 1995 (Hitler e Mussolini, 1938: il viaggio del Führer in Italia).
== Career ==
From his chairs at the universities of Florence and Rome, Bianchi Bandinelli directed a new breed of Italian archaeologists sensitive to classical history based upon dialectical materialism. He also taught at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. In the 1950s and 1960s he undertook the writing of comprehensive texts on classical art intended to reach a wide and literate audience. He founded the Enciclopedia dell'arte antica in 1958, and in the same year was elected as a foreign member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. In the mid-1960s, Bianchi Bandinelli was commissioned to write the two volumes on Roman art for the French Arts of Mankind series. These works brought his writing to a larger audience and helped usher in social criteria for art into a larger and English-speaking audience. In 1967 he founded the Dialoghi di archeologia with his students, one of the most innovative, if controversial, periodicals on classical archaeology.
He was frequently a maverick in his interpretation of art and his arguments were, if not always compelling, forcefully grounded. One such case is his interpretation of the famous Belvedere Apollo, a Roman copy of a Greek work now thought to date to the fourth century B.C. Although hailed by most art historians as a copy of the original work by the Greek master Leochares, Bianchi Bandinelli characterized the piece as a frigid copy of a Hellenistic work without relation to Leochares.
One of his interests was the interrelation between Hellenistic, Etruscan and Roman art. His students included some of the most influential Italian archaeologists of the 20th century, among whom were Giovanni Becatti, Antonio Giuliano, Mario Torelli, Andrea Carandini and Filippo Coarelli.
Bianchi Bandinelli was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1966.
== Publications ==
Clusium: Ricerche archeologich e topografiche su Chiusi il suo territorio in età etrusca (1925)
La critica d'arte (journal publisher from 1935, editor and co-founder)
Apollo di Belvedere (1935)
Storicità dell'arte classica (1950)
Nozioni di storia dell'archeologia e di storiografia dell'arte antica: lezioni introduttive del corso di archeologia (1952)
Enciclopedia dell'arte antica, classica e orientale (1958–1966, editor)
Arte etrusca e arte italica (1963, editor)
The Buried City: Excavations at Leptis Magna (1966, editor)
Roma: L'arte romana nel centro del potere (Rome: The Center of Power, 500 B.C. to A.D. 200., 1969)
Roma: La fine dell'arte antica (Rome: The Late Empire, Roman Art A.D. 200–400, 1970)
L'Arte dell'antichità classica (1976, directed).
Dialoghi di archeologia (serial, editor)
Hitler e Mussolini, 1938: il viaggio del Führer in Italia (1995)
== References ==
== Sources ==
Kleinbauer, W. Eugene. Research Guide to the History of Western Art. Sources of Information in the Humanities, no. 2. Chicago: American Library Association, 1982, pp. 137–8
Barzanti, Roberto. Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli: archeologo curioso del futuro. Siena: Protagon, 1994
Barbanera, Marcello. Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli e il suo mondo, Bari, Edipuglia / Università degli studi di Roma "La Sapienza", 2000.
Barbanera, Marcello. Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli: biografia ed epistolario di un grande archeologo. Milan: Skira, 2003.
== External links ==
"Bianchi Bandinelli, Rannuccio". Dictionary of Art Historians. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Chellapandian# | S. Chellapandian | S. Chellapandian was an Indian politician of the Indian National Congress and member of the legislative assembly of Madras state from Tirunelveli. He served as the Speaker of the Madras Legislative Assembly from 1962 to 1967.
== Electoral performance ==
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castlebridge#Community | Castlebridge | Castlebridge (Irish: Droichead an Chaisleáin) is a small town in County Wexford, Ireland, around 5 km north of Wexford town. It is just north of Wexford Harbour, on the R741 road. Castlebridge is a rapidly expanding suburb of Wexford Town: its population has almost tripled in 20 years, increasing from 783 in 1996 to a population of 1,840 in 2016.
== History ==
The namesake castle, that originally stood in the town, was dismantled to build buildings such as the Church of Ireland church, which is one of the oldest buildings in Castlebridge. The river that flows through Castlebridge is, contrary to popular belief, actually a canal that replaced the original river. It was dug out by hand to allow sailing cots that loaded up in the various docks of Castlebridge to get to Wexford Town more quickly.
Fr James Dixon, the first Catholic priest permitted to minister in Australia, was born in Castlebridge in 1758.
== Guinness Book of Records ==
Castlebridge is the founding place of the Guinness Book of World Records. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. He became involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe, the golden plover or the red grouse (the former being correct). That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove popular.
In 2019, Diageo and the Pattison Group, who own the rights to the Guinness Book of Records, were described as being "really taken" with Castlebridge House, which has been left derelict, with feasibility studies now in operation by Wexford County Council amid interest by Diageo and the Pattison Group to assess the damage and plan for its eventual restoration, which, in collaboration with Diageo and the Pattison Group, is hoped to become a tourist attraction for the home of the Guinness Book of Records. This was further emphasised by the commencement of the first annual Castlebridge Record Makers Family Fun Festival in 2019, with exhibits on the history of the book and its importance to Castlebridge.
== Public transport ==
Wexford Bus operate an hourly service, route 877 "The Bridge Loop", to/from Wexford since February 2019 Mondays to Saturdays inclusive. Bus Éireann route 379 (Wexford - Gorey via Kilmuckridge and Courtown) serves Castlebridge on Mondays and Saturdays whereas route 380 (Wexford-Crossabeg-Wexford) serves Castlebridge on Fridays.
== Sport ==
The centre of Castlebridge contains a 60x30 foot handball alley. The handball club has produced a number of county and Irish champions and members have competed at World Championships in the United States. Nearby, opposite the Old School (now Castlebridge Community Centre), is the local soccer club, Bridge Rovers FC.
Patrick Breen, who lived in Castlebridge but was originally from Bannow in the south of the county, was the first Wexford person to become President of the Gaelic Athletic Association from 1924 until 1926. He was one of only two Wexford people who headed the Gaelic Athletic Association. He also founded the Irish Handball Council and the past pupils union of St. Peters College. He is buried in Castlebridge cemetery.
== Community ==
Community groups situated in the area include the Castlebridge Gospel Choir, which was founded in 2003. Local businesses include the Porter House, which was named 'Pub of the Year' in 2017, which has since closed down, several fast food restaurants, a local Londis supermarket, a furniture shop, antiques store and post office.
== See also ==
List of towns and villages in Ireland
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sazae-san#:~:text=The%20first%20Sazae%2Dsan%20strip,published%20on%20February%2021%2C%201974. | Sazae-san | Sazae-san (Japanese: サザエさん) is a Japanese yonkoma manga series written and illustrated by Machiko Hasegawa. It was first published in Hasegawa's local paper, the Fukunichi Shinbun (フクニチ新聞), on April 22, 1946. When the Asahi Shimbun wished to have Hasegawa draw the four-panel comic for their paper, she moved to Tokyo in 1949 with the explanation that the main characters had moved from Kyūshū to Tokyo as well. The first Sazae-san strip run by the Asahi Shimbun was published on November 30, 1949. The manga dealt with everyday life and contemporary situations in Tokyo until Hasegawa retired and ended the series, with the final comic published on February 21, 1974.
As of 1999, the manga had over 86 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series of all time. An anime television adaptation by TCJ (later renamed Eiken) began airing in Japan in October 1969 and holds the Guinness World Record for the longest-running animated television series. It has also been adapted into a radio show, theatrical plays and songs.
== Plot ==
In the beginning, Sazae was more interested in being with her horse than dressing up in a kimono and makeup to attract her future husband. Hasegawa was forward-thinking in that, in her words, the Isono/Fuguta clan would embody the image of the modern Japanese family after World War II.
Sazae was a very liberated woman, and many of the early plotlines revolved around Sazae bossing around her husband, to the consternation of her neighbors, who believed that a man should be the head of his household. Later, Sazae became a feminist and was involved in many comical situations regarding her affiliation with her local women's lib group.
Despite the topical nature of the series, the core of the stories revolved around the large family dynamic, and were presented in a lighthearted, easy fashion. In fact, the final comic, in 1974, revolved around Sazae's happiness that an egg she cracked for her husband's breakfast produced a double yolk, with Katsuo remarking about the happiness the "little things" in life can bring.
In current culture, the popular Sazae-san anime is frequently viewed as a nostalgic representation of traditional Japanese society, since it represents a simpler time before many of the changes brought by modern technology. Its social themes, though very liberal at the time of its publication, are evocative of a bygone and nostalgic era.
== Characters ==
=== Isono and Fuguta family ===
Sazae Fuguta (フグ田 サザエ, Fuguta Sazae) (née Isono (磯野))
The main character. Age 24 (27 in the manga). She marries Masuo.
She is a housewife, but occasionally works part-time as a maid for the Yumizu family, a wealthy family in the neighborhood.
She has a unique hair style. This is one of the Victory rolls that were popular at the time Manga was started, and she has maintained this hairstyle since the fad passed.
She is bright, cheerful, and popular in the town with a personality like that of a split bamboo.
Her talkativeness and goofiness are shortcomings, and she is sometimes taken aback by her family, but most of the time she is well-liked by those around her.
Voiced by: Midori Katō
Namihei Isono (磯野 波平, Isono Namihei)
Sazae's father and patriarch of the family. Aged 54.
He is characterized by a single hair on his bald head, and he is very protective of that single hair.
He hates crookedness and can be stubborn, often scolding Sazae and Katsuo, but he also has a compassionate and good-natured side.
He appears to be full of dignity and dignity, but in fact has an unreliable side.
When he scolds, he often says, "Baka-monn!" (馬鹿者!) (It means "Fool!") However, he does not really believe this, and in his heart of hearts, he has a love for his children, wanting them to grow up to be good people. This is also known as a famous line that symbolizes him.
Voiced by: Ichirō Nagai (1969–2014), Chafurin (2014–present)
Fune Isono (磯野 フネ, Isono Fune) (née Ishida (石田))
Sazae's mother. In her 50s (48 in the manga); born in Shizuoka.
She is a stay-at-home mom and proud of her position. She does all the housework and is the epitome of a good wife and wise mother.
She is calm and trusted by all of her family. She is an important behind-the-scenes supporter of the family, mediating domestic disputes.
On the other hand, as a girl she was a tomboy, and this side of her personality is sometimes apparent.
Voiced by: Miyoko Asō (1969–2015), Yorie Terauchi (2015–present)
Masuo Fuguta (フグ田 マスオ, Fuguta Masuo)
Sazae's husband. He is a salaryman in the sales department of a trading company. 28 years old (32 in the manga). Born in Osaka.
After marrying her, they lived together in a rented house, but were advised by the landlord to move out of the house due to misconduct (in his case, trying to remove the fence of the house without permission), and soon moved in with her family.
He is good-natured and timid, which can lead to a loss-making role, and he sometimes says and does things that one might consider black-hearted. However, his gentle and honest nature has earned him the trust of Sazae's family, and he himself lives happily every day surrounded by Sazae's family.
Voiced by: Shinsuke Chikaishi (1969–1978), Hiroshi Masuoka (1978–2019), Hideyuki Tanaka (2019—)
Katsuo Isono (磯野 カツオ, Isono Katsuo)
Sazae's younger brother who is an 11-year-old fifth grader.
He is quick-witted, well-spoken, and has a flattering personality. He knows how to get on in the world and to be good with people. In the manga in 1973, he was sarcastically referred to by Sazae as "the Kissinger of our family". but, he does not do well with schoolwork and refuses to do his homework.
He likes mischief and often suffers under the wrath of Sazae when he accidentally insults other guests in the manner of faux-pas.
He is often scolded by Namihei, usually when he finds out about Katsuo's low test grades and mischief.
His main activities consist of playing baseball and soccer with his friends.
Voiced by: Nobuyo Ōyama (1969–1970), Kazue Takahashi (1970–1998), Miina Tominaga (1998–present)
Wakame Isono (磯野 ワカメ, Isono Wakame)
Sazae's younger sister. Age 9 (7 in the manga). She features a Bob cut.
She is one of the characters whose personalities differ greatly between manga and anime.
In the manga, she is a talkative girl with a noticeably mischievous personality due to her young age.
In the anime, she is a kind honor student. Therefore, her role in the manga is sometimes handled by Tarao, but sometimes, she shows her mischievous nature from the manga.
She likes to study, but is not good at PE. Her main hobbies are reading and fashion.
Voiced by: Yoshiko Yamamoto (1969–1976), Michiko Nomura (1976–2005), Makoto Tsumura (2005–present)
Tarao Fuguta (フグ田 タラオ, Fuguta Tarao)
Masuo and Sazae's 3-year-old son. Usually called Tara-chan (タラ ちゃん).
He is interested in everything and has a curious nature.
While a mostly well-behaved toddler, he can be a bit stubborn.
Sometimes he tries to be selfish and annoys His parents. However, he is a child who can honestly admit and apologize when he knows he is wrong.
In the anime, he is so polite and uses honorifics that it makes it hard to believe he is 3 years old. This is said to reflect the character of Takako Sasuga, who played him from the beginning of the broadcast until her sudden death in 2023.
Voiced by: Takako Sasuga (1969—2023), Rikako Aikawa (2023–present)
Tama (タマ)
The Isono family's pet cat. He hates mice.
Voiced by: ?
=== Isono and Fuguta family's kin ===
Norisuke Namino (波野 ノリスケ, Namino Norisuke)
He is a nephew of Namihei and a cousin of Sazae, Katsuo, and Wakame. Ages 24–26. He works for a newspaper publisher.
He is a cheerful character, an optimist who is always ready to take it easy without worrying about details.
He is also shrewd and has a brazen side, such as entering Isono family's house without telling them and eating the cakes they keep without permission, but he is not a hateful type of person, so he gets a lot out of life.
Voiced by: Ichirō Murakoshi (1969–1998), Tarō Arakawa (1998–2000), Yasunori Matsumoto (2000–present)
Taiko Namino (波野 タイ子, Namino Taiko)
Norisuke's wife. Age is about 22 years old.
She is known as a particularly beautiful woman in the anime and has a demure personality. She also has a strong core and supports Norisuke behind his back like his wife would, and Norisuke cannot resist her.
She is very comfortable with Sazae, who she is close in age with.
Voiced by: Ryoko Aikawa, Masako Ebisu (1969–1979), Emiko Tsukada (1979–2013), Sayaka Kobayashi (2013–present)
Ikura Namino (波野 イクラ, Namino Ikura)
Norisuke and Taiko's son. Age is about one and a half years old.
He is Tarao's friend and only says "chan", "hai", and "babuu".
Voiced by: Reiko Katsura (1969-2025), Sachie Hirai (2025–present)
Isono Mokuzu Minamoto no Sutamina (磯野藻屑源素太皆)
Namihei's Meiji Revolution samurai ancestor. Around the time of the Bon Festival, he haunts Namihei's (or sometimes Katsuo's) dreams.
Voiced by: Ichirō Nagai (1970–2013), Chafurin (2014–present)
Umihei Isono (磯野 海平, Isono Umihei)
Namihei's twin older brother.
Voiced by: Ichirō Nagai (1970–2013), Chafurin (2014–present)
=== Isasaka family ===
Nanbutsu Isasaka (伊佐坂 難物, Isasaka Nanbutsu)
A novelist who lives in the next house over from the Isono family's house.
Voiced by: Sanji Hase (1970–1978), Eken Mine (1985–2002), Atsushi Ii (2002), Yasuo Iwata (2002–2009), Kōtarō Nakamura (2009–2023), Shigeru Ushiyama(2023–present)
Karu Isasaka (伊佐坂 軽, Isasaka Karu)
Nanbutsu's wife. Fune's childhood friend.
Voiced by: ? (1970–1978), Reiko Yamada (1985–2023), ? (1994, 1996), Yui Komazuka (2023–present)
Ukie Isasaka (伊佐坂 浮江, Isasaka Ukie)
Nanbutsu's daughter.
She is one of the characters that Katsuo is secretly in love with.
Voiced by: ? (?), Miho Ochiai (1974), ? (?), Keiko Han (1985–1989), Reiko Katsura (1989), Miina Tominaga (1989–1998), Eriko Kawasaki (1998–present)
Jinroku Isasaka (伊佐坂 甚六, Isasaka Jinroku)
Nanbutsu's son.
Voiced by: ? (1970–1978), Hiroshi Takemura (1985–2023), Manabu Sakamaki(2023–present)
Hachi (ハチ, Hachi)
The Isasaka family's pet dog.
=== Other characters ===
Grandpa Ura-no (裏のおじいちゃん, Ura-no Ojīchan)
An original anime character modeled after a guest character from the manga.
An old man who lives in a house in back of the (ura-no) Isono family's house.
Voiced by: ? (?–1985), Eken Mine (1985–2002), Atsushi Ii (2002–2013), Mitsuru Takakuwa (2013–present),
Grandma Ura-no (裏のおばあちゃん, Ura-no Obāchan)
An original anime character modeled after a guest character from the manga.
Ura-no Grandpa's wife.
Voiced by: ?, Sumiko Shirakawa, Keiko Yamamoto, Reiko Yamada (1990s substitute)
Saburo (三郎, Saburō)
The employee of Mikawaya who makes house calls for food orders.
An original anime character modeled after a guest character from the manga.
Voiced by: Issei Futamata
Rika Nozawa (野沢 リカ, Nozawa Rika)
An original anime character.
One of Tarao's friends.
Voiced by: Reiko Katsura (1969–2025), Taeko Kawata (1997), Sayaka Kitahara (2025–present)
Takeo (タケオ, Takeo)
An original anime character.
One of Tarao's friends.
Voiced by: Sumiko Shirakawa (?), Reiko Yamada (?–2019), Eriko Kawasaki (?), Miina Tominaga (?), Nozomi Mikajiri (2020–present)
Hiroshi Nakajima (中島 博, Nakajima Hiroshi)
An original anime character modeled after a guest character from the manga.
Katsuo's best friend and his classmate.
Voiced by: Sumiko Shirakawa (1969–2015), Rumi Ochiai (2015–present)
Kaori Ozora (大空 カオリ, Ōzora Kaori)
An original anime character.
Katsuo's girlfriend, she is said to be the most beautiful girl in her class.
She is one of the characters that Katsuo is secretly in love with.
Voiced by: ? (1969–?), Reiko Katsura (?–present), Michiko Nomura (1972, 1975), Taeko Kawata (1997)
Hayakawa (早川, Hayakawa)
One of Katsuo's girlfriends.
She is one of the characters that Katsuo is secretly in love with.
Voiced by: ? (?), Reiko Katsura (1975), Keiko Han (1985–1990), Miina Tominaga (1990–1998), Eriko Kawasaki (1998–present),
Hanako Hanazawa (花沢 花子, Hanazawa Hanako)
An original anime character modeled after a guest character from the manga.
One of Katsuo's girlfriends, who has a crush on him. She is the daughter of a real estate agent.
Although Katsuo is bewildered and avoids her ardent approach, they actually tend to get along quite well.
Voiced by: Mitsuko Asō (1971–?), Tikako Akimoto (1971–?), Yoshiko Ōta, Keiko Yamamoto (?–2023), Teiyū Ichiryūsai (2015), Kazue Ikura (2020), Kumiko Watanabe (2023—present)
Tōru Hashimoto (橋本 とおる, Hashimoto Tōru)
An original anime character.
One of Katsuo's best friends.
Voiced by: ? (1971–?), Reiko Yamada (?–present)
Takuma Nishihara (西原 卓磨, Nishihara Takuma)
An original anime character.
One of Katsuo's best friends.
Voiced by: Katsue Miwa (1972–?), Emiko Tsukada (?–2013), Sayaka Kobayashi (2014–present)
Teacher (先生, Sensei)
An original anime character.
Katsuo's teacher.
Voiced by: Hiroshi Ōtake (1969), ? (?), Kaneta Kimotsuki (1971), ? (?), Eken Mine (?–2002), Sanji Hase (?), ? (2002), Ikuya Sawaki (2002–present)
Horikawa (堀川, Horikawa)
An original anime character.
Wakame's boyfriend.
Since the 2010s, he has been described as a psychopathic speaker and has become an Internet meme in Japan. also, He used to be set up by Wakame as secretly liking him, but in recent years Wakame has sometimes made statements that seem to indicate that she dislikes him.
Voiced by: Sumiko Shirakawa (1971–?), ? (?), Emiko Tsukada (?–2013), Sayaka Kobayashi (2014–present)
Suzuko Siota (塩田 スズ子, Shiota Suzuko)
An original anime character.
Wakame's best friend.
Voiced by: Reiko Katsura (?–2022), Sayaka Kitahara (2022–present)
Miyuki (ミユキ, Miyuki)
An original anime character.
One of Wakame's best friends.
Voiced by: Reiko Katsura (?–1990), Miina Tominaga (1990–1998), Eriko Kawasaki (1998–present),
Anago (穴子)
An original anime character modeled after a guest character from the manga.
One of Masuo's co-workers. He has thick lips, which are his charm.
Voiced by: Kazuya Tatekabe (1971−197?), Norio Wakamoto (197?–present)
Kinzō Yumizu (湯水 金蔵, Yumizu Kinzō)
Voiced by: ? (?), Norio Wakamoto
Mikawaya (三河屋, Mikawaya)
The shopkeeper of Mikawaya, a sake shop.
Voiced by: ? (?), Norio Wakamoto (?), Ikuya Sawaki (2019–present)
Kintarō Hanazawa (花沢 金太郎, Hanazawa Kintarō)
An original anime character.
Hanako's father. Boss of the Hanazawa Real Estate Agency.
Voiced by: ? (?), Norio Wakamoto (?–present)
== Media ==
=== Manga ===
The comic strip was published in book form by Shimaisha (姉妹社) from 1946 to 1974, which Machiko ran with her sister, Mariko. In April 1993, this publishing company went out of business and the comic books went out of print. The same year, Asahi Shimbun purchased the right to publish the forty-five paperback volumes. Twelve bilingual (Japanese-English) manga volumes were published by Kodansha between 1997 and 1999 as The Wonderful World of Sazae-San. The volumes were re-released in 2004, and in 2015 another three bilingual manga volumes were released as The Best of Sazae-san. By 1999, it has sold over 86 million copies.Sazae-san won the 8th Bungeishunjū Manga Award in 1962.
=== Anime ===
In October 1969, Fuji Television started an anime series, which is still on the air today and currently in production, making it one of the longest-running scripted TV series in history and the longest-running animated show. The broadcast time is every Sunday from 18:30 to 19:00 and has never been changed since its inception. The format is in the form of three vignettes. The anime series has some characters, like Katsuo's classmates, who have not appeared in Hasegawa's original works.
On September 5, 2013, the anime achieved the Guinness World Record for the "Longest running animated TV series". As of December 2025, there have been over 9,000 episodes aired.
The stories are based on at least one strip of the original manga. Due to the limited number of strips, different episodes are based on the same strips. In addition, the unique culture and events in a typical Japanese household, including the four seasons, will always be reflected in the story.
At the start of the anime, it was a slapstick comedy with references to Tom and Jerry, Looney Tunes, etc, but within a year the genre shifted towards a family drama. From this point onward, there has been no major change in style for more than 50 years, in either directing, scriptwriting, or character design. Also because of its popularity, a survey conducted by NIPPON RESEARCH CENTER, LTD. (NRC) in 2020 recorded a high recognition rate of 97% for this anime in Japan. For this reason, it is often described as a "national anime" in Japan and is regarded as a symbol of "universality" and "permanence". Whenever a change is made, such as a change in voice actors, there is always a great deal of media coverage, and the anime retains a strong influence on the public.
In recent years, due to the influence of its unchanging style, it is sometimes criticized as being "anachronistic" or a "period piece", due to elements such as the absence of smartphones and convenience stores in the setting even though the time period is the present day. In response to this, the staff stated, "The appeal of this anime is that it depicts scenes of everyday life and universal relationships that can be found in any family. Therefore, we have no plans in the future to incorporate events or items that would change them." However, some things which have come to be considered inappropriate due to changing times, such as smoking and corporal punishment, have been removed or otherwise addressed.
The anime is not well known outside of Japan, as it has never been exported overseas or otherwise developed globally due to the wishes of the rights holders. However, in 2019, the producer said in a conversation that he hopes to be able to expand globally in the future.
As for voice actors, as of 2023, only Midori Katō, who plays Sazae, has never been changed. Katō was recognized by Guinness World Records in 2019 as the "Longest career as a voice actor for the same character of an animated TV series". As of 2008, 40 years after the anime was first broadcast, four of the seven main characters were the original cast members, but in 2014 Ichirō Nagai, who played Namihei, was replaced due to his sudden death at age 82, and the following year Miyoko Asō, who played Fune, was changed to reflect her age at 89. Takako Sasuga, who played Tarao, died suddenly in 2023 at the age of 87 and was replaced.
Starting from 1974, the opening is an introduction to the places that Sazae has traveled to and visited throughout Japan. The settings change approximately every three months. Because of the popularity of the anime, this has come to be viewed by cities as a "cost-effective means of promoting tourism," and since 2000, the program has received approximately 5–10 million yen in aid from prefectures and municipalities wishing to introduce the program.
Since November 1991, after the closing credits and the next episode previews, each show has ended with a janken match between Sazae and the viewers at home, in which Sazae holds up a sign representing one of the appropriate hand gestures. From 1969 until October 1991, Sazae ended each episode by tossing a bean or rice cake in the air and catching it in her mouth. Fuji Television switched to the janken match after doctors at Tohoku University Hospital and the National Center for Child Health and Development raised concerns that children may try to imitate Sazae and potentially choke on food.
The anime series was originally sponsored solely by Toshiba—Later, in 1998, the program expanded to other sponsors, but the association between Toshiba and Sazae-san remained strong. When Toshiba withdrew its sponsorship due to poor management, it was widely covered in the media.
Sazae-san was the last animated television series to use traditional cel animation, although as of April 2009, the opening credits were digital; the series finally switched to fully digital animation in 2013. Despite the series being a hit, Hasegawa stated that she never wanted any merchandise to be made for it, including home video rights, making availability of past episodes, especially those prior to the introduction of the VCR, very rare. Following her death, her request to prohibit older episodes from being released in home media was honored. Despite this, however, Fuji TV made an agreement with Amazon Prime Video as well as other streaming services in December 2018 to release the 1969 and early-to-mid 1970s episodes available on their streaming service. Some episodes from the mid-2000s are also on the service with episodes from the mid 1990s to the 2010s also being available later on.
The Opening Song and Ending Song are original songs sung by Yuko Uno. Since the anime first started airing, the audio itself has not been altered in any way, such as by arrangement, although it was trimmed to fit the length of the sequences during the early years of airing.
There have been two previous suspensions of animation production: the first, for about a month beginning in February 1975, due to the 1970s energy crisis; the second, for about a month beginning in May 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Programming during these periods was handled by rebroadcasting past productions.
In Japan, there is a term called "Sazae-san syndrome" (サザエさん症候群, Sazae-san shōkōgun), which refers to a depressed mood on Sunday night after an episode has finished on television, reminding people that the weekend is coming to an end.
=== Live-action ===
In 1955, a radio station aired a serial drama based on the comic strip.
The same year, a short-lived live-action television series was started, and was aired on what is now TBS.
In November 1965, TBS started a dramatic television series modeled after the comic strip. It aired until September 1967.
In 1979, NHK made a dramatic serial which ran for six months, focusing on the creation of Sazae-san and Machiko Hasegawa in her younger days.
In 2010, Fuji Television debuted a live-action situation comedy series, Sazae-san 2 (サザエさん2), followed the following year with Sazae-san 3 (サザエさん3). The series is patterned after the anime series and uses the same elements, including the theme music and the closing janken match.
=== Commercials ===
In 2008, Glico showed the family in "25 years later" commercials, as adults, for the firm's "Otona Glico" chocolates. The characters were portrayed by Eita (as Tarao Fuguta), Tadanobu Asano (as Katsuo Isono), Rie Miyazawa (as Wakame Isono) and Shun Oguri (as Ikura Namino). In 2017, the characters Sazae and Masao were depicted in a Cup Noodles commercial drawn by Katsuya Kondō.
== See also ==
List of anime series by episode count for a full list of lengthy anime.
Anpanman
Chibi Maruko-chan
Crayon Shin-chan
Doraemon
Nintama Rantarō
Ojarumaru
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"サザエさんをさがして". Asahi Shimbun. Tokyo.
== External links ==
Sazae-san (manga) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
Sazae-san (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
Sazae-san at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz | Battle of Austerlitz | The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV FRC), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important military engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire (now Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic). Around 158,000 troops were involved, of which around 24,000 were killed or wounded.
The battle is often cited by military historians as one of Napoleon's tactical masterpieces, in the same league as other historic engagements like Hannibal's Cannae (216 BC) or Alexander the Great's Gaugamela (331 BC). The military victory of Napoleon's Grande Armée at Austerlitz brought the War of the Third Coalition to an end, with the Peace of Pressburg signed by the French and Austrians later in the month. These achievements did not establish a lasting peace on the continent. Austerlitz had driven neither Russia nor Britain, whose armies protected Sicily from a French invasion, to settle. Prussian resistance to France's growing military power in Central Europe led to the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806.
After eliminating an Austrian army during the Ulm campaign, French forces seized Vienna in November 1805. The Austrians avoided further conflict until the arrival of the Russians, who helped increase the allied numbers. Napoleon sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies, but then ordered his forces to retreat so he could feign a grave weakness to lure the Allies into thinking that they were facing a weak army, while it was in fact formidable. Napoleon gave every indication in the days preceding the engagement that the French army was in a pitiful state, even abandoning the dominant Pratzen Heights near Austerlitz. He deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and weakened his right flank, enticing the Allies to launch an assault there to roll up the French line. Napoleon's plan was based on the hope that Marshal Davout and his III Corps would arrive soon on their way from Vienna. A forced march by Davout plugged the gap left by Napoleon just in time. Davout's men stubbornly held their defensive positions under the onslaught of superior opponents. The Allied deployment against the French right weakened the Allied centre on the Pratzen Heights, which was attacked by the IV Corps of Marshal Soult. With the Allied center demolished, the French swept through both flanks and routed the Allies, which enabled the French to capture thousands of prisoners.
Remarkably, the pleiad of Russian military commanders nurtured by the great general Alexander Suvorov (1730–1800), – such were being Mikhail Kutuzov, Pyotr Bagration, Mikhail Miloradovich, Nikolay Kamensky and Peter Wittgenstein, – was decisively defeated at Austerlitz. The blame for the Allied disaster initially lies with the supreme commander Emperor Alexander I of Russia, who, together with his Austrian chief of staff Franz von Weyrother, fell into Napoleon's "trap" at Austerlitz, first accepting encounter on the battlefield chosen by the French Emperor, and then being encircled in the direction of the left Allied flank. The Allied disaster significantly shook the will of Emperor Francis to further resist Napoleon. France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately, and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after, on 26 December. Pressburg took Austria out of both the war and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and of Lunéville between the two powers. The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands in Italy and Bavaria to France, and in Germany to Napoleon's German allies. It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil. Critically, victory at Austerlitz permitted the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states intended as a buffer zone between France and the eastern powers, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The Confederation rendered the Holy Roman Empire virtually useless, so Francis dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, but remained as emperor of Austria. These achievements failed to establish a lasting peace on the continent. Prussian worries about the growing French influence in Central Europe led to the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806.
== Background ==
Europe had been in turmoil since the start of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792. In 1797, after five years of war, the French Republic subdued the First Coalition, an alliance of Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, and various Italian states. A Second Coalition, led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and the Kingdom of Naples, was formed in 1798, but by 1801, this too had been defeated, leaving the British the only opponent of the new French Consulate. In March 1802, France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens.
However, many problems persisted between the two sides, and implementing the treaty became increasingly difficult. The British government resented having to return the Cape Colony and most of the Dutch West Indies to the Batavian Republic. Napoleon was angry that the British refused to abandon the island of Malta. The tense situation only worsened when Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to restore French authority and slavery in Saint-Domingue. In May 1803, Britain declared war on France.
=== Third Coalition ===
In December 1804, an Anglo-Swedish agreement led to the creation of the Third Coalition. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity geared towards forming a new coalition against France, and by April 1805, Britain and Russia had signed an alliance. Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France and being keen on revenge, Austria joined the Coalition a few months later.
== Forces ==
=== French Imperial army ===
Before the formation of the Third Coalition, Napoleon had assembled an invasion force called the Armée d'Angleterre (Army of England) around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France. He intended to use this force, amounting to 150,000 men, to strike at England and was so confident of success that he had commemorative medals struck to celebrate the conquest of the English. Although they never invaded, Napoleon's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation. Boredom among the troops occasionally set in, but Napoleon paid many visits and conducted lavish parades to boost morale.
The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call La Grande Armée. The army was organized into seven corps, which were large field units that contained 36 to 40 cannons each and were capable of independent action until other corps could come to their aid. A single corps (adequately situated in a solid defensive position) could survive at least a day without support. In addition to these forces, Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22,000 organized into two cuirassier divisions, four mounted dragoon divisions, one division of dismounted dragoons and one of light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces. By 1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000 men, who were well equipped, well trained, and led by competent officers.
=== Russian Imperial army ===
The Russian army in 1805 had many characteristics of Ancien Régime organization. There was no permanent formation above the regimental level, and senior officers mostly belonged to aristocratic circles. The Russian infantry was considered one of the hardiest in Europe, with fine artillery crewed by experienced professional soldiers.
=== Austrian Imperial army ===
Archduke Charles, brother of the Austrian Emperor, had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat, the military-political council responsible for the armed forces. Charles was Austria's most able field commander, but he was unpopular at court and lost much influence when, against his advice, Austria decided to go to war with France. Karl Mack became the new main commander in Austria's army, instituting reforms on the eve of the war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies, rather than three battalions of six companies.
== Preliminary moves ==
In August 1805, Napoleon, Emperor of the French since December of the previous year, turned his sights from the English Channel to the Rhine to deal with the new Austrian and Russian threats. On 25 September after a feverish march in great secrecy, 200,000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km (160 mi). Mack had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm in Swabia.
Napoleon swung his forces southward in a wheeling movement that put the French at the Austrian rear while launching cavalry attacks through the Black Forest, which kept the Austrians at bay. The Ulm Maneuver was well-executed, and on 20 October, 23,000 Austrian troops surrendered at Ulm, bringing the number of Austrian prisoners of the campaign to 60,000. Although this spectacular victory was soured by the defeat of a Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar the following day, French success on land continued as Vienna fell in November. The French gained 100,000 muskets, 500 cannons, and intact bridges across the Danube.
Russian delays prevented them from saving the Austrian armies; the Russians withdrew to the northeast to await reinforcements and link up with surviving Austrian units. Tsar Alexander I appointed general Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov commander-in-chief of the combined Russo-Austrian force. On 9 September 1805, Kutuzov arrived at the battlefield, quickly contacting Francis I of Austria and his courtiers to discuss strategy and logistics. Under pressure from Kutuzov, the Austrians agreed to supply munitions and weapons promptly. Kutuzov also spotted shortcomings in the Austrian defense plan, which he called "very dogmatic". He objected to the Austrian annexation of the land recently under Napoleon's control because this would make the local people distrust the allied force.
The French followed after Kutuzov but soon found themselves in a difficult position. Prussian intentions were unknown and could be hostile; the Russian and Austrian armies had converged, and French lines of communication were extremely long, requiring strong garrisons to keep them open. Napoleon realized that to capitalize on the success at Ulm, he had to force the Allies to battle and then defeat them.
On the Russian side, Kutuzov also realized Napoleon needed to do battle, so instead of clinging to the "suicidal" Austrian defense plan, Kutuzov decided to retreat. He ordered Pyotr Bagration to contain the French at Vienna with 600 soldiers. He instructed Bagration to accept Murat's ceasefire proposal so the Allied Army could have more time to retreat. It was later discovered that the proposal was false and had been used to launch a surprise attack on Vienna. Nonetheless, Bagration held off the French assault for a time by negotiating an armistice with Murat, thereby providing Kutuzov time to position himself with the Russian rearguard near Hollabrunn.
Murat initially refrained from an attack, believing the entire Russian army stood before him. Napoleon soon realized Murat's mistakes and ordered him to pursue quickly, but the allied army had already retreated to Olmütz. According to Kutuzov's plan, the Allies would retreat further to the Carpathian region and "at Galicia, I will bury the French."
Napoleon did not stay still. The French Emperor decided to set a psychological trap to lure the Allies out. Days before any fighting, Napoleon had been giving the impression that his army was weak and desired a negotiated peace. About 53,000 French troops—including Soult, Lannes, and Murat's forces—were assigned to take Austerlitz and the Olmütz road, occupying the enemy's attention. The Allied forces, numbering about 89,000, seemed far superior and would be tempted to attack the outnumbered French army. However, the Allies did not know that Bernadotte, Mortier and Davout were already within supporting distance and could be called in by forced marches—Bernadotte from Iglau, and Mortier and Davout from Vienna—which would raise the French number to 75,000 troops.
Napoleon's lure did not stop at that. On 25 November, General Savary was sent to the Allied headquarters at Olmütz to deliver Napoleon's message, expressing his desire to avoid a battle while secretly examining the Allied forces' situation. As expected, the overture was seen as a sign of weakness. When Francis I offered an armistice on the 27th, Napoleon accepted enthusiastically. On the same day, Napoleon ordered Soult to abandon both Austerlitz and the Pratzen Heights and, while doing so, to create an impression of chaos during the retreat that would induce the enemy to occupy the Heights.
The next day (28 November), the French Emperor requested a personal interview with Alexander I. He received a visit from the Tsar's most impetuous aide, Prince Peter Dolgorukov. The meeting was another part of the trap, as Napoleon intentionally expressed anxiety and hesitation to his opponents. Dolgorukov reported an additional indication of French weakness to the Tsar.
The plan was successful. Many Allied officers, including the Tsar's aides and the Austrian Chief of Staff Franz von Weyrother, strongly supported an immediate attack and appeared to sway Tsar Alexander. Kutuzov's plan to retreat further to the Carpathian region was rejected, and the Allied forces soon fell into Napoleon's trap.
== Battle ==
The battle began with the French army outnumbered. Napoleon had some 72,000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle, with about 7,000 troops under Davout still far to the south in the direction of Vienna. The Allies had about 85,000 soldiers, seventy percent of them Russian, and 318 guns.
At first, Napoleon was not confident of victory. In a letter written to Minister of Foreign Affairs Talleyrand, Napoleon requested that Talleyrand not tell anyone about the upcoming battle because he did not want to disturb Empress Joséphine. According to Frederick C. Schneid, the French Emperor's chief worry was how he could explain to Joséphine a French defeat.
=== Battlefield ===
The battle took place about six miles (ten kilometres) southeast of the city of Brno, between that city and Austerlitz (Czech: Slavkov u Brna) in what is now the Czech Republic. The northern part of the battlefield was dominated by the 700-foot (210-metre) Santon Hill and the 880-foot (270-meter) Žuráň Hill, both overlooking the vital Olomouc/Brno road, which was on an east–west axis. To the west of these two hills was the village of Bellowitz (Bedřichovice), and between them, the Bosenitz (Roketnice) stream went south to link up with the Goldbach (Říčka) stream, the latter flowing by the villages of Kobelnitz (Kobylnice), Sokolnitz (Sokolnice), and Telnitz (Telnice).
The centrepiece of the entire area was the Pratzen (Prace) Heights, a gently sloping hill. An aide noted that Napoleon repeatedly told his marshals, "Gentlemen, examine this ground carefully, it is going to be a battlefield; you will have a part to play upon it."
=== Allied plans and dispositions ===
The Allied council met on 1 December to discuss proposals for the battle. Most Allied strategists had two fundamental ideas: contacting the enemy and securing the southern flank that held the communication line to Vienna. Although the Tsar and his immediate entourage pushed hard for a battle, Emperor Francis of Austria was more cautious, and, as mentioned, he was seconded by Kutuzov, the Commander-in-Chief of the Russians and the Allied troops. The pressure to fight from the Russian nobles and the Austrian commanders, however, was too strong, and the Allies adopted the plan of the Austrian Chief-of-Staff, Franz von Weyrother. This called for a main drive against the French right flank, which the Allies noticed was lightly guarded, and diversionary attacks against the French left. The Allies deployed most of their troops into four columns that would attack the French right. The Russian Imperial Guard was held in reserve while Russian troops under Bagration guarded the Allied right. The Russian Tsar stripped Kutuzov of his authority as Commander-in-Chief and gave it to Franz von Weyrother. In the battle, Kutuzov could (mainly) command the IV Corps of the Allied army, although he was still the nominal commander because the Tsar was afraid to take over if his favoured plan failed.
=== French plans and dispositions ===
Napoleon hoped that the Allied forces would attack, and to encourage them, he deliberately weakened his right flank. On 28 November, Napoleon met with his marshals at Imperial Headquarters, who informed him of their qualms about the forthcoming battle. He shrugged off their suggestion of retreat.
Napoleon's plan envisaged that the Allies would throw many troops to envelop his right flank to cut the French communication line from Vienna. As a result, the Allies' center and left flank would be exposed and become vulnerable. To encourage them to do so, Napoleon abandoned the strategic position on the Pratzen Heights, faking the weakness of his forces and his caution. Meanwhile, Napoleon's main force was to be concealed in a dead ground opposite the Heights. According to the plan, the French troops would attack and recapture the Pratzen Heights, then from the Heights, they would launch a decisive assault on the center of the Allied army, cripple them, and encircle them from the rear.
If the Russian force leaves the Pratzen Heights in order to go to the right side, they will certainly be defeated.
The massive thrust through the Allied centre was conducted by 16,000 troops of Soult's IV Corps. IV Corps' position was cloaked by dense mist during the early stage of the battle; in fact, how long the mist lasted was vital to Napoleon's plan: Soult's troops would become uncovered if the mist dissipated too soon, but if it lingered too long, Napoleon would be unable to determine when the Allied troops had evacuated Pratzen Heights, preventing him from timing his attack properly.
Meanwhile, to support his weak right flank, Napoleon ordered Davout's III Corps to force march from Vienna and join General Legrand's men, who held the extreme southern flank that would bear the heaviest part of the Allied attack. Davout's soldiers had 48 hours to march 110 km (68 mi). Their arrival was crucial in determining the success of the French plan. Indeed, the arrangement of Napoleon on the right flank was precarious as the French had only minimal troops garrisoning there. However, Napoleon was able to use such a risky plan because Davout—the commander of III Corps—was one of Napoleon's best marshals, because the right flank's position was protected by a complicated system of streams and lakes, and because the French had already settled upon a secondary line of retreat through Brunn. The Imperial Guard and Bernadotte's I Corps were held in reserve while the V Corps under Lannes guarded the northern sector of the battlefield, where the new communication line was located.
By 1 December 1805, the French troops had been shifted in accordance with the Allied movement southward, as Napoleon expected.
=== Battle begins ===
The battle began at about 8 a.m., with the first allied lines attacking the village of Telnitz, which the 3rd Line Regiment defended. This battlefield sector witnessed heavy fighting in this early action as several ferocious Allied charges evicted the French from the town and forced them onto the other side of the Goldbach. The first men of Davout's corps arrived at this time and threw the Allies out of Telnitz before they, too, were attacked by hussars and re-abandoned the town. Additional Allied attacks out of Telnitz were checked by French artillery.
Allied columns started pouring against the French right, but not at the desired speed, so the French successfully curbed the attacks. The Allied deployments were mistaken and poorly timed: cavalry detachments under Liechtenstein on the Allied left flank had to be placed on the right flank, and in the process, they ran into and slowed down part of the second column of infantry that was advancing towards the French right. At the time, the planners thought this slowing was disastrous, but later on, it helped the Allies. Meanwhile, the leading elements of the second column were attacking the village of Sokolnitz, which was defended by the 26th Light Regiment and the Tirailleurs, French skirmishers. Initial Allied assaults proved unsuccessful, and General Langeron ordered the bombardment of the village. This deadly barrage forced the French out, and at about the same time, the third column under the command of General Przybyszewski (Przhibyshevsky) attacked the castle of Sokolnitz. The French, however, counterattacked and regained the village, only to be thrown out again. Conflict in this area ended temporarily when Friant's division (part of III Corps) retook the village. Sokolnitz was perhaps the most contested area on the battlefield and would change hands several times as the day progressed.
While the Allied troops attacked the French right flank, Kutuzov's IV Corps stopped at the Pratzen Heights and stayed still. Just like Napoleon, Kutuzov realized the importance of Pratzen and decided to protect the position. But the young Tsar did not, so he ordered the IV Corps to withdraw from the Heights. This act quickly pushed the Allied army into its grave.
=== "One sharp blow and the war is over" ===
At about 8:45 a.m., satisfied at the weakness in the enemy center, Napoleon asked Soult how long it would take for his men to reach the Pratzen Heights, to which the Marshal replied, "Less than twenty minutes, sire." About 15 minutes later, Napoleon ordered the attack, adding, "One sharp blow and the war is over."
A dense fog helped to cloud the advance of St. Hilaire's French division, but as they ascended the slope, the legendary 'Sun of Austerlitz' ripped the mist apart and encouraged them forward. Russian soldiers and commanders on top of the heights were stunned to see so many French troops coming towards them. Allied commanders moved some of the delayed detachments of the fourth column into this bitter struggle. Over an hour of fighting destroyed much of this unit. Mikhail Kutuzov commanded the battle at the location of this column. The other men from the second column, primarily inexperienced Austrians, also participated in the struggle and swung the numbers against one of the best fighting forces in the French army, eventually forcing them to withdraw down the slopes. However, gripped by desperation, St. Hilaire's men struck hard again and bayoneted the Allies out of the heights. To the north, General Vandamme's division attacked an area called Staré Vinohrady ("Old Vineyards") and, through talented skirmishing and deadly volleys, broke several Allied battalions.
The battle had firmly turned in France's favor, but it was far from over. Napoleon ordered Bernadotte's I Corps to support Vandamme's left and moved his command center from Žuráň Hill to St. Anthony's Chapel on the Pratzen Heights. The problematic position of the Allies was confirmed by the decision to send in the Russian Imperial Guard; Grand Duke Constantine, Tsar Alexander's brother, commanded the Guard and counterattacked in Vandamme's section of the field, forcing a bloody effort and the only loss of a French standard in the battle (a battalion of the 4th Line Regiment was defeated). Sensing trouble, Napoleon ordered his own heavy Guard cavalry forward. These men pulverized their Russian counterparts, but with both sides pouring in large masses of cavalry, no victory was clear.
The Russians had a numerical advantage; however, the tide soon swung as Drouet's Division, the 2nd of Bernadotte's I Corps, deployed on the flank of the action and allowed French cavalry to seek refuge behind their lines. The horse artillery of the Guard also inflicted heavy casualties on the Russian cavalry and fusiliers. The Russians broke, and many died as they were pursued by the reinvigorated French cavalry for about a quarter of a mile. Kutuzov was severely wounded, and his son-in-law, Ferdinand von Tiesenhausen, was killed.
=== Endgame ===
I was ... under fierce and continuous canister fire ... Many soldiers, now incessantly engaged in battle from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., had no cartridges left. I could do nothing but retreat ...
Meanwhile, the northernmost part of the battlefield also witnessed heavy fighting. The Prince of Liechtenstein's heavy cavalry began to assault Kellermann's lighter cavalry forces after eventually arriving at the correct position in the field. The fighting initially went well for the French, but Kellerman's forces took cover behind General Caffarelli's infantry division once it became clear that Russian numbers were too great. Caffarelli's men halted the Russian assaults and permitted Murat to send two cuirassier divisions (one commanded by d'Hautpoul and the other one by Nansouty) into the fray to finish off the Russian cavalry for good. The ensuing mêlée was bitter and long, but the French ultimately prevailed. Lannes then led his V Corps against Bagration's men and, after hard fighting, drove the skilled Russian commander off the field. He wanted to pursue, but Murat, who was in control of this sector on the battlefield, was against the idea.
Napoleon's focus shifted towards the southern end of the battlefield, where the French and the Allies were still fighting over Sokolnitz and Telnitz. In an effective double-pronged assault, St. Hilaire's division and part of Davout's III Corps smashed through the enemy at Sokolnitz, which persuaded the commanders of the first two columns, Generals Kienmayer and Langeron, to flee as fast as they could. Buxhowden, the commander of the Allied left and the man responsible for leading the attack, was completely drunk and fled as well. Kienmayer covered his withdrawal with the O'Reilly light cavalry, who managed to defeat five of six French cavalry regiments before they had to retreat.
General panic seized the Allied army, and it abandoned the field in all possible directions. A famous, albeit disputed, episode occurred during this retreat: defeated Russian forces withdrew south towards Vienna via the frozen Satschan ponds. French artillery pounded towards the men, and the ice was broken by the bombardment. The fleeing men drowned in the cold ponds, dozens of Russian artillery pieces going down with them. Estimates of how many guns were captured differ: there may have been as few as 38 or more than 100. Sources also differ about casualties, with figures ranging between 200 and 2,000 dead. Many drowning Russians were saved by their victorious foes. However, local evidence later made public suggests that Napoleon's account of the catastrophe may have been exaggerated; on his instructions, the lakes were drained a few days after the battle, and the corpses of only two or three men, with some 150 horses, were found. On the other hand, Tsar Alexander I attested to the incident after the wars.
== Military and political results ==
Allied casualties stood at about 36,000 out of an army of 89,000, representing about 38% of their effective forces. The French were not unscathed in the battle, losing around 9,000 out of an army of 66,000, or about 13% of their forces. The Allies also lost some 180 guns and about 50 standards. As per more recent data, 186 guns (cannons) and 45 standards. The victory was met by sheer amazement and delirium in Paris, where the nation had been teetering on the brink of financial collapse just days earlier. Napoleon wrote to Josephine, "I have beaten the Austro-Russian army commanded by the two emperors. I am a little weary. ... I embrace you." Napoleon's comments in this letter led to the battle's other famous designation, "Battle of the Three Emperors". However, Napoleon was mistaken as Emperor Francis of Austria was not present on the battlefield. Tsar Alexander perhaps best summed up the harsh times for the Allies by stating, "We are babies in the hands of a giant." After hearing the news of Austerlitz, Pitt said of a map of Europe, "Roll up that map; it will not be wanted these ten years."
France and Austria signed a truce on 4 December, and the Treaty of Pressburg, 22 days later, took the latter out of the war. Austria agreed to recognize French territory captured by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lunéville (1801), cede land to Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, which were Napoleon's German allies, pay 40 million francs in war indemnities and cede Venice to the Kingdom of Italy. It was a harsh end for Austria, but certainly not a catastrophic peace. The Russian army was allowed to withdraw to its home territory, and the French ensconced themselves in Southern Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was extinguished, 1806 being seen as its final year. Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, a string of German states meant to serve as a buffer between France and Prussia. Prussia saw these and other moves as an affront to its status as the main power of Central Europe, and it went to war with France in 1806.
== Rewards ==
Napoleon's words to his troops after the battle were full of praise: Soldats! Je suis content de vous ('Soldiers! I am pleased with you').
Napoleon wrote to his victorious army on the night of Austerlitz with his customary rhetoric:
Even at this hour, before this great day shall pass and be lost in the ocean of eternity, your emperor just address you, and say how satisfied he is with the conduct of all those who had the good fortune to fight in this memorable battle. Soldiers! You are the finest warriors in the World. The recollection of this day, and of your deeds, will be eternal! Thousands of ages hereafter, as long as the events of the universe continue to be relate, will it be told that a Russian army of 76,000 men, hired by the gold of England, was annihilated by you on the plains of Olmütz.
The Emperor provided two million golden francs to the higher officers and 200 francs to each soldier, with large pensions for the widows of the fallen, also providing 6,000 francs for the widows of fallen generals. Orphaned children were adopted by Napoleon personally and were allowed to add "Napoleon" to their baptismal and family names. He could afford this, and much else besides, thanks to the return of financial confidence that swept the country as government bonds leaped from 45% to 66% of their face value on the news of victory.
This battle is one of four for which Napoleon never awarded a victory title, the others being Marengo, Jena, and Friedland.
== In popular culture ==
Artists and musicians on the side of France and her conquests expressed their sentiments in the popular and elite art of the time. Prussian music critic E. T. A. Hoffmann, in his famous review of Beethoven's 5th Symphony,
singles out for special abuse a certain Bataille des trois Empereurs, a French battle symphony by Louis Jadin celebrating Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz.
Leo Tolstoy dramatized the battle as the conclusion of Book 3 and Volume 1 of War and Peace, making it a crucial moment in the lives of both Andrei Bolkonsky, who is badly wounded, and of Nikolai Rostov.
Archibald Alison in his History of Europe (1836) offers the first recorded telling of the apocryphal story that when the Allies descended the Pratzen Heights to attack Napoleon's supposedly weak flank,
The marshals who surrounded Napoleon saw the advantage, and eagerly besought him to give the signal for action; but he restrained their ardour ... "when the enemy is making a false movement we must take good care not to interrupt him."
In subsequent accounts, this Napoleonic quote would undergo various changes until it became: "Never interrupt your enemy when he is making a mistake."
== Historical views ==
Napoleon did not succeed in defeating the Allied army as thoroughly as he wanted, but historians and enthusiasts alike recognize that the original plan provided a significant victory, comparable to other great tactical battles such as Cannae. Some historians suggest that Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with reality, and what used to be French foreign policy became a "personal Napoleonic one" after the battle. In French history, Austerlitz is acknowledged as an impressive military victory, and in the 19th century, when fascination with the First French Empire was at its height, the battle was revered by French authors such as Victor Hugo, who wrote of the "sound of heavy cannons rolling towards Austerlitz" echoing in the "depths of [his] thoughts". In the 2005 bicentennial, however, controversy erupted when neither French President Jacques Chirac nor Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin attended any functions commemorating the battle. On the other hand, some residents of France's overseas departments protested against what they viewed as the "official commemoration of Napoleon", arguing that Austerlitz should not be celebrated since they believed that Napoleon committed genocide against colonial people.
After the battle, Tsar Alexander I blamed Kutuzov, the Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Army. However, Kutuzov planned to retreat farther to the rear, where the Allied Army had a sharp advantage in logistics. Had the Allied Army retreated further, it might have been reinforced by Archduke Charles's troops from Italy, and the Prussians might have joined the Coalition against Napoleon. A French army at the end of its supply lines, in a place that had no food supplies, might have faced a very different ending from the one they achieved at the real battle of Austerlitz.
== Monuments and protection of the area ==
In the years following the battle, many memorials were set up around the affected villages to commemorate both the individual episodes of the battle and the thousands of its victims. Since 1992, the area where the Battle of Austerlitz took place has been protected by law as a landscape monument zone. Its value lies in the historical peculiarities of the place, the historical connections of settlements, landscapes, and terrain formations, and the overall landscape image. The area extends to 19 of today's municipalities:
Near Prace is the Cairn of Peace Memorial, claimed to be the first peace memorial in Europe. It was designed and built in the Art Nouveau style by Josef Fanta in 1910–1912. World War I postponed the monument's dedication until 1923. It is 26 m (85 ft) high, square, with four female statues symbolizing France, Austria, Russia, and Moravia. Within is a chapel with an ossuary. A nearby small museum commemorates the battle. Every year, the events of the Battle of Austerlitz are commemorated in a ceremony.
Other memorials located in the monument zone include, among others:
The Staré Vinohrady height near Zbýšov saw the bloody collision of the French and Russian guards. In 2005, the Monument to the Three Emperors was erected here.
Stará Pošta ("Old Post") in Kovalovice is an original building from 1785, which now serves as a hotel and restaurant. On 28 November 1805, the French cavalry general Murat set up his headquarters here. On the day of the battle, the Russian general Bagration had his headquarters here. After the battle, Napoleon slept in this house and held preliminary negotiations about an armistice. A small museum commemorates these events.
On Santon Hill in Tvarožná is a small white chapel. The hill was a mainstay of the French position and allowed the French artillery to dominate the northern portion of the battlefield. Below the hill, the yearly historical reenactments take place.
On Žuráň Hill, where Napoleon was headquartered, a granite monument depicts the battlefield positions.
Slavkov Castle, where an armistice was signed between Austria and France after the battle on 6 December 1805. There is a small historical museum and a multimedia presentation about the battle.
Several monuments to the battle can be found far beyond the battle area. A notable monument is the Pyramid of Austerlitz, built by French soldiers stationed there to commemorate the 1805 campaign near Utrecht in the Netherlands. In Paris, the 44-metre-high bronze Colonne Vendôme, a celebration of Napoleon, also stands on the Place Vendôme. The monument was initially called the Column of Austerlitz and, according to propaganda, was cast from the melted-down barrels of Allied guns from the Battle of Austerlitz. Several other sites and public buildings commemorate the encounter in Paris, such as Pont d'Austerlitz and nearby Gare d'Austerlitz. A scene from the battle is also depicted on the bas-relief of the eastern pillar of the Arc de Triomphe and Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel.
== See also ==
Gare d'Austerlitz
Military career of Napoleon
== Explanatory notes ==
== Citations ==
== General references ==
== External links ==
(In French) Austerlitz order of battle
Austerlitz
(In German) The Battle of Austerlitz 2005
(In French) Austerlitz 2005: la bataille des trois empereurs
(In French) Austerlitz Online Game (Pousse-pion éditions, 2010)
Austerlitz: The Battle of the Three Emperors (Napoleonic Miniatures Wargame Society of Toronto)
Austerlitz AKA The Battle of Austerlitz (1960) at IMDb
(In Czech) View on battle place – virtual show
Bellum.cz – "Battle of Austerlitz 2nd December 1805"
Media related to Battle of Austerlitz at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini_Atoll | Bikini Atoll | Bikini Atoll ( BIK-in-ee or bih-KEE-nee; Marshallese: Pikinni [pʲiɡinnʲi], lit. 'coconut place'), known as Eschscholtz Atoll between the 19th century and 1946, is a coral reef in the Marshall Islands consisting of 23 islands surrounding a 229.4-square-mile (594.1 km2) central lagoon. The atoll is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain, approximately 530 miles (850 km) northwest of the capital Majuro.
After the Second World War, the atoll was chosen by the United States as a nuclear weapon testing site. It would be the site of the fourth nuclear bomb detonation and would go on to be the site of many more tests. The 167 people who lived on Bikini were instructed to leave so the military could test nuclear bombs, a forced relocation. In 1946 they moved to Rongerik, a small island east of Bikini Atoll, but it turned out to have inadequate resources to support the population. The islanders began experiencing starvation by early 1948 and were moved again to Kwajalein Atoll. The United States used the islands and lagoon as the site of 23 nuclear tests until 1958, when it was discovered that the fallout from nuclear testing was much more dangerous than was previously thought. To this day, the Bikini islanders are prohibited from returning home due to nuclear contamination. There are some signs of recovery as the amount of radiation slowly decreases.
In 1972, about 100 residents were voluntarily returned to their home island. But scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in well water in May 1978, and the residents' bodies were carrying abnormally high concentrations of caesium-137. They were evacuated again in September 1978. The atoll is occasionally visited today by divers and a few scientists, and it is occupied by a handful of caretakers. The people of the atoll, which now number in the thousands, have spread out to other Marshallese islands and the United States. A multi-million dollar trust fund, which had been supporting services for many Bikini inhabitants since the 1980s, was drained in the late 2010s.
In the 21st century, the atoll is a World Heritage Site, remembered for its role in the Cold War and the post-nuclear age. It is noted as an enclave of nature, and the radiation has decreased enough that tourism is possible. However, the lingering radioactive contamination makes it unfit to return from what was expected to be short-term evacuation, especially as it is not recommended to eat plants or wildlife.
== Etymology ==
The island's English name is derived from the German colonial name Bikini given to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name is transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, Pikinni, ([pʲiɡinnʲi]) "Pik" meaning "plane surface" and "Ni" meaning "coconut tree", or surface of coconuts.
== Culture ==
Bikini islanders' traditional lifestyle was based on cultivating plants and eating shellfish and fish. They were skilled boatbuilders and navigators, sailing the two-hulled proa to and from islets around Bikini and other atolls in the Marshall Islands. They were relatively isolated and had developed a society bound by extended family association and tradition. Every lagoon was led by a king and queen, with a following of chieftains and chief women who constituted a ruling caste.
Japan occupied the islands starting in 1914. The islanders worked the copra plantations under the watchful eye of the Japanese, who took a portion of the sales. Chiefs could retain as much as $20,000 per year, and the remainder was distributed to the workers. The Marshall islanders took pride in extending hospitality to one another, even distant relatives.
=== Clothing and dress ===
Men traditionally wore a fringed skirt about 25 to 30 inches (60 to 80 cm) long. Women wore two mats about a yard square each, made by weaving pandanus and hibiscus leaves together and belted around the waist. Children were usually naked. Christian missionaries from Oʻahu arrived in the late 19th century and influenced the islanders' notions of modesty. They introduced a dress for women which was a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck, intended to cover as much skin as possible. The dress is called wau ([wɑːu]), from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu.
It is customary to remove one's shoes or sandals when taking a seat at someone's home. Marshallese women traditionally cover their thighs as well. Women generally wear cotton muʻumuʻus or similar clothing that covers most of the body. Personal health is not often discussed except within the family, and women are especially private about female-related health issues, although they are willing to talk about their breasts.
Marshallese women swim in muʻumuʻus made of a fine polyester that quickly dries. In the capital of Majuro, revealing cocktail dresses are not considered appropriate for both islanders and guests. With the increasing influence of Western media, the younger generation wears shorts, though the older generation equates shorts with loose morals. T-shirts, jeans, skirts, and makeup are making their way to the islands via the media.
=== Land-based wealth ===
The Bikini islanders continue to maintain land rights as the primary measure of wealth.
To all Marshallese, land is gold. If you were an owner of land, you would be held up as a very important figure in our society. Without land you would be viewed as a person of no consequence... But land here on Bikini is now poison land.
Each family is part of a clan (Bwij), which owns all land. The clan owes allegiance to a chief (Iroij). The chiefs oversee the clan heads (Alap), who are supported by laborers (Dri-jerbal). The Iroij control land tenure, resource use and distribution, and settle disputes. The Alap supervise land maintenance and daily activities. The Dri-jerbal work the land including farming, cleaning, and construction.
The Marshallese society is matrilineal and land is passed down from generation to generation through the mother. Land ownership ties families together into clans. Grandparents, parents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, and cousins form extended, close-knit family groups. Gatherings tend to become big events. One of the most significant family events is the first birthday of a child (kemem), which relatives and friends celebrate with feasts and song.
Payments made in the 20th century as reparations for damage to the Bikini Atoll and the islanders' way of life have elevated their income relative to other Marshall Island residents. It has caused some Bikini islanders to become economically dependent on the payments from the trust fund. This dependency has eroded individuals' interest in traditional economic pursuits like taro and copra production. The move also altered traditional patterns of social alliance and political organization. On Bikini, rights to land and land ownership were the major factor in social and political organization and leadership. After relocation and settlement on Kili, a dual system of land tenure evolved. Disbursements from the trust fund were based in part to land ownership on Bikini and based on current land tenure on Kili.
Before the residents were relocated, they were led by a local chief and under the nominal control of the Paramount Chief of the Marshall Islands. Afterward, they had greater interaction with representatives of the trust fund and the U.S. government and began to look to them for support.
In the late 2010s, the islanders pushed for complete control of the trust fund, which was tens of millions of dollars. The same leaders which had pushed for increased control, rang up huge bills in travel expenses, buying real estate, aircraft, and boats. In 2016, the Bikini trust fund stood at $71 million in its last audit, with $4 million have been withdrawn. After leasing control, the account was drained leaving only $4 million by 2020, and $100,000 in 2023. Then with funds depleted, the power and deliveries to Kili were stopped, and salaries were not paid, this led to declaration of emergency, and the Marshallese government had to step in to try to help.
=== Language ===
Most Marshallese speak both the Marshallese language and another language. Some of the languages reflect the nation's history with Germany, Japan, and the United States. Government agencies use Marshallese, though English is very popular also.
== Environment ==
Bikini Atoll is part of the Ralik Chain (for "sunset chain") within the Marshall Islands.
=== Nuclear test site ===
The United States detonated 23 nuclear devices between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites on the reef, inside the atoll, in the air, and underwater. They had a combined yield of about 77 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The residents initially accepted resettlement voluntarily to Rongerik Atoll, believing that they would be able to return home within a short time. However, Rongerik could not produce enough food, and the islanders starved. They could not return home, so they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll for six months before choosing to live on Kili Island, a small island one-sixth the size of their home island. Some were able to return to Bikini Island in 1972; however, further testing revealed dangerous levels of strontium-90. They eventually moved to other atolls in the Marshall Islands and the United States, due to problems with this plan.
In 1954, the Castle Bravo nuclear test took place on Bikini Atoll, with a yield of 15 Mt. This nuclear test was only one out of 67 total nuclear tests launched on the surrounding Marshall Islands and reefs. The nuclear radiation and fallout that followed the Castle Bravo test alone was substantial enough to discourage future habitation of the islands. Consequently, Bikini Atoll was subject to initial radioactive testing of soil composition and well water. Nuclear fallout deposits were tested in order to estimate how much area of the island was impacted by radionuclides and caesium-137 specifically. The technology used to measure the estimated amount of nuclear fallout deposit was known as HYSPLIT. This technology used meteorological sciences to model and map out nuclear fallout depositions of caesium-137 on the Marshall Islands. Initial fallout cloud debris, radionuclide particles, and actual caesium-137 particles were all estimated during nuclear testing. This data was then compared with past radiological testing results collected by HYSPLIT to predict total nuclear fallout deposition of caesium-137 on island soil.
The United States government established several trust funds which as of 2013 covered medical treatment and other costs and paid about $550 annually to each individual.
=== Geography ===
Some 46 miles (74 km) northwest of the atoll is Wōdejebato, a probable shield volcano that is connected to it through a submarine ridge.
There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll; the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol and part of Namu were destroyed during the nuclear tests. The islands are composed of low coral limestone and sand. The average elevation is only about 7 feet (2.1 m) above low tide level. The total lagoon area is 229.4-square-mile (594.1 km2). The primary home of the islanders was the most northeast and largest islet, Bikini Island, totaling 586 acres (237 ha) and 2.5 miles (4.0 km) long.
=== Flora and fauna ===
The islanders cultivated native foods including coconut, pandanus, papaya, banana, arrowroot, taro, limes, breadfruit, and pumpkin. A wide variety of other trees and plants are also present on the islands. After the completion of nuclear tests, the islands of Bikini and Enyu were replanted with coconut trees in a square grid pattern, each 30 ft (9.1 m) apart.
The islanders were skilled fishermen. They used fishing line made from coconut husk and hooks from sharpened sea shells. They used more than 25 methods of fishing. The islanders raised ducks, pigs, and chickens for food and kept dogs and cats as pets. Animal life in the atoll was severely affected by the atomic bomb testing. Existing land species include small lizards, hermit crabs, and coconut crabs. The islands are frequented by a wide variety of birds.
To allow vessels with a larger draft to enter the lagoon and to prepare for the atomic bomb testing, the United States used explosives to cut a channel through the reef and to blow up large coral heads in the lagoon. The underwater nuclear explosions carved large holes in the bottom of the lagoon that were partially refilled by blast debris. The explosions distributed vast amounts of irradiated, pulverized coral and mud across wide expanses of the lagoon and surrounding islands. As of 2008, the atoll had recovered nearly 65% of the biodiversity that existed prior to radioactive contamination, but 28 species of coral appear to be locally extinct.
The radioactive contamination has prevented humans from fishing these grounds, and for that reason, there is an abundance of marine wildlife in the waters around the atoll, much larger than in other parts of the ocean. Coconut crabs are particularly abundant on the island.
=== Climate ===
The islands are hot and humid. The temperature on Bikini Atoll is 27 to 29 °C (81 to 84 °F) year-round. The water temperature is also 27 to 29 °C (81 to 84 °F) all year. The islands border the Pacific typhoon belt. The wet season is from May to December while the trade winds from January through May produce higher wave action.
== Resident and non-resident population ==
During WWII, the atoll had been occupied by Japanese troops, and American naval ships, ground artillery, and B-24 Liberator bombers attacked the island, killing many of the 8,000 soldiers.
When the United States got the islanders to relocate in 1946, 19 islanders lived elsewhere. The 167 residents, comprising about 40 families who lived on the atoll, moved to Rongerik Atoll. The islands were able to produce much less food than they had on Bikini, and there were far fewer fish in the waters. By early 1948, the people were close to starvation. U.S. investigators concluded they must be moved, and they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll. They were first evacuated to Kwaj, where the islanders lived in tents adjacent to the concrete runway in use by the U.S. Navy for six months while a new and better location was selected. Finally, Kili Island was chosen.
They were moved once again in November 1948 to Kili Island, when the population numbered 184. They were later given public lands on Ejit and a few families initially moved there to grow copra. In 1972, about 100 Bikini islanders returned to live on the atoll after they were reassured that it was safe. They remained for about 6 years until scientists found an 11-fold increase in the caesium-137 body burdens and determined that the island was not safe after all. The 178 residents were evacuated in September 1978 once again.
Since then a number of descendants have moved to Majuro (the Marshall Islands' capital), other Marshall Islands, and the United States. In 1999, there were 2,600 total individuals; 1,000 islanders living on Kiji, 700 in Majuro, 275 on Ejit, 175 on other Marshall Islands or atolls, and 450 in the United States. Of those, 81 were among those who left the atoll in 1946. In 2001, the population of the dispersed islanders was 2,800. By 2013, there were about 4,880 Bikini islanders descended from the original Bikinis, with 1,250 living on Kili Island, 2,150 on Majuro (and 280 on Ejit, an island in Majuro Atoll), 350 on the other Marshall Islands, and 850 in the United States.
As of March 2016, there were 5,400 living Bikini islanders: 800 islanders living on Kili, 2,550 on Majuro, 300 on Ejit, 350 on other Marshall Islands, and 1,400 in the United States and other countries. Of that number, 25 lived on Bikini in 1946. The resident population of the atoll is currently 4–6 caretakers, including Edward Maddison, who lived on Bikini Island from 1985 to 2020. His grandfather was one of the original residents relocated in 1946. He helped the U.S. Department of Energy with soil monitoring, testing cleanup methods, mapping the wrecks in the lagoon, and accompanying visitors on dives. He was also the divemaster of Bikini Atoll Divers. Maddison died in Majuro, Marshall Islands, on March 29, 2020.
== History ==
Humans have inhabited Bikini Atoll for about 3,600 years. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers archaeologist Charles F. Streck Jr., found bits of charcoal, fish bones, shells and other artifacts under 3 feet (0.91 meters) of sand. Carbon-dating placed the age of the artifacts at between 1960 and 1650 BC. Other discoveries on Bikini and Eneu island were carbon-dated to between 1000 BC and 1 BC, and others between AD 400 and 1400 though samples may not have been collected from secure stratigraphic contexts and older driftwood samples may have affected results.
On October 1, 1529, the Spanish ship La Florida, under the command of Álvaro de Saavedra, stopped at a lush atoll, which Saavedra called Los Jardines (English: The Gardens). The atoll may have been Bikini or Enewetak Atoll. The Spaniards went ashore and ate with the islanders. According to an account of the voyage, the feast ended abruptly when the island's chief inquired about the purpose of Saavedra's musket. When Saavedra fired it into the air, the islanders fled.
German-Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue was the first westerner to have undisputedly seen the atoll during his 1816 and 1817 voyages. He named it Eschscholtz Atoll after Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the ship's naturalist.
In 1834, the captain of a trading schooner and two of his crew members were killed at Bikini Atoll. Three vessels were sent to search for the captain, and when the Hawaiian brig Waverly discovered evidence of his death, the crew killed 30 Marshallese hostages in retaliation. Bikini and the other northern Marshall Islands had less European contact and settlement than the southern islands, but in the 1870s, several blackbirding ships kidnapped women from the northern islands to sell into sexual slavery in Fiji.
The German Empire annexed the Marshall Islands in 1885. The Germans used the atoll to produce copra oil from coconuts, although contact with the native population was infrequent. The atoll's climate is drier than the more fertile southern Marshall Islands which produced more copra. Bikini islanders were recruited into developing the copra trade during the German colonial period.
=== Japanese occupation ===
Bikini was captured along with the rest of the Marshall Islands by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Seas Mandate, but mostly left local affairs in the hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. At the outset of the war, the Marshall Islands suddenly became a strategic outpost for the Japanese. They built and manned a watchtower on the island, an outpost for the Japanese headquarters on Kwajalein Atoll, to guard against an American invasion of the islands.
=== World War II ===
The islands remained relatively unscathed by the war until February 1944, when in a bloody battle, the American forces captured Kwajalein Atoll. At the battle's conclusion, there were only five surviving Japanese soldiers left on Bikini, and they chose to die by suicide rather than allow themselves to be captured. This was followed by another difficult fight in the Battle of Eniwetok.
For the U.S., the battle represented both the next step in its island-hopping march to Japan and a significant moral victory, as it was the first time the Americans had penetrated the "outer ring" of the Japanese Pacific sphere. For the Japanese, the battle represented the failure of the beach-line defense. Japanese defenses became prepared in depth, and the battles of Peleliu, Guam, and the Marianas proved far more costly to the U.S. The base became part of the vast US Naval Base Marshall Islands.
=== Residents relocated ===
After World War II, the United States was engaged in a Cold War nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build bigger and more destructive bombs.
The nuclear weapons testing at Bikini Atoll program was a series of 23 nuclear devices detonated by the United States between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites. The test weapons were detonated on the reef itself, on the sea, in the air and underwater with a combined explosive yield of about 77 Mt. Shortly after World War II ended, President Harry S. Truman directed Army and Navy officials to secure a site for testing nuclear weapons on American warships. While the Army had seen the results of a land-based explosion, the Navy wanted to know the effect of a nuclear weapon on ships. They wanted to determine whether ships could be spaced at sea and in ports in a way that would make nuclear weapons ineffective against vessels.
Bikini was distant from both regular sea and air traffic, making it an ideal location. In February 1946, Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, the military governor of the Marshall Islands, asked the 167 Micronesian inhabitants of the atoll to voluntarily and temporarily relocate so the United States government could begin testing atomic bombs for "the good of mankind and to end all world wars." After "confused and sorrowful deliberation" among the Bikinians, their leader, King Juda, agreed to the U.S. relocation request, announcing MEN OTEMJEJ REJ ILO BEIN ANIJ, which translates as "Everything is in God's hands." Nine of the eleven family heads, or alaps, chose Rongerik as their new home.
In February, Navy Seabees helped them to disassemble their church and community house and prepare to relocate them to their new home. On 7 March 1946, the residents gathered their personal belongings and saved building supplies. They were transported 125 miles (201 km) eastward on U.S. Navy landing ship 1108 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. No one lived on Rongerik because it had an inadequate water and food supply and due to deep-rooted traditional beliefs that the island was haunted by the Demon Girls of Ujae. The Navy left them with a few weeks of food and water which soon proved to be inadequate.
==== Nuclear testing program ====
The weapons testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The Baker test's radioactive contamination of all the target ships was the first case of immediate, concentrated radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called Baker "the world's first nuclear disaster." This was followed by a series of later tests that left the islands of the atoll contaminated with enough radioactivity, particularly caesium-137, to contaminate food grown in the soil.
A third nuclear test called Charlie was called off after the first two. These were the last tests in Bikini Atoll until 1954, when it was chosen as the location for Operation Castle series. The first shot Bravo, had a higher yield then expected to due an unexpected Lithium-7 reaction. This along with freak weather occurrences caused the fallout to spread much further than anticipated, affecting neighbouring atolls and the Japanese fishing boat Daigo Fukuryū Maru.
Four more detonations occurred as part of the Castle series, with a combined yield of 46.5 megatons.
In 1956, Operation Redwing was conducted at the Atoll, with six total detonations and a combined yield of 18.2 megatons.
The final round of tests occurred in 1958 as part of the larger Operation Hardtack I. Eleven detonations occurred with a combined yield of 21 megatons.
==== Strategic Trust Territory ====
In 1947, the United States convinced the United Nations to designate the islands of Micronesia a United Nations Strategic Trust Territory. This was the only trust ever granted by the U.N. The United States Navy controlled the Trust from a headquarters in Guam until 1951, when the United States Department of the Interior took over control, administering the territory from a base in Saipan. The directive stated that the United States should "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall... protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources..."
Despite the promise to "protect the inhabitants", from July 1946 through July 1947, the residents of Bikini Atoll were left alone on Rongerik Atoll and were starving for lack of food. A team of U.S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately. Press from around the world harshly criticized the U.S. Navy for ignoring the people. Harold Ickes, a syndicated columnist, wrote "The natives are actually and literally starving to death." The islanders were moved again, this time to Kwajalein Atoll.
==== Move to Kili Island ====
In January 1948, Leonard Mason, an anthropologist from the University of Hawaii, visited Rongerik Atoll and was horrified at what he found. One resident of Rongerik commented,
We'd get a few fish, then the entire community would have to share this meager amount... The fish were not fit to eat there. They were poisonous because of what they ate on the reef. We got sick from them, like when your arms and legs fall asleep and you can't feel anything. We'd get up in the morning to go to our canoes and fall over because we were so ill... Then we started asking these men from America [to] bring us food... We were dying, but they didn't listen to us.
Mason requested that food be brought to the islanders on Rongerik immediately along with a medical officer. The Navy then selected Ujelang Atoll for their temporary home, and some young men from the Bikini Atoll population went ahead to begin constructing living accommodations. But U.S. Trust Authorities changed their mind. They decided to use Enewetak Atoll as a second nuclear weapons test site and relocated the residents to Ujelang Atoll instead and to the homes built for the Bikini Islanders.
In March 1948, 184 malnourished Bikini islanders were relocated again to Kwajalein Atoll. They were given tents on a strip of grass alongside the airport runway to live in. In June 1948, the Bikini residents chose Kili Island as a long-term home. The extremely small, 200 acres (81 ha) (.36 square miles (0.93 km2)) island was uninhabited and wasn't ruled by a paramount iroij, or king due to its size. It also lacks a coral reef. In June, the Bikini community chose two dozen men to accompany eight Seabees to Kili to begin construction of a village. In November 1948, the residents, now totaling 184 individuals, moved to Kili Island, at 0.36 square miles (0.93 km2), one of the smallest islands in the Marshall Island chain. They soon learned they could no longer fish the way they had on Bikini Atoll. Kili lacked the calm, protected lagoon. Living on Kili Island effectively destroyed their culture that had been based on fishing and island-hopping canoe voyages to various islets around Bikini Atoll. Kili did not provide enough food for the transplanted residents.
==== Failed resettlement ====
After their relocation to Kili, the Bikini residents continued to suffer from inadequate food supplies. Kili is a small island without a lagoon, and most of the year it is exposed to 10 to 20 ft (3.0 to 6.1 m) waves that make fishing and putting canoes out difficult. Starvation ensued. In 1949, the Trust Territory administration donated a 40-foot (12 m) ship for transporting copra between Kili and Jaluit Atoll, but the ship was wrecked in heavy surf while delivering copra and other fruit.
The U.S. Trust Authorities airdropped food onto Kili. The residents had to rely on imported USDA rice and canned goods and had to buy food with their supplemental income.
During 1955 and 1956, ships dispatched by the U.S. Trust Territory continually experienced problems unloading food because of the rough seas around the island, leading to additional food shortages. The people once again suffered from starvation and the shortages increased in 1956. The U.S. suggested that some of the Bikini Islanders move to Jaluit where food was more readily available. A few people moved.
The United States opened a satellite community for the families on public land on Jaluit Atoll, 30 miles (48 km) north. Three families moved there to produce copra for sale and other families rotated living there later on. Their homes on both Kili and Jaluit were struck by typhoons during 1957 and 1958, sinking their supply ship and damaging crops.
==== Return to Bikini Atoll ====
In June 1968, based on scientific advice that the radiation levels were sufficiently reduced, President Lyndon B. Johnson promised the 540 Bikini Atoll family members living on Kili and other islands that they would be able to return to their home. The Atomic Energy Commission cleared radioactive debris from the island, and the U.S. Trust Territory was in charge of rebuilding structures and replanting crops on the atoll. But shortly afterward, the Trust Territory ended regular air flights between Kwajalein Atoll and Bikini Atoll, which seriously impeded progress. Coconut trees were finally replanted in 1972, but the AEC learned that the coconut crabs retained high levels of radioactivity and could not be eaten. The Bikini Council voted to delay a return to the island as a result.
Three extended families, eventually totaling about 100 people, moved back to their home island in 1972 despite the risk. But 3 years later, a team of scientists performed additional tests on the island and its inhabitants. They found some wells were too radioactive for use and determined that the pandanus and breadfruit were also dangerous for human consumption. Urine samples from the islanders on Bikini Atoll showed low levels of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240. As a result, the Bikini community filed a federal lawsuit seeking a complete scientific survey of Bikini and the northern Marshall Islands. Inter-departmental squabbling over responsibility for the costs delayed the work for three years. Then in May 1977 scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in the well water exceeding the U.S. maximum allowed limits. In June, the Department of Energy stated that "All living patterns involving Bikini Island exceed Federal [radiation] guidelines for thirty-year population doses." Later that year scientists discovered an 11-fold increase in the caesium-137 body burdens in all of the people living on the atoll. In May 1978 officials from the U.S. Department of the Interior described the 75% increase in radioactive caesium-137 found as "incredible".
Women were experiencing miscarriages, stillbirths, and genetic abnormalities in their children. Researchers learned that the coral soil behaved differently from mainland soil because it contains very little potassium. Plants and trees readily absorb potassium as part of the normal biological process, but since caesium is part of the same group on the periodic table, it is absorbed by plants in a very similar chemical process. The islanders who unknowingly consumed contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies. The Trust Territory decided that the islanders had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time.
The islanders received US$75 million in damages in 1986 as part of a new Compact of Free Association with the U.S. and in 1988, another $90 million to be used specifically for radiological cleanup. In 1987, a few Bikini elders traveled to Eneu Island to reestablish old property lines. Construction crews began building a hotel, docks, and roads on Bikini, and installed generators, desalinators, and power lines. A packed coral and sand runway still exists on Eneu Island. The Bikini Atoll Divers was established to provide income. But in 1995, the council learned that the US Environmental Protection Agency standard required reducing radiation levels to 15 millirems, substantially less than the US Department of Energy standard of 100 millirems. This discovery significantly increased the potential cost of cleanup and stalled the effort.
=== Relocation to Kili Island ===
As a result of the military use of the island and the failed resettlement, the islands are littered with abandoned concrete bunkers and tons of heavy equipment, vehicles, supplies, machines, and buildings. In September 1978, Trust Territory officials finally arrived to relocate the residents. The radiological survey of the northern Marshalls, compelled by the 1975 lawsuit, began only after the residents were removed and returned to Kili Island.
As of 2013, the tiny 0.36 square miles (0.93 km2) Kili Island supported about 600 residents who live in cinderblock houses. They must rely on contributions from a settlement trust fund to supplement what they produce locally. Each family receives one to two boxes of frozen chicken, two to four 51-lb (23 kilogram) bags of flour, and two to four bags of rice 2 to 3 times per year. The islanders operate several small stores out of their homes to supply nonperishable food items like salt, Tabasco, candy, and canned items. A generator provides electricity.
Children attend elementary school on Kili through eighth grade. Toward the end of the eighth grade, students must pass a standardized test to gain admission to attend public high school in Jaluit or Majuro.
Beginning in 2011 the resettled residents of Kili Island began to experience periods of ocean flooding during king tide. The highest point of Kili Island is only 9.8 feet (3.0 m) above sea level. Ocean waves have covered portions of the island at least five times from 2011 to 2015, contaminating the wells on the island. The runway servicing the island is unusable during and after rains and ocean flooding because it becomes extremely muddy. In August 2015, the Bikini Council passed a resolution requesting assistance from US government to modify terms of the Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini to be used to relocate the population once again, this time outside of the Marshall Islands.
The Trust fund had been fairly stable, but after 2017 increased withdrawals drained it down and in the 2020s a crisis erupted to provide services on Kili.
== Trust funds and failed claims ==
In 1975, when the islanders who had returned to Bikini Atoll learned that it wasn't safe, they sued the United States for $900 billion in USD, demanding a radiological study of the northern islands.
In 1975, the United States set up The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini, totaling $3 million. When the islanders were removed from the island in 1978, the U.S. added $3 million to the fund. The U.S. created a second trust fund, The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini, containing $20 million in 1982. The U.S. added another $90 million to that fund to pay to clean up, reconstruct homes and facilities, and resettle the islanders on Bikini and Eneu islands.
In 1983, the U.S. and the Marshall islanders signed the Compact of Free Association, which gave the Marshall Islands independence. The Compact became effective in 1986 and was subsequently modified by the Amended Compact that became effective in 2004. It also established the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was given the task of adjudicating compensation for victims and families affected by the nuclear testing program. Section 177 of the compact provided for reparations to the Bikini islanders and other northern atolls for damages. It included $75 million to be paid over 15 years.
The payments began in 1987 with $2.4 million paid annually to the entire Bikini population, while the remaining $2.6 million is paid into The Bikini Claims Trust Fund. This trust is intended to exist in perpetuity and to provide the islanders a 5% payment from the trust annually.
The United States provided $150 million in compensation for damage caused by the nuclear testing program and their displacement from their home island.
On 5 March 2001 after years of deliberations, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands and its people. The NCT awarded Bikini $278 million for loss of land use, finding the actions of the U.S. amounted to a "temporary taking" and made its award based on fair rental value for the period of denied use. The NCT made a further award of $251,500,000 for atoll rehabilitation to restore Bikini "to a safe and productive state."
However, the U.S. Congress has failed to fund the settlement. The only recourse is for the Bikini people to petition the U.S. Congress to fund the payment and fulfill this award. The United States Supreme Court turned down the islanders' appeal of the United States Court of Appeals decision that refused to compel the government to fund their claim. By 2001, of the original 167 residents who were relocated, 70 were still alive, and the entire population has grown to 2,800. Most of the islanders and their descendants lived on Kili, in Majuro, and in the United States.
The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini was liquidated as required by law in December 2006. The value of The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini as of 31 March 2013 was approximately $82 million and The Bikini Claims Trust Fund was worth approximately $60 million. In 2006, each member of the trust received about $500 a year. In 2012, the trusts produced about US$6 to $8 million annually in investment income, and the trusts paid out less than US$15,000 per family each year in benefits, with little money left available for cleanup.
Representatives for the Bikini people expect this process to take many years and do not know whether the United States will honor the terms of the Compact of Free Association.
In 2017, after lobbying by the leaders of Bikini, the Trump administration stated that there would be no limits on withdrawals from the main fund and no further audits of the main fund. The mayor of the council that is responsible for the Bikini people, Anderson Jibas, used the fund's assets to buy a plane, construction equipment and two cargo ships. In addition, an apartment complex in Majuro, the capital of the Marshall Islands, and 283 acres of land in Hawaii were purchased. By March 2023, only $100,041 was left in the fund that held $59 million in 2017. The council stopped paying its approximately 350 employees and stopped paying $150 monthly subsistence payments to the 6,800 members of the Bikini community.
By 2023 a state of emergency on Kili was declared, and the Marshallese government had to step in try to remedy the situation. Aid helped restore electricity to the island, which had been shut off after the funds were depleted. Many of the purchases that were made including, real estate, aircraft, and boats have not yielded a return for the Bikini.
The depletion of the bikini islander's trust fund made news across the Pacific region, including New Zealand, and in major US newspapers such as the New York Times and Wall Street Journal.
== World Heritage Site ==
Because the site bears direct tangible evidence of the nuclear tests conducted there amid the paradoxical tropical location, UNESCO determined that the atoll symbolizes the dawn of the nuclear age and named it a World Heritage Site on 3 August 2010.
Bikini Atoll has conserved direct tangible evidence ... conveying the power of ... nuclear tests, i.e. the sunken ships sent to the bottom of the lagoon by the tests in 1946 and the gigantic Bravo crater. Equivalent to 7,000 times the force of the Hiroshima bomb, the tests had major consequences on the geology and natural environment of Bikini Atoll and on the health of those who were exposed to radiation. Through its history, the atoll symbolises the dawn of the nuclear age, despite its paradoxical image of peace and of earthly paradise.
== Visitor access ==
Bikini Atoll is open to visitors aboard vessels that are completely self-sufficient if they obtain prior approval. They must also pay for a diver and two local government council representatives to accompany them. The local representation is required to verify that visitors don't remove artifacts from the wrecks in the lagoon. Extensive research has been conducted to ensure the safety of visitors to the area and to demonstrate the now low levels of radiation in and around Bikini Atoll.
=== Bikini Lagoon diving ===
In June 1996, the Bikini Council authorized diving operations as a means to generate income for Bikini islanders currently and upon their eventual return. The Bikini Council hired dive guide Edward Maddison who had lived on Bikini Island since 1985 and Fabio Amaral, a Brazilian citizen at the time, as head divemaster and resort manager. The tours are limited to fewer than a dozen experienced divers a week, cost more than US$5,000, and include detailed histories of the nuclear tests. The operation brought in more than $500,000 during the season from May to October 2001.
=== On-shore facilities ===
To accommodate the dive program and anglers, the Bikini Council built new air-conditioned rooms with private bathrooms and showers. They included verandas overlooking the lagoon. There was a dining facility that served American-style meals and Marshallese dishes featuring fresh seafood. Only 12 visitors were hosted at one time. Because of the lingering contamination, all fruits and vegetables used for the Bikini Atoll dive and sport fishing operation were imported. In September 2007, the last of Air Marshall Islands' commuter aircraft ceased operations when spare parts could not be located and the aircraft were no longer airworthy. A half dozen divers and a journalist were stranded for a week on Bikini Island. The Bikini islanders suspended land-based dive operations beginning in August 2008. As of 2021, Air Marshall Islands operates one Bombardier DHC-8-100 aircraft and two 19-seat Dornier 228.
=== Liveaboard diving program ===
In October 2010, a live-aboard, self-contained vessel successfully conducted dive operations. In 2011, the local government licensed the liveaboard operator as a provider of dive expeditions on the nuclear ghost fleet on Bikini Atoll. The dive season runs from May through October. Visitors are still able to land on the island for brief stays.
In early 2017, Master Liveaboards announced they would add Bikini Atoll to their list of destinations for technical divers using their vessel Truk Master, with trips to the site commencing in May 2018 having been granted a license by the Bikini Council. In May 2021, as a result of ongoing business evaluation and pent up demand created by the COVID-19 pandemic, Master Liveaboards announced they would be adding an additional vessel alongside Truk Master to operate at Bikini Atoll from 2022 onwards.
Because the lagoon has remained undisturbed for so long, it contains a larger amount of sea life than usual, including sharks, which increases divers' interest in the area. Visibility depth is over 100 feet (30 m). The lagoon is immensely popular with divers and is regarded as among the top 10 diving locations in the world.
Dive visitors receive a history lesson along with the dive experience, including movies and complete briefings about each of the ships, their respective histories, and a tour of the island and the atoll. Divers are able to visit the USS Saratoga (CV-3), the second largest of only three aircraft carriers in the world that are accessible to scuba or closed circuit rebreather divers.
=== Sportfishing ===
Bikini Island authorities opened sport fishing to visitors along with diving. Although the atomic blasts obliterated three islands and contaminated much of the atoll, after 50 years the coral reefs have largely recovered. The reefs attract reef fish and their predators: 30 lb (14 kg) dogtooth tuna, 20 lb (9.1 kg) barracuda, and giant trevally as big as 50 pounds (23 kg). Given the long-term absence of humans, the Bikini lagoon offers sportsmen one of the most pristine fishing environments in the world.
=== Shipwrecks ===
Shipwrecks in the lagoon include the following:
USS Saratoga (CV-3) – aircraft carrier
USS Arkansas (BB-33) – battleship
USS Gilliam (APA-57) – attack transport
USS Carlisle (APA-69) – attack transport
USS Lamson (DD-367) – destroyer
USS Anderson (DD-411) – destroyer
USS Apogon (SS-308) – submarine
USS Pilotfish (SS-386) – submarine
Japanese battleship Nagato – battleship
Japanese cruiser Sakawa – light cruiser
== 21st century habitable condition ==
Due to the nuclear weapon testing, the island was subjected to environmental testing in 1998 by the International Atomic Energy Agency. To validate previous surveys data collected, the agency tested air absorption rates and soil and food radionuclide concentrations.
In 1998, an IAEA advisory group, formed in response to a request by the Government of the Marshall Islands for an independent international review of the radiological conditions on Bikini Atoll, recommended that Bikini Island should not be permanently resettled considering its radiological conditions.
The potential to make the island habitable has substantially improved since then. A 2012 assessment from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory found that cesium-137 levels were dropping considerably faster than expected. Terry Hamilton, scientific director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Marshall Islands Dose Assessment and Radioecology Program, reported that "Conditions have really changed on Bikini. They are improving at an accelerated rate. By using the combined option of removing soil and adding potassium, we can get very close to the 15 millirem standard. That has been true for roughly the past 10 years. So now is the time when the Bikinians, if they desired, could go back."
As of 2013, about 4,880 descendants of the original Bikini people live on Kili and other Marshall Islands and some have immigrated to the United States. Bikini Island is currently visited by a few scientists and inhabited by 4–6 caretakers.
The islanders want the topsoil removed, but lack the necessary funding. The opportunity for some Bikini islanders to potentially relocate back to their home island creates a dilemma. While the island may be habitable in the near term, virtually none of the islanders alive have ever lived there. As of 2013, unemployment in the Marshall Islands was at about 40 percent. The population is growing at a four-percent growth rate, so increasing numbers are taking advantage of terms in the Marshall Islands' Compact of Free Association that allow them to live in and work in the United States.
After the islanders were relocated in 1946, while the Bikini islanders were experiencing starvation on Rongerik Atoll, Lore Kessibuki wrote an anthem for the island:
No longer can I stay, it's true
No longer can I live in peace and harmony
No longer can I rest on my sleeping mat and pillow
Because of my island and the life I once knew there
The thought is overwhelming
Rendering me helpless and in great despair.
== In popular culture ==
=== Cinema ===
The documentary Bikini – mon amour by Oliver Herbrich shows the effects of long-term low-level radiation on the population.
The 1962 Italian mondo documentary film Mondo Cane shows the effects of long-term low-level radiation on the wildlife.
The nuclear tests at Bikini, along with the Hiroshima & Nagasaki bombings, inspired the 1954 Japanese movie Godzilla.
=== Television shows ===
The Nickelodeon animated series SpongeBob SquarePants primarily takes place in Bikini Bottom, which was named after Bikini Atoll and is supposedly situated underneath it.
During a 2015 interview with Tom Kenny, the voice actor for SpongeBob, he was asked about the popular theory that SpongeBob is the result of nuclear testing. He replied, Well, Bikini Bottom is kind of named after Bikini Atoll, you know, where they did nuclear testing decades ago. So... nah, that one. I don't think SpongeBob and his friends are mutations.
In 2024, Rodger Bumpass (voice actor for Squidward) said he also believed the theory was false, but Mr. Lawrence (voice actor for Plankton) said the theory was "absolutely true":That was part of the fun of it, was, how far are we taking that concept? I mean, right at the beginning, when we were sort of developing it in the first season, it was like, 'are we gonna play off of this apocalyptic thing?' Like, 'the whole world is dead except for Bikini Bottom. ... the world upstairs is gone, and this is what's left.'
=== Swimsuit design ===
On 5 July 1946, four days after the first nuclear device (nicknamed Able) was detonated over Bikini Atoll during Operation Crossroads, Louis Réard introduced a new swimsuit design named the bikini after the atoll. Réard was a French mechanical engineer by training and manager of his mother's lingerie shop in Paris. He introduced the new garment to the media and public on 5 July 1946 at Piscine Molitor, a public pool in Paris.
He hired Micheline Bernardini, an 18-year-old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris, to demonstrate his design. It featured string briefs of 30 square inches (200 cm2) of cloth with newspaper-type print and was an immediate sensation. Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men. Réard hoped that his swimsuit's revealing style would create an "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar in intensity to the social reaction to 1946 nuclear explosion on Bikini Atoll. Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion".
Because the bikini exposes a woman's thighs, it violates the Marshall Islanders' modern customs of modesty, whereas cultural taboos regarding women's breasts are less strict on the islands. Marshall Island women swim in their muumuus, which are made of a fine polyester that dries quickly. Wearing a bikini in the Marshall Islands is mainly limited to restricted-access beaches and pools like those at private resorts or on United States government facilities on Kwajalein Atoll within the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Operation Castle
Operation Ivy
Radio Bikini
Wōdejebato
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Niedenthal, Jack, For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and their Islands, Bravo Publishers, (November 2002), ISBN 982-9050-02-5
Wiesgall, Jonathan M, Operation Crossroads: Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll, Naval Institute Press (21 April 1994), ISBN 1-55750-919-0
Stegnar, Peter, Assessing Radiological Conditions at Bikini Atoll and the Prospects for Resettlement Review at Bikini Atoll, IAEA, (1998)
Beck, H. L.; Bouville, A.; Moroz, B. E.; Simon, S. L. (2010). "Fallout deposition in the Marshall Islands from Bikini and Enewetak nuclear weapons tests". Health Physics. 99 (2): 124–142. Bibcode:2010HeaPh..99..124B. doi:10.1097/HP.0b013e3181bbbfbd. PMC 2904645. PMID 20622548.
== External links ==
A Short History of the People of Bikini Atoll
What About Radiation on Bikini Atoll?
Department of Energy Marshall Islands Program: Chronology of nuclear testing, relocation of islanders and results of radiation tests
Annotated bibliography for Bikini Atoll from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Islanders Want The Truth About Bikini Nuclear Test
Marshall Islands site
Entry at Oceandots.com at the Wayback Machine (archived 23 December 2010)
Everything Marshall Islands Archived 20 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Lauren R. Donaldson Collection, served as a radiation monitor for Operation Crossroads; the codename for the first atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll. – University of Washington Digital Collection
The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb A Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Lagoons U.S. National Park Service
$59 Million, Gone: How Bikini Atoll Leaders Blew Through U.S. Trust Fund |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Chemistry_Award | Green Chemistry Award | First awarded in 2001, the Green Chemistry Award was presented every two years by the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) for advances in environmentally focused chemistry. In addition to a prize of £2000, winners of the award complete a UK based lecture tour. The award was discontinued in 2020.
== Winners ==
2001 (2001): Keith Smith
2003 (2003): Varinder Aggarwal (University of Bristol)
2006 (2006): Andrew P Abbott (University of Leicester)
2010 (2010): Roger Sheldon (Delft University of Technology) for his work in the field of catalysis
2012 (2012): Edman Tsang (University of Oxford) for development of nanoparticulate catalysts for use in manufacturing
2014 (2014): Michael North, University of York for his work on Carbon Dioxide as a chemical feedstock.
2016 (2016): Paul Anastas (Yale University) for his seminal work in developing innovative methods in molecular design, leading to products and processes that reduce environmental impacts.
2018 (2018): James Clark, University of York, for the promotion of applied, market-driven green chemistry.
2020: Paul Dyson, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
List of environmental awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISRO#Lunar_exploration | ISRO | The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is the national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister of India, with the Chairman of ISRO also serving as the chief executive of the DoS. It is primarily responsible for space-based operations, space exploration, international space cooperation and the development of related technologies. The agency maintains a constellation of imaging, communications and remote sensing satellites. It operates the GAGAN and IRNSS satellite navigation systems. It has sent three missions to the Moon and one mission to Mars.
Formerly, ISRO was known as the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), which was set up in 1962 by then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the recommendation of scientist Vikram Sarabhai. It was renamed as ISRO in 1969 and was subsumed into the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE). The establishment of ISRO institutionalised space research activities in India. In 1972, the Government set up a space commission and the DoS bringing ISRO under its purview. It has since then been managed by the DoS, which also governs various other institutions in the domain of astronomy and space technology.
ISRO built India's first satellite Aryabhata which was launched by the Soviet space agency Interkosmos in 1975. In 1980, it launched the satellite RS-1 on board the indigenously built launch vehicle SLV-3, making India the seventh country to undertake orbital launches. It has subsequently developed various small-lift and medium-lift launch vehicles, enabling the agency to launch various satellites and deep space missions. It is one of the six government space agencies in the world that possess full launch capabilities with the ability to deploy cryogenic engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and artificial satellites. It is also the only one of the four governmental space agencies to have demonstrated unmanned soft landing capabilities.
ISRO's programmes have played a significant role in socio-economic development. It has supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects such as disaster management, telemedicine, navigation and reconnaissance. ISRO's spin-off technologies have also aided in new innovations in engineering and other allied domains.
== History ==
=== Formative years ===
Modern space research in India can be traced to the 1920s, when scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments sounding the ionosphere through ground-based radio in Kolkata. Later, Indian scientists like C. V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences. After 1945, important developments were made in coordinated space research in India by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai, founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad, and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945. Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high-altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere. These studies were done at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.
In 1950, the DAE was founded with Bhabha as its secretary. It provided funding for space research throughout India. During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that had been studied in India since the establishment of the Colaba Observatory in 1823. In 1954, the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) was established in the foothills of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the government of India. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.
INCOSPAR was set up in 1962 by the Government of India on the suggestion of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. Initially there was no dedicated ministry for the space programme and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to space technology continued to function within the DAE. IOFS officers were drawn from the Indian Ordnance Factories to harness their knowledge of propellants and advanced light materials used to build rockets. H. G. S. Murthy, an IOFS officer, was appointed the first director of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, where sounding rockets were fired, marking the start of upper atmospheric research in India. An indigenous series of sounding rockets named Rohini was subsequently developed and started undergoing launches from 1967 onwards. Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan, another IOFS officer, developed the propellant for the rockets.
=== 1970's and 1980's ===
Under the government of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space commission and Department of Space (DoS) were set up to oversee space technology development in India specifically. ISRO was brought under DoS, institutionalising space research in India and forging the Indian space programme into its existing form. India joined the Soviet Interkosmos programme for space cooperation and got its first satellite Aryabhata in orbit through a Soviet rocket.
Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle began after mastering sounding rocket technology. The concept was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity for a mass of 35 kg (77 lb) to enter low Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite Launch Vehicle capable of putting 40 kg (88 lb) into a 400-kilometre (250 mi) orbit. An SLV Launch Pad, ground stations, tracking networks, radars and other communications were set up for a launch campaign. The SLV's first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini technology payload but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in 1980 carrying a Rohini Series-I satellite, making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit after the USSR, the US, France, the UK, China and Japan. RS-1 was the third Indian satellite to reach orbit as Bhaskara had been launched from the USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) class spacecrafts into 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit had already begun in 1978. They would later lead to the development of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). The SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinuation in 1983. ISRO's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started working on a more powerful engine, Vikas, based upon the French Viking. Two years later, facilities to test liquid-fuelled rocket engines were established and development and testing of various rocket engines thrusters began.
At the same time, another solid-fuelled rocket, the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), whose design was based upon SLV-3 was being developed, with technologies to launch satellites into geostationary orbit (GTO). The ASLV had limited success and multiple launch failures; it was soon discontinued. Alongside these developments, communication satellite technologies for the Indian National Satellite System and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme for earth observation satellites were developed and launches from overseas were initiated. The number of satellites eventually grew and the systems were established as among the largest satellite constellations in the world, with multi-band communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites.
=== 1990s ===
The arrival of the PSLV in 1990s was a major boost for the Indian space programme. With the exception of its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, the PSLV had a streak of more than 50 successful flights. The PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO and hundreds of foreign satellites. Along with the PSLV flights, development of a new rocket, a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from Russia's Glavkosmos but was blocked by the US from doing so. As a result, KVD-1 engines were imported from Russia under a new agreement which had limited success and a project to develop indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, taking two decades to reach fulfillment. A new agreement was signed with Russia for seven KVD-1 cryogenic stages and a ground mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of five cryogenic stages along with the technology and design in the earlier agreement. These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1. ISRO was under US government sanctions between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994. After the United States refused to help India with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology during the Kargil War, ISRO was prompted to develop its own satellite navigation system IRNSS (now NaVIC i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation) which it is now expanding further.
=== 21st century ===
In 2003, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to develop technologies to land humans on the Moon and programmes for lunar, planetary and crewed missions were started. ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 aboard PSLV in 2008, purportedly the first probe to verify the presence of water on the Moon.
ISRO launched the Mars Orbiter Mission (or Mangalyaan) aboard PSLV in 2013, which later became the first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian orbit, making India the first country to succeed at this on its first attempt.
Subsequently, the cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket became operational, making India the sixth country to have full launch capabilities. A new heavier-lift launcher LVM3 was introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and future human space missions.
In September 2019, Project NETRA was publicly announced to help counter problems associated with space debris and near-earth objects.
On 23 August 2023, India achieved its first soft landing on an extraterrestrial body and became the first nation to successfully land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole and fourth nation to successfully land a spacecraft on the Moon with ISRO's Chandrayaan-3, the third Moon mission. Indian moon mission, Chandrayaan-3 (lit. "Mooncraft"), saw the successful soft landing of its Vikram lander at 6.04 pm IST (12:34 pm GMT) near the little-explored southern pole of the Moon in a world's first for any space programme.
India then successfully launched its first solar probe, the Aditya-L1, aboard PSLV on 2 September 2023.
On 30 December 2024, ISRO successfully launched the SpaDeX mission, pioneering spacecraft rendezvous, docking, and undocking using two small satellites. On 16 January 2025, the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network's Mission Operations Complex verified that the docking process was successful. India became the 4th country — after USA, Russia and China — to achieve successful Space Docking. ISRO also successfully managed to control two satellites as a single entity after docking.
In May 2025, ISRO completed the final abort test for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight mission, scheduled for launch in early 2027. In August 2025, ISRO successfully completed the first integrated air drop test for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme, hailed by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh as a step toward self-reliant India.
On 2 November 2025, ISRO successfully launched its heaviest communication satellite CMS-03 aboard the LVM3-M5 rocket from Sriharikota, marking a milestone in India's space capabilities with all eight LVM3 missions achieving 100% success.
=== Agency logo ===
ISRO has an official logo since 2002. It consists of an orange arrow shooting upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO written in two sets of text, orange-coloured Devanagari on the left and blue-coloured English in the Prakrit typeface on the right.
== Goals and objectives ==
As the national space agency of India, ISRO's purpose is the pursuit of all space-based applications such as research, reconnaissance, and communications. It undertakes the design and development of space rockets and satellites, and undertakes explores upper atmosphere and deep space exploration missions. ISRO has also incubated technologies in India's private space sector, boosting its growth.
On the topic of the importance of a space programme to India as a developing nation, Vikram Sarabhai as INCOSPAR chairman said in 1969:
To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society, which we find in our country. And we should note that the application of sophisticated technologies and methods of analysis to our problems is not to be confused with embarking on grandiose schemes, whose primary impact is for show rather than for progress measured in hard economic and social terms.
The former president of India and chairman of DRDO, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:
Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.
India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology. In 2008, India launched as many as 11 satellites, including nine from other countries, and went on to become the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket. ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.
== Organisation structure and facilities ==
ISRO is managed by the DoS, which itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes:
Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bengaluru
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra Pradesh
NewSpace India Limited – Commercial wing, Bengaluru
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC), Umiam
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university
=== Research facilities ===
=== Test facilities ===
=== Construction and launch facilities ===
=== Tracking and control facilities ===
=== Human resource development ===
=== Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing) ===
Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO.
=== NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing) ===
Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and scale up industry participation in the space programmes.
=== Space Technology Incubation Centre ===
ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and for use in future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south region of India.
=== Advanced Space Research Group ===
Similar to NASA's California Institute of Technology-operated Jet Propulsion Laboratory, ISRO and the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint working framework in 2021, wherein ISRO will approve all short-, medium- and long-term space research projects of common interest between the two. In return, an Advanced Space Research Group (ASRG) formed at IIST under the guidance of the EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. This was done with the aim of "transforming" the IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute with the capability of leading future space exploration missions for ISRO.
=== Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management ===
To reduce dependency on North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space situational awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and radars in four locations to cover each direction. Leh, Mount Abu and Ponmudi were selected to station the telescopes and radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last one will be in Northeast India to cover the entire eastern region. Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR). All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation.
For early warning, ISRO began a ₹400 crore (4 billion; US$53 million) project called Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric entry, intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space-based attacks. All the radars and telescopes will be connected through NETRA. The system will support remote and scheduled operations. NETRA will follow the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IASDCC) and United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of NETRA is to track objects at a distance of 36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) in GTO.
India signed a memorandum of understanding on the Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing Pact with the US in April 2022. It will enable DoS to collaborate with the Combined Space Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space-based assets of both nations from natural and man-made threats. On 11 July 2022, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) at Space Situational Awareness Control Centre, in Peenya was inaugurated by Jitendra Singh. It will help provide information on on-orbit collision, fragmentation, atmospheric re-entry risk, space-based strategic information, hazardous asteroids, and space weather forecast. IS4OM will safeguard all the operational space assets, identify and monitor other operational spacecraft with close approaches which have overpasses over Indian subcontinent and those which conduct intentional manoeuvres with suspicious motives or seek re-entry within South Asia.
==== ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management ====
On 7 March 2023, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) conducted successful controlled re-entry of decommissioned satellite Megha-Tropiques after firing four on-board 11 Newton thrusters for 20 minutes each. A series of 20 manoeuvres were performed since August 2022 by spending 120 kg fuel. The final telemetry data confirmed disintegtration over Pacific Ocean. It was part of a compliance effort following international guidelines on space debris mitigation.
Speaking at the 42nd annual meeting of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) in Bengaluru, S. Somanath stated that the long-term goal is for all Indian space actors—both governmental and non-governmental—to accomplish debris-free space missions by 2030.
=== Other facilities ===
Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Balasore
Bhaskaracharya Institute For Space Applications and Geo-Informatics (BISAG), Gandhinagar
Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)
Integrated Space Cell
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram
Master Control Facility
National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)
== General satellite programmes ==
Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975, a number of satellite series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and foreign launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites for military and civilian uses.
=== The IRS series ===
The Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRSP) are India's earth observation satellites. They are the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today, providing remote sensing services. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs) and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-classes named based on their functioning and uses including Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT and ResourceSat etc. Their names were unified under the prefix "EOS" regardless of functioning in 2020. They support a wide range of applications including optical, radar and electronic reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning, oceanography and environmental studies.
=== The INSAT series ===
The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is the country's telecommunication system. It is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs. Since the introduction of the first one in 1983, INSAT has become the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of DOS, the Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee. The nomenclature of the series was changed to "GSAT" from "INSAT", then further changed to "CMS" from 2020 onwards. These satellites have been used by the Indian Armed Forces as well. GSAT-9 or "SAARC Satellite" provides communication services for India's smaller neighbors.
=== Gagan Satellite Navigation System ===
The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given the acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of a Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over Indian airspace as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India and ISRO. The TDS was completed during 2007 with the installation of eight Indian Reference Stations at different airports linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bengaluru.
=== Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) ===
IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from its borders, which is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS), providing a position accuracy of better than 20 m (66 ft) in the primary service area.
=== Other satellites ===
Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite. Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm (0.31 in), compared to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km (1.2 mi).
== Launch vehicles ==
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.
=== Satellite Launch Vehicle ===
Status: Retired
The Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was the first space rocket to be developed by India. The initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a successful launch in 1980 making India the sixth country in world with orbital launch capability. The development of bigger rockets began afterwards.
=== Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle ===
Status: Retired
The Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was another small launch vehicle released in 1980s to develop technologies required to place satellites into geostationary orbit. ISRO did not have adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once. Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it was dropped in favour of a new project.
=== Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle ===
Status: Active
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift launch vehicle from India which enabled India to launch all its remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had a failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides two other partial failures, PSLV has become the primary workhorse for ISRO with more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign satellites into orbit.
Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:
=== Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle ===
Status: Active
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle is a medium-lift launch vehicle which was envisaged in 1990s to transfer significant payloads to geostationary orbit. ISRO initially had a great problem realising GSLV as the development of CE-7.5 in India took a decade. The US had blocked India from obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia, leading India to develop its own cryogenic engines.
Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:
=== Launch Vehicle Mark-3 ===
Status: Active
The Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), previously known as the GSLV Mk III, is a medium-lift launch vehicle and the heaviest rocket in operational service with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters than GSLV, it has significantly higher payload capacity and allows India to launch all its communication satellites. LVM3 is expected to carry India's first crewed mission to space and will be the testbed for SE-2000 engine which will power India's heavy-lift rockets in the future.
Decade-wise summary of LVM3 launches:
=== Small Satellite Launch Vehicle ===
Status: Active
The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a small-lift launch vehicle developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver 500 kg (1,100 lb) to low Earth orbit (500 km (310 mi)) or 300 kg (660 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit (500 km (310 mi)) for launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs.
Decade-wise summary of SSLV launches:
=== Sounding rockets ===
==== Rohini sounding rockets ====
Status: Active
Rohini is a series of sounding rockets developed by ISRO for meteorological and atmospheric study. These sounding rockets are capable of carrying payloads of 2 to 200 kilograms (4.4 to 440.9 lb) between altitudes of 100 to 500 kilometres (62 to 311 mi). The ISRO currently uses RH-200, RH-300,Mk-II, RH-560 Mk-II and RH-560 Mk-III rockets, which are launched from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thumba and the SDSC in Sriharikota.
==== Advanced Technology Vehicle ====
Status: Active
The Advanced Technology Vehicle is a modified Indian sounding rocket developed by ISRO. It is based on the Rohini-560 sounding rocket. The ATV programme was created to test the development of a native dual-mode air-breathing scramjet engine. As of 2016, ISRO has flown two test missions.
== Human spaceflight programme ==
The first proposal to send humans into space was discussed by ISRO in 2006, leading to work on the required infrastructure and spacecraft. The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007 with the 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the PSLV rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later.
In 2009, ISRO proposed a budget of ₹124 billion (equivalent to ₹310 billion or US$3.7 billion in 2023) for its human spaceflight programme. An unmanned demonstration flight was expected after seven years from the final approval and a crewed mission was to be launched after seven years of funding. A crewed mission initially was not a priority and left on the backburner for several years. A space capsule recovery experiment in 2014 and a pad abort test in 2018 were followed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi's announcement in his 2018 Independence Day address that India will send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan spacecraft. To date, ISRO has developed most of the technologies needed, such as the crew module and crew escape system, space food, and life support systems. The project would cost less than ₹100 billion (US$1.3 billion) and would include sending two or three Indians to space, at an altitude of 300–400 km (190–250 mi), for at least seven days, using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle.
=== Astronaut training and other facilities ===
The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will coordinate the IHSF campaign. ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for flights in the crewed vehicle. It will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in microgravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO had to build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch. Existing launch facilities at SDSC will have to be upgraded for the Indian human spaceflight campaign. HSFC and Glavkosmos signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for the selection, support, medical examination and space training of Indian astronauts. An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) was to be set up in Moscow to facilitate the development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to support life in space. Four Indian Air Force personnel finished training at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in March 2021.
=== Axiom Mission 4 ===
Axiom Mission 4 (Ax‑4), launched in June 2025, included Shubhanshu Shukla as mission pilot, marking the first time an Indian astronaut traveled to the International Space Station (ISS). The mission was organized by the company Axiom Space and launched by SpaceX from Launch Complex 39A at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. Shukla flew alongside Axiom commander Peggy Whitson and mission specialists Sławosz Uznański-Wiśniewski of the European Space Agency and Tibor Kapu of Hungary. Fellow ISRO astronaut Prasanth Nair served as Shukla's backup and participated in training at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston.
Shukla spent approximately two weeks aboard the ISS conducting around 60 experiments. At least seven of these were developed by ISRO or Indian academic institutions, covering areas such as cognitive effects of screen exposure, microbial adaptation, muscle atrophy, and crop resilience in microgravity. According to ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan, Shukla's in-flight activities and research will also advance India's Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme.
Media reports estimate that the Government of India spent approximately ₹548 crore (US$65 million) on the mission seat. The cost drew scrutiny, particularly in the context of India's parallel efforts to develop its own indigenous human spaceflight capability. ISRO and Axiom Space officials defended the expenditure, citing the mission's value in astronaut training, operational readiness, and scientific return.
=== Crewed spacecraft ===
ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in low Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP). The spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its first crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous spacecraft would have a mass of approximately 3 tonnes (6,600 lb) and be placed in low Earth orbit at an altitude of around 400 kilometres (250 mi). It would be capable of supporting a crew of two for up to seven days.
=== Space station ===
India plans to develop a modular space station as a follow-up to the Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme. The proposed Bharatiya Antariksh Station would have a mass of approximately 20 tonnes (44,000 lb) and be placed in low Earth orbit at an altitude of around 400 kilometres (250 mi). It is intended to initially support a crew of up to three astronauts for missions lasting 15 to 20 days. The ISRO aims to launch the station five to seven years after the completion of Gaganyaan. The station is planned to be expanded in phases over several years and is envisioned as a platform for international collaboration in research related to interplanetary exploration, microgravity science, space biology, and space medicine.
== Planetary sciences and astronomy ==
ISRO and Tata Institute of Fundamental Research have operated a balloon launch base at Hyderabad since 1967. Its proximity to the geo-magnetic equator, where both primary and secondary cosmic ray fluxes are low, makes it an ideal location to study diffuse cosmic X-ray background.
ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude between 20–40 km (12–25 mi). The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. They are considered extremophiles, and named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.
=== Astrosat ===
Launched in 2015, Astrosat is India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory. Its observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot White dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, and supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxy.
=== XPoSat ===
The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a satellite for studying black holes and polarisation. The spacecraft carries the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will study the degree and angle of polarisation of bright astronomical X-ray sources in the energy range 5–30 keV. It launched on 1 January 2024 on a PSLV-DL rocket, and it has an expected operational lifespan of at least five years.
== Extraterrestrial exploration ==
=== Lunar exploration ===
Chandryaan (lit. 'Mooncraft') are India's series of lunar exploration spacecraft. The initial mission included an orbiter and controlled impact probe while later missions include landers, rovers and sampling missions.
==== Chandrayaan-1 ====
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched it using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre. It entered lunar orbit on 8 November 2008, carrying high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312-day operational period (two years were planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and three-dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they had possible ice deposits. Chandrayaan-1 carried 11 instruments: five Indian and six from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North American institutions and companies), which were carried for free. The mission team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award, the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008, and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.
==== Chandrayaan-2 ====
Chandrayaan-2, the second mission to the Moon, included an orbiter, a lander and a rover. It was launched on a GSLV Mk III on 22 July 2019, consisting of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover, all developed in India. It was the first mission meant to explore the little-explored lunar south pole region. The objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission was to land a robotic rover to conduct various studies on the lunar surface.
The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in the south polar region at a latitude of about 70° S at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7 September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory starting from an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi), and telemetry was lost seconds before touchdown was expected. A review board concluded that the crash-landing was caused by a software glitch. The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned in an optimal lunar orbit, extending its expected service time from one year to seven. It was planned that there will be another attempt to soft-land on the Moon in 2023, without an orbiter.
==== Chandrayaan-3 ====
Chandryaan-3 is India's second attempt to soft-land on the Moon after the partial failure of Chandrayaan-2. The mission only included a lander-rover set and communicated with the orbiter from the previous mission.
On 23 August 2023, ISRO became the first space agency to successfully land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole. ISRO is the fourth space agency ever to land on the Moon. Recognizing this achievement, Prime Minister Narendra Modi proclaimed August 23 as National Space Day in India.
=== Mars exploration ===
==== Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1) ====
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalyaan (eng: "MarsCraft") was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by ISRO and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. India thus became the first country to have a space probe enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record low cost of $74 million.
MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.
The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.
=== Mars and Moon analogue research station ===
Researchers from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) and Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have determined that Ladakh is the best site for India's first Mars and Moon analogue research station, for planning and conducting Mars and Moon mission-related exercises. The study project is being conducted by BSIP's Binita Phartiyal, IISc's Aloke Kumar who pioneered the idea of building space-bricks from biologically solidified lunar and martian regolith, and Gaganyaan astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla. The projected research station would be used for geological and astrobiological research, human studies, crew training, advancing Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), testing space technologies, and engineering integration.
In Ladakh, Aaka Space Studio and ISRO will be leading a 21-day Mars and Moon analog mission. An important step forward in India's efforts to develop human spaceflight and analog research in support of the Gaganyaan program and future missions like Bharatiya Antariksh Station. It will replicate the harsh conditions of extraterrestrial environments. The expedition will test human health and endurance in isolation, acquire biometric data, simulate extraterrestrial landscape, investigate circadian lighting, and test life support technologies. The startup has experimented with technology, human endurance, and habitat design in Rann of Kutch in 2023, simulating lunar conditions.
=== Solar probes ===
==== Aditya-L1 ====
On 2 September 2023, ISRO launched the 400 kg (880 lb) Aditya-L1 mission to study the solar corona. It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-infrared bands. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather. On 6 January 2024, Aditya-L1 spacecraft, India's first solar mission, has successfully entered its final orbit around the first Sun-Earth Lagrange point (L1), approximately 1.5 million kilometers from Earth.
== Upcoming launches ==
=== Extraterrestrial probes ===
==== Lunar exploration ====
Chandrayaan-4
Chandrayaan-4 is a planned lunar sample return mission of ISRO and the fourth iteration in its Chandrayaan programme. As of January 2025, the conceptualisation phase has been completed, and the design phase is nearing completion. The mission is expected to launch around 2028. It is planned to return up to 3 kg (6.6 lb) of lunar regolith from near Shiv Shakti point, the landing site of Chandrayaan-3.
Lunar Polar Exploration Mission
The Lunar Polar Exploration mission (LUPEX) is a planned robotic lunar mission concept by ISRO and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The mission would send an uncrewed lunar lander and rover to explore the south pole region of the Moon no earlier than 2028. JAXA is likely to provide the H3 launch vehicle and the rover, while ISRO would be responsible for the lander.
Crewed Lunar Landing
ISRO aims to put an Indian astronaut on the lunar surface by 2040.
==== Mars exploration ====
The next Mars mission, Mars Lander Mission or Mangalyaan 2, has been proposed for launch in 2030. The new mission plan includes a rover, helicopter, sky crane and a supersonic parachute.
==== Venus exploration ====
ISRO is considering an orbiter mission to Venus called Venus Orbiter Mission, that could launch as early as 2023 to study the planet's atmosphere. Some funds for preliminary studies were allocated in the 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences; solicitations for potential instruments were requested in 2017 and 2018. A mission to Venus is scheduled for 2025 that will include a payload instrument called Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker (VIRAL) which has been co-developed with the Laboratoire atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales (LATMOS) under French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and Roscosmos.
The Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM), which is intended to orbit a spacecraft in the orbit of planet Venus for a better understanding of the Venusian surface and subsurface, atmospheric processes, and influence of Sun on Venusian atmosphere, was approved by the Union Cabinet on 18 September 2024, under the direction of Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Understanding the fundamental processes that have transformed Venus—which is thought to have once been habitable and very comparable to Earth—will be crucial to comprehending the development of Earth and Venus, the sister planets. A total of ₹1,236 crore (US$150 million) has been sanctioned for the Venus Orbiter Mission, of which ₹824 crore (US$97 million) would go toward the spacecraft.
==== Asteroids and outer solar system ====
Conceptual studies are underway for spacecraft destined for the asteroids and Jupiter, as well, in the long term. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required. Development of RTEG power might allow the agency to further undertake deeper space missions to the other outer planets.
=== Space telescopes and observatories ===
==== AstroSat-2 ====
AstroSat-2 is the successor to the AstroSat mission.
==== Exoworlds ====
Exoworlds is a joint proposal by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space telescope dedicated for atmospheric studies of exoplanets, planned for 2025. ExoWorlds is proposed as a dedicated mission for exoplanet spectroscopy in the NUV-VISIBLE-IR ranges. It would be placed in a stable orbit around the Earth-Sun L2 point.
==== Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST) ====
The Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST) will produce high-resolution deep UV-optical images, and will also have capabilities to carry out low to medium resolution spectroscopy. The INSIST proposal was recommended by ISRO for pre-project phase with seed funding in March 2019. Collaboration with the Canadian Space Agency is also being proposed.
==== DAKSHA ====
DAKSHA is a proposed all-sky, high-energy transients mission, with the primary objectives of studying the gravitational waves and gamma-ray bursts in a spectral range from 1 keV to about 1 MeV. To achieve these goals, Daksha will use twin Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites with Three Identical Instruments each. Seed funding has been issued to ISRO Laboratories to create a laboratory model of its Instruments. It is led by teams from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and IIT Bombay and will consist of a pair of satellites in LEO. Teams from Raman Research Institute, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics and PRL are developing Instruments for it. ISRO has stated that the mission meets all the technical requirements but has yet to approve funding for it.
==== Proposed space weather probe ====
ISRO has envisioned a mission to the stable L5 Lagrange point. It is under conceptual stage and parallels ESA's Vigil mission.
==== Proposed LEO Solar Observatory ====
ISRO has proposed to launch a complement to the Aditya-L1 probe to be placed in Low-Earth Orbit.
=== Forthcoming satellites ===
==== Geospatial intelligence satellites ====
A family of 50 artificial intelligence based satellites will be launched by ISRO between 2024 and 2028 to collect geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in different orbits to track military movements and photograph areas of interest. For the sake of national security, the satellites will monitor the neighboring areas and the international border. It will use thermal, optical, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), among other technologies, for GEOINT application. Each satellite using artificial intelligence will have the ability to communicate and collaborate with the remaining satellites in space at different orbits to monitor the environment for intelligence gathering operations.
==== Bodyguard satellites ====
The Indian government's Satellite-Protection Project, being developed by ISRO, is to safeguard India's space assets and orbiting satellites from potential dangers in space, particularly from rivals such as China. The initiative was started after a near-collision in the middle of 2024.
== Future projects ==
ISRO is developing and operationalising more powerful and less pollutive rocket engines so it can eventually develop much heavier rockets. It has also planned to deploy a space station above earth where astronauts can stay for 15–20 days. The time frame is 5–7 years after Gaganyaan mission, to develop electric and nuclear propulsion for satellites and spacecraft to reduce their weight and extend their service lives. Long-term plans may include crewed landings on the Moon and other planets as well.
=== Engines and launch vehicles ===
==== Semi-cryogenic engine ====
SE-2000 is a rocket-grade RP-1 kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") and liquid oxygen (LOX)-based semi-cryogenic rocket engine inspired by RD-120. The engine will be less polluting and far more powerful than the existing Vikas engine. When combined with the LVM3, it will boost its payload capacity; it will be clustered in future to power India's heavy rockets.
On 28 March 2025, ISRO announced significant progress in the design and development of a semi-cryogenic engine with a high thrust of 2,000 kN that will power the semi-cryogenic booster stage of the LVM3.
==== Methalox engine ====
Reusable methane and LOX-based engines are under development. Methane is less pollutive, leaves no residue and hence the engine needs very little refurbishment. The LPSC began cold flow tests of engine prototypes in 2020.
==== Modular heavy rockets ====
ISRO's current launch vehicles lack the capacity for launching very heavy satellites to the geostationary orbit beyond 4 ton class, a problem that is planned to be fixed with the introduction of the NGLV.
ISRO is studying heavy (HLV) and super heavy-lift launch vehicle (SHLV). Modular launchers are being designed, with interchangeable parts, to reduce production time. A 10-tonne (11-short-ton; 9.8-long-ton) capacity HLV and an SHLV capable of delivering 50–100 tonnes (55–110 short tons; 49–98 long tons) into orbit have been mentioned in statements and presentations from ISRO officials.
The agency intends to develop a launcher in the 2020s which can carry nearly 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit, nearly four times the capacity of the existing LVM3. A rocket family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets described as "Next Generation Launch Vehicle or NGLV" (initially planned as Unified Modular Launch Vehicle or Unified Launch Vehicle) are being planned which will share parts and will replace ISRO's existing PSLV and GSLV rockets completely. The rocket family will be powered by LOX-Methane engine and will have a capacity of lifting from 4.9 t (5.4 short tons; 4.8 long tons) to 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit.
==== Reusable launch vehicles ====
There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at ISRO. One is the ADMIRE test vehicle, conceived as a VTVL system and another is RLV-TD programme, being run to develop an autonomous spacecraft which will be launched vertically but land like a plane.
To realise a fully re-usable two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD acts as a flying testbed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX).
ISRO launched the prototype's test flight, RLV-TD, from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. It weighs around 1.5 t (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) and flew up to a height of 70 km (43 mi). HEX was completed five months later. A scaled-up version of it could serve as fly-back booster stage for the winged TSTO concept. HEX will be followed by a landing experiment (LEX) and return flight experiment (REX).
=== Spacecraft propulsion and power ===
Electric thrusters
India has been working on replacing conventional chemical propulsion system with Hall-effect and plasma thrusters which would make spacecraft lighter. GSAT-4 was the first Indian spacecraft to carry electric thrusters, but it failed to reach orbit. GSAT-9 launched later in 2017, had xenon-based electric propulsion system for in-orbit functions of the spacecraft. GSAT-20 is expected to be the first fully electric satellite from India.
On 28 March 2025, ISRO reported that its 300 mN xenon-based Stationary Plasma Thruster had successfully completed a 1,000-hour life test under 5.4 kW full power in a vacuum chamber. The electric propulsion system, which is intended to replace the chemical propulsion system in future satellites for orbit raising and orbital station-keeping, is designed to incorporate SPT. It will enable satellite buses to carry more transponders because of their reduced weight. Compared to the chemical propulsion system, the specific impulse of SPT is at least six times greater. The EPS will be utilized for orbit raising to the geostationary orbit and is intended to be introduced and validated in the next Technology Demonstration Satellite (TDS-01) mission.
Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric technology by ISRO, is a type of atomic battery which uses nuclear decay heat from radioactive material to power the spacecraft. In January 2021, the U. R. Rao Satellite Centre issued an Expression of Interest (EoI) for design and development of a 100-watt RTG. RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and have less mass than solar panels on satellites. Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake long-duration deep space missions to the outer planets.
Radioisotope heater unit
ISRO included two radioisotope heater units developed by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in the propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 on a trial basis which worked flawlessly.
Nuclear propulsion
ISRO has plans for collaboration with Department of Atomic Energy to power future space missions using nuclear propulsion technology.
=== Quantum technology ===
Quantum entanglement-based real-time quantum key distribution over a 300-meter atmospheric channel, combined with quantum-secure text and image transmission and quantum-assisted two-way video chatting, were jointly demonstrated on 27 January 2022, by the Space Applications Center and Physical Research Laboratory.
Satellite-based quantum communication
At the Indian Mobile Congress 2023, ISRO presented its satellite-based quantum communication on quantum key distribution technology. According to ISRO, it is creating technologies to thwart quantum computers, which have the ability to readily breach the current generation of encrypted secure communication. A significant milestone for unconditionally secured satellite data communication was reached in September 2023 when ISRO demonstrated free-space quantum communication across a 300-meter distance, including live video conferencing using quantum-key encrypted signals.
=== Upcoming launch facility ===
SSLV Launch Complex
SSLV Launch Complex is an under-construction spaceport in Kulasekarapattinam, a coastal village in Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. After completion, it would serve as the second launch facility of ISRO. This spaceport will mainly be used for launching SSLV and private companies' launch vehicles. It is estimated that this facility will cater 20 to 25 launches every year. ISRO plans to commission the launch pad by December 2026.
== Applications ==
=== Telecommunication ===
India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication. Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.
=== Military ===
The Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defence Staff headquarters of the Ministry of Defence, has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets. This command will leverage space technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the Air Force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.
With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for exclusive military use and the rest as dual-use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of its air force (IAF) and navy. GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite built exclusively for the Air Force, is similar to the Navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance the IAF's network-centric warfare capabilities by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbases and airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as the Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.
GSAT-7A will also be used by the Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations. In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000-nautical-mile (3,700 km; 2,300 mi) 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft. To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF, ISRO launched GSAT-7A in December 2018. The RISAT series of radar-imaging earth observation satellites is also meant for Military use. ISRO launched EMISAT on 1 April 2019. EMISAT is a 436-kilogram (961 lb) electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite. It will improve the situational awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing information and the location of hostile radars.
India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 150–200-kilometre (93–124 mi) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is derived from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, under Sarabhai and Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)-based missile programme borrowed staff and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (later elected president), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, took over as missile programme at DRDO. About a dozen scientists accompanied him, helping to design the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended, and used, for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 the Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries in order to monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997, the Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.
=== Academic ===
Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use satellites for educational applications. Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2,400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA. This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large-scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.
=== Telemedicine ===
ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellite. Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, patients in those areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing. The patient is then advised on medicine and treatment, and treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' per instructions from those doctors. Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.
=== Biodiversity Information System ===
ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002. Nirupa Sen details the programme: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."
=== Cartography ===
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes. IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications. The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project.
=== Spin-offs ===
ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other sectors. Examples include bionic limbs for people without limbs, silica aerogel to keep Indian soldiers serving in extremely cold areas warm, distress alert transmitters for accidents, Doppler weather radar and various sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering industries.
== International cooperations ==
ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements or Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Peru, Portugal, Russia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Spain, South Africa, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uzbekistan, Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have been signed with international multilateral bodies including European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), European Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), European Space Agency (ESA) and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
=== Notable collaborative projects ===
Chandrayaan-1 also carried scientific payloads to the Moon from NASA, the European Space Agency, Bulgarian Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.
For the Gaganyaan mission, ISRO signed a Technical Implementing Plan (TIP) with ESA to provide ground station support.
Indo-French satellite missions
ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with France's CNES, namely the now retired Megha-Tropiques to study water cycle in the tropical atmosphere and the presently active SARAL for altimetry. A third mission consisting of an Earth observation satellite with a thermal infrared imager, TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution Natural resource Assessment) is being planned by the two countries.
LUPEX
The Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the polar surface of the Moon where India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies.
NISAR
NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Indo-US radar project carrying an L band and an S band radar. It is the world's first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies.
Some other notable collaborations include:
ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue.
India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.
India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).
Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.
== Statistics ==
Last updated: 26 March 2023
Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO: 417 (34 countries)
Spacecraft missions: 116
Launch missions: 86
Student satellites: 13
Re-entry missions: 2
=== Budget for the Department of Space ===
== Corporate affairs ==
=== S-band spectrum scam ===
In India, electromagnetic spectrum, a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 MHz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for ₹677 billion (US$8.0 billion). This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from the US) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹14 billion (US$170 million), to be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over ₹2,000 billion (US$24 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and Auditor-General considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government.
There were lapses on implementing official procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of the above two satellites exclusively to Devas Multimedia, while the rules said it should always be non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space Commission was not informed when approving the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending ₹7.66 billion (US$91 million) of public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.
In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal, and the ensuing investigations led to the deal's annulment. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages. The Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs began an inquiry into Devas shareholding.
The Central Bureau of Investigation registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 in March 2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of a USA-based company, a Bengaluru-based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of the Antrix Corporation or the Department of Space.
Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015, the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas. Antrix opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.
== Heads of ISRO ==
List of Chairpersons (since 1963) of ISRO.
Vikram Sarabhai (1963–1971)
M. G. K. Menon (1972)
Satish Dhawan (1973–1984)
U. R. Rao (1984–1994)
K. Kasturirangan (1994–2003)
G. Madhavan Nair (2003–2009)
K. Radhakrishnan (2009–2014)
Shailesh Nayak (2015)
A. S. Kiran Kumar (2015–2018)
K. Sivan (2018–2022)
S. Somanath (2022–2025)
V. Narayanan (2025–present)
== See also ==
Space industry of India
Antrix Corporation
NewSpace India Limited
IN–SPACe
Indian Space Association
Satish Dhawan Space Centre
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
SSLV Launch Complex
Deep Ocean mission
Defence Space Agency
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
List of government space agencies
List of Indian satellites
List of ISRO missions
Science and technology in India
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium
Telecommunications in India
Timeline of Solar System exploration
National Space Science Symposium
Project NETRA
List of private spaceflight companies
AgniKul Cosmos
Skyroot Aerospace
Bellatrix Aerospace
Dhruva Space
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== Further reading ==
The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5
The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, ISBN 978-0956933737
Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, ISBN 978-0670899500
From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, ISBN 978-9351776895
Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, ISBN 978-8173717642
India's Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, ISBN 978-9382993483
== External links ==
Official website
"Official website of the Department of Space of the Government of India". dos.gov.in. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_of_Da_City | Prophets of Da City | Prophets of Da City (POC) is a hip hop crew from Cape Town, South Africa. They are composed of about eight members, though the exact membership fluctuates frequently; these include Ishmael Morabe (vocals), Mark Heuvel (dance), Shaheen Ariefdien, Ramone and DJ Ready D. Their style uses elements of hip hop music, reggae and traditional African rhythms. Their albums include Our World (1990), Boom Style (1992), Age of Truth (1993), Phunk Phlow (1994), Universal Souljaz (1995), and Ghetto Code (1997). They are currently signed under the independent record label Ghetto Ruff.
== History ==
=== 1988–1990: Early years ===
The group began in late 1988 when Shaheen and Ready D experimented in a small 8-track studio (owned by Shaheen's father, Issy Ariefdien and Lance Stehr the current Ghetoruff CEO) and produced a demo that ultimately became "Our World" (1990), the first South African hip hop release. Although the production value was not exactly stellar it did attempt to interpret hiphop through their unique Cape Town influences and experiences (both musically and lyrically). The album had the first recorded Cape slang (local Afrikaans dialect) hip-hop song called 'Dala Flat' (do it thoroughly). It also consisted of an uptempo goema inspired 'Stop the Violence' and the hip house meets mbaqanga title track. It also featured the Abdullah Ibrahim inspired "Roots" that featured DJ A-ski on the turntables. Although POC was quite a novelty to the South African music scene, record labels were turned off by their social commentary and favoured a more party music approach. Lance, POC manager, set up Ku-shu shu Records and signed a distribution and marketing deal through Teal Trutone (Gallo subsidiary). In 1990 POC was nominated for the OKTV Award for Best New Group. They also embarked on an extensive 80-leg anti-drug school tour that reached an average of 70 000 students.
=== 1991–1992: Boom Style ===
The second release in late 1991 was Boom Style (referring to the hardhitting punch of a TR-808 drum machine kick drum or self-praise of the way the music is kicking – although often mistaken to mean "tree style" because boom means "tree" in Afrikaans). While the album had a scathing attack on the apartheid regime in the song 'Ons Stem' (meaning our voice – as a response to the apartheid national anthem 'die stem' – the voice) and the innovative Hard Time on Stage, the follow-up to Murder on Stage from Our World, it was less experimental. The lead single, Boom Style, like their first single, Our World, aimed to fuse contemporary US hiphop influenced dance music with mbaqanga styled guitar riffs. While Our World was rather innocent and daring for its time, Boom Style reflected the realities of operating within the music industry and the pressures of the market on POC. The censorship board sent a formal letter to the label to express their displeasure over the use of the Afrikaner national anthem in which POC not only mocked 'Die Stem', but also disrespected Afrikaner and other colonial political icons. Their live shows incorporated all aspects of hip hop culture and not only emceeing. Turntablism, Breakdancing and even aerosol art at times were used to not only present POC but represent hip hop culture and expose to parts of South Africa where people did not know what hip hop was. The video for 'Kicking Non Stop' was censored because members of the crew put a portrait of the then president, P. W. Botha, in a fridge to chill. This year the POC social issues based tour covered another 45 schools.
In 1992 they were invited by Quincy Jones and Caiphus Semenya to perform at the Montreux Jazz Festival in Switzerland. This year they embarked on a Namibian anti-drug campaign, covering 65 schools. They also got increasingly more involved in facilitating workshops on deejaying, b-boying and developing hip hop writing techniques. Leading up to the first democratically held election in South Africa, POC embarked on a national voter education campaign. Although Issy Ariefdien has been involved in group's production since the first album, POC also brought former rival Patrick Hickey a.k.a. Caramel (then an emcee and producer with emcees from U.N.C.L.E.) on board as part of the production team for the Age of Truth album.
=== 1993 and beyond ===
In late 1993 POC was invited to perform in Denmark at the Visions of Africa music festival and also embarked on a national voter education tour, covering high schools, community centres and universities. The aim was to explain the voting process to youth who never had the opportunity to vote in any national elections. The democratically held election marked an important moment in the history of South Africa, but also the history of hip hop in South Africa, because it was an acknowledgment of the popularity and power of hiphop as a pedagogical tool.
In 1994, POC performed at the inauguration of Nelson Mandela where they sang their song "Excellent, finally black President". The fact that they were invited was extremely important to them. The members of Prophets of Da City grew up during apartheid and this truly meant a lot to the group. Mark Schwartz writes, "Times were good until one day in 1985 when tanks rolled down the main drag of Mitchell's Plain Township, and Ready and his homie Shaheen put down the vinyl and picked up bricks and gasoline bombs to hurl at apartheid's army. For the next nine years, through a state of emergency, political upheaval, and economic turmoil, Ready, Shaheen and their posse Prophets of Da City persevered until finally they got to drop bombs at another revolution, as the only performers at the inauguration of South Africa's president Nelson Mandella". This step for POC was not only major for racial barriers but for rap in South Africa. This has been considered the song that brought hip hop more into the mainstream of South Africa when previously, hip hop had been more of an underground movement whose fans consisted mainly of the poorer class in the urban areas of Cape Town.
In 2006 Sean Drummond and Dylan Valley, two student filmmakers, tracked down the whereabouts of the POC members. The documentary titled Lost Prophets was screened at various film festivals in South Africa.
POC celebrated 20 years since the release of South Africa's first hip hop album, 'Our World' in 2015.
== Inspiration ==
Inspired by the production styles of the Bomb Squad (Public Enemy) and Boogiemen (Ice Cube), Age of Truth is arguably their most militant and musically daring album. This album is generally considered South Africa's first hip hop classic album. Although Age of Truth won album of the year in various publications, the majority of the songs were banned.
The 1993 song Understand Where I'm Coming From provides background for some of the struggles about which POC raps by explaining many of the hardships faced in daily life. "The song is about empowering yourself as an individual and moving forward as a community" claims musician Ready D. "Understand Where I'm Coming From" also appeared on the Tommy Boy Planet Rap album which featured 12 hip hop crews from around the world. The album was recorded and mixed at Bop Studios in the then Bantustan, Bophutatswana. The head engineer at Bop Studios worked with POC before and offered them a deal to record an album at an extraordinary reduced rate. POC found out that the aim behind Bop Studios was to entice big music stars to record there to legitimise Bophutatswana as a sovereign state. When the group heard about this while they recorded there, they included the lines "Fuck Mangope (Bophutatswana's head of fake state) even if we record here". The head engineer confiscated all the mixed DATs and confronted the group about certain remarks made on the album. After a heated debate the group left with a 'stolen' backup copy of the mixed album that eventually became the released version.
== Lyrical themes ==
POC's songs were often filled with socio-political messages about the state of South Africa's social and economic issues in the urban areas, which were the most economically depressed. According to the article "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City", their 1993 song "Understand Where I'm Coming From" was a "lament about poverty and social dislocation in the ghetto, questioning the wisdom of patriotism in a class stratified society", as can be inferred from the opening of the song: "Why should I fight for a country's glory / When it ignores me? / Besides, the township's already a war zone / So why complain or moan?" The song also questions the degree to which this new post-Apartheid South Africa is actually new, since there are still racial and class inequalities throughout the communities. The music created as a result of these types of struggles takes the form of hip hop because "young African and Coloured youth... see hip hop and its subcultures as the art form that best expresses their feelings of economic marginality and social dislocation". Many connections can be seen between POC's style of hip hop and the broader American style of hip hop. In "Understand where I'm Coming From", feelings of rebellion and separation from central government are rapped about just as they might be in politically conscious American hip hop; also, in the POC song "Dallah Flet 2", "negative and misogynistic attitudes towards single mothers" are rapped about, something which author Zine Magubane claims is "ubiquitous in American rap music". POC's gender politics on Age of Truth was first analysed in a 2001 article titled “Black Thing: Hip-Hop Nationalism, ‘Race’ and Gender in Prophets of da City and Brasse vannie Kaap” by Adam Haupt, who argued that some of the gender-based problems on this album could partly be explained by the crew's black nationalist politics. Black nationalism, like other forms of nationalism, tended to privilege patriarchal imperatives and marginalised female subjects. Hip-hop nationalism in the early 90s reflected some of these problems. As Haupt's analysis of Cape hip-hop activism in the book Stealing Empire reveals, POC's work is best compared to black nationalist US hip-hop of the late 80s and late 90s—and not gangsta rap, as suggested by “Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City”. This is particularly significant in the light of their parody of gangsta rap on songs like "Wack MCs" off Phunk Phlow. Stealing Empire contends that the sometimes simplistic cultural imperialism thesis in some scholarship about hip-hop beyond the US is limited when considering the artistic and political agency of activists and artists who hope to use hip-hop as a means to engage youth critically about their lives in South African townships. By way of caution, Magubane's article credits the Black Consciousness song "Black Thing" to Black Noise when it was, in fact, composed and recorded by POC.
== Notable co-performances ==
The group has also performed around famous artists like James Brown, Public Enemy, The Fugees, Ice-T, Quincy Jones and more.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ready D & Shaheen RBMA video lecture session
[1]
[2] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_algebra_cohomology | Lie algebra cohomology | In mathematics, Lie algebra cohomology is a cohomology theory for Lie algebras. It was first introduced in 1929 by Élie Cartan to study the topology of Lie groups and homogeneous spaces by relating cohomological methods of Georges de Rham to properties of the Lie algebra. It was later extended by Claude Chevalley and Samuel Eilenberg (1948) to coefficients in an arbitrary Lie module.
== Motivation ==
If
G
{\displaystyle G}
is a compact simply connected Lie group, then it is determined by its Lie algebra, so it should be possible to calculate its cohomology from the Lie algebra. This can be done as follows. Its cohomology is the de Rham cohomology of the complex of differential forms on
G
{\displaystyle G}
. Using an averaging process, this complex can be replaced by the complex of left-invariant differential forms. The left-invariant forms, meanwhile, are determined by their values at the identity, so that the space of left-invariant differential forms can be identified with the exterior algebra of the Lie algebra, with a suitable differential.
The construction of this differential on an exterior algebra makes sense for any Lie algebra, so it is used to define Lie algebra cohomology for all Lie algebras. More generally one uses a similar construction to define Lie algebra cohomology with coefficients in a module.
If
G
{\displaystyle G}
is a simply connected noncompact Lie group, the Lie algebra cohomology of the associated Lie algebra
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
does not necessarily reproduce the de Rham cohomology of
G
{\displaystyle G}
. The reason for this is that the passage from the complex of all differential forms to the complex of left-invariant differential forms uses an averaging process that only makes sense for compact groups.
== Definition ==
Let
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
be a Lie algebra over a commutative ring R with universal enveloping algebra
U
g
{\displaystyle U{\mathfrak {g}}}
, and let M be a representation of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
(equivalently, a
U
g
{\displaystyle U{\mathfrak {g}}}
-module). Considering R as a trivial representation of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
, one defines the cohomology groups
H
n
(
g
;
M
)
:=
E
x
t
U
g
n
(
R
,
M
)
{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} ^{n}({\mathfrak {g}};M):=\mathrm {Ext} _{U{\mathfrak {g}}}^{n}(R,M)}
(see Ext functor for the definition of Ext). Equivalently, these are the right derived functors of the left exact invariant submodule functor
M
↦
M
g
:=
{
m
∈
M
∣
x
m
=
0
for all
x
∈
g
}
.
{\displaystyle M\mapsto M^{\mathfrak {g}}:=\{m\in M\mid xm=0\ {\text{ for all }}x\in {\mathfrak {g}}\}.}
Analogously, one can define Lie algebra homology as
H
n
(
g
;
M
)
:=
T
o
r
n
U
g
(
R
,
M
)
{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} _{n}({\mathfrak {g}};M):=\mathrm {Tor} _{n}^{U{\mathfrak {g}}}(R,M)}
(see Tor functor for the definition of Tor), which is equivalent to the left derived functors of the right exact coinvariants functor
M
↦
M
g
:=
M
/
g
M
.
{\displaystyle M\mapsto M_{\mathfrak {g}}:=M/{\mathfrak {g}}M.}
Some important basic results about the cohomology of Lie algebras include Whitehead's lemmas, Weyl's theorem, and the Levi decomposition theorem.
== Chevalley–Eilenberg complex ==
Let
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
be a Lie algebra over a field
k
{\displaystyle k}
, with a left action on the
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
-module
M
{\displaystyle M}
. The elements of the Chevalley–Eilenberg complex
H
o
m
k
(
Λ
∙
g
,
M
)
{\displaystyle \mathrm {Hom} _{k}(\Lambda ^{\bullet }{\mathfrak {g}},M)}
are called cochains from
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
to
M
{\displaystyle M}
. A homogeneous
n
{\displaystyle n}
-cochain from
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
to
M
{\displaystyle M}
is thus an alternating
k
{\displaystyle k}
-multilinear function
f
:
Λ
n
g
→
M
{\displaystyle f\colon \Lambda ^{n}{\mathfrak {g}}\to M}
. When
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
is finitely generated as vector space, the Chevalley–Eilenberg complex is canonically isomorphic to the tensor product
M
⊗
Λ
∙
g
∗
{\displaystyle M\otimes \Lambda ^{\bullet }{\mathfrak {g}}^{*}}
, where
g
∗
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}^{*}}
denotes the dual vector space of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
.
The Lie bracket
[
⋅
,
⋅
]
:
Λ
2
g
→
g
{\displaystyle [\cdot ,\cdot ]\colon \Lambda ^{2}{\mathfrak {g}}\rightarrow {\mathfrak {g}}}
on
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
induces a transpose application
d
g
(
1
)
:
g
∗
→
Λ
2
g
∗
{\displaystyle d_{\mathfrak {g}}^{(1)}\colon {\mathfrak {g}}^{*}\rightarrow \Lambda ^{2}{\mathfrak {g}}^{*}}
by duality. The latter is sufficient to define a derivation
d
g
{\displaystyle d_{\mathfrak {g}}}
of the complex of cochains from
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
to
k
{\displaystyle k}
by extending
d
g
(
1
)
{\displaystyle d_{\mathfrak {g}}^{(1)}}
according to the graded Leibniz rule. It follows from the Jacobi identity that
d
g
{\displaystyle d_{\mathfrak {g}}}
satisfies
d
g
2
=
0
{\displaystyle d_{\mathfrak {g}}^{2}=0}
and is in fact a differential. In this setting,
k
{\displaystyle k}
is viewed as a trivial
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
-module while
k
∼
Λ
0
g
∗
⊆
K
e
r
(
d
g
)
{\displaystyle k\sim \Lambda ^{0}{\mathfrak {g}}^{*}\subseteq \mathrm {Ker} (d_{\mathfrak {g}})}
may be thought of as constants.
In general, let
γ
∈
H
o
m
(
g
,
End
M
)
{\displaystyle \gamma \in \mathrm {Hom} ({\mathfrak {g}},\operatorname {End} M)}
denote the left action of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
on
M
{\displaystyle M}
and regard it as an application
d
γ
(
0
)
:
M
→
M
⊗
g
∗
{\displaystyle d_{\gamma }^{(0)}\colon M\rightarrow M\otimes {\mathfrak {g}}^{*}}
. The Chevalley–Eilenberg differential
d
{\displaystyle d}
is then the unique derivation extending
d
γ
(
0
)
{\displaystyle d_{\gamma }^{(0)}}
and
d
g
(
1
)
{\displaystyle d_{\mathfrak {g}}^{(1)}}
according to the graded Leibniz rule, the nilpotency condition
d
2
=
0
{\displaystyle d^{2}=0}
following from the Lie algebra homomorphism from
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
to
End
M
{\displaystyle \operatorname {End} M}
and the Jacobi identity in
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
.
Explicitly, the differential of the
n
{\displaystyle n}
-cochain
f
{\displaystyle f}
is the
(
n
+
1
)
{\displaystyle (n+1)}
-cochain
d
f
{\displaystyle df}
given by:
(
d
f
)
(
x
1
,
…
,
x
n
+
1
)
=
∑
i
(
−
1
)
i
+
1
x
i
f
(
x
1
,
…
,
x
^
i
,
…
,
x
n
+
1
)
+
∑
i
<
j
(
−
1
)
i
+
j
f
(
[
x
i
,
x
j
]
,
x
1
,
…
,
x
^
i
,
…
,
x
^
j
,
…
,
x
n
+
1
)
,
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(df)\left(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n+1}\right)=&\sum _{i}(-1)^{i+1}x_{i}\,f\left(x_{1},\ldots ,{\hat {x}}_{i},\ldots ,x_{n+1}\right)+\\&\sum _{i<j}(-1)^{i+j}f\left(\left[x_{i},x_{j}\right],x_{1},\ldots ,{\hat {x}}_{i},\ldots ,{\hat {x}}_{j},\ldots ,x_{n+1}\right)\,,\end{aligned}}}
where the caret signifies omitting that argument.
When
G
{\displaystyle G}
is a real Lie group with Lie algebra
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
, the Chevalley–Eilenberg complex may also be canonically identified with the space of left-invariant forms with values in
M
{\displaystyle M}
, denoted by
Ω
∙
(
G
,
M
)
G
{\displaystyle \Omega ^{\bullet }(G,M)^{G}}
. The Chevalley–Eilenberg differential may then be thought of as a restriction of the covariant derivative on the trivial fiber bundle
G
×
M
→
G
{\displaystyle G\times M\rightarrow G}
, equipped with the equivariant connection
γ
~
∈
Ω
1
(
G
,
End
M
)
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\gamma }}\in \Omega ^{1}(G,\operatorname {End} M)}
associated with the left action
γ
∈
H
o
m
(
g
,
End
M
)
{\displaystyle \gamma \in \mathrm {Hom} ({\mathfrak {g}},\operatorname {End} M)}
of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
on
M
{\displaystyle M}
. In the particular case where
M
=
k
=
R
{\displaystyle M=k=\mathbb {R} }
is equipped with the trivial action of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
, the Chevalley–Eilenberg differential coincides with the restriction of the de Rham differential on
Ω
∙
(
G
)
{\displaystyle \Omega ^{\bullet }(G)}
to the subspace of left-invariant differential forms.
== Cohomology in small dimensions ==
The zeroth cohomology group is (by definition) the invariants of the Lie algebra acting on the module:
H
0
(
g
;
M
)
=
M
g
=
{
m
∈
M
∣
x
m
=
0
for all
x
∈
g
}
.
{\displaystyle H^{0}({\mathfrak {g}};M)=M^{\mathfrak {g}}=\{m\in M\mid xm=0\ {\text{ for all }}x\in {\mathfrak {g}}\}.}
The first cohomology group is the space Der of derivations modulo the space Ider of inner derivations
H
1
(
g
;
M
)
=
D
e
r
(
g
,
M
)
/
I
d
e
r
(
g
,
M
)
{\displaystyle H^{1}({\mathfrak {g}};M)=\mathrm {Der} ({\mathfrak {g}},M)/\mathrm {Ider} ({\mathfrak {g}},M)\,}
,
where a derivation is a map
d
{\displaystyle d}
from the Lie algebra to
M
{\displaystyle M}
such that
d
[
x
,
y
]
=
x
d
y
−
y
d
x
{\displaystyle d[x,y]=xdy-ydx~}
and is called inner if it is given by
d
x
=
x
a
{\displaystyle dx=xa~}
for some
a
{\displaystyle a}
in
M
{\displaystyle M}
.
The second cohomology group
H
2
(
g
;
M
)
{\displaystyle H^{2}({\mathfrak {g}};M)}
is the space of equivalence classes of Lie algebra extensions
0
→
M
→
h
→
g
→
0
{\displaystyle 0\rightarrow M\rightarrow {\mathfrak {h}}\rightarrow {\mathfrak {g}}\rightarrow 0}
of the Lie algebra by the module
M
{\displaystyle M}
.
Similarly, any element of the cohomology group
H
n
+
1
(
g
;
M
)
{\displaystyle H^{n+1}({\mathfrak {g}};M)}
gives an equivalence class of ways to extend the Lie algebra
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
to a "Lie
n
{\displaystyle n}
-algebra" with
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
in grade zero and
M
{\displaystyle M}
in grade
n
{\displaystyle n}
. A Lie
n
{\displaystyle n}
-algebra is a homotopy Lie algebra with nonzero terms only in degrees 0 through
n
{\displaystyle n}
.
== Examples ==
=== Cohomology on the trivial module ===
When
M
=
R
{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} }
, as mentioned earlier the Chevalley–Eilenberg complex coincides with the de-Rham complex for a corresponding compact Lie group. In this case
M
{\displaystyle M}
carries the trivial action of
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
, so
x
a
=
0
{\displaystyle xa=0}
for every
x
∈
g
,
a
∈
M
{\displaystyle x\in {\mathfrak {g}},a\in M}
.
The zeroth cohomology group is
M
{\displaystyle M}
.
First cohomology: given a derivation
D
{\displaystyle D}
,
x
D
y
=
0
{\displaystyle xDy=0}
for all
x
{\displaystyle x}
and
y
{\displaystyle y}
, so derivations satisfy
D
(
[
x
,
y
]
)
=
0
{\displaystyle D([x,y])=0}
for all commutators, so the ideal
[
g
,
g
]
{\displaystyle [{\mathfrak {g}},{\mathfrak {g}}]}
is contained in the kernel of
D
{\displaystyle D}
.
If
[
g
,
g
]
=
g
{\displaystyle [{\mathfrak {g}},{\mathfrak {g}}]={\mathfrak {g}}}
, as is the case for simple Lie algebras, then
D
≡
0
{\displaystyle D\equiv 0}
, so the space of derivations is trivial, so the first cohomology is trivial.
If
g
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}}
is abelian, that is,
[
g
,
g
]
=
0
{\displaystyle [{\mathfrak {g}},{\mathfrak {g}}]=0}
, then any linear functional
D
:
g
→
M
{\displaystyle D:{\mathfrak {g}}\rightarrow M}
is in fact a derivation, and the set of inner derivations is trivial as they satisfy
D
x
=
x
a
=
0
{\displaystyle Dx=xa=0}
for any
a
∈
M
{\displaystyle a\in M}
. Then the first cohomology group in this case is
M
dim
g
{\displaystyle M^{{\text{dim}}{\mathfrak {g}}}}
. In light of the de-Rham correspondence, this shows the importance of the compact assumption, as this is the first cohomology group of the
n
{\displaystyle n}
-torus viewed as an abelian group, and
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
can also be viewed as an abelian group of dimension
n
{\displaystyle n}
, but
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
has trivial cohomology.
Second cohomology: The second cohomology group is the space of equivalence classes of central extensions
0
→
h
→
e
→
g
→
0.
{\displaystyle 0\rightarrow {\mathfrak {h}}\rightarrow {\mathfrak {e}}\rightarrow {\mathfrak {g}}\rightarrow 0.}
Finite dimensional, simple Lie algebras only have trivial central extensions: a proof is provided here.
=== Cohomology on the adjoint module ===
When
M
=
g
{\displaystyle M={\mathfrak {g}}}
, the action is the adjoint action,
x
⋅
y
=
[
x
,
y
]
=
ad
(
x
)
y
{\displaystyle x\cdot y=[x,y]={\text{ad}}(x)y}
.
The zeroth cohomology group is the center
z
(
g
)
{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {z}}({\mathfrak {g}})}
First cohomology: the inner derivations are given by
D
x
=
x
y
=
[
x
,
y
]
=
−
ad
(
y
)
x
{\displaystyle Dx=xy=[x,y]=-{\text{ad}}(y)x}
, so they are precisely the image of
ad
:
g
→
End
g
.
{\displaystyle {\text{ad}}:{\mathfrak {g}}\rightarrow \operatorname {End} {\mathfrak {g}}.}
The first cohomology group is the space of outer derivations.
== See also ==
BRST formalism in theoretical physics.
Gelfand–Fuks cohomology
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica_Lewinsky | Monica Lewinsky | Monica Samille Lewinsky (born July 23, 1973) is an American activist. She became internationally known in the late 1990s after U.S. president Bill Clinton admitted to having had an affair with her during her days as a White House intern between 1995 and 1997. The affair and its repercussions (which included Clinton's impeachment) became known as the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal.
Following the scandal, Lewinsky designed a line of handbags under her name, served as an advertising spokesperson for a diet plan, and worked as a television personality. She obtained a master's degree in psychology from the London School of Economics in 2006. In 2014, Lewinsky began speaking out as an activist against cyberbullying.
== Early life ==
Lewinsky was born in San Francisco, California, and grew up in an affluent family in Los Angeles, California. She lived in Brentwood, and later Beverly Hills. Her father is Bernard Lewinsky, an oncologist, who is the son of German Jews who emigrated from Germany in the 1920s, first moving to El Salvador and then finally to the United States when he was 14. Her mother, born Marcia Kay Vilensky, is an author who uses the name Marcia Lewis. In 1996, she wrote a "gossip biography", The Private Lives of the Three Tenors. Lewinsky’s maternal grandfather, Samuel M. Vilensky, was a Lithuanian Jew, and her maternal grandmother, Bronia Poleshuk, was born in the British Concession of Tianjin, China, to a Russian Jewish family. Lewinsky’s parents divorced in 1988 and each has remarried.
The family attended Sinai Temple in Los Angeles and Lewinsky attended Sinai Akiba Academy, the school affiliated with the Temple. For her primary education, she attended the John Thomas Dye School in Bel-Air. Lewinsky attended Beverly Hills High School for three years before transferring to Bel Air Prep (later known as Pacific Hills School), graduating in 1991.
Following her high school graduation, Lewinsky attended Santa Monica College while working for the drama department at Beverly Hills High School and at a tie shop. Andy Bleiler, her former high school drama instructor, alleged they began a five-year affair in 1992.
In 1993, she enrolled at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon, graduating with a bachelor's degree in psychology in 1995.
With the assistance of a family connection, Lewinsky secured an unpaid summer White House internship in the office of White House chief of staff Leon Panetta. Lewinsky moved to Washington, D.C., and took up the position in July 1995. She moved to a paid posting in the White House Office of Legislative Affairs in December 1995.
== Scandal ==
Lewinsky stated that she had nine sexual encounters with President Bill Clinton in the Oval Office between November 1995 and March 1997. According to her testimony, these encounters involved oral sex and other sexual acts, but not sexual intercourse.
Clinton had previously been confronted with allegations of sexual misconduct during his time as Governor of Arkansas. Former Arkansas state employee Paula Jones filed a civil lawsuit against him alleging that he had sexually harassed her. Lewinsky's name surfaced during the discovery phase of Jones' case, when Jones' lawyers sought to show a pattern of behavior by Clinton which involved inappropriate sexual relationships with other government employees.
In April 1996, Lewinsky's superiors transferred her from the White House to the Pentagon because they felt that she was spending too much time with Clinton. At the Pentagon, she worked as an assistant to chief Pentagon spokesman Kenneth Bacon. In September 1997, after Lewinsky told co-worker Linda Tripp about her relationship with Clinton, Tripp began to secretly record their telephone conversations. Lewinsky left her position at the Pentagon in December 1997, and in January 1998 submitted an affidavit in the Paula Jones case denying any physical relationship with Clinton. Though she attempted to persuade Tripp to lie under oath in that case, Tripp gave the tapes to Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr, adding to his ongoing investigation into the Whitewater controversy. Starr then broadened his investigation beyond the Arkansas land use deal to include Lewinsky, Clinton, and others for possible perjury and subornation of perjury in the Jones case. Tripp reported the taped conversations to literary agent Lucianne Goldberg. She also convinced Lewinsky to save the gifts that Clinton had given her during their relationship and not to dry clean a blue dress that was stained with Clinton's semen. Under oath, Clinton denied having had "a sexual affair", "sexual relations", or "a sexual relationship" with Lewinsky.
News of the Clinton–Lewinsky relationship broke in January 1998. On January 26, 1998, Clinton stated, "I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky" in a nationally televised White House news conference. The matter instantly occupied the news media, and Lewinsky spent the next weeks hiding from public attention in her mother's residence at the Watergate complex. News of Lewinsky's affair with Andy Bleiler, her former high school drama instructor, also came to light, and he turned over to Starr various souvenirs, photographs, and documents that Lewinsky had sent him and his wife during the time that she was in the White House.
Clinton had also said, "There is not a sexual relationship, an improper sexual relationship or any other kind of improper relationship" which he defended as truthful on August 17, 1998, because of his use of the present tense, arguing "it depends on what the meaning of the word 'is' is". Starr obtained a blue dress from Lewinsky with Clinton's semen stained on it, as well as testimony from her that the President had inserted a cigar into her vagina. Clinton stated, "I did have a relationship with Miss Lewinsky that was not appropriate", but he denied committing perjury because, according to Clinton, the legal definition of oral sex was not encompassed by "sex" per se. In addition, he relied on the definition of "sexual relations" as proposed by the prosecution and agreed by the defense and by Judge Susan Webber Wright, who was hearing the Paula Jones case. Clinton claimed that certain acts were performed on him, not by him, and therefore he did not engage in sexual relations. Lewinsky's testimony to the Starr Commission, however, contradicted Clinton's claim of being totally passive in their encounters.
Clinton and Lewinsky were both called before a grand jury. Clinton testified via closed-circuit television, while Lewinsky testified in person. She was granted transactional immunity by the Office of the Independent Counsel in exchange for her testimony.
== Life after the scandal ==
Lewinsky's immunity agreement restricted what she could talk about publicly, but she was able to cooperate with Andrew Morton in his writing of Monica's Story, her biography which included her side of the Clinton affair. The book was published in March 1999; it was also excerpted as a cover story in Time magazine. On March 3, 1999, Barbara Walters interviewed Lewinsky on ABC's 20/20. The program was watched by 70 million Americans, which ABC said was a record for a news show. Lewinsky made about $500,000 from her participation in the book and another $1 million from international rights to the Walters interview, but was still beset by high legal bills and living costs.
In June 1999, Ms. magazine published a series of articles by writer Susan Jane Gilman, sexologist Susie Bright, and author-host Abiola Abrams arguing from three generations of women whether Lewinsky's behavior had any meaning for feminism. Also in 1999, Lewinsky declined to sign an autograph in an airport, saying, "I'm kind of known for something that's not so great to be known for." She made a cameo appearance as herself in two sketches during the May 8, 1999, episode of NBC's Saturday Night Live, a program that had lampooned her relationship with Clinton over the prior 16 months.
In September 1999, Lewinsky began to sell a line of handbags bearing her name, under the company name The Real Monica, Inc. They were sold online as well as at Henri Bendel in New York, Fred Segal in California, and The Cross in London. Lewinsky designed the bags—described by New York magazine as "hippie-ish, reversible totes"—and traveled frequently to supervise their manufacture in Louisiana.
At the start of 2000, Lewinsky began appearing in television commercials for the diet company Jenny Craig, Inc. The $1 million endorsement deal, which required Lewinsky to lose 40 or more pounds in six months, gained considerable publicity at the time. Lewinsky said that despite her desire to return to a more private life, she needed the money to pay off legal fees, and she believed in the product. A Jenny Craig spokesperson said of Lewinsky, "She represents a busy active woman of today with a hectic lifestyle. And she has had weight issues and weight struggles for a long time. That represents a lot of women in America." The choice of Lewinsky as a role model proved controversial for Jenny Craig, and some of its private franchises switched to an older advertising campaign. The company stopped running the Lewinsky ads in February 2000, concluded her campaign entirely in April 2000, and paid her only $300,000 of the $1 million contracted for her involvement.
Also at the start of 2000, Lewinsky moved to New York City, lived in the West Village, and became an A-list guest in the Manhattan social scene. In February 2000, she appeared on MTV's The Tom Green Show, in an episode in which the host took her to his parents' home in Ottawa in search of fabric for her new handbag business. Later in 2000, Lewinsky worked as a correspondent for Channel 5 in the UK, on the show Monica's Postcards, reporting on U.S. culture and trends from a variety of locations.
In March 2002, Lewinsky, no longer bound by the terms of her immunity agreement, appeared in the HBO special, "Monica in Black and White", part of the America Undercover series. In it she answered a studio audience's questions about her life and the Clinton affair.
Lewinsky hosted a reality television dating program, Mr. Personality, on Fox Television Network in 2003, where she advised young women contestants who were picking men hidden by masks. Some Americans tried to organize a boycott of advertisers on the show, to protest Lewinsky's capitalizing on her notoriety. Nevertheless, the show debuted to very high ratings, and Alessandra Stanley wrote in The New York Times: "after years of trying to cash in on her fame by designing handbags and other self-marketing schemes, Ms. Lewinsky has finally found a fitting niche on television." The same year she appeared as a guest on the programs V Graham Norton in the UK, High Chaparall in Sweden, and The View and Jimmy Kimmel Live! in the U.S.
After Clinton's autobiography, My Life, appeared in 2004, Lewinsky said in an interview with the British tabloid Daily Mail:
He could have made it right with the book, but he hasn't. He is a revisionist of history. He has lied. ... I really didn't expect him to go into detail about our relationship. ... But if he had and he'd done it honestly, I wouldn't have minded. ... I did, though, at least expect him to correct the false statements he made when he was trying to protect the Presidency. Instead, he talked about it as though I had laid it all out there for the taking. I was the buffet and he just couldn't resist the dessert. ... This was a mutual relationship, mutual on all levels, right from the way it started and all the way through. ... I don't accept that he had to completely desecrate my character.
By 2005, Lewinsky found that she could not escape the spotlight in the U.S., which made both her professional and personal life difficult. She stopped selling her handbag line and moved to London to study social psychology at the London School of Economics. In December 2006, Lewinsky graduated with a Master of Science degree. Her thesis was titled, "In Search of the Impartial Juror: An Exploration of the Third-Person Effect and Pre-Trial Publicity". For the next decade, she tried to avoid publicity.
Lewinsky did correspond in 2009 with scholar Ken Gormley, who was writing an in-depth study of the Clinton scandals. Lewinsky wrote to Gormley that Clinton had lied under oath when asked detailed and specific questions about his relationship with her. In 2013, the items associated with Lewinsky that Bleiler had turned over to Starr were put up for auction by Bleiler's ex-wife, who had come into possession of them.
During her decade out of the public eye, Lewinsky lived in London, Los Angeles, New York, and Portland but, due to her notoriety, had trouble finding employment in the communications and marketing jobs for nonprofit organizations where she had been interviewed.
== Public re-emergence ==
In May 2014, Lewinsky wrote an essay for Vanity Fair magazine titled "Shame and Survival", wherein she discussed her life and the scandal. She continued to maintain that the relationship was mutual and wrote that while Clinton took advantage of her, it was a consensual relationship. She added: "I, myself, deeply regret what happened between me and President Clinton. Let me say it again: I. Myself. Deeply. Regret. What. Happened." However, she said it was now time to "stick my head above the parapet so that I can take back my narrative and give a purpose to my past." The magazine later announced her as a Vanity Fair contributor, stating she would "contribute to their website on an ongoing basis, on the lookout for relevant topics of interest".
In July 2014, Lewinsky was interviewed in a three-part television special for the National Geographic Channel, titled The 90s: The Last Great Decade. The series looked at various events of the 1990s, including the scandal that brought Lewinsky into the national spotlight. This was Lewinsky's first such interview in more than ten years.
In October 2014, she took a public stand against cyberbullying, calling herself "patient zero" of online harassment. Speaking at a Forbes magazine "30 Under 30" summit about her experiences in the aftermath of the scandal, she said, "Having survived myself, what I want to do now is help other victims of the shame game survive, too." She said she was influenced by reading about the suicide of Tyler Clementi, a Rutgers University freshman, involving cyberbullying and joined Twitter to facilitate her efforts. In March 2015, Lewinsky continued to speak out publicly against cyberbullying, delivering a TED talk calling for a more compassionate Internet. In June 2015, she became an ambassador and strategic advisor for anti-bullying organization Bystander Revolution. The same month, she gave an anti-cyberbullying speech at the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity. In September 2015, Lewinsky was interviewed by Amy Robach on Good Morning America, about Bystander Revolution's Month of Action campaign for National Bullying Prevention Month. Lewinsky wrote the foreword to an October 2017 book by Sue Scheff and Melissa Schorr, Shame Nation: The Global Epidemic of Online Hate.
In October 2017, Lewinsky tweeted the #MeToo hashtag to indicate that she was a victim of sexual harassment or sexual assault, but did not provide details. She wrote an essay in the March 2018 issue of Vanity Fair in which she did not directly explain why she used the #MeToo hashtag in October. She did write that looking back at her relationship with Bill Clinton, although it was consensual, because he was 27 years older than she and in a position with a lot more power than she had, in her opinion the relationship constituted an "abuse of power" on Clinton's part. She added that she had been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder due to what she had experienced after the relationship was disclosed. In May 2018, Lewinsky was disinvited from an event hosted by Town & Country when Bill Clinton accepted an invitation to the event.
In September 2018, Lewinsky spoke at a conference in Jerusalem. Following her speech, she sat for a Q&A session with the host, journalist Yonit Levi. The first question Levi asked was whether Lewinsky thinks that Clinton owes her a private apology. Lewinsky refused to answer the question, and walked off the stage. She later tweeted that the question was posed in a pre-event meeting with Levi, and Lewinsky told her that such a question was off limits. A spokesman for the Israel Television News Company, which hosted the conference and is Levi's employer, responded that Levi had kept all the agreements she made with Lewinsky and honored her requests.
In 2019, she was interviewed by John Oliver on his HBO show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, where they discussed the importance of solving the problem of public shaming and how her situation may have been different if social media had existed at the time that the scandal broke in the late 1990s.
On August 6, 2019, it was announced that the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal would be the focus of the third season of the television series American Crime Story with the title Impeachment. The season began production in October 2020. Lewinsky was a co-producer. It consists of 10 episodes and premiered on September 7, 2021. The season portrays the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal and is based on the book A Vast Conspiracy: The Real Story of the Sex Scandal That Nearly Brought Down a President by Jeffrey Toobin. The 28-year-old actress Beanie Feldstein plays Monica Lewinsky. In discussing the series and her observations on social media and cancel culture today in an interview with Kara Swisher for the New York Times Opinion podcast Sway, Lewinsky noted that: I think that the first thing that went out the door in 1998 was the truth, and the second was context. And there’s no nuance. And we were all women who were thrust into the spotlight underneath a political film or sheen. And we were all reduced. We were all reduced in different ways to serve purposes for other people, for either political points or to make money. In October 2021, she was executive producer of an HBO documentary 15 Minutes of Shame, directed by Max Joseph, which focused on public shaming, online shaming, and ostracism.
Lewinsky started her own production company, Alt Ending Productions, and signed a first look deal with 20th Television in June 2021.
In February 2025, she launched her podcast, Reclaiming with Monica Lewinsky.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Berlant, Lauren, and Duggan, Lisa. Our Monica, Ourselves: The Clinton Affair and the Public Interest. Sexual Cultures. New York: New York University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0814798645.
Kalb, Marvin. One Scandalous Story: Clinton, Lewinsky, and Thirteen Days That Tarnished American Journalism. New York: Free Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1416576372.
Lewinsky, Monica (May 22, 2017). "Roger Ailes's Dream Was My Nightmare". The New York Times.
== External links ==
Monica Lewinsky at IMDb
Monica Lewinsky at TED
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berisha_I_Government | Berisha I Government | The first Government of Prime Minister Sali Berisha was the 63rd ruling Government of the Republic of Albania formed on 8 September 2005. Following the 3 July 2005 election, the Democratic Party formed a center-right post-electoral alliance to make a majority of seats to Parliament and form the government. The alliance consisted of five-center-right parties led by Sali Berisha managed to create a majority of 81 deputies out of 140 in the Assembly. The new government led by Sali Berisha was voted on 8 September with 84-votes Pro, and took oath on 11 September in the presence of the President of the Republic Alfred Moisiu.
== Cabinet ==
The table below shows the ministers of the Berisha I government starting from the day of the oath, on 11 September 2005 until the day of the replacement on 17 September 2009.
The first changes during the government came in 2007, when Sokol Olldashi resigned to run in the local elections against Edi Rama for the Municipality of Tirana. The post of Minister of Interior remained vacant for about two months and the functions of Minister were transferred to Deputy Minister Gjergj Lezhja, although the presidential decree for the dismissal of Mr. Olldashi was published in March alongside other changes. Then other changes came in March of the same year from where 6 ministers were replaced. While in early May, the Prime Minister Sali Berisha had a public conflict with the Minister of Foreign Affairs Besnik Mustafaj where they both had the debate in the PM's office. Lulzim Basha was appointed in his place, who previously held the position of Minister of Public Works, Transport and Telecommunications. While Olldashi is appointed to the vacancy left by Basha.
== See also ==
Politics of Albania
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oommen_Chandy | Oommen Chandy | Oommen Chandy (31 October 1943 – 18 July 2023) was an Indian lawyer and statesman who served as the 10th chief minister of Kerala, serving from 2004 to 2006 and 2011 to 2016. He served also as the leader of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly from 2006 to 2011.
He represented Puthuppally constituency as a member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) in the State Assembly from 1970 until his death in 2023, making him the longest-serving member of the Kerala Legislature Assembly. He received an award for public service from the United Nations in 2013.
In 2018, he was appointed the general secretary of the All India Congress Committee, in charge of the state of Andhra Pradesh. He was also a Congress Working Committee member at the time of his death.
== Early life and education ==
Oommen Chandy was born on 31 October 1943 in Kumarakom, Kottayam district, as the son of Baby and K. O. Chandy, of Karottu Vallakkalil house.
He was named after his paternal grandfather, V. J. Oommen (Vallakkalil), a member of the Travancore Legislative Council. Oommen ventured into the political arena as an activist of Kerala's largest student organization Kerala Students Union, the student wing of the Indian National Congress. He was the unit president of the KSU at St. George High School, Puthupally, and went on to become the state president of the organization.
Oommen completed his pre-university course from CMS College, Kottayam and received a B.A. in economics from St. Berchmans College, Changanassery. Later, he earned a bachelor's degree in law (LL.B) from the Government Law College, Ernakulam.
== Political life ==
Oommen started his political career through the Kerala Students Union, in which he served as president from 1967 to 1969. He was elected as the president of the State Youth Congress in 1970.
=== Electoral Performance ===
Oommen represented the Puthuppally constituency for five decades, having been elected to the Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1970, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1987, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, and 2021. During his legislative career, he also served as chairman of the Public Accounts Committee from 1996 to 1998.
== Positions held ==
=== Minister ===
Oommen Chandy was a minister in the Government of Kerala on four occasions. He was the minister for Labour from 11 April 1977 to 25 April 1977 in the first K. Karunakaran ministry and continued holding the same portfolio in the succeeding first A. K. Antony ministry until 27 October 1978. He was in the charge of Home Portfolio in the second K. Karunakaran ministry from 28 December 1981 to 17 March 1982. He was sworn in again as a minister in the fourth K. Karunakaran ministry on 2 July 1991. He was in charge of the Finance Portfolio and resigned from the cabinet on 22 June 1994 as a protest against Karunakaran's denial of a Rajya Sabha ticket to a factional leader.
Oommen Chandy was a minister in the following ministries:
=== Chief Minister of Kerala ===
==== First term as chief minister (2004–2006) ====
The results of the parliamentary elections in May 2004 saw the Indian National Congress not winning a single seat in Kerala. The sitting chief minister, A.K. Antony, was forced to resign and accept responsibility for the poor results. On 30 August 2004, Oommen was elected as the Congress Legislature Party leader at the end of a meeting by AICC observers and clearance by the Congress president, Sonia Gandhi. The Congress-led alliance was defeated but managed to retain 42 out of 140 seats in the assembly and boost its vote-share by nearly 10% after the general election rout. He resigned as chief minister on 12 May 2006 following the defeat of his party in 2006 Assembly Elections.
==== Second term as chief minister (2011–2016) ====
UDF, led by Oommen Chandy, secured a slender margin of majority in the assembly election held on 13 April 2011 by winning 72 seats against the 68 seats of the LDF. He took the oath on 18 May 2011 with six other ministers of his cabinet. Later, thirteen other ministers were also inducted into his cabinet.
=== Leader of Opposition ===
Oommen was the leader of opposition in the twelfth Kerala Legislative Assembly. Under his leadership, UDF marked victories in Lok Sabha Election 2009, gaining 16 out of 20 parliament constituencies in Kerala. UDF also got an upper hand in local body elections.
=== Leader of Congress Parliamentary Party ===
After winning the closely contested 2011 assembly election, Congress's legislative party unanimously elected Oommen as its leader.
== Awards and honours ==
Oommen Chandy received the 2013 United Nations Public Service Award for the Asia-Pacific region, for "Preventing and Combating Corruption in the Public Service." The award was presented on 27 June 2013, in Manama, Bahrain, by the UN Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs, Wu Hongbo. The award was based on the theme "Transformative e-Government and Innovation: Creating a Better Future for All".
== Achievements ==
Oommen Chandy first took charge as chief minister on 31 August 2004 and adopted the motto Athivegam Bahudooram (Fast and far). Sanctioning of unemployment allowance, and welfare measures for labourers were some of the measures introduced by his government. Oommen attended the 35th World Economic Forum held at Davos, Switzerland, in 2006. The Karunya benevolent scheme was implemented in 2011–2012, allowing free treatment of patients with cancer, haemophilia, and kidney and heart diseases. Forty-three Cochlear implant surgeries were performed under a Cochlear implant scheme for hearing impaired children. More organ implantation surgeries were done through Mruthasanjeevani project.
Oommen also received the United Nation's Public Service Award for his Mass Contact Programme (Jana Samparkka Paripadi), for hearing and solving the complaints of citizens. In 2005, Information Technology was made a compulsory subject for the school-level students, making Kerala the first Indian state to do so. Victers TV, which is India's first public edutainment channel broadband network on EDUSAT for schools, was inaugurated by A. P. J. Abdul Kalam on 28 July 2005 at Thiruvananthapuram.
The Hill highway project, a massive highway project that connects the eastern hilly areas of the districts of Kerala first proposed in 1960, was approved by the First Oommen ministry in 2005. The Government of Kerala approved the project and allocated funds on 17 January 2005, Oommen inaugurated the first phase of the project between Kasaragod and Palakkad at a function held in Payyavoor.
The Second Oommen ministry (2011–2016) adopted the motto Vikasanavum Karuthalum (Development and Care). Oommen Chandy's regime was instrumental in beginning the construction of several massive infrastructure projects as well as some human-welfare schemes in Kerala which included the Kannur International Airport in Kannur, the Kochi Metro at Kochi, the Vizhinjam International Seaport at Thiruvananthapuram, and the Smart City project. The projects for Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro and Kozhikode Light Metro were approved in 2012. A suburban rail project was initiated in 2013.
The Technopark at Thiruvananthapuram became the largest Information Technology park in India with the inauguration of its third phase in 2014. The Taurus Downtown at Technopark was commenced during the period 2011–2016. The second phase of InfoPark, Kochi was inaugurated in May 2015. Phase two of InfoPark Thrissur was completed during the same period. The Park Centre of Cybercity at Kozhikode was formally opened by IT Minister P.K. Kunhalikutty on 15 February 2014. UL Cyberpark at Kozhikode was inaugurated in January 2016.
It was also during his administration that 12 new Taluks, 28 new Municipalities, and the Kannur Municipal Corporation were formed for more effective decentralisation and proper utilisation of resources in the state, It was the largest Taluk delimitation in the state of Kerala since 1957. A number of state highways were constructed under Oommen government, and the final decision to widen the national highways of the state to 45 metres (148 ft) were taken in 2014. During his tenure, 227 road bridges costing nearly Rs 1,600 crore were built across Kerala, the most ever in the state. The Kozhikode bypass was completed and the works of Kollam Bypass and Alappuzha Bypass roads were restarted during 2011–2016. The Karamana-Kaliyikkavila and Kazhakootam-Karode bypasses for the city of Thiruvananthapuram were initiated and started. The Kochi-Mangalore GAIL pipeline was commissioned by the Second Oommen ministry in 2013.
Oommen Chandy's administration also made the decision to build at least one government medical college in each district without one, to ensure the presence of the public medical college in all 14 districts of Kerala, which was instrumental in the public health infrastructure of the state. As a part of the project, new medical colleges were established in the state starting in 2013, after a gap of 31 years. The National University of Advanced Legal Studies at Kochi was founded in 2005 and the Indian Institute of Technology at Palakkad was established in 2015. The universities founded during 2011–2016 period include the Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University at Tirur (2012) and APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University at Thiruvananthapuram (2014). The K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts at Kottayam was inaugurated in January 2016. In 2015, the Cochin International Airport became the world's first fully solar-powered airport with the inauguration of a dedicated solar plant. The airport won the Champion of the Earth award in 2018, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations. The airport was awarded The Best Airport in Asia-Pacific in 2020 (with 5–15 million passengers per annum) by the Airports Council International. The Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation. It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at Thevara. Works on the last phase of Kollam Bypass was started on 27 May 2015.
Social welfare pensions were doubled during Oommen Chandy's second ministry, increasing to Rs.600. The government distributed pensions ranging from Rs 800 – Rs 1,500. Social welfare pensions which had been distributed to 12.9 lakh people until 2011 were extended to 34.43 lakh during 2011–2016. Pensions for the disabled and widows were increased to Rs 800. Old-age pensions were increased to Rs 1,500 for those above 75 years and Rs 1,100 to those above 80 years. Other social welfare measures included free rations for those who lost their employment, and 4,14,552 houses for those who hadn't homes before. Free rice was given to those who were below the poverty line. Food kits were distributed during Onam, Ramdan, and Christmas. A rubber Subsidy to ensure a minimum price of Rs 150/kg was implemented in 2015. The Kerala Public Service Commission filled vacant posts during 2011–2016, appointing as many as 1,67,096 job candidates, setting a record; 46,223 posts were created in the same period. The second Oommen ministry had also made the decision to prohibit liqueur in the state by discouraging bars. The number of political killings were relatively low (eleven) during 2011–2016. Kerala was declared as the first complete digital state of India on 27 February 2016.
Twenty-six sectors were identified for showcasing in the Emerging Kerala summit of 2012 held at Kochi. The event was organised by the Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation (KSIDC), to highlight investment opportunities available in Kerala and advertise to the world its state of readiness to receive investors. Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh inaugurated the three-day event. Goals for the event included bringing in 45 specific project proposals with an investment of over Rs.40,000 crore, including Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd's Kochi Refinery expansion and another joint venture project of Rs.18,000 crore, Volkswagen’s engine assembly unit (Rs.2,000 crore), a hospital and pre-cast concrete structure manufacturing unit (Rs.570 crore), and a solar energy plant (Rs.500crore). A number of projects were conceptualized and developed in the tate following the summit, the most prominent of which included the Kochi-Mangalore GAIL Pipeline, Vizhinjam International Seaport, Kochi Metro, Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro and Kozhikode Light Metro, Petroleum Chemicals & Petrochemical Investment Region, Kochi-Palakkad National Investment and Manufacturing Zone, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kottayam, Thiruvananthapuram–Kasargode Semi High Speed Rail Corridor, Kerala Seaplane, Electronic hub at Kochi, Titanium Sponge Plant Project at Kollam, Oceanarium project at Kochi, Bio 360 Life Sciences Park at Thiruvananthapuram, a gas-based powerplant at Cheemeni, Kasaragod, and Kochi LNG Terminal.
== Controversies ==
=== 2013 Kerala solar panel scam ===
The 2013 Kerala solar panel scam was one of the main scandals raised by the LDF-led opposition. It was also one of the main election issues used by LDF during 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election.
However, the Crime Branch appointed by First Vijayan ministry in 2018 found that there was no evidence against Oommen in the scam. As part of the procedures, the state home secretary T. K. Jose had forwarded a report to the central government. According to the report, no evidence could be collected against Oommen Chandy and the Crime Branch failed to confirm that the incident mentioned in the complaint actually happened. The case was handed over to the central agency after several teams of the Kerala Police repeatedly failed to prove the allegations against Oommen.
=== Vizhinjam Port Corruption Accusation ===
The opposition led by CPI(M) had accused corruption in the Vizhinjam International Seaport project ahead of the 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election.
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India, in its report on Public Sector Undertakings for the financial year ending March 2016, presented to the Kerala state assembly, identified irregularities in the agreement executed by the then state government. The CAG report contended that by granting a ten-year concession period beyond the standard thirty-year term for Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects, the state government's agreement with the Adani Group for the Vizhinjam seaport project could potentially result in an additional revenue of Rs 29,217 crore for the concessionaire. This figure was calculated based on revenue projections outlined in the Feasibility Report prepared by Ernst and Young. Based on this CAG report,the first Vijayan ministry appointed a three-member judicial commission under Justice C. N. Ramachandran to investigate in May 2017.
In 2018, the commission concluded that there was no corruption with the state's project and that there was no misuse of political power in the port project. The commission report stated that there was no evidence to prove there was corruption. C. N. Ramachandran said that "Nobody came forward with any specific corruption charges against any individual and nobody ventured to give any evidence. When there is no allegation of corruption against anyone, there is no need to investigate corruption against anyone. That is why the commission has not found corruption against anyone."
=== Pattoor land case ===
The Pattoor Land Case was used by the LDF-led opposition ahead of 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election. In February 2018, the Kerala High Court pointed out that the Vigilance and Anti-Corruption Bureau (VACB) registered the first information report based on the wrong report prepared by Jacob Thomas. The court said that the claim that the property vests with Kerala Water Authority was not based on any document. As the High Court rejected the case, the UDF government got a clean chit. The High Court found that neither Oommen nor the UDF government was involved in any corruption.
=== Palmolein oil import scam ===
The Palmolein Oil Import Scam (1991–1992) refers to the alleged irregularities in the import of palmolein by the K. Karunakaran-led United Democratic Front government of the state of Kerala, India through the Power and Energy Limited Company. It was accused by the LDF-led opposition in 1992. However, a 2011 VACB probe found that Oommen, finance minister during 1991–1996, had no role in the corruption. The report filed by VACB said that Oommen Chandy was not aware of the details of the decision to import palmolein through a Singapore-based firm.
== Death and funeral ==
=== Death ===
Oommen Chandy was diagnosed with throat cancer. He commenced immunotherapy treatment at HCG Cancer Centre in Bengaluru in December 2022. Additionally, he underwent laser biopsy in Germany, a procedure that reduces tumor size but does not eliminate cancer. Despite these treatments, Chandy succumbed to the disease and died on 18 July 2023 at the age of 79 due to complications from throat cancer. He died at the Chinmaya Mission Hospital in Bengaluru.
=== Funeral procession ===
Following his death, Chandy's body was transported to Thiruvananthapuram via chartered flight for public homage, first at the Durbar Hall, Thiruvananthapuram and subsequently at the Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee (KPCC) office. The Government of Kerala declared a public holiday on 18 July 2023 and a two-day state mourning in his honour.
A solemn funeral procession began on 19 July 2023, traversing the 150 km distance from the state capital to Chandy's hometown, Puthuppally in Kottayam district. A journey that typically takes five hours was extended to approximately 30 hours due to the immense public outpouring of grief. Thousands of people lined the route to bid their final farewells to him.
The final rites were conducted at St. George Orthodox Church, Puthuppally, on 20 July 2023, presided over by Mar Baselios Marthoma Mathews III. As a honor of his public service, Oommen Chandy was laid to rest in a specially constructed tomb within the exclusive burial ground reserved for the Orthodox Church's clergy. Respecting his wishes, the family declined state honors, with his son expressing his father's desire for a simple funeral.
== Legacy ==
After Oommen Chandy's death, his son, Chandy Oommen, contested and won in the by-election.
KPCC President K Sudhakaran has said that Vizhinjam port should be named after Oommen Chandy since the port became a reality only due to his efforts.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Chandran, VP (2018). Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company, Kozhikode.
== Further reading ==
Chief Ministers, Ministers, and Leaders of Opposition of Kerala (PDF), Thiruvananthapuram: Secratriat of Kerala Legislature, 2018 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conalia | Conalia | Conalia is a genus of beetles in the family Mordellidae, found in North America and Europe.
== Species ==
These fourspecies belong to the genus Conalia:
Conalia baudii Mulsant & Rey, 1858 (Europe)
Conalia ebenina Champion 1891 (Caribbean)
Conalia helva (LeConte, 1862)
Conalia melanops Ray, 1946 (North America)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Mooney_Distinguished_Technology_Award#:~:text=1999%20Avraam%20I.%20Isayev%20%2D%20University%20of%20Akron%20Distinguished%20Professor%20of%20Polymer%20Science%5B28%5D%20known%20for%20widely%20used%20texts%20on%20rheology%20and%20polymer%20molding%20technology%2C%20as%20well%20as%20for%20development%20of%20technology%20for%20ultrasonic%20devulcanization%20of%20tire%20rubber. | Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award | The Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award is a professional award conferred by the ACS Rubber Division. Established in 1983, the award is named after Melvin Mooney, developer of the Mooney viscometer and of the Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic law. The award consists of an engraved plaque and prize money. The medal honors individuals "who have exhibited exceptional technical competency by making significant and repeated contributions to rubber science and technology".
== Recipients ==
=== 1980s ===
1982 J. Roger Beatty - Senior Research Fellow at B. F. Goodrich known for development of rubber testing instruments and methods
1983 Aubert Y. Coran - Monsanto researcher responsible for invention of thermoplastic elastomer Geolast
1984 Eli M. Dannenberg - Cabot scientist known for contributions to surface chemistry of carbon black
1985 William M. Hess - Columbian Chemicals Company scientist known for contributions to characterization of carbon black dispersion in rubber
1986 Albert M. Gessler - ExxonMobil researcher known for development of elastomeric thermoplastics
1987 Avrom I. Medalia - Cabot scientist known for contributions to understanding electrical conductivity and dynamic properties of carbon black filled rubbers
1988 John G. Sommer - GenCorp scientist and author of popular texts on rubber technology
1989 Joginder Lal - Goodyear Polymer Research Manager and expert in the synthesis and mechanism of the formation of high polymers.
=== 1990s ===
1990 Gerard Kraus - Phillips Petroleum Scientist known for developing testing standard for carbon black surface area
1991 Charles S. Schollenberger - B. F. Goodrich chemist who invented Estane
1992 Robert W. Layer - B. F. Goodrich chemist noted for contributions to chemistry of imines
1993 John R. Dunn - Polysar synthetic rubber research chemist
1994 Noboru Tokita - Uniroyal and later Cabot scientist known for studying processing of elastomers
1995 Edward N. Kresge - Exxon Chief Polymer Scientist who developed tailored molecular weight density EPDM elastomers
1997 Russell A. Livigni - Gencorp scientist known for discovery and development of barium-based catalysts for the polymerization of butadiene and its copolymerization with styrene to give high trans rubbers with low vinyl content
1998 Henry Hsieh - Phillips Petroleum scientist known for contributions to polymerization chemistry
1999 Avraam I. Isayev - University of Akron Distinguished Professor of Polymer Science known for widely used texts on rheology and polymer molding technology, as well as for development of technology for ultrasonic devulcanization of tire rubber.
=== 2000s ===
2000 Joseph Kuczkowski - Goodyear chemist who elucidated mechanisms of antioxidant function, resulting in the commercialization of several new antioxidant systems
2002 C. Michael Roland - Naval Research Lab scientist recognized for blast and impact protection using elastomers, and for diverse contributions to elastomer science
2003 Walter H. Waddell - Exxon scientist recognized for his work on tire innerliner technology
2004 Oon Hock Yeoh - Freudenberg Scientist known for contributions to nonlinear elasticity and fracture mechanics
2005 Kenneth F. Castner - Senior Research and Development Associate at Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company known for his work in nickel catalyzed diene polymerization for the synthesis of high cis-polybutadiene
2006 Meng-Jaio Wang - Cabot scientist known for studies of carbon black
2007 Daniel L. Hertz Jr. - President of Seals Eastern and NASA consultant on the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
2008 Robert P. Lattimer - Lubrizol Advanced Materials research and development technical fellow
2009 Frederick Ignatz-Hoover - Eastman technology fellow and 9th editor of Rubber Chemistry and Technology
=== 2010s ===
2010 William J. van Ooij - University of Cincinnati professor known for elucidating the mechanisms of brass-rubber adhesion in tires
2011 Periagaram S. Ravishankar - Exxon Senior Staff Engineer recognized for development of Vistalon EPDM elastomers
2012 Robert Schuster - former director of the German Institute for Rubber Technology (DIK) and popular lecturer on rubber technology
2014 Shingo Futamura - Materials scientist noted for his concept of the Deformation Index
2015 Alan H. Muhr - TARRC scientist noted for contributions to understanding the mechanics elastomer applications, including laminated rubber isolators, marine fenders, automotive mounts, and structural energy dissipation systems
2016 Dane Parker - Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company researcher known for developing a single-step process for converting Nitrile latex to HNBR latex
2017 David J. Lohse - ExxonMobil Materials Scientist known for contributions on thermodynamics of mixing, nanocomposites for controlling permeability, neutron scattering of polymers, rheology of polymers
2018 Joseph Padovan - University of Akron Distinguished Professor known for pioneering finite element procedures for analysis of rolling tires.
2019 Manfred Klüppel - German Institute for Rubber Technology department head of Material Concepts and Modeling group
=== 2020s ===
2020 Kenneth T. Gillen - Sandia National Labs researcher noted for contributions to service life prediction methods for elastomers
2021 Howard Colvin - Organic chemist and consultant to the tire and rubber industries noted for developments to rubber chemicals and polymers
2022 Anil K. Bhowmick - University of Houston professor known for contributions to polymer nanocomposites, thermoplastic elastomers, sustainability, adhesion, failure and degradation of rubbers and rubber technology
2023 Anke Blume - engineering technology professor at the University of Twente known for her contributions to silica and silane chemistry for rubber applications.
2024 Andrew V. Chapman - TARRC scientist noted for contributions to AFM microscopy of tire tread compounds.
2025 Sunny Jacob - ExxonMobil scientist known for leading the development of Thermoplastic vulcanizates products and processes.
== See also ==
International Rubber Science Hall of Fame: Another ACS award
Rubber Chemistry and Technology: An ACS journal
List of chemistry awards
Sparks-Thomas award
Charles Goodyear Medal
== References ==
== External links ==
The ACS Rubber Division
Oral histories of several medal winners
Chemical and Engineering News |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Kreisky | Bruno Kreisky | Bruno Kreisky (German: [ˈbʁuːno ˈkʁaɪ̯ski]; 22 January 1911 – 29 July 1990) was an Austrian social democratic politician who served as foreign minister from 1959 to 1966 and as chancellor from 1970 to 1983. Aged 72, he was the oldest chancellor after World War II.
Kreisky's 13-year tenure was the longest of any chancellor in republican Austria and, as an influential political figure in Western European social democracy, he worked closely with like-minded leaders Willy Brandt of West Germany and Olof Palme of Sweden in the Socialist International.
== Life and political career ==
Kreisky was born in Margareten, a district of Vienna, to a non-observant Jewish family. His parents were Max (Markus) Kreisky (1876, Klattau – 1944) and Irene Kreisky née Felix (1884, Třebíč – 1969). His father worked as a textile manufacturer. Shocked by the level of poverty and violence in Austria during the 1920s, he joined the youth wing of the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1925 at age 15. In 1927, he joined the Young Socialist Workers against the wishes of his parents. In 1929, he began studying law at the University of Vienna at the advice of Otto Bauer, who urged him to study law rather than medicine, as he had originally planned. He remained politically active during this period. In 1931, he left the Jewish religious community, becoming agnostic. In 1934, when the Socialist Party was banned by the Dollfuss dictatorship, he became active in underground political work. He was arrested in January 1935 and convicted of high treason, but was released in June 1936. In March 1938, the Austrian state was incorporated into Germany through the Anschluss, and in September, Kreisky escaped the Nazi persecution of Austrian Jews and the coming Holocaust by emigrating to Sweden, where he remained until 1945. On 23 April 1942, he married Vera Fürth (30 December 1916 – 5 December 1988) and had one son and one daughter.
He returned to Austria in May 1946, but he was soon back in Stockholm, assigned to the Austrian legation. In 1951, he returned to Vienna, where Federal President Theodor Körner appointed him Assistant Chief of Staff and political adviser. In 1953, he was appointed Undersecretary in the Foreign Affairs Department of the Austrian Chancellery, and in this position he took part in negotiating the 1955 Austrian State Treaty, which ended the four-power occupation of Austria and restored Austria's independence and neutrality.
Kreisky was elected to the Austrian parliament, the Nationalrat, as a Socialist during the 1956 election. He was elected to the Party Executive along with Bruno Pittermann, Felix Slavik, and Franz Olah, and thus became a member of the central leadership body of the party. After the 1959 election, he became foreign minister in the coalition cabinet of Chancellor Julius Raab (ÖVP), a post he continued to hold under Raab's successors Alfons Gorbach (1961–1964) and Josef Klaus (1964–1966). He played a leading role in setting up the European Free Trade Association, helped solve the South Tyrol question with Italy, and proposed a "Marshall Plan" for the countries of the Third World.
In 1966, the ÖVP under Klaus won an absolute majority in the Nationalrat. Klaus had enough parliamentary support to govern alone; indeed, during the campaign, he had called for an end to the grand coalition that had governed Austria since 1945. Memories of the hyperpartisanship that characterised the First Republic were still strong, so he approached Kreisky with new coalition terms. While Kreisky and the other Socialist leadership supported retaining the coalition, the rank and file balked at the proposed terms, and talks broke down. Kreisky resigned from the cabinet, and the ÖVP formed the first one-party government of the Second Republic. The Socialists retained some power and were informally consulted on all major decisions. In February 1967, Kreisky was elected chairman of the Socialist Party. At the March 1970 elections, the Socialists won 81 seats, two short of a majority. Kreisky became the first Socialist Chancellor since 1920, heading the first purely left-wing government in modern Austrian history. He was also Austria's first Jewish chancellor. Kreisky's government was tolerated by the then national-liberal Freedom Party in return for electoral reforms that expanded the Nationalrat and increased the proportionality of votes. Following the passage of these reforms, he called fresh elections in October 1971. Although the reforms were intended to benefit smaller parties, the Socialists won a strong majority government with 93 seats. They also won half the popular vote, something no Austrian party had ever achieved in a free election. Kreisky was reelected in 1975 and 1979 elections, each time winning comfortable majorities in the Nationalrat.
Kreisky turned 70 in 1981, and by this time the voters had become increasingly uncomfortable with what they saw as his complacency and preoccupation with international issues. At the 1983 election, the Socialists lost their absolute majority in the Nationalrat. Kreisky declined to form a minority government and resigned, nominating Fred Sinowatz, his Minister of Education, as his successor. His health was declining, and in 1984, he had an emergency kidney transplant. During his final years, he occasionally made bitter remarks directed at his party, which had made him their honorary chairman. He died in Vienna in July 1990.
== Political views and programs ==
In office, Kreisky and his close ally, Justice Minister Christian Broda, pursued a policy of liberal reform in a country which had a tradition of conservative Roman Catholicism. He reformed Austria's family law and its prisons, and he decriminalized abortion and homosexuality. Nevertheless, he sought to bridge the gap between the Catholic Church and the Austrian Socialist movement and found a willing collaborator in the then Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna, Franz König. Kreisky promised to reduce the mandatory military service from nine to six months. After his election, military service was reduced to eight months (if performed in one stretch, or six months plus eight weeks if broken into two segments).
During Kreisky's premiership, a wide range of progressive reforms was carried out. Amongst other reforms, employee benefits were expanded, the workweek was cut to 40 hours, and legislation providing for equality for women was passed. Kreisky's government established language rights for the country's Slovene and Croatian minorities. Following the 1974 oil shock, Kreisky committed Austria to developing nuclear power to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, although this policy was eventually abandoned after a referendum held in 1978. A moderate reform of the penal code was carried out, discrimination against illegitimate children was eliminated, marriage grants were introduced, a mother-child pass (a prenatal/post-natal care and infant health program) was established, a major reform of the penal code was carried out, and sex equality legislation was passed. In addition, four weeks of annual vacation were introduced, the office of ombudsman was established, the law of parentage was reordered, consumer protection legislation was passed, and social security coverage of the self-employed was introduced. In 1979, restrictions on redundancy and the dismissal of employees were made.
Widows' pensions were indexed in 1970, and in 1972, free medical checks for healthy people were made available, while optional health insurance for students was introduced. Periods of study, illness, and unemployment were allowed pensionable status, and in 1974 family and birth benefits were indexed. The 1973 Special Subsidies Act introduced subsidies for those made redundant as a result of structural changes. The Wage Continuation Act of 1974 introduced wage continuation for workers in private enterprises in cases of sickness. In 1976, accident insurance was extended to work-related activities. The Night-shift/Heavy Manual Work Act of 1981 introduced preventive healthcare and a special early retirement pension for heavy manual workers.
Full sick pay was extended to blue-collar unions in 1974, and family benefits were expanded to include full school transport (1971), a marriage payment (1972), payment for school books (1974), and a birth payment (1976). In 1978, due to a change from tax allowances to direct payments for children, family benefits increased significantly. Between 1973 and 1980, expenditure on health and education rose on average by 13.7% and by 12.9% per annum, respectively. In education, pupil/teacher ratios fell sharply and a new university law was passed in 1975 in order to make higher education more democratic. The educational sector was significantly expanded under Kreisky, greatly increasing the numbers of Austrians receiving a university education.
The 1972 Crime Victims Act established the principles of compensation for health damages caused (directly or indirectly) by crimes punishable by more than 6 months' imprisonment. The 1974 Town Renovation Act dealt with the renovation of residential town areas, while the 1975 Housing Property Act established the property rights of house- and flat-owners. In 1975, housing supplements were extended to cover the costs of housing improvements. In 1974, the work prohibition periods before and after work birth were extended up to 8 weeks, and in 1976, the regulations were extended to adoptive mothers. A 1981 law adapted pension schemes to changes in the families' load equalisation scheme, and introduced a widowers' pension equivalent to the widows' pension. In 1976, accident insurance for pupils and students was introduced, while an act passed that same year enabled people to undertake the care of close relatives who were ill. Under the Bankruptcy Wage Continuation Act of 1979, claims against bankrupt firms were paid from a special fund. In 1982, a maternity allowance payable for 16 weeks was introduced for self-employed women.
Although the 1955 State Treaty prevented Austria from joining the European Union, he supported European integration.
Kreisky questioned Zionism as a solution to the problems faced by the Jewish people, claiming that Jews were not an ethnic group or race, but rather a religious group. He even equated claims of the existence of the Jewish people as a distinctive nationality to Nazi claims of a Jewish race, and suggested that such ideas raised questions about Jewish dual loyalty. Kreisky referred to Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin as a terrorist, and had a stormy relationship with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, especially during the 1973 hostage taking. He once said that he was "the only politician in Europe Golda Meir can't blackmail." He cultivated friendly relations with Arab leaders such as Anwar Sadat and Muammar Gaddafi, and in 1980, Austria established relations with the Palestine Liberation Organisation.
Kreisky was notable for his allegedly apologetic approach to former Nazi party members and contemporary far-right Austrian politicians. For example, Kreisky described far-right populist Jörg Haider as "a political talent worth watching". In 1967, neo-Nazi Austrian leader Norbert Burger declared that he had no objections to Kreisky despite his Jewish background, claiming that he was simply a "German" and neither a religious Jew nor a Zionist. Kreisky felt that he had never personally suffered as a Jew, but only as a socialist. Following his election in 1970, Kreisky wanted to demonstrate that he was indeed "Chancellor of all Austrians", and appointed four politicians with Nazi backgrounds to his cabinet. When Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal reported that these four members of Kreisky's cabinet were former Nazis, Kreisky did not remove them from the government, though one did resign. They were former SS-Untersturmführer Hans Öllinger, who took part in flamethrower commandos, "fire brigades" that killed survivors after storming villages; Otto Rösch was a teacher at the NPEA/Napola Traiskirchen, an elite NSDAP school for the training of future National Socialist leaders; and
Erwin Frühbauer and Josef Moser, Nazi Party members. Kreisky responded that everybody had the right to make political mistakes in their youth. This incident marked the beginning of a bitter conflict, which did not end until Kreisky died. At a party conference, his secretary Leopold Gratz claimed that Wiesenthal was operating a "secret police and surveillance centre" and was in no way allowed to defame democratically elected politicians. Kreisky later on said that Wiesenthal "makes a living telling the world that Austria is anti-Semitic. What else can he do?"; he went on to call Wiesenthal a former Gestapo agent, based on Czechoslovak intelligence papers which turned out to be fakes, and wanted a parliamentary investigation of Wiesenthal's Jewish Documentary Center in Vienna. He claimed that Wiesenthal was employing mafia methods.
In 1986, Wiesenthal filed a libel lawsuit (although Kreisky had the power to declare immunity if he so chose), and when Kreisky later accused Wiesenthal of being an agent of the Gestapo, working with the Judenrat in Lvov, these accusations were incorporated into the lawsuit as well.Three years later the court found Kreisky guilty of defamation and sentenced him to pay a [suspended] substantial fine. of 270,000 schillings for defamation. The suit was decided in Wiesenthal's favour in 1989, but after Kreisky's death nine months later, his heirs refused to pay. Wiesenthal later commented: "Kreisky lost, and instead of paying the fine, he died." When the relevant archives were later opened for research, no evidence was found that Wiesenthal had been a collaborator. In 1975, Kreisky proposed that his Social Democratic Party should form a coalition with the Freedom Party, headed by Friedrich Peter. SS-Obersturmführer Friedrich Peter served in the 1st SS Infantry Brigade was attached to Einsatzgruppe C. Postwar Chairman of the Freedom Party [died 25 September 2005]; Kreisky supported Peter and said that Wiesenthal was a "crypto-racist" who himself was responsible for antisemitism in Austria.
In 1976, the Bruno Kreisky Foundation for Outstanding Achievements in the Area of Human Rights was founded to mark Kreisky's 65th birthday. Every two years, the Bruno Kreisky Human Rights Prize is awarded to an international figure who has advanced the cause of human rights.
Later in his life, Kreisky tried to help some Soviet dissidents. In particular, in 1983, he sent a letter to the Soviet premier Yuri Andropov demanding the release of dissident Yuri Orlov, but Andropov left Kreisky's letter unanswered.
== Legacy ==
Today, Kreisky's chancellorship is the subject of both controversy and nostalgia. Many of his former supporters see in Kreisky the last socialist of the old school and look back admiringly at an era when the standard of living was noticeably rising, when the welfare state was in full swing and when, by means of a state-funded programme promoting equality of opportunity, working class children were encouraged to stay on at school and eventually receive higher education. All this resulted in a decade of prosperity and optimism about the future.
Conservatives criticise Kreisky's policy of deficit spending, expressed in his famous comment during the 1979 election campaign that he preferred that the state run up high debts rather than see people become unemployed. They hold Kreisky responsible for Austria's subsequent economic difficulties.
Despite this criticism, Kreisky did much to transform Austria during his time in office, with considerable improvements in working conditions, a dramatic rise in the average standard of living, and a significant expansion of the welfare state, and arguably remains the most successful socialist Chancellor of Austria.
== See also ==
Chancellor of Austria for a complete list of Federal Chancellors since the founding of the Republic in 1918
Kreisky-Peter-Wiesenthal affair
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bischof, Günter, and Anton Pelinka, eds. The Kreisky Era in Austria (Transaction Publishers, 1994).
Kreisky, Bruno, et al. The Struggle for a Democratic Austria: Bruno Kreisky on Peace and Social Justice (Berghahn Books, 2000).
Secher, H. Pierre. Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria: A Political Biography (Dorrance Publ., 1993).
Vivekanandan, Bhagavathi. Global Visions of Olof Palme, Bruno Kreisky and Willy Brandt: International Peace and Security, Co-operation, and Development (Springer, 2016).
Wilsford, David, ed. Political Leaders of Contemporary Western Europe: A Biographical Dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 259–65
== External links ==
The Bruno Kreisky Foundation
Kreisky's dicta(in German)
The Kreisky Years
100 Years Bruno Kreisky For the 100'th Birthday of Bruno Kreisky – Overview about his political work |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapper_Keeper_(South_Park) | Trapper Keeper (South Park) | "Trapper Keeper" is the twelfth episode of the fourth season of the animated television series South Park, and the 60th episode of the series overall. It is the 13th episode in production order of Season 4. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 15, 2000. In the episode, a man from the future wants Cartman's new Trapper Keeper, while Mr. Garrison's kindergarten class holds an election for class president with confusing results. The Trapper Keeper storyline is an allusion to the Terminator films as well as the anime movie Akira. The subplot with the class president election is a parody of the 2000 United States presidential election and the controversy surrounding its outcome. Kief Davidson plays a guest role, voicing the kindergarteners.
== Plot ==
While waiting for the school bus, Kyle shows his friends his new Dawson's Creek Trapper Keeper. He is joined by Cartman who reveals he has a special, advanced Dawson's Creek Trapper Keeper Ultra Keeper Futura S 2000, which has incredibly advanced computerized features including a television, a music player with voice recognition, OnStar and the ability to automatically hybridize itself to any electronic peripheral device. Kyle accuses Cartman of having purchased it to make him envious. On the bus, a mysterious white man calling himself "Bill Cosby" asks about Cartman's Trapper Keeper, which the man then attempts to steal. He succeeds by buying Cartman's trust, despite Cartman saying "I'm not supposed to have male friends over 30; I kinda got screwed over on that once." When "Bill Cosby" is caught by Officer Barbrady and Cartman, he explains his actions: the Trapper Keeper binder is destined to gain sentience and hybridize into a supercomputer to conquer the world in the future, and wipe out all traces of humanity. Cosby himself is a cyborg from the future named BSM-471, sent back in time to destroy the binder before it could rise to power; Cosby manages to destroy it, but Cartman buys another one and refuses to allow it to be destroyed.
Meanwhile, Mr. Garrison has been demoted to teaching kindergarten, and his students holds an election for class president. Kyle's brother Ike has been admitted to kindergarten two years early because of his supposed intelligence (despite not being able to speak properly). Ike is chosen by Mr. Garrison to run against a boy named Filmore, resulting in a tie that is broken by the vote of a little girl named Flora. Flora is indecisive at first but eventually chooses Ike; Filmore's supporters demand recounts and then call in Rosie O'Donnell, his aunt, who protests the results. After teams of lawyers get involved, filing masses of paperwork and holding protracted meetings, Filmore concedes the election because, according to him, "this game is stupid." With the dispute settled, the class decides to fingerpaint, much to Garrison's delight.
While this is happening, Stan, Kyle and Kenny accompany their robotic companion to Cartman's house to convince his mother to help them, but she goes off with Bill Cosby to have sex. Meanwhile, Cartman's Trapper Keeper integrates itself into Cartman's computer and most of his belongings, and then absorbs Cartman himself. Cartman is transformed into a giant, cybernetic blobby monster that retains most of Cartman's features, similar in style and execution to the movie Akira. It kills Kenny and destroys the house, and sets off to Cheyenne Mountain to absorb the secret military base's computer. Bill Cosby warns that if the Trapper Keeper assimilates with the supercomputer at Cheyenne Mountain, it will become unstoppable.
Kyle sneaks into the huge Cartman-Trapper Keeper hybrid through a ventilation pipe; but before he can disable it, the Trapper Keeper incapacitates him. O'Donnell appears in front of the Trapper Keeper and yells at it for blocking the road. The Trapper Keeper then absorbs her, but fusing with her ultimately makes the behemoth sick. Kyle is freed and disconnects the Trapper Keeper's CPU, causing it to lose power and release Cartman and a now deceased O'Donnell as it collapses. The destruction of the Trapper Keeper causes Bill Cosby to disappear, and Stan tells Cartman to thank Kyle, who just saved his life. Cartman starts to address Kyle, but gets no farther than saying his name before the end credits cut him off.
== Development ==
=== Background ===
The episode is a parody of the controversy surrounding the 2000 United States presidential election on November 7, 2000. State results tallied on election night gave 246 electoral votes to Republican candidate George W. Bush and 255 to Democratic nominee Al Gore, with New Mexico (5), Oregon (7), and Florida (25) too close to call that evening. Mathematically, Florida's 25 electoral votes became the key to an election win, while both New Mexico and Oregon were called in favor of Gore over the next few days. After an intense recount process, Bush was officially declared the winner of Florida's electoral votes and, as a result, the entire presidential election. There was disagreement over who won Florida's 25 electoral votes, the vote recount, and the uncommon situation in which the winner received fewer popular votes than the loser.
=== Production ===
"Trapper Keeper" was written by South Park co-creator Trey Parker when he, Matt Stone, and a group of friends visited Lake Powell. It is one of the many South Park episodes that parodies a current event. The main plot of the episode involving the Trapper Keeper was written before the election, but the subplot is a parody of the controversy surrounding the election's outcome. "Trapper Keeper" did not originally feature the election storyline, only a subplot about Ike attending his first day of kindergarten.
Parker and Stone said the presidential election controversy was "kids' stuff", and that is what they were trying to show with the episode. Stone commented that "it makes perfect sense because everything is just so childish anyway, the way people are acting about the election and the way candidates are. Usually you try to satirize something by taking it to the extreme. But it was actually kind of hard to satirize because it's just so stupid you can't even take it to an extreme". Anne Garefino, executive producer of South Park, said that when they applied the presidential election process to kindergarten, it "finally [made] sense". Stone added that the storyline "kind of wrote itself. When you put this same situation in with kindergartners, everyone's actions kind of make a lot more sense".
The voices of the kindergarteners were provided by actual children, including the son of one of the producers on the show. Parker and Stone said they had fun recording the kindergarten scenes, because "instead of adults doing the voices of the kids, it was so funny to hear a little kid actually doing it". The episode was completed at approximately nine in the morning on the day it aired, November 15, 2000, only days after the election was over. Parker and Stone worked with a team of 70 animators and computer engineers to get the episode finished in time.
== Cultural references ==
The main plot of "Trapper Keeper" is a parody of the Terminator films. The episode also features references to 2001: A Space Odyssey and Akira. The Trapper Keeper's ability to take on the physical forms of the various things it has consumed is a reference to the eponymous entity in the 1958 version of the movie The Blob.
The New York Post's Andrea Peyser analyzed the episode's references to the 2000 United States presidential election. She commented that in "Trapper Keeper", the election of class president ends in a deadlock, while in Florida, the election for president was "hopelessly deadlocked". She went on to say that Rosie O'Donnell appears in "Trapper Keeper" and plans to gather lawyers, media and her friends to "help settle the race the way she sees fit", while in Florida, O'Donnell, Harvey Weinstein, Gloria Steinem, Bianca Jagger, "and other celebrities signed a petition demanding a revote in Palm Beach County, ensuring the race would go to Gore". One of the kindergarteners is named Flora, referencing the state Florida that was undecided in the election.
== Reception ==
Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz of The Star-Ledger reviewed the episode as "terrific, especially the vote for kindergarten class president, and the recount-recount-recount bit". Sepinwall added that he was "pretty amazed myself that the South Park guys were able to put together such a sharp election satire so quickly. I called up Comedy Central and found out that they do all the animation in-house on computers that allow them to work much faster than shows like The Simpsons, which contract out all the animation to firms in Korea that take months to complete an episode." Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict described "Trapper Keeper" as "a clever attack on the entire Florida voting debacle in the 2000 election—the show's take on the entire childish nature of the fighting is fantastic. As a Terminator knock-off 'Trapper Keeper' is a lot of fun. But adding in the political element really increases the deliciously derogatory tone."
DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson characterized "Trapper Keeper" as "a clever riff" on Terminator and the controversy of the 2000 election. He thought both plots "work really well, as the show tosses in lots of cool little moments. ... It's funny and smart, and a good [episode]." IGN's David Galindo called the episode "great," and Fort Worth Star-Telegram's Lisa Davis named Mr. Garrison's line "You're all acting like a bunch of kids!" the "best line of the week."
"Trapper Keeper" originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 15, 2000. Though a rerun of the episode aired in the middle of the night on WPIX because of offensive content, a The Star-Ledger critic did not think it was "that dirty to begin with." The episode was included in the UMD South Park: When Technology Attacks that was released on October 11, 2005, for the PlayStation Portable. Other episodes included in the collection were "Best Friends Forever," "Cancelled," "Simpsons Already Did It," and "Towelie."
== See also ==
"Douche and Turd", a South Park episode about the 2004 U.S. presidential election
"About Last Night...", a South Park episode about the 2008 U.S. presidential election
"Obama Wins!", a South Park episode about the 2012 U.S. presidential election
"Oh, Jeez", a South Park episode about the 2016 U.S. presidential election
== References ==
== External links ==
"Trapper Keeper" Full episode at South Park Studios
"Trapper Keeper" at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Abramovi%C4%87#Rhythm_2,_1974 | Marina Abramović | Marina Abramović (Serbian Cyrillic: Марина Абрамовић, pronounced [marǐːna abrǎːmovitɕ]; born November 30, 1946) is a Serbian conceptual and performance artist. Her work explores body art, endurance art, the relationship between the performer and audience, the limits of the body, and the possibilities of the mind. Being active for over four decades, Abramović refers to herself as the "grandmother of performance art". She pioneered a new notion of artistic identity by bringing in the participation of observers, focusing on "confronting pain, blood, and physical limits of the body". In 2007, she founded the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a non-profit foundation for performance art.
== Early life ==
Abramović was born in Belgrade, PR Serbia, FPR Yugoslavia, on November 30, 1946. In an interview, Abramović described her family as having been "Red bourgeoisie". Her great-uncle was Varnava, Serbian Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Both of her Montenegrin-born parents, Danica Rosić and Vojin Abramović, were Yugoslav Partisans during World War II. After the war, Abramović's parents were given positions in the postwar Yugoslavian government.
Abramović was raised by her grandparents until she was six years old. Her grandmother was deeply religious and Abramović "spent [her] childhood in a church following [her] grandmother's rituals—candles in the morning, the priest coming for different occasions". When she was six, her brother was born, and she began living with her parents while also taking piano, French, and English lessons. Although she did not take art lessons, she took an early interest in art and enjoyed painting as a child.
Life in Abramović's parental home under her mother's strict supervision was difficult. When Abramović was a child, her mother beat her for "supposedly showing off". In an interview published in 1998, Abramović described how her "mother took complete military-style control of me and my brother. I was not allowed to leave the house after 10 o'clock at night until I was 29 years old. ... [A]ll the performances in Yugoslavia I did before 10 o'clock in the evening because I had to be home then. It's completely insane, but all of my cutting myself, whipping myself, burning myself, almost losing my life in 'The Firestar'—everything was done before 10 in the evening."
In an interview published in 2013, Abramović said, "My mother and father had a terrible marriage." Describing an incident when her father smashed 12 champagne glasses and left the house, she said, "It was the most horrible moment of my childhood."
== Education and teaching career ==
She was a student at the Academy of Fine Arts in Belgrade from 1965 to 1970. She completed her post-graduate studies in the art class of Krsto Hegedušić at the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb, SR Croatia, in 1972. Then she returned to SR Serbia and, from 1973 to 1975, taught at the Academy of Fine Arts at Novi Sad while launching her first solo performances.
In 1976, following her marriage to Neša Paripović (between 1970 and 1976), Abramović went to Amsterdam to perform a piece and then decided to move there permanently.
From 1990 to 1995, Abramović was a visiting professor at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and at the Berlin University of the Arts. From 1992 to 1996 she also served as a visiting professor at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and from 1997 to 2004 she was a professor for performance-art at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Braunschweig.
== Art career ==
=== Rhythm 10, 1973 ===
In her first performance in Edinburgh in 1973, Abramović explored elements of ritual and gesture. Making use of ten knives and two tape recorders, the artist played the Russian game, in which rhythmic knife jabs are aimed between the splayed fingers of one's hand, the title of the piece getting its name from the number of knives used. Each time she cut herself, she would pick up a new knife from the row of ten she had set up, and record the operation. After cutting herself ten times, she replayed the tape, listened to the sounds, and tried to repeat the same movements, attempting to replicate the mistakes, merging past and present. She set out to explore the physical and mental limitations of the body – the pain and the sounds of the stabbing; the double sounds from the history and the replication. With this piece, Abramović began to consider the state of consciousness of the performer. "Once you enter into the performance state you can push your body to do things you absolutely could never normally do."
=== Rhythm 5, 1974 ===
In this performance, Abramović sought to re-evoke the energy of extreme bodily pain, using a large petroleum-drenched star, which the artist lit on fire at the start of the performance. Standing outside the star, Abramović cut her nails, toenails, and hair. When finished with each, she threw the clippings into the flames, creating a burst of light each time. Burning the communist five-pointed star or pentagram represented a physical and mental purification, while also addressing the political traditions of her past. In the final act of purification, Abramović leapt across the flames into the center of the large pentagram. At first, due to the light and smoke given off by the fire, the observing audience did not realize that the artist had lost consciousness from lack of oxygen inside the star. However, when the flames came very near to her body and she still remained inert, a doctor and others intervened and extricated her from the star.
Abramović later commented upon this experience: "I was very angry because I understood there is a physical limit. When you lose consciousness you can't be present, you can't perform."
=== Rhythm 2, 1974 ===
Prompted by her loss of consciousness during Rhythm 5, Abramović devised the two-part Rhythm 2 to incorporate a state of unconsciousness in a performance. She performed the work at the Gallery of Contemporary Art in Zagreb, in 1974. In Part I, which had a duration of 50 minutes, she ingested a medication she describes as 'given to patients who suffer from catatonia, to force them to change the positions of their bodies.' The medication caused her muscles to contract violently, and she lost complete control over her body while remaining aware of what was going on. After a ten-minute break, she took a second medication 'given to schizophrenic patients with violent behavior disorders to calm them down.' The performance ended after five hours when the medication wore off.
=== Rhythm 4, 1974 ===
Rhythm 4 was performed at the Galleria Diagramma in Milan. In this piece, Abramović knelt alone and naked in a room with a high-power industrial fan. She approached the fan slowly, attempting to breathe in as much air as possible to push the limits of her lungs. Soon after she lost consciousness.
Abramović's previous experience in Rhythm 5, when the audience interfered in the performance, led to her devising specific plans so that her loss of consciousness would not interrupt the performance before it was complete. Before the beginning of her performance, Abramović asked the cameraman to focus only on her face, disregarding the fan. This was so the audience would be oblivious to her unconscious state, and therefore unlikely to interfere. After several minutes of Abramović's unconsciousness, the cameraman refused to continue and sent for help.
=== Rhythm 0, 1974 ===
To test the limits of the relationship between performer and audience, Abramović developed one of her most challenging and best-known performances, which took place in Naples, Italy. She assigned a passive role to herself, with the public being the force that would act on her. Abramović placed on a table 72 objects that people were allowed to use in any way that they chose; a sign informed them that they held no responsibility for any of their actions. Some of the objects could give pleasure, while others could be wielded to inflict pain, or to harm her. Among them were a rose, a feather, honey, a whip, olive oil, scissors, a scalpel, a gun and a single bullet. For six hours the artist allowed audience members to manipulate her body and actions without consequences. This tested how vulnerable and aggressive human subjects could be when actions have no social consequences. At first the audience did not do much and was extremely passive. However, as the realization began to set in that there was no limit to their actions, the piece became brutal. By the end of the performance, her body was stripped, attacked, and devalued into an image that Abramović described as the "Madonna, mother, and whore." As Abramović described it later: "What I learned was that ... if you leave it up to the audience, they can kill you. ... I felt really violated: they cut up my clothes, stuck rose thorns in my stomach, one person aimed the gun at my head, and another took it away. It created an aggressive atmosphere. After exactly 6 hours, as planned, I stood up and started walking toward the audience. Everyone ran away, to escape an actual confrontation."
In her works, Abramović defines her identity in contradiction to that of spectators; however, more importantly, by blurring the roles of each party, the identity and nature of humans individually and collectively also become less clear. By doing so, the individual experience morphs into a collective one and truths are revealed. Abramović's art also represents the objectification of the female body, as she remains passive and allows spectators to do as they please to her; the audience pushes the limits of what might be considered acceptable. By presenting her body as an object, she explores the limits of danger and exhaustion a human can endure.
=== Works with Ulay (Uwe Laysiepen) ===
In 1976, after moving to Amsterdam, Abramović met the West German performance artist Uwe Laysiepen, who went by the single name Ulay. They began living and performing together that year. When Abramović and Ulay began their collaboration, the main concepts they explored were the ego and artistic identity. They created "relation works" characterized by constant movement, change, process and "art vital". This was the beginning of a decade of influential collaborative work. Each performer was interested in the traditions of their cultural heritage and the individual's desire for ritual. Consequently, they decided to form a collective being called "The Other", and spoke of themselves as parts of a "two-headed body". They dressed and behaved like twins and created a relationship of complete trust. As they defined this phantom identity, their individual identities became less defined. In an analysis of phantom artistic identities, Charles Green has noted that this allowed a deeper understanding of the artist as performer, since it revealed a way of "having the artistic self made available for self-scrutiny".
The work of Abramović and Ulay tested the physical limits of the body and explored male and female principles, psychic energy, transcendental meditation, and nonverbal communication. While some critics have explored the idea of a hermaphroditic state of being as a feminist statement, Abramović herself rejects this analysis. Her body studies, she insists, have always been concerned primarily with the body as the unit of an individual, a tendency she traces to her parents' military pasts. Rather than concerning themselves with gender ideologies, Abramović/Ulay explored extreme states of consciousness and their relationship to architectural space. They devised a series of works in which their bodies created additional spaces for audience interaction. In discussing this phase of her performance history, she has said: "The main problem in this relationship was what to do with the two artists' egos. I had to find out how to put my ego down, as did he, to create something like a hermaphroditic state of being that we called the death self."
In Relation in Space (1976) they ran into each other repeatedly for an hour – mixing male and female energy into the third component called "that self".
Relation in Movement (1977) had the pair driving their car inside of a museum for 365 laps; a black liquid oozed from the car, forming a kind of sculpture, each lap representing a year. (After 365 laps the idea was that they entered the New Millennium.)
In Relation in Time (1977) they sat back to back, tied together by their ponytails for sixteen hours. They then allowed the public to enter the room to see if they could use the energy of the public to push their limits even further.
To create Breathing In/Breathing Out the two artists devised a piece in which they connected their mouths and took in each other's exhaled breaths until they had used up all of the available oxygen. Nineteen minutes after the beginning of the performance they pulled away from each other, their lungs having filled with carbon dioxide. This personal piece explored the idea of an individual's ability to absorb the life of another person, exchanging and destroying it.
In Imponderabilia (1977, reenacted in 2010) two performers of opposite sexes, both completely nude, stand in a narrow doorway. The public must squeeze between them in order to pass, and in doing so choose which one of them to face.
In AAA-AAA (1978) the two artists stood opposite each other and made long sounds with their mouths open. They gradually moved closer and closer, until they were eventually yelling directly into each other's mouths. This piece demonstrated their interest in endurance and duration.
In 1980, they performed Rest Energy, in an art exhibition in Amsterdam, where both balanced each other on opposite sides of a drawn bow and arrow, with the arrow pointed at Abramović's heart. With almost no effort, Ulay could easily kill Abramović with one finger. This was intended to represent the power advantage men have over women in society. In addition, the handle of the bow is held by Abramović and is pointed at herself. The handle of the bow is the most significant part of a bow. This would be a whole different piece if it were Ulay aiming a bow at Abramović, but by having her hold the bow, even while her life is subject to his will, she supports him.
Between 1981 and 1987, the pair performed Nightsea Crossing in twenty-two performances. They sat silently across from each other in chairs for seven hours a day.
In 1988, after several years of tense relations, Abramović and Ulay decided to make a spiritual journey that would end their relationship. They each walked the Great Wall of China, in a piece called Lovers, starting from the two opposite ends and meeting in the middle. As Abramović described it: "That walk became a complete personal drama. Ulay started from the Gobi Desert and I from the Yellow Sea. After each of us walked 2500 km, we met in the middle and said good-bye." She has said that she conceived this walk in a dream, and it provided what she thought was an appropriate, romantic ending to a relationship full of mysticism, energy, and attraction. She later described the process: "We needed a certain form of ending, after this huge distance walking towards each other. It is very human. It is in a way more dramatic, more like a film ending ... Because in the end, you are really alone, whatever you do." She reported that during her walk she was reinterpreting her connection to the physical world and to nature. She felt that the metals in the ground influenced her mood and state of being; she also pondered the Chinese myths in which the Great Wall has been described as a "dragon of energy". It took the couple eight years to acquire permission from the Chinese government to perform the work, by which time their relationship had completely dissolved.
At her 2010 MoMA retrospective, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, in which she shared a period of silence with each stranger who sat in front of her. Although "they met and talked the morning of the opening", Abramović had a deeply emotional reaction to Ulay when he arrived at her performance, reaching out to him across the table between them; the video of the event went viral.
In November 2015, Ulay took Abramović to court, claiming she had paid him insufficient royalties according to the terms of a 1999 contract covering sales of their joint works and a year later, in September 2016, Abramović was ordered to pay Ulay €250,000. In its ruling, the court in Amsterdam found that Ulay was entitled to royalties of 20% net on the sales of their works, as specified in the original 1999 contract, and ordered Abramović to backdate royalties of more than €250,000, as well as more than €23,000 in legal costs. Additionally, she was ordered to credit all works created between 1976 and 1980 as "Ulay/Abramović" and all works created between 1981 and 1988 as "Abramović/Ulay".
=== Cleaning the Mirror, 1995 ===
Cleaning the Mirror consisted of five monitors playing footage in which Abramović scrubs a grimy human skeleton in her lap. She vigorously brushes the different parts of the skeleton with soapy water. Each monitor is dedicated to one part of the skeleton: the head, the pelvis, the ribs, the hands, and the feet. Each video is filmed with its own sound, creating an overlap. As the skeleton becomes cleaner, Abramović becomes covered in the grayish dirt that was once covering the skeleton. This three-hour performance is filled with metaphors of the Tibetan death rites that prepare disciples to become one with their own mortality. The piece was composed of three parts. Cleaning the Mirror #1, lasting three hours, was performed at the Museum of Modern Art. Cleaning the Mirror #2 lasts 90 minutes and was performed at Oxford University. Cleaning the Mirror #3 was performed at Pitt Rivers Museum over five hours.
=== Spirit Cooking, 1996 ===
Abramović worked with Jacob Samuel to produce a cookbook of "aphrodisiac recipes" called Spirit Cooking in 1996. These "recipes" were meant to be "evocative instructions for actions or for thoughts". For example, one of the recipes calls for "13,000 grams of jealousy", while another says to "mix fresh breast milk with fresh sperm milk." The work was inspired by the popular belief that ghosts feed off intangible things like light, sound, and emotions.
In 1997, Abramović created a multimedia Spirit Cooking installation. This was originally installed in the Zerynthia Associazione per l'Arte Contemporanea in Rome, Italy, and included white gallery walls with "enigmatically violent recipe instructions" painted in pig's blood. According to Alexxa Gotthardt, the work is "a comment on humanity's reliance on ritual to organize and legitimize our lives and contain our bodies".
Abramović also published a Spirit Cooking cookbook, containing comico-mystical, self-help instructions that are meant to be poetry. Spirit Cooking later evolved into a form of dinner party entertainment that Abramović occasionally lays on for collectors, donors, and friends.
=== Balkan Baroque, 1997 ===
In this piece, Abramović vigorously scrubbed thousands of bloody cow bones over a period of four days, a reference to the ethnic cleansing that had taken place in the Balkans during the 1990s. This performance piece earned Abramović the Golden Lion award at the Venice Biennale.
Abramović created Balkan Baroque as a response to the Yugoslav Wars. She remembers other artists reacting immediately, creating work and protesting about the effects and horrors of the war. Abramović could not bring herself to create work on the matter so soon, as it hit too close to home for her. Eventually, Abramović returned to Belgrade, where she interviewed her mother, her father, and a rat-catcher. She then incorporated these interviews into her piece, as well as clips of the hands of her father holding a pistol and her mother's empty hands and later, her crossed hands. Abramović is dressed as a doctor recounting the story of the rat-catcher. While the clips are playing, Abramović sits among a large pile of bones and tries to wash them.
The performance occurred in Venice in 1997. Abramović remembered the horrible smell – for it was extremely hot in Venice that summer – and that worms emerged from the bones. She has explained that the idea of scrubbing the bones clean and trying to remove the blood, is impossible. The point Abramović was trying to make is that blood can't be washed from bones and hands, just as the war couldn't be cleansed of shame. She wanted to allow the images from the performance to speak for not only the war in Bosnia, but for any war, anywhere in the world.
=== Seven Easy Pieces, 2005 ===
Beginning on November 9, 2005, Abramović presented Seven Easy Pieces commissioned by Performa, at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. On seven consecutive nights for seven hours she recreated the works of five artists first performed in the 1960s and 1970s, in addition to re-performing her own Thomas Lips and introducing a new performance on the last night. The performances were arduous, requiring both the physical and the mental concentration of the artist. Included in Abramović's performances were recreations of Gina Pane's The Conditioning, which required lying on a bed frame suspended over a grid of lit candles, and of Vito Acconci's 1972 performance in which the artist masturbated under the floorboards of a gallery as visitors walked overhead. It is argued that Abramović re-performed these works as a series of homages to the past, though many of the performances were altered from the originals. All seven performances were dedicated to Abramović's late friend Susan Sontag.
A full list of the works performed is as follows:
Bruce Nauman's Body Pressure (1974)
Vito Acconci's Seedbed (1972)
Valie Export's Action Pants: Genital Panic (1969)
Gina Pane's The Conditioning (1973)
Joseph Beuys's How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (1965)
Abramović's own Thomas Lips (1975)
Abramović's own Entering the Other Side (2005)
=== The Artist Is Present: March–May 2010 ===
From March 14 to May 31, 2010, the Museum of Modern Art held a major retrospective and performance recreation of Abramović's work, the biggest exhibition of performance art in MoMA's history, curated by Klaus Biesenbach. Biesenbach also provided the title for the performance, which referred to the fact that during the entire performance "the artist would be right there in the gallery or the museum."
During the run of the exhibition, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, a 736-hour and 30-minute static, silent piece, in which she sat immobile in the museum's atrium while spectators were invited to take turns sitting opposite her. Ulay made a surprise appearance at the opening night of the show.
Abramović sat in a rectangle marked with tape on the floor of the second floor atrium of the MoMA; theater lights shone on her sitting in a chair and a chair opposite her. Visitors waiting in line were invited to sit individually across from the artist while she maintained eye contact with them. Visitors began crowding the atrium within days of the show opening, some gathering before the exhibit opened each morning to get a better place in line. Most visitors sat with the artist for five minutes or less, while a few sat with her for an entire day. The line attracted no attention from museum security until the last day of the exhibition, when a visitor vomited in line and another began to disrobe. Tensions among visitors in line could have arisen from the realization that the longer the earlier visitors spent with Abramović, the less chance that those further back in line would be able to sit with her. Due to the strenuous nature of sitting for hours at a time, art-enthusiasts have wondered whether Abramović wore an adult diaper in order to eliminate the need for bathroom breaks. Others have highlighted the movements she made in between sitters as a focus of analysis, as the only variations in the artist between sitters were when she would cry if a sitter cried and her moment of physical contact with Ulay, one of the earliest visitors to the exhibition. Abramović sat across from 1,545 sitters, including Klaus Biesenbach, James Franco, Lou Reed, Alan Rickman, Jemima Kirke, Jennifer Carpenter, and Björk; sitters were asked not to touch or speak to her. By the end of the exhibit, hundreds of visitors were lining up outside the museum overnight to secure a spot in line the next morning. Abramović concluded the performance by slipping from the chair where she was seated and rising to a cheering crowd more than ten people deep.
A support group for the "sitters", "Sitting with Marina", was established on Facebook, as was the blog "Marina Abramović made me cry". The Italian photographer Marco Anelli took portraits of every person who sat opposite Abramović, which were published on Flickr, compiled in a book and featured in an exhibition at the Danziger Gallery in New York.
Abramović said the show changed her life "completely – every possible element, every physical emotion". After Lady Gaga saw the show and publicized it, Abramović found a new audience: "So the kids from 12 and 14 years old to about 18, the public who normally don't go to the museum, who don't give a shit about performance art or don't even know what it is, started coming because of Lady Gaga. And they saw the show and then they started coming back. And that's how I get a whole new audience." In September 2011, a video game version of Abramović's performance was released by Pippin Barr. In 2013, Dale Eisinger of Complex ranked The Artist Is Present ninth (along with Rhythm 0) in his list of the greatest performance art works.
Her performance inspired Australian novelist Heather Rose to write The Museum of Modern Love and she subsequently launched the US edition of the book at the Museum of Modern Art in 2018.
=== Balkan Erotic Epic: October 2025 ===
Balkan Erotic Epic was a durational performance artwork by Marina Abramović, presented at Factory International's Aviva Studios in Manchester from 9 to 19 October 2025. Building on Abramović’s 2005 multi-channel video installation of the same name, the four-hour performance explored Balkan folklore,, collective mythology, ancient myths, ritual, eroticism, spirituality and tradition. It featured more than seventy performers, including dancers, musicians, and singers, and allowed audiences to move freely through a sequence of thirteen immersive scenes. Incorporating elements such as Fertility Rite, Massaging the Breast, and Scaring the Gods, the work re-examines the connection between sexuality, spirituality, and the body in ritual traditions.
The production was noted for its ritualistic use of nudity, its multi-space choreography, and its focus on reclaiming the body as a site of power and transformation. Frieze called the performance "a reclamation, reinvention and perversion of personal and collective history, mythology and identity."
The performance is touring in Barcelona (24-30 January 2026), Berlin (14-17 October 2026) and New York (8-20 December 2026).
=== Other ===
In 2009, Abramović was featured in Chiara Clemente's documentary Our City Dreams and a book of the same name. The five featured artists – also including Swoon, Ghada Amer, Kiki Smith, and Nancy Spero – "each possess a passion for making work that is inseparable from their devotion to New York", according to the publisher. Abramović is also the subject of an independent documentary film entitled Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present, which is based on her life and performance at her retrospective "The Artist Is Present" at the Museum of Modern Art in 2010. The film was broadcast in the United States on HBO and won a Peabody Award in 2012. In January 2011, Abramović was on the cover of Serbian ELLE, photographed by Dušan Reljin. Kim Stanley Robinson's science fiction novel 2312 mentions a style of performance art pieces known as "abramovics".
A world premiere installation by Abramović was featured at Toronto's Trinity Bellwoods Park as part of the Luminato Festival in June 2013. Abramović is also co-creator, along with Robert Wilson of the theatrical production The Life and Death of Marina Abramović, which had its North American premiere at the festival, and at the Park Avenue Armory in December.
In 2007 Abramović created the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a nonprofit foundation for performance art, in a 33,000 square-foot space in Hudson, New York. She also founded a performance institute in San Francisco. She is a patron of the London-based Live Art Development Agency.
In June 2014 she presented a new piece at London's Serpentine Gallery called 512 Hours. In the Sean Kelly Gallery-hosted Generator, (December 6, 2014) participants are blindfolded and wear noise-canceling headphones in an exploration of nothingness.
In celebration of her 70th birthday on November 30, 2016, Abramović took over the Guggenheim museum (eleven years after her previous installation there) for her birthday party entitled "Marina 70". Part one of the evening, titled "Silence," lasted 70 minutes, ending with the crash of a gong struck by the artist. Then came the more conventional part two: "Entertainment", during which Abramović took to the stage to make a speech before watching English singer and visual artist ANOHNI perform the song "My Way" while wearing a large black hood.
In March 2015, Abramović presented a TED talk titled, "An art made of trust, vulnerability and connection".
In 2019, IFC's mockumentary show Documentary Now! parodied Abramović's work and the documentary film Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present. The show's episode, entitled "Waiting for the Artist", starred Cate Blanchett as Isabella Barta (Abramović) and Fred Armisen as Dimo (Ulay).
Originally set to open on September 26, 2020, her first major exhibition in the UK at the Royal Academy of Arts was rescheduled for autumn 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the Academy, the exhibition would "bring together works spanning her 50-year career, along with new works conceived especially for these galleries. As Abramović approaches her mid-70s, her new work reflects on changes to the artist's body and explores her perception of the transition between life and death." On reviewing this exhibition Tabish Khan, writing for Culture Whisper, described it thus: “It’s intense, it’s discomfiting, it’s memorable, and it’s performance art at its finest".
In 2021, she dedicated a monument, entitled, Crystal wall of crying, at the site of a Holocaust massacre in Ukraine and which is memorialized through the Babi Yar memorials.
In 2022, she condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
In September 2023, Abramović became the first woman to have a solo exhibition in the Royal Academy’s main galleries; the show, which she helped stage while recovering from a near-fatal pulmonary embolism, explored how her performance works might be reinterpreted or reperformed by others, testing the endurance of her legacy through archival footage, installations, and live performances by artists trained in the Marina Abramović Method.
In 2026, she is planned to have a solo exhibition titled Transforming Energy at Venice's Gallerie dell'Accademia art biennale. It will be the first exhibition for a living female artist at the museum's 275 years history.
=== Unfulfilled proposals ===
Abramović had proposed some solo performances during her career that never were performed. One such proposal was titled "Come to Wash with Me". This performance would take place in a gallery space that was to be transformed into a laundry with sinks placed all around the walls of the gallery. The public would enter the space and be asked to take off all of their clothes and give them to Abramović. The individuals would then wait around as she would wash, dry and iron their clothes for them, and once she was done, she would give them back their clothing, and they could get dressed and then leave. She proposed this in 1969 for the Galerija Doma Omladine in Belgrade. The proposal was refused.
In 1970 she proposed a similar idea to the same gallery that was also refused. The piece was untitled. Abramović would stand in front of the public dressed in her regular clothing. Present on the side of the stage was a clothes rack adorned with clothing that her mother wanted her to wear (including oversized items such as a bra or a slip). She would take the clothing one by one and change into them, then stand to face the public for a while. "From the right pocket of my skirt I take a gun. From the left pocket of my skirt I take a bullet. I put the bullet into the chamber and turn it. I place the gun to my temple. I pull the trigger." The performance had two possible outcomes. One of them is that Abramović dies as a result of shooting herself.
== Films ==
Abramović directed a segment, Balkan Erotic Epic, in Destricted, a compilation of erotic films made in 2006. In 2008 she directed a segment Dangerous Games in another film compilation Stories on Human Rights. She also acted in a five-minute short film Antony and the Johnsons: Cut the World.
== Marina Abramović Institute ==
The Marina Abramović Institute (MAI) is a performance art organization with a focus on performance, works of long duration, and the use of the "Abramović Method".
In its early phases, it was a proposed multi-functional museum space in Hudson, New York. Abramović purchased the site for the institute in 2007. Located in Hudson, New York, the building was built in 1933 and has been used as a theater and community tennis center. The building was to be renovated according to a design by Rem Koolhaas and Shohei Shigematsu of OMA. The early design phase of this project was funded by a Kickstarter campaign. It was funded by more than 4,000 contributors, including Lady Gaga and Jay-Z. The building project was canceled in October 2017 due to its excessive cost.
The institute continues to operate as a traveling organization. To date, MAI has partnered with many institutions and artists internationally, traveling to Brazil, Greece, and Turkey.
== Collaborations ==
In her youth, she was a performer in one of Hermann Nitsch's performances which were part of the Viennese actionism.
Abramović maintains a friendship with actor James Franco, who interviewed her for The Wall Street Journal in 2009. Franco visited her during The Artist Is Present in 2010, and the two also attended the 2012 Met Gala together.
In July 2013, Abramović worked with Lady Gaga on the pop singer's third album Artpop. Gaga's work with Abramović, as well as artists Jeff Koons and Robert Wilson, was displayed at an event titled "ArtRave" on November 10. Furthermore, both have collaborated on projects supporting the Marina Abramović Institute, including Gaga's participation in an 'Abramović Method' video and a nonstop reading of Stanisław Lem's sci-fi novel Solaris.
Also that month, Jay-Z showcased an Abramović-inspired piece at Pace Gallery in New York City. He performed his art-inspired track "Picasso Baby" for six straight hours. During the performance, Abramović and several figures in the art world were invited to dance with him standing face to face. The footage was later turned into the music video for the aforementioned song. She allowed Jay-Z to adapt "The Artist Is Present" under the condition that he would donate to her institute. Abramović stated that Jay-Z did not live up to his end of the deal, describing the performance as a "one-way transaction". However, two years later in 2015, Abramović publicly issued an apology stating she was never informed of Jay-Z's sizable donation.
== Personal life ==
Abramović claims she feels "neither like a Serb, nor a Montenegrin", but an ex-Yugoslav. "When people ask me where I am from," she says, "I never say Serbia. I always say I come from a country that no longer exists."
In February 2025, Abramović endorsed the 2024–2025 Serbian anti-corruption protests.
Abramović has had three abortions during her life, and has said that having children would have been a "disaster" for her work.
Sculptor Nikola Pešić says that Abramović has a lifelong interest in esotericism and spiritualism.
=== Occultism conspiracy theories ===
Among the Podesta emails was a message from Abramović to Podesta's brother discussing an invitation to a spirit cooking, which was interpreted by conspiracy theorists such as Alex Jones as an invitation to a satanic ritual, and was presented by Jones and others as proof that Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton had links to the occult. In a 2013 Reddit Q&A, in response to a question about occult in contemporary art, she said: "Everything depends on which context you are doing what you are doing. If you are doing the occult magic in the context of art or in a gallery, then it is the art. If you are doing it in different context, in spiritual circles or private house or on TV shows, it is not art. The intention, the context for what is made, and where it is made defines what art is or not".
On April 10, 2020, Microsoft released a promotional video for HoloLens 2 which featured Abramović. However, due to accusations by right-wing conspiracy theorists of her having ties to Satanism, Microsoft eventually pulled the advertisement. Abramović responded to the criticism, appealing to people to stop harassing her, arguing that her performances are just the art that she has been doing for the last 50 years.
== Awards ==
ars viva, 1982
Golden Lion, XLVII Venice Biennale, 1997
Niedersächsischer Kunstpreis, 2002
New York Dance and Performance Awards (The Bessies), 2002
International Association of Art Critics, Best Show in a Commercial Gallery Award, 2003
Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2008)
Honorary Doctorate of Arts, University of Plymouth UK, September 25, 2009
Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA), September 27, 2011
Cultural Leadership Award, American Federation of Arts, October 26, 2011
Honorary Doctorate of Arts, Instituto Superior de Arte, Cuba, May 14, 2012
July 13' Lifetime Achievement Awards, Podgorica, Montenegro, October 1, 2012
The Karić brothers award (category art and culture), 2012
Berliner Bär (B.Z.-Kulturpreis) (2012; not to be confused with the Silver and Golden Bear at the Berlin Film Festival; a cultural award of the German tabloid BZ)
Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters, 2013
Golden Medal for Merits, Republic of Serbia, 2021
Princess of Asturias Award in the category of Arts, 2021.
Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters, 2022
Sonning Prize, 2023
Praemium Imperiale, 2025
== Bibliography ==
=== Books by Abramović and collaborators ===
Cleaning the House, artist Abramović, author Abramović (Wiley, 1995) ISBN 978-1-85490-399-0
Artist Body: Performances 1969–1998, artist, Abramović; authors Abramović, Toni Stooss, Thomas McEvilley, Bojana Pejic, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Chrissie Iles, Jan Avgikos, Thomas Wulffen, Velimir Abramović; English ed. (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-88-8158-175-7.
The Bridge / El Puente, artist Abramović, authors Abramović, Pablo J. Rico, Thomas Wulffen (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-84-482-1857-7.
Performing Body, artist Abramović, authors Abramović, Dobrila Denegri (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-88-8158-160-3.
Public Body: Installations and Objects 1965–2001, artist Abramović, authors Celant, Germano, Abramović (Charta, 2001) ISBN 978-88-8158-295-2.
Marina Abramović, fifteen artists, Fondazione Ratti; coauthors Abramović, Anna Daneri, Giacinto Di Pietrantonio, Lóránd Hegyi, Societas Raffaello Sanzio, Angela Vettese (Charta, 2002) ISBN 978-88-8158-365-2.
Student Body, artist Abramović, vari; authors Abramović, Miguel Fernandez-Cid, students; (Charta, 2002) ISBN 978-88-8158-449-9.
The House with the Ocean View, artist Abramović; authors Abramović, Sean Kelly, Thomas McEvilley, Cindy Carr, Chrissie Iles, RosaLee Goldberg, Peggy Phelan (Charta, 2004) ISBN 978-88-8158-436-9; the 2002 piece of the same name, in which Abramović lived on three open platforms in a gallery with only water for 12 days, was reenacted in Sex and the City in the HBO series' sixth season.
Marina Abramović: The Biography of Biographies, artist Abramović; coauthors Abramović, Michael Laub, Monique Veaute, Fabrizio Grifasi (Charta, 2004) ISBN 978-88-8158-495-6.
Balkan Epic, (Skira, 2006).
Seven Easy Pieces, artist, Abramović; authors Nancy Spector, Erika Fischer-Lichte, Sandra Umathum, Abramović; (Charta, 2007). ISBN 978-88-8158-626-4.
Marina Abramović, artist Abramović; authors Kristine Stiles, Klaus Biesenbach, Chrissie Iles, Abramović; (Phaidon, 2008). ISBN 978-0-7148-4802-0.
When Marina Abramović Dies: A Biography. Author James Westcott. (MIT, 2010). ISBN 978-0-262-23262-3.
Walk Through Walls: A Memoir, author Abramović (Crown Archetype, 2016). ISBN 978-1-101-90504-3.
=== Films by Abramović and collaborators ===
Balkan Baroque, (Pierre Coulibeuf, 1999)
Balkan Erotic Epic, as producer and director, Destricted (Offhollywood Digital, 2006)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Hear the artist speak about her work MoMA Audio: Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present
Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present at MoMA
Marina Abramović: 512 Hours at the Serpentine Galleries
Marina Abramović: Advice to Young Artists Video by Louisiana Channel
Marina Abramović & Ulay: Living Doors of the Museum Video by Louisiana Channel
The Story of Marina Abramović and Ulay Video by Louisiana Channel
47-minute in-depth interview – Marina Abramović: Electricity Passing Through Video by Louisiana Channel
Abramovic SKNY Sean Kelly Gallery
Marina Abramović at Art:21
Marina Abramović on Artnet
Marina Abramovic Institute, Hudson, NY.
Marina Abramović at the Lisson Gallery
Royal Academy of Arts Marina Abramović |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkin_Medal | Perkin Medal | The Perkin Medal is an award given annually by the Society of Chemical Industry (American Section) to a scientist residing in America for an "innovation in applied chemistry resulting in outstanding commercial development." It is considered the highest honor given in the US chemical industry.
The Perkin Medal was first awarded in 1906 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the discovery of mauveine, the world's first synthetic aniline dye, by Sir William Henry Perkin, an English chemist. The award was given to Sir William on the occasion of his visit to the United States in the year before he died. It was next given in 1908 and has been given every year since then.
== Recipients ==
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Zwerg#:~:text=His%20father%20was%20a%20dentist,student%20protests%20in%20high%20school. | James Zwerg | James Zwerg (born November 28, 1939) is an American retired minister who was involved with the Freedom Riders in the early 1960s.
== Early life ==
Zwerg was born in Appleton, Wisconsin where he lived with his parents and older brother, Charles. His father was a dentist who once a month provided free dental care to the poor. Zwerg was very involved in school and took part in the student protests in high school.
Zwerg was also very active in the Christian church, where he attended services regularly. Through the church, he became exposed to the belief in civil equality. He was taught that all people are created equal, no matter what race or religion they are.
== College and SNCC ==
Zwerg attended Beloit College, where he studied sociology and graduated in 1962. He developed an interest in civil rights from his interactions with his roommate, Robert Carter, an African-American from Georgia. Zwerg recalled: "I witnessed prejudice against him… we would go to a lunch counter or cafeteria and people would get up and leave the table. I had pledged a particular fraternity and then found out that he was not allowed in the fraternity house. I decided that his friendship was more important than that particular fraternity, so I depledged."
Zwerg participated in a one-semester student exchange program in January 1961 at Nashville's Fisk University, a predominantly black school. At Fisk, Zwerg met John Lewis, who was active in the Civil Rights Movement, and was immediately impressed with the way Lewis handled himself and his commitment to the movement. Lewis was a member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), a student organized Civil Rights activist group focused on nonviolent direct action. Zwerg joined SNCC and suggested that the group attend a movie. SNCC members explained to Zwerg that Nashville theaters were segregated. Zwerg began attending SNCC nonviolence workshops, often playing the angry bigot in role-play. His first test was to buy two movie tickets and try to walk in with a black man. When trying to enter the theater on February 21, 1961, Zwerg was hit with a monkey wrench and knocked unconscious.
== Freedom Rides ==
In 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) began to organize Freedom Rides. The first departed from Washington, D.C. and involved 13 black and white riders who rode into the South challenging white only lunch counters and restaurants. When they reached Anniston, Alabama one of the buses was ambushed and attacked. Meanwhile, at an SNCC meeting in Tennessee, Lewis, Zwerg and 11 other volunteers decided to be reinforcements. Zwerg was the only white male in the group. Although scared for his life, Zwerg never had second thoughts. He recalled, "My faith was never so strong as during that time. I knew I was doing what I should be doing."
The group traveled by bus to Birmingham, where Zwerg was first arrested for not moving to the back of the bus with his black seating companion, Paul Brooks.
Three days later, the riders regrouped and headed to Montgomery. At first the bus station there was an eerie quiet, but the scene turned into an ambush, with the riders attacked from all directions. "Mr. Zwerg was hit with his own suitcase in the face. Then he was knocked down and a group pummeled him" (qtd. in Loory 577). The prostrate activist was beaten into unconsciousness somewhere around the time a man took Zwerg's head between his knees while others took turns pounding and clawing at his face. At one point while Zwerg was unconscious, three men held him up while a woman kicked him in the groin. After it seemed that the worst of the onslaught was over, Zwerg gained semi-consciousness and tried to use the handrails to the loading platform to pull himself to his feet. As he struggled to get upright, a white man came and threw Zwerg over the rail. He crashed to the ground below, landing on his head. He was only the first to be beaten that day, but the attack on him may have been the most ruthless (Loory 573–79). Zwerg recalls, "There was nothing particularly heroic in what I did. If you want to talk about heroism, consider the black man who probably saved my life. This man in coveralls, just off of work, happened to walk by as my beating was going on and said 'Stop beating that kid. If you want to beat someone, beat me.' And they did. He was still unconscious when I left the hospital. I don't know if he lived or died."
Zwerg was denied prompt medical attention because there were no white ambulances available. He was quoted as saying "I suppose a person has to be dead before anyone will call an ambulance in Montgomery," as he lay in the hospital bed after being brutally beaten. He remained unconscious for two days and stayed in the hospital for five days. His post-riot photos were published in many newspapers and magazines across the country. After his beating, Zwerg claimed he had had an incredible religious experience and God helped him to not fight back. In a 2013 interview recalling the incident, he said, "In that instant, I had the most incredible religious experience of my life. I felt a presence with me. A peace. Calmness. It was just like I was surrounded by kindness, love. I knew in that instance that whether I lived or died, I would be OK." In a famous moving speech from his hospital room, Zwerg stated, "Segregation must be stopped. It must be broken down. Those of us on the Freedom Ride will continue.... We're dedicated to this, we'll take hitting, we'll take beating. We're willing to accept death. But we're going to keep coming until we can ride from anywhere in the South to any place else in the South without anybody making any comments, just as American citizens."
== Post-Freedom Rides ==
Later in 1961, Martin Luther King presented Zwerg with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference Freedom Award. After a conversation with King, Zwerg decided to enroll at Garrett Theological Seminary. He met his future wife Carrie. Zwerg was ordained a minister, serving for five years in three rural Wisconsin communities. The Zwergs settled in Tucson, Arizona in 1970 and had three children. He changed his career several times, including charity organization work and a stint in community relations at IBM. Zwerg retired in 1993 after which the couple built a cabin in rural New Mexico about 50 miles (80 km) from the nearest grocery store. Zwerg continues to spread awareness to this day about the trials and tribulations of the Freedom Rides and how love is what is most important. He gave a speech on May 18, 2011, at Troy University Rosa Parks Museum. He spoke about the effect the Freedom Rides had on his life. In an interview with Lisa Simeone, Zwerg talked about how blessed he was to have been a part of the Movement. "Everywhere we've stopped people have been so gracious and so kind and one of the things that has certainly been rewarding to me has been to see how many people brought their children; seeing a little eight-year-old boy come up to me and talk to me and say, 'May I please have your autograph? Thank you for what you did.' That was pretty special. I appreciated that."
== References ==
== External links ==
Blake, John (May 16, 2011). "Shocking photo created a hero, but not to his family". CNN. Retrieved May 16, 2011.
== Further reading ==
Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199755813. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Cunnell#:~:text=Cunnell%20made%20his%20Minor%20Counties,1966%20Gillette%20Cup%2C%20against%20Kent. | Clifford Cunnell | Clifford "Cliff" James Cunnell (b 31 August 1944 - d 5 October 2016) was an English cricketer. He was a right-handed batsman who played for Suffolk. He was born in Ipswich.
Cunnell made his Minor Counties Championship debut during the 1965 season, and with one season's exception, continued to play for the team until 1972. Cunnell made a single List A appearance for the team, during the 1966 Gillette Cup, against Kent.
Cunnell's brother, Bob, made four appearances for Suffolk over a 13-year timespan.
== External links ==
Clifford Cunnell at Cricket Archive (subscription required) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_light#:~:text=Kimberley%2C%20Cape%20Colony%20(modern%20South,Philadelphia%2C%20to%20be%20powered%20municipally. | Street light | A street light, light pole, lamp pole, lamppost, streetlamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or path. Similar lights may be found on a railway platform. When urban electric power distribution became ubiquitous in developed countries in the 20th century, lights for urban streets followed, or sometimes led.
Many lamps have light-sensitive photocells or astro clocks that activate the lamp automatically when needed, at times when there is reduced ambient light compared to daytime, such as at dusk, dawn, or under exceptional cloud cover. This function in older lighting systems could be performed with the aid of a solar dial.
== History ==
=== Preindustrial era ===
Early lamps were used in the Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman civilizations, where light primarily served the purpose of security, to both protect the wanderer from tripping on the path over something and keep potential robbers at bay. At that time, oil lamps were used predominantly, as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. A slave responsible for lighting the oil lamps in front of Roman villas was called a lanternarius.
In the words of Edwin Heathcote, "Romans illuminated the streets with oil lamps, and cities from Baghdad to Cordoba were similarly lit when most of Europe was living in what it is now rather unfashionable to call the Dark Ages but which were, from the point of view of street lighting, exactly that."
So-called "link boys" escorted people from one place to another through the murky, winding streets of medieval towns.
Before incandescent lamps, candle lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps. According to some sources, illumination was ordered in London in 1417 by Sir Henry Barton, Mayor of London, though there is no firm evidence of this.
Public street lighting was first developed in the 16th century, and accelerated following the invention of lanterns with glass windows by Edmund Heming in London and Jan van der Heyden in Amsterdam, which greatly improved the quantity of light. In 1588 the Parisian Parliament decreed that a torch be installed and lit at each intersection, and in 1594 the police changed this to lanterns. Still, in the mid 17th century it was a common practice for travelers to hire a lantern-bearer if they had to move at night through the dark, winding streets. King Louis XIV authorized sweeping reforms in Paris in 1667, which included the installation and maintenance of lights on streets and at intersections, as well as stiff penalties for vandalizing or stealing the fixtures. Paris had more than 2,700 streetlights by the end of the 17th century, and twice as many by 1730. Under this system, streets were lit with lanterns suspended 20 yards (18 m) apart on a cord over the middle of the street at a height of 20 feet (6.1 m); as an English visitor enthused in 1698, 'The streets are lit all winter and even during the full moon!' In London, public street lighting was implemented around the end of the 17th century; a diarist wrote in 1712 that 'All the way, quite through Hyde Park to the Queen's Palace at Kensington, lanterns were placed for illuminating the roads on dark nights.'
A much-improved oil lantern, called a réverbère, was introduced in 1745 and improved in subsequent years. The light shed from these réverbères was considerably brighter, enough that some people complained of glare. These lamps were attached to the tops of lampposts; by 1817, there were 4,694 lamps on the Paris streets. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the revolutionaries found that the lampposts were a convenient place to hang aristocrats and other opponents.
=== Gas lamp lighting ===
The first widespread system of street lighting used piped coal gas as fuel. Stephen Hales was the first person who procured a flammable fluid from the actual distillation of coal in 1726 and John Clayton, in 1735, called gas the "spirit" of coal and discovered its flammability by accident. William Murdoch (sometimes spelled "Murdock") was the first to use this gas for the practical application of lighting. In the early 1790s, while overseeing the use of his company's steam engines in tin mining in Cornwall, Murdoch began experimenting with various types of gas, finally settling on coal-gas as the most effective. He first lit his own house in Redruth, Cornwall in 1792. In 1798, he used gas to light the main building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit the outside in a public display of gas lighting, the lights astonishing the local population.
The first public street lighting with gas was demonstrated in Pall Mall, London on 4 June 1807 by Frederick Albert Winsor.
In 1811, engineer Samuel Clegg designed and built what is now considered the oldest extant gasworks in the world. Gas was used to light the worsted mill in the village of Dolphinholme in North Lancashire. The remains of the works, including a chimney and gas plant, have been put on the National Heritage List for England. Clegg's installation saved the building's owners the cost of up to 1,500 candles every night. It also lit the mill owner's house and the street of millworkers' houses in Dolphinholme.
In 1812, Parliament granted a charter to the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company, and the first gas company in the world came into being. Less than two years later, on 31 December 1813, the Westminster Bridge was lit by gas.
Following this success, gas lighting spread outside London, both within Britain and abroad. The first place outside London in England to have gas lighting, was Preston, Lancashire in 1816, where Joseph Dunn's Preston Gaslight Company introduced a new, brighter gas lighting. Another early adopter was the city of Baltimore, where the gaslights were first demonstrated at Rembrandt Peale's Museum in 1816, and Peale's Gas Light Company of Baltimore provided the first gas streetlights in the United States. In the 1860s, streetlights were started in the Southern Hemisphere in New Zealand.
In Paris, public street lighting was first installed on a covered shopping street, the Passage des Panoramas, in 1817, private interior gas lighting having been previously demonstrated in a house on the rue Saint-Dominique seventeen years prior. The first gas lamps on the main streets of Paris appeared in January 1829 on the place du Carrousel and the Rue de Rivoli, then on the rue de la Paix, place Vendôme, and rue de Castiglione. By 1857, the Grands Boulevards were all lit with gas; a Parisian writer enthused in August 1857: "That which most enchants the Parisians is the new lighting by gas of the boulevards...From the church of the Madeleine all the way to rue Montmartre, these two rows of lamps, shining with a clarity white and pure, have a marvelous effect." The gaslights installed on the boulevards and city monuments in the 19th century gave the city the nickname "The City of Light."
Kerosene streetlamps were invented by Polish pharmacist Ignacy Łukasiewicz in the city of Lemberg (Austrian Empire), in 1853. His kerosene lamps were later widely used in Bucharest, Paris, and other European cities. He went on to open the world's first mine in 1854 and the world's first kerosene refinery in 1856 in Jasło, Poland.
Oil-gas appeared in the field as a rival of coal-gas. In 1815, John Taylor patented an apparatus for the decomposition of "oil" and other animal substances. Public attention was attracted to "oil-gas" by the display of the patent apparatus at Apothecary's Hall, by Taylor & Martineau.
During the period of gas lighting, lights were not generally left on for the entire night, nor were they necessarily turned on during periods of moonlight. In an article about the development of streetlighting in three industrial cities, Mark Bouman reported that Max Greve, the mayor of Bochum, Germany, "fought all his life against 'absurd modernism,' which would have had the lights on even when the moon shone."
==== Farola fernandina ====
Farola fernandina is a traditional design of gas streetlight which remains popular in Spain. Essentially, it is a neoclassical French style of gas lamp dating from the late 18th century. It may be either a wall-bracket or standard lamp. The standard base is cast metal with an escutcheon bearing two intertwined letters 'F', the Royal cypher of King Ferdinand VII of Spain and commemorates the date of the birth of his daughter, the Infanta Luisa Fernanda, Duchess of Montpensier.
=== Arc lamps ===
The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the "electric candle", "Jablotchkoff candle", or "Yablochkov candle", developed by Russian Pavel Yablochkov in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that both electrodes were consumed at equal rates. In 1876, the common council of the city of Los Angeles ordered four arc lights installed in various places in the fledgling town for street lighting.
On 30 May 1878, the first electric streetlights in Paris were installed on the avenue de l'Opera and the Place de l'Étoile, around the Arc de Triomphe, to celebrate the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition. In 1881, to coincide with the Paris International Exposition of Electricity, streetlights were installed on the major boulevards.
The first streets in London lit with the electrical arc lamp were by the Holborn Viaduct and the Thames Embankment in 1878. More than 4,000 were in use by 1881, though by then an improved differential arc lamp had been developed by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske. The United States was quick in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers.
Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of the 19th century, arc lights passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.
=== Incandescent lighting ===
The first street to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, in Newcastle. The street was lit for one night by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879. Consequently, Newcastle has the first city street in the world to be lit by electric lighting.
The first city in the United States to successfully demonstrate electric lighting was Cleveland, Ohio, with 12 electric lights around the Public Square road system on 29 April 1879. Wabash, Indiana, lit 4 Brush arc lamps with 3,000 candlepower each, suspended over their courthouse on 2 February 1880, making the town square "as light as midday".
Kimberley, Cape Colony (modern South Africa), was the first city in the Southern Hemisphere and in Africa to have electric streetlights – with 16 first lit on 2 September 1882. The system was only the second in the world, after that of Philadelphia, to be powered municipally.
In Central America, San Jose, Costa Rica, lit 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant on 9 August 1884.
Nuremberg was the first city in Germany to have electric public lighting on 7 June 1882, followed by Berlin on 20 September 1882 (Potsdamer Platz only).
Timișoara, Romania was the first city in the [România] to have electric public lighting, on 12 November 1884; 731 lamps were used.
On 9 December 1882, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia was introduced to electricity by having a demonstration of 8 arc lights, erected along Queen Street Mall. The power to supply these arc lights was taken from a 10 hp Crompton DC generator driven by a Robey steam engine in a small foundry in Adelaide Street and occupied by J. W. Sutton and Co. In 1884, Walhalla, Victoria, had two lamps installed on the main street by the Long Tunnel (Gold) Mining Company. In 1886, the isolated mining town of Waratah in Tasmania was the first to have an extensive system of electrically powered street lighting installed. In 1888, the New South Wales town of Tamworth installed a large system illuminating a significant portion of the city, with over 13 km of streets lit by 52 incandescent lights and 3 arc lights. Powered by a municipal power company, this system gave Tamworth the title of "First City of Light" in Australia.
On 10 December 1885, Härnösand became the first town in Sweden with electric street lighting, following the Gådeå power station being taken into use.
=== Later developments ===
Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-intensity gas-discharge lamps. They were often operated at high-voltage series circuits. Series circuits were popular since their higher voltage produced more light per watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could control all the lights in an entire district.
To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each streetlamp was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series streetlights were equipped with isolation transformers. that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not.
Later, the film cutout was invented. This was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the current through the string became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law). In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and power was restored to the rest of the district. The streetlight circuit contained an automatic current regulator, preventing the current from increasing as lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above ground.
== Modern lights ==
In the early 2000s, street lighting commonly used high-intensity discharge lamps. Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps became commonplace after World War II for their low power consumption and long life. Late in the 20th century, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps were preferred, taking further the same virtues. Such lamps provided the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity at the time.
Two national standards now allow for variation in illuminance when using lamps of different spectra. In Australia, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. In the UK, illuminances are reduced with higher values S/P ratio.
Newer street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights, can be designed to emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens. It is a commonly accepted practice to justify and implement a lower luminance level for roadway lighting based on increased scotopic lumens provided by white light. However, this practice fails to provide the context needed to apply laboratory-based visual performance testing to the real world. Critical factors such as visual adaptation are left out of this practice of lowering luminance levels, leading to reduced visual performance. Additionally, there have been no formal specifications written around Photopic/Scotopic adjustments for different types of light sources, causing many municipalities and street departments to hold back on implementation of these new technologies until the standards are updated. Eastbourne in East Sussex, UK is currently undergoing a project to see 6000 of its streetlights converted to LED and will be closely followed by Hastings in early 2014. Many UK councils are undergoing mass-replacement schemes to LED, and though streetlights are being removed along many long stretches of UK motorways (as they are not needed and cause light pollution), LEDs are preferred in areas where lighting installations are necessary.
In North America, the city of Mississauga, Canada was one of the first and largest LED conversion projects, with over 46,000 lights converted to LED technology between 2012 and 2014. It is also one of the first cities in North America to use Smart City technology to control the lights. DimOnOff, a company based in Quebec City, was chosen as a Smart City partner for this project. In the United States, the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan was the first metropolitan area to fully implement LED street lighting in 2006. Since then, sodium-vapor lamps were slowly being replaced by LED lamps.
Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaires are gaining wider acceptance. Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environments.
In 2007, the Civil Twilight Collective created a variant of the conventional LED streetlight, namely the Lunar-resonant streetlight. These lights increase or decrease the intensity of the streetlight according to the lunar light. This streetlight design thus reduces energy consumption as well as light pollution.
In 2024, a report described how the town of Rumford, Maine repurposed existing street-light poles to support wireless communication equipment, installing compact radio units that broadcast a 5G signal and used the community’s fiber network for backhaul. The approach allowed the town to expand local connectivity without the need for new towers or major construction.
== Measurement ==
Two very similar measurement systems were created to bridge the scotopic and photopic luminous efficiency functions, creating a Unified System of Photometry. These mesopic visual performance models are conducted in laboratory conditions in which the viewer is not exposed to higher levels of luminance than the level being tested for. Further research is needed to bring additional factors into these models such as visual adaptation and the biological mechanics of rod cells before these models are able to accurately predict visual performance in real world conditions. The current understanding of visual adaptation and rod cell mechanics suggests that any benefits from rod-mediated scotopic vision are difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in real world conditions under the presence of high luminance light sources.
Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP) is a method for predicting and measuring three different aspects of light pollution: glow, trespass and glare. Using this method, lighting specifiers can quantify the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property.
== Benefits ==
Street lighting generally makes wayfinding easier after dark, because of light that shines (whether intentionally or not) onto pedestrian areas. When properly designed, street lighting allows pedestrians to get around without carrying an illumination source such as a flashlight. In many places, street lighting has been used for so many years that it is now an expected public service. Perhaps as a result, people who have grown up in areas with street lighting sometimes report discomfort when street lights are not present or not turned on.
A frequently claimed advantages of street lighting is the prevention of automobile collisions and subsequent increase in safety. Studies have often shown that crashes and fatalities frequently occur at night, but night is also associated with other effects that are associated with collisions such as sleepiness and drunk driving. Despite the widespread presumption that streetlights increase safety, recent studies with large sample sizes have generally found little to no impact of lighting or changes of lighting (e.g. switch offs or dimming) on collisions. A study based on in-car roadway and driver cameras examining the moments leading up to over 2500 crashes found that driver error (e.g. improper turns) and behavior (e.g. reaching for something in the cabin) are the strongest contributors to crash frequency, and that improperly designed lighting may have in fact been a contributing factor to some of the crashes.
Another widely assumed benefit of street lighting is that it reduces crime. Claims for large crime reductions have been made in a number of studies, but many such studies have been criticized for inappropriate design. Well-conducted large-scale studies generally find little to no evidence that lighting or changes in lighting has an impact on nighttime crime rates. In a meta-analysis of studies examining the relationship between street lighting changes and crime, the studies that examined nighttime crime were consistent with no measurable effect (95% confidence interval 0.95-1.11).
Towns, cities, and villages can use the unique locations provided by lampposts to hang decorative or commemorative banners. Many communities in the US use lampposts as a tool for fundraising via lamppost banner sponsorship programs first designed by a US-based lamppost banner manufacturer.
== Disadvantages ==
The major criticisms of street lighting are that it can actually cause accidents if misused, and cause light pollution.
=== Health and safety ===
There are three optical phenomena that need to be recognized in streetlight installations.
The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlit area into a pool of light from a streetlight, their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light, the dilation of their pupils adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. Additionally, research has shown that pupil reflexes are more pronounced and post-light recovery takes longer after exposure to blue light compared to red light. This poses a continually increasing risk as blue-rich light sources become more common in roadway lighting and vehicle headlights. As a person gets older, the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.
The loss of night vision due to visual adaptation of retinal cells to a higher luminance level provided by streetlights. Once an individual leaves the illuminated area their retinal cells require adaptation time before they are sensitive to objects and motion under the lower luminance levels of unlit areas.
Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey one. The contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle.
Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally electrify lampposts and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact with the post.
There are also physical dangers to the posts of streetlamps, other than children climbing them for recreational purposes. Streetlight stanchions (lampposts) pose a collision risk to motorists and pedestrians, particularly those affected by poor eyesight or under the influence of alcohol. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (known as frangible, collapsible, or passively safe supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking the lower portions to increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally topple streetlights.
=== Light pollution ===
==== Astronomy ====
Light pollution can hide the stars and interfere with astronomy. In settings near astronomical telescopes and observatories, low-pressure sodium lamps may be used. These lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because low-pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. Observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. Full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky, which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light, but reflected light from the ground can spill into the sky.
==== Ecosystems ====
Streetlights can impact biodiversity and ecosystems—for instance, disrupting the migration of some nocturnally migrating bird species. In the Netherlands, Philips found that birds can get disoriented by the red wavelengths in street lighting, and in response developed alternative lighting that only emit in the green and blue wavelengths of the visible spectrum. The lamps were installed on Ameland in a small-scale test. If successful, the technology could be used on ships and offshore installations to avoid luring birds towards the open sea at night. Bats can be negatively impacted by streetlights, with evidence showing that red light can be least harmful. As a result, some areas have installed red LED streetlights to minimise disruption to bats. A study published in Science Advances reported that streetlights in southern England had detrimental impacts on local insect populations. Streetlights can also impact plant growth and the number of insects that depend on plants for food.
=== Energy consumption ===
As of 2017, globally 70% of all electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, a source of air pollution and greenhouse gases, and also globally there are approximately 300 million streetlights using that electricity. Cities are exploring more efficient energy use, reducing streetlight power consumption by dimming lights during off-peak hours and switching to LED streetlights which illuminate a smaller area to a lower level of luminance. Many councils are using a part-night lighting scheme to turn off lighting at quieter times of night. This is typically midnight to 5:30 AM, as seen by the sign on the right. There have, however, been questions about the impact on crime rates. Typical collector road lighting in New York State costs $6,400/mile/year for high pressure sodium at 8.5 kW/mile or $4,000 for light-emitting diode luminaires at 5.4 kW/mile. Improvements can be made by optimising directionality and shape, however. Transitioning to wide angle lights enabled the doubling of distance between streetlights in Flanders from 45 m to 90 m, cutting annual street lighting electricity expenditures to €9 million for the 2,150 km long network that was retrofitted, corresponding to ca. €4,186/km.
== Street light control systems ==
A variety of control approaches are used to reduce energy use and improve maintenance of public lighting, ranging from simple astronomical time switches to networked lighting control (NLC) systems that allow remote monitoring, dimming, and fault detection. NLCs are commonly implemented over wireless or power-line communications and can integrate sensors (e.g., ambient light and occupancy) to adjust output based on pedestrian or vehicle activity.
Independent assessments report that adaptive and networked controls can provide additional savings beyond LED retrofits, while also enabling asset management and faster fault response; actual savings depend on duty cycle, dimming strategy, and sensor accuracy.
Regulations increasingly limit standby power in connected luminaires and controls (e.g., EU <0.5 W; California <0.2 W), which affects whole-system efficacy for "smart" installations.
=== Economics ===
Project economics depend on baseline technology, hours of use, electricity prices, incentives, and the chosen control strategy. Studies find that LEDs provide the largest share of savings, and that networked controls can deliver additional energy and maintenance benefits; cost-effectiveness varies by site and program design.
=== Image-based street light control ===
Research deployments have also evaluated image-based or multi-sensor "adaptive" control strategies that adjust light levels according to detected activity and speed on roadways and paths.
== Purpose ==
There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights and placement. Using the wrong types of lights can make the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety.
=== Beacon lights ===
A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it, so that they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways, this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.
=== Roadway lights ===
Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (a freeway junction or exit ramp), the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well-designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified.
If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multi-lane traffic), to avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights, it should not be lit intermittently since this requires repeated eye readjustment, which causes eyestrain and temporary blindness when entering and leaving light pools. In this case, the system is designed to eliminate the need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at close, regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes from curb to curb.
=== Cycle path lights ===
Policies that encourage utility cycling have been proposed and implemented, including lighting bike paths to increase safety at night.
== Usage on rail transport ==
Lights similar to street lights are used on railway platforms at train stations in the open air. Their purpose is similar to that of beacon lights: they help a train driver see the location of a station at night as the train comes closer to it, so that the driver can adjust the braking and know exactly where to stop. A train station light must never shine directly onto the tracks, and has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any platform for the benefit of passengers waiting there.
== Maintenance ==
Street lighting systems require ongoing maintenance, which can be classified as either reactive or preventative. Reactive maintenance is a direct response to a lighting failure, such as replacing a discharge lamp after it has failed or replacing an entire lighting unit after it has been hit by a vehicle. Preventative maintenance is the scheduled replacement of lighting components, for example, replacing all the discharge lamps in an area of the city when they have reached 85% of their expected life. Maintenance may be undertaken by the lighting owners or by a contractor.
In the United Kingdom, the Roads Liaison Group has issued a Code of Practice recommending specific reactive and preventative maintenance procedures.
Some street lights in New York City have an orange or red light on top of the luminaire (light fixture) or a red light attached to the lamppost. This indicates that near to this lighting pole or in the same intersection, there is a fire alarm pull box. Other street lights have a small red light next to the street light bulb; when the small light flashes, it indicates an issue with the electric current.
== Street lights as public goods ==
In economics, street lighting is commonly cited as a classic example of a (near-)public good: benefits are non-rival and typically non-excludable, so provision is usually coordinated by government and funded collectively.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Fierro, Alfred (1996). Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris. Robert Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-07862-4.
Lobsey, Ian (1988). City of light. Peel-Cunningham County Council. ISBN 978-0-7316-5778-0.
== Further reading ==
van Bommel, Wout (2015). Road Lighting Fundamentals, Technology and Application. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-11466-8. ISBN 978-3-319-11465-1.
== External links ==
An enthusiast's guide to street lighting – including many close-up photographs of UK street lighting equipment, as well as information on installations through the ages. (UK)
Example Installation of Integrated Renewable Power in Street Lighting, an example of a street lighting system with integrated solar and wind generator from Panasonic/Matsushita
Transportation Lighting at the Lighting Research Center
Lighting Research at the University of Sheffield |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammy_Faye_Messner#:~:text=On%20October%203%2C%201993%2C%20she%20married%20property%20developer%20Roe%20Messner | Tammy Faye Messner | Tamara Faye Messner (née LaValley, formerly Bakker ; March 7, 1942 – July 20, 2007) was an American evangelist. She co-founded the televangelist program The PTL Club with her then-husband Jim Bakker in 1974. They had hosted their own puppet-show series for local programming in the early 1960s; Messner also had a career as a recording artist. In 1978, she and Bakker built Heritage USA, a Christian theme park.
During her career Messner was noted for her eccentric and glamorous persona, as well as for moral views that diverged from those of many mainstream evangelists, particularly her advocacy for LGBT persons and reaching out to HIV/AIDS patients at the height of the AIDS epidemic. She released three autobiographies during her lifetime, I Gotta Be Me in 1978, Tammy: Telling It My Way in 1996, and I Will Survive and You Will Too! in 2003.
Jim Bakker was indicted, convicted, and imprisoned on numerous counts of fraud and conspiracy in 1989, resulting in the dissolution of The PTL Club. She divorced Bakker in 1992, while he was in prison, and married Roe Messner. She was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1996, from which she suffered intermittently for over a decade before dying of the disease in 2007.
== Biography ==
=== 1942–1959: Early life ===
She was born Tamara Faye LaValley in International Falls, Minnesota, to Pentecostal preachers Rachel Minnie (née Fairchild; 1919–1992) and Carl Oliver LaValley, who married in 1941. Shortly after she was born, a painful divorce soured her mother against ministers, alienating her from the church. Both of her parents remarried, her mother to Fred Willard Grover, forming a large blended family, in which she was the eldest child.
=== 1960–1973: Marriage to Jim Bakker; early work ===
In 1960, she met Jim Bakker while they were students at North Central Bible College in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Tammy Faye worked in a boutique for a time while Jim found work in a restaurant inside a department store in Minneapolis. They were married on April 1, 1961. The next year, they moved to South Carolina, where they began their ministry together, initially traveling around the United States; Jim preached, while Tammy Faye sang songs and played the accordion. In 1970, she gave birth to their daughter Tammy Sue "Sissy" Bakker, and in 1975 gave birth to their son Jamie Charles Bakker.
Jim and Tammy Faye had been involved with television from the time of their departure from Minneapolis until they moved to the Charlotte area via Virginia Beach, Virginia, where they were founding members of The 700 Club. While in Portsmouth, they were hosts of the popular children's show Jim and Tammy. They then created a puppet ministry for children on Pat Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), which ran from 1964 to 1973.
=== 1974–1987: The PTL Club ===
Jim and Tammy Faye co-founded The PTL Club (Praise The Lord) in 1974, a televangelist Christian news program that they initially hosted in an abandoned furniture store in Charlotte. The series mixed "glitzy entertainment with down-home family values" and preached a "'prosperity gospel' which put a divine seal of approval on both the growing affluence of American evangelicals and the showy lifestyles of their television ministers." The PTL Club soon grew into its own network and a corporate enterprise within a year of its founding, generating $120 million annually in the 1970s. In 1978, the Bakkers used $200 million of PTL funds to build Heritage USA, a Christian retreat and theme park that, at the time, ranked alongside Disney World and Disneyland as one of the most popular theme parks in the United States.
Throughout the series, Tammy Faye provided a sentimental and emotive touch to stories, and also often sang Christian songs. She was also noted for her candid discussion of topics considered taboo amongst many of her Evangelist peers, ranging from penile implants to acceptance and compassion for the LGBT community.
At the height of the AIDS epidemic in the mid-1980s, she conducted an emotional interview with Steven Pieters, a gay Christian minister with AIDS on "Tammy's House Party," a segment of The PTL Club, during which they discussed his sexuality, coming out, diagnosis with AIDS, and the death of his partner. During the program, Tammy Faye addressed her viewership, saying: "How sad that we as Christians, who are to be the salt of the earth, we who are supposed to be able to love everyone, are afraid so badly of an AIDS patient that we will not go up and put our arm around them and tell them that we care." Throughout the AIDS epidemic, she advocated for viewers of The PTL Club to follow Christ and show compassion and pray for the ill, and also invited drug addicts onto the show to interview them about substance abuse. In 1987, it was reported that Tammy Faye was herself being treated for a prescription drug addiction.
Bakker's friend, the Reverend Mel White, commented on her presence on The PTL Club:
Her fans were people who grew up in a very fundamentalist tradition, not being able to wear make-up, or dance, or go out in public. So here comes Tammy, with her dyed hair and make-up, her ebullient spirit and outspoken ways with both men and women. She talked about sex, and flirted with Jimmy. She took on the caricature of an obedient wife, and blasted it. You have never seen Pat Robertson's wife, or Jerry Falwell's wife. They stay at home, doing what those wives do.
=== 1988–1995: Collapse of The PTL Club and aftermath ===
The Bakkers' control of PTL collapsed in 1987 after revelations that $287,000 had been paid from the organization to buy the silence of Jessica Hahn, who claims Jim Bakker raped her. In his 1997 book, I Was Wrong, Jim Bakker disputed Hahn's account, claiming that he was "set up" and that their sex was consensual. The revelations invited scrutiny of the Bakkers, and charges made about their opulent lives, including media reports of an air-conditioned doghouse at their Tega Cay, South Carolina, lakefront parsonage as well as gold-plated bathroom fixtures, dominated newscasts in the 1980s. When asked about her income, Tammy Faye told reporters in 1986: "We don't get what Johnny Carson makes, and we work a lot harder than him." The couple's Tega Cay home was later sold by the ministry and burned to the ground not long thereafter. Jim wrote in his book I Was Wrong that he watched the home burn on live television while incarcerated. The Charlotte Observer subsequently ran exposés of PTL's finances and management practices. PTL went bankrupt after being taken over by Lynchburg, Virginia-based Baptist televangelist Jerry Falwell, who offered to step in following the scandals in 1988.
Tammy Faye stood by Jim Bakker through the scandal, including several instances when she cried on camera. In 1989, Bakker was sentenced to 45 years in prison on 24 fraud and conspiracy counts (he served 5). In 1992, while Jim was in prison, Tammy Faye filed for divorce, saying in a letter to the New Covenant Church in Orlando, Florida: "For years I have been pretending that everything is all right, when in fact I hurt all the time... I cannot pretend anymore."
On October 3, 1993, she married property developer Roe Messner in Rancho Mirage, California, after he divorced his first wife. They moved to the Charlotte suburb of Matthews, North Carolina. Roe, who had a contracting business, Messner Enterprises in Andover, Kansas, had built much of Heritage USA as well as many large churches and had been a family friend to the Bakkers throughout the PTL years. Roe was the one who produced the money for the $265,000 payment to Hahn, later billing PTL for work never completed on the Jerusalem Amphitheater at Heritage USA. In the Bakkers' fraud trial, Roe Messner testified for Bakker's defense, saying that Bakker had no knowledge of the payment to Jessica Hahn, and that Falwell had sent him to the Bakker home in Palm Springs, California, to offer generous compensation "if he kept his mouth shut."
=== 1996–2007: Later life and illness ===
In 1996, Roe Messner was convicted of bankruptcy fraud, having claimed to owe nearly $30 million to over 300 creditors in 1990. As he faced sentencing in 1996, he said he could not afford to treat his prostate cancer because he lacked health insurance. He was sentenced to and served 27 months in prison.
With her first husband fresh out of jail and her current partner now serving his sentence, Tammy Faye was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1996, and she re-entered the public eye in a series of books, movies, and television appearances. That year she published her autobiography, Tammy: Telling It My Way, and co-hosted a TV talk show titled The Jim J. and Tammy Faye Show with Jim J. Bullock.
She appeared twice on The Drew Carey Show in 1996 and 1999, playing the mother of character Mimi Bobeck (Kathy Kinney), who was also known for wearing excessive amounts of makeup. On September 11, 2003, Messner published a new autobiography, I Will Survive... and You Will, Too!, in which she described her battles with cancer and her life with Roe Messner.
She was the subject of a documentary titled The Eyes of Tammy Faye (2000), narrated by RuPaul, and a follow-up film titled Tammy Faye: Death Defying (2004).
Despite her background in Christian fundamentalism, Messner became a gay icon after parting from PTL, appearing in Gay Pride marches with figures such as Lady Bunny and Bruce Vilanch. Unlike many American Christian fundamentalists, she "had long refused to denounce homosexuals" and publicly expressed compassion toward, and urged support for Americans with HIV/AIDS when it was still a much-feared and unknown disease. She was benevolently referred to as "the ultimate drag queen," and said in her last interview with Larry King that, "When I went – when we lost everything, it was the gay people that came to my rescue, and I will always love them for that."
In early 2004, she appeared on the second season of the VH1 reality television series The Surreal Life. The show chronicled a twelve-day period wherein she, Ron Jeremy, Vanilla Ice, Traci Bingham, Erik Estrada, and Trishelle Cannatella lived together in a Los Angeles house and were assigned various tasks and activities. Together, the six put on a children's play and managed a restaurant for a day. She also attended a book signing for her best-seller, I Will Survive... And You Will Too.
At the end of the show, Messner said she thought of Vanilla Ice and Trishelle Cannatella as her children and could relate to them deeply because she had similar feelings and problems when she was their age.
In July 2007, on more solid financial footing, the Messners relocated to Loch Lloyd, Missouri, a suburb of Kansas City. Jim Bakker had relocated his operations to Branson, Missouri, in 2003. She told Entertainment Tonight they had moved to the "dream house" to be closer to Roe's children and grandchildren from his first marriage.
== Death ==
Messner's 11 years with cancer were highly publicized. She was first diagnosed with colon cancer in March 1996, but later revealed she had endured bleeding for a year out of embarrassment at the prospect of seeing a male doctor. The disease went into remission by the end of that year.
In March 2004, Messner made an appearance on Larry King Live and announced that she had inoperable lung cancer and would soon begin chemotherapy. She continued to receive chemotherapy throughout mid-2004. In November 2004, also on Larry King Live, she announced that she was cancer-free once again. She described the details of her chemotherapy and continued to appear regularly on King's show.
A television documentary of her struggle with cancer was produced in 2004. It was on King's program again that she announced in July 2005 that her cancer had returned. In a March 2006 appearance on the show, she said she was continuing to suffer from lung cancer, which had reached stage 4, and that she was continuing to receive treatment for it. She also mentioned having difficulty swallowing food, suffering from panic attacks, and enduring substantial weight loss. As her health continued to worsen, a "Talk of the Town" article in an October 2006 issue of The New Yorker stated that she was dying in hospice care, and a December 2006 article in Walter Scott's column in Parade reported that her son Jay was "at a North Carolina hospice with his mom, [who is] gravely ill with colon cancer".
Messner was a guest by phone on Larry King Live in December 2006, and said that she was receiving hospice care in her home. She appeared in her son Jay's documentary series One Punk Under God, wherein they talked about her cancer treatments. In one episode, she required the use of oxygen in order to talk.
In May 2007, she issued a statement on her website saying that chemotherapy had stopped, and she urged her fans to continue to pray for her. The story was reported on NBC's The Today Show, and a feature in which fans and well-wishers could post get-well messages to Tammy was added to her website.
On July 18, 2007, Messner made her final appearance on Larry King Live. At the time, she said she weighed 65 pounds (29.5 kg) and was unable to eat solid food. Messner's husband later said that he believed she chose to do the interview to say a final goodbye to her fans.
Two days later, on July 20, 2007, Messner died at her home in Loch Lloyd, near Kansas City, Missouri, after an eleven-year bout with cancer. She was 65 years old. A family service was held on the morning of July 21, at the Messner family plot in Waldron, Kansas. The ceremony was officiated by Rev. Randy McCain, the pastor of Open Door Community Church in Sherwood, Arkansas. According to CNN, the family requested that King officially report the news of her death. Her remains were cremated and her ashes were returned to Waldron Cemetery where they were subsequently buried.
== In popular culture ==
In June 2006, a stage musical titled The Gospel According to Tammy Faye opened at the Cincinnati Fringe Festival and was subsequently developed as a larger professional production. The show features songs by J. T. Buck and a book by Fernando Dovalina. The musical is described as a fantasia which takes a balanced and fair look at its subject. The impetus for the show was provided by a lengthy interview that Messner gave the authors in March 2005. The musical aired in August 2006 in Portland, Oregon and Hood River, Oregon, and it was presented on stage at Houston's Alley Theatre at the end of July 2007 under direction of Les R. Wood. Industry readings presented by the Columbia Gorge Repertory Company were held at the Manhattan Theatre Club in December 2007, the cast including Tony nominee Sally Mayes and veteran Broadway performers William Youmans, Ken Land, Julie Foldesi, James T. Lane and Heather Parcells. The readings were directed by Mindy Cooper. Seth Farber provided musical direction.
Another musical following her life, titled Big Tent, debuted in May 2007, at off-Broadway's New World Stages, in New York City. The show features music and lyrics by Ben Cohn and Sean McDaniel, a book by Jeffery Self, and direction by Ryan J. Davis. A star-studded concert of songs from the show opened in February 2008, at New York's Metropolitan Room.
A play about her final hours, Tammy Faye's Final Audition by Merri Biechler, premiered at the Cincinnati Fringe Festival in June 2015. The play takes place in a fevered dream at the end of her life, wherein she enlists the men in her life for one final TV talk show audition.
A musical about the life of BeBe Winans, Born for This, debuted on June 25, 2018, at the Emerson Cutler Majestic Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts. Tammy Faye and Jim Bakker appear as supporting characters who give BeBe and his sister CeCe their first big break as singers on The PTL Club.
At one time, Broadway actress Kristin Chenoweth was planning a musical based on Messner's life.
In the 2021 movie The Eyes of Tammy Faye, based on the 2000 documentary of the same name, Jessica Chastain plays Tammy Faye, with Andrew Garfield as Jim. The Eyes of Tammy Faye opened on September 17, 2021. Chastain won a Critics Choice Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and the Academy Award for Best Actress.
British playwright James Graham also wrote the book for a new musical about Tammy Faye, with music by Elton John and lyrics by Jake Shears. The musical, titled Tammy Faye, opened in October 2022 at the Almeida Theatre in London, directed by Rupert Goold.
In Season 4 Episode 3 of Hulu's Only Murders in the Building, there is a pig named Hammy Faye Bakker, after Tammy Faye Bakker.
== Select discography ==
== Bibliography ==
I Gotta Be Me (1978), ISBN 978-0089221480
Run to the Roar (1985), ISBN 978-0892210732
Tammy: Telling It My Way (1996), ISBN 9780679445159
I Will Survive...and You Will Too! (2003), ISBN 9781585422425
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bekkering, Denis (2018). American Televangelism and Participatory Cultures: Fans, Brands, and Play With Religious "Fakes". Palgrave Macmillan.
== External links ==
Tammy Faye Messner Interview at Archive of American Television
The Re-Invention of Tammy Faye: Former Christian Broadcasting Queen Has New Gay Following, National Public Radio All Things Considered, June 20, 2002
Interview of Tammy Faye Messner by Terry Gross, National Public Radio Fresh Air, January 15, 2004
Tammy Faye Bakker at IMDb
Tammy Faye Messner at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comair_(South_Africa)#kulula.com | Comair (South Africa) | Comair Limited was an airline based in South Africa that operated scheduled services on domestic routes as a British Airways franchisee (and an affiliate member of the Oneworld airline alliance). It also operated as a low-cost carrier under its own kulula.com brand. Its main base was O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg, while focus cities were Cape Town International Airport in Cape Town, and King Shaka International Airport in Durban. Its headquarters were near OR Tambo in the Bonaero Park area of Kempton Park, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng.
== History ==
The idea for the airline came out of discussion of two second world war pilots based in Egypt, J.M.S. Martin and A.L. Zoubert, they gained another partner Leon Zimmerman and Commercial Air Services was formed in 1943 on their return to South Africa. The company began charter operations on 15 June 1946 using Fairchild F-24 Argus and Douglas DC-3 aircraft. Scheduled services between Rand Airport, Johannesburg and Durban began on 1 July 1948, using a Cessna 195.
In 1978, Donald (Dave) Novick negotiated a management buyout of Comair's aviation assets. A lengthy legal battle ensued between Novick and the Pickard Group. On 5 June 1978, Justice George Colman rendered a 291-page document in favour of Novick. In doing so, Colman established 12 precedents in South African corporate law; the litigation is now considered to be a landmark case.
When Novick joined Comair in 1961, the company had some 50 employees and operated two Douglas DC-3 aircraft. Under his direction, the company expanded its fleet into jet aircraft after the de-regulation of South African airline routes in 1991.
Novick pioneered a strong relationship with British Airways plc and a partnership through a franchise arrangement. British Airways later took a shareholding in Comair.
In 2001 kulula.com was established, by co-founders Gidon Novick and Erik Venter, as the first low-cost airline in South Africa. The airline maintained its lead in this segment of the market, serving leisure business customers. As part of a R3.5 billion investment in fleet upgrade, Comair ordered eight Boeing 737-800s to update its fleet in 2013.
In March 2014, Comair announced a R9 billion order for eight Boeing 737 MAX. The aircraft were due to be delivered from 2019 to 2022.
The government of the British Overseas Territories Saint Helena and the United Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID) announced in March 2015 that it had reached agreement with Comair for the provision of weekly air services from Johannesburg, to commence in 2016, when the Atlantic island's airport was due to open for revenue service. Comair withdrew from the agreement before the introduction of scheduled flights, due to severe wind shear on the initial test flights. A scheduled service provided by Airlink started in 2017.
In August 2016, Imperial Air Cargo, a cargo airline in which Comair owned a 30 percent stake, started operations.
The company entered into voluntary business rescue proceedings on 5 May 2020, due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic. Operations were suspended on 31 May 2022. On 9 June 2022 the business rescue practitioners announced that there was no reasonable prospect of rescue and that the company be placed into liquidation.
== Corporate affairs ==
=== Ownership and structure ===
Comair Limited was a public company listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE: COM), but after going into business rescue on 5 May 2020, the company was delisted from the Johannesburg Stock Exchange on 7 April 2021; this gave it access to ZAR100 million rand (USD6.8 million) under the COVID-19 Loan Guarantee Scheme put in place between the South African Reserve Bank and large commercial banks.
The group had a number of subsidiary activities, including Comair Catering Proprietary Limited, trading under the Food Directions brand, that provided on-board catering and retail services to the group’s flights, and health and other food products to South African retailers, and also had a 56% shareholding in The Highly Nutritious Food Company Proprietary Limited, trading as Eatrite, that distributes its products to retailers in South Africa.
=== Business trends ===
The published key trends for the Comair group (which includes activities under the British Airways and kulula.com brands) are shown below, as at years ending 30 June.
Comair entered into voluntary business rescue proceedings on 5 May 2020, due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic, and no annual accounts for the fiscal year ending 30 June 2020 have therefore been published. The figures for 2020 shown below are from the Management Accounts set out in the Business Rescue Plan:
=== Headquarters ===
The Group’s headquarters were based at 1 Marignane Drive, Bonaero Park, Kempton Park.
== Destinations ==
=== British Airways franchisee ===
Comair offered flights to and from the following destinations, operating under the British Airways brand:
Mauritius
Port Louis – Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport
Namibia
Windhoek – Hosea Kutako International Airport
South Africa
Cape Town – Cape Town International Airport (focus city)
Durban – King Shaka International Airport (focus city)
Gqeberha – Chief Dawid Stuurman International Airport
East London - King Phalo Airport
Johannesburg – O. R. Tambo International Airport (hub)
Zambia
Livingstone – Livingstone Airport
Zimbabwe
Harare – Harare International Airport
Victoria Falls – Victoria Falls Airport
=== kulula.com ===
Comair offered flights to and from the following destinations, operating under the kulula.com brand:
South Africa
Cape Town – Cape Town International Airport (focus city)
Durban – King Shaka International Airport (focus city)
George – George Airport
Johannesburg
Lanseria International Airport
O. R. Tambo International Airport (hub)
== Codeshares ==
Comair codeshared with the following airlines:
Air France
Cathay Pacific
Etihad Airways
Kenya Airways
KLM
Qatar Airways
== Fleet ==
As of December 2021, Comair fleet included the following aircraft operated as British Airways franchise:
== Incidents and accidents ==
On 12 October 1982, Douglas C-47A ZS-EJK was written off when it crashed into a mountain near Graskop in the Eastern Transvaal, 36 nautical miles (67 km) from Hoedspruit when attempting to divert to that airport. The weather was instrument meteorological conditions. All 30 people on board survived.
On 1 March 1988, Comair Flight 206, an Embraer 110 Bandeirante, crashed in Johannesburg, killing all 17 occupants. One source suggests that this incident was caused by an explosive device, carried by a passenger employed as a mineworker who had recently taken out a substantial insurance policy.
On 26 October 2015, Comair Flight BA6234 (ZS-OAA), a Boeing 737-400 operated by Comair on behalf of British Airways, crashed and was damaged beyond repair at OR Tambo International Airport. The crash was suspected to be caused by an early flare and fast touch down causing the left landing gear to collapse. No-one was killed or injured.
== See also ==
Airlines of Africa
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Van Dyke, Capt Donald L. 'Fortune Favours the Bold: An African Aviation Odyssey. Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4363-9314-0.
== External links ==
Media related to Comair Limited at Wikimedia Commons
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psygnosis#History | Psygnosis | Psygnosis Limited (; known as SCE Studio Liverpool or simply Studio Liverpool from 1999) was a British video game developer and publisher headquartered at Wavertree Technology Park in Liverpool. Founded in 1984 by Ian Hetherington, Jonathan Ellis, and David Lawson, the company initially became known for well-received games on the Atari ST and Amiga. In 1993, it became a wholly owned subsidiary and first-party developer of Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) and began developing games for the original PlayStation. It later became a part of SCE Worldwide Studios. The company was the oldest and second largest development house within the company. The company is best known for creating the Wipeout, Formula One and Colony Wars series.
Reports of Studio Liverpool's closure surfaced on 22 August 2012, with Edge quoting staff tweets. Staff members were told the news by Michael Denny, vice president of Sony Worldwide Studios Europe. Sony said that the Liverpool site would remain in operation, as it was still home to many Sony Departments. At the time of its closure, it employed roughly 100 people comprising two development teams. Mick Hocking oversaw Studio Liverpool's operations as its last Group Studio Director, a position he continued to hold within Evolution Studios.
Psygnosis still exists as a legal entity under Sony and continues to make legal filings, but has had no developers since 2012. In December 2021, Sony renewed Psygnosis' logo and trademarks despite not using the Psygnosis branding since 2000, though this is thought to be standard filing practice as trademarks last for a decade in the United States and Sony had previously filed renewal applications in 2011 as well.
== History ==
Psygnosis was the eventual successor of the defunct 8-bit software house Imagine Software, where Lawson was one of the founders and Hetherington was financial director. Finchspeed, a company created by the directors, attempted to acquire the assets of the failing company but this was unsuccessful and the remains of Imagine, including their much-hyped but never completed "megagames", were sold by the receivers. While the name and trademarks were bought by Ocean Software, Sinclair Research paid a rumoured £100,000 for the rights to Bandersnatch and contracted a new company set up by Hetherington and Lawson, Fire Iron, to produce the game for the Sinclair QL for release in early 1985.
Sinclair withdrew funding from Fire Iron in early 1985, and Psygnosis, which became a limited company under United Kingdom company law in July 1985, revealed their first title Brataccas, which featured many of the concepts originally intended for Bandersnatch, at the 1985 Personal Computer World show in September.
The name of another Imagine Megagame (the proposed but never developed Psyclapse) was later used by Psygnosis as an alternative label for some of its releases, such as Ballistix and Captain Fizz Meets The Blaster-Trons.
The box artwork was very distinctive with a black background and fantasy artwork by Roger Dean bordered in red. This style was maintained for the better part of 10 years. For the next few years, Psygnosis' releases contained increasingly improved graphics, but were marred by similarly difficult gameplay and control methods. The original company headquarters were located at the Port of Liverpool Building at the Pier Head in Liverpool, but soon moved to Century Buildings in Liverpool's Brunswick Business Park, and later moved down the road to South Harrington Building by the docks.
Although Psygnosis primarily became a game publisher, some games were developed fully or partly in-house. During the early days, artists were employed full-time at the headquarters, offering third-party developers, who were often just single programmers, a high-quality art resource. This allowed Psygnosis to maintain high graphical standards across the board. The original artists were Garvan Corbett, Jeff Bramfitt, Colin Rushby and Jim Bowers, with Neil Thompson joining a little later.
Obliterator, released in 1988, contained an opening animation by Jim Bowers. This short scene would pave the way for increasingly sophisticated intro animations, starting with 2D hand drawn sequences, and progressing into FMV and 3D rendered movies created with Sculpt 4D on the Amiga. Eventually, Psygnosis would buy Silicon Graphics workstations for the sole purpose of creating these animations.
While most game companies of the mid-to-late 1980s (including Psygnosis) were releasing identical games on both the Amiga and Atari ST, Psygnosis started to use the full potential of the Amiga's more powerful hardware to produce technically stunning games, with the landmark title Shadow of the Beast bringing the company its greatest success so far in 1989. Its multi-layered parallax scrolling and music were highly advanced for the time and as such led to the game being used as a showcase demonstration for the Amiga in many computer shops.
Psygnosis consolidated its fame after publishing the DMA Design Lemmings game franchise: debuting in 1991 on the Amiga, Lemmings was ported to a plethora of different computer and video game platforms, generating many sequels and variations of its concept through the years. Microcosm, a game that appeared on the FM Towns, Amiga CD32, and 3DO furthered the company's reputation for games with excellent graphics.
Psygnosis also created the "Face-Off" games in the Nickelodeon 1992 television game show, Nick Arcade, such as "Post Haste", "Jet Jocks" and "Battle of the Bands".
In 1993 the company was acquired by Sony Electronic Publishing. The acquisition cost Sony £20 million. In preparation for the September 1995 introduction of Sony's PlayStation console in Western markets, Psygnosis started creating games using the PlayStation as primary reference hardware. Among the most famous creations of this period were Wipeout, G-Police, and the Colony Wars series, some of which were ported to PC and to other platforms. The PlayStation marked a turning point in Psygnosis's game design, moving away from the prerendered graphics and limited gameplay that the company had become associated with. This was a successful period for the company; in the 1995–96 financial year, Psygnosis games accounted for 40% of all video games sales in Europe.
The acquisition was rewarding for Sony in another aspect: development kits for PlayStation consoles. As it had previously published PSY-Q development kits for various consoles by SN Systems, Psygnosis arranged for them to create a development system for the PS based on cheap PC hardware. Sony evaluated the system during CES in January 1994 and decided to adopt it.
As Psygnosis expanded after the Sony buyout, another satellite office was opened in Century Building with later offices opening in Stroud, London, Chester, Paris, Germany, and Foster City in California (as the Customer Support & Marketing with software development done in San Francisco), now the home of Sony Computer Entertainment America. The company headquarters has resided at Wavertree Technology Park since 1995.
The Stroud studio was opened in November 1993 in order to attract disgruntled MicroProse employees. Staff grew from initially about 50 to about 70 in 1997. Among the titles created at Stroud are Overboard! and G-Police. The Wheelhouse—its publishing name—was closed in 2000 as part of the Sony Computer Entertainment takeover of Psygnosis. Some members joined Bristol-based Rage Software, but faced a similar demise a number of years later.
Despite being owned by Sony, Psygnosis retained a degree of independence from its parent company during this period and continued to develop and publish titles for other platforms, including the Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64. This caused friction between Psygnosis and Sony, and in 1996 Sony engaged SBC Warburg's services in finding a buyer for Psygnosis. However, though bids reportedly went as high as $300 million (more than ten times what Sony paid for the company just three years before), after six months Sony rescinded its decision to sell Psygnosis. Relations between the two companies had improved during this time, and Sony became reconciled to Psygnosis releasing games for competing platforms. Shortly after, Psygnosis took over distribution of its own titles, a task that Sony had been handling following the buyout.
=== Studio Camden ===
Psygnosis had a subsidiary studio at Camden Town which developed Blast Radius, Kingsley's Adventure and Team Buddies. It was moved to Sony as a separate studio named SCEE Studio Camden and released Dropship: United Peace Force before being merged with Team Soho into London Studio.
=== As Studio Liverpool ===
In 1999, a process to consolidate Psygnosis into Sony Computer Entertainment was underway, resulting in the bulk of Psygnosis' sales, marketing and PR staff being made redundant and the development teams reporting directly into Sony Computer Entertainment Europe's president of software development. To reflect this, in 2000, the Psygnosis brand was dropped in favour of SCE Studio Liverpool. During the year, as its American division was shut down, Midway Home Entertainment acquired the remaining titles of Psygnosis' PlayStation lineup.
The newly named SCE Studio Liverpool released its first title, Formula One 2001, in 2001. The game was also the studio's first release on the PlayStation 2, and the first entry in the Formula One series after taking over from developer Studio 33. From 2001 to 2007, Studio Liverpool released eight instalments in the series between the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3. However, Sony Computer Entertainment's exclusive licence with the Formula One Group expired, without renewal, before the 2007 season, marking the end of any further Formula One series instalments from the developer.
Studio Liverpool also developed Wipeout Fusion, the first of two instalments of the series on the PlayStation 2, released in 2002. Next they developed Wipeout Pure for the PlayStation Portable, which launched alongside the handheld in 2005 to significant acclaim, with many media outlets heralding it a return to glory for the series. They followed up with the sequel Wipeout Pulse in 2007 which was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and released in Europe.
In 2008 it released Wipeout HD, a downloadable title for the PlayStation 3's PlayStation Network service, consisting of various courses taken from both Wipeout Pure and Wipeout Pulse remade in high definition. An expansion pack for Wipeout HD named Wipeout HD Fury is available at PlayStation Network, including new game modes, new tracks, new music and new ship skins/models. In 2007, a copy of Manhunt 2 was leaked online prior to its release by an employee from the Sony Europe Liverpool office.
On 29 January 2010, Sony made a public statement on its restructuring of Studio Liverpool. The closure of Studio Liverpool was announced on 22 August 2012. In a press release, Sony stated that after an assessment of all European studios, it had decided to close Studio Liverpool. Sony said that the Liverpool site would remain in operation, as it is home to a number of Sony Worldwide Studios and SCEE Departments.
Eurogamer was told by an unnamed source that, at the time of its closure, Studio Liverpool was working on two PlayStation 4 launch titles. One was a Wipeout title described as "dramatically different"; the other was a motion capture-based game along the lines of Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell.
== Spin-off studios ==
In 2013 a number of former Studio Liverpool employees formed two new studios: Firesprite, which worked on the visuals of The Playroom for the PlayStation 4, and Playrise Digital, who had success with their Table Top Racing games. In September 2021, Sony acquired Firesprite.
== XDev ==
XDev, Sony's external development studio, is responsible for managing the development of titles at developers that are outside of Sony's own developer group. It has won 14 British Academy (BAFTA) video game awards and AIAS awards for LittleBigPlanet, 3 BAFTA awards for the Buzz! series and Develop Industry Excellence Awards for MotorStorm and Buzz!.
== Games ==
=== Games developed or published as Psygnosis ===
=== Games developed as SCE Studio Liverpool ===
== See also ==
London Studio
Guerrilla Cambridge
Evolution Studios
Bigbig Studios
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived 31 January 2013)
Psygnosis discography at Discogs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_(DC_Comics) | Brain (DC Comics) | The Brain is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Commonly as a frequent enemy of the Doom Patrol and the Teen Titans, he is a French genius and criminal mastermind.
The Brain appears as the main antagonist in the third season of the HBO Max series Doom Patrol, voiced by Riley Shanahan.
== Publication history ==
The Brain first appeared in Doom Patrol #86 (March 1964) and was created by Arnold Drake and Bruno Premiani. Drake later commented: "I used that same concept in a Jerry Lewis comic book, and in a Bob Hope comic I had a totem pole that talked to him. Often times, I wrote the same storylines for the comedy stuff that I wrote for the serious stuff. I just turned it on its head".
== Fictional character biography ==
As a scientist, the Brain performs experiments on animals to raise their intelligence. One of these is on a gorilla, who he names Monsieur Mallah and educates for almost a decade before making him his assistant. His colleague Niles Caulder grows jealous of his work and arranges for the Brain to get caught in an explosion, which destroys his body. Only the brain survives, which Caulder plans on putting into a robotic body. Mallah rescues the Brain, transferring him to a computer network that keeps him functioning.
The Brain and Mallah form the Brotherhood of Evil in hopes of conquering the world and getting revenge on Caulder, recruiting Madame Rouge, General Immortus, and Garguax. Caulder, now known as the "Chief", through a series of other accidents that he manipulated, forms the Doom Patrol. The Brain, Mallah, and their Brotherhood's criminal activities also pit them against the Teen Titans. The Brotherhood go against the newly formed Justice League, with the Brain using a genetic splicer to take the Flash's legs, Green Lantern's ring, Black Canary's vocal chords, and Martian Manhunter's eyes. The Brain is defeated by the League and the Doom Patrol, the League using cybernetic implants created by Niles Caulder to compensate for their lost powers. Aquaman is thrown to the Brain, overpowers his control of the ring, and separates the Brain from his makeshift body.
During Grant Morrison's Doom Patrol run, Mallah has the Brain placed in one of Robotman's bodies. The two confess their love for one another and kiss. However, Robotman's body had developed sentience and vowed never to be enslaved by a brain again. When Mallah places the Brain in Robotman's body, which triggers a self-destruct mechanism and explodes as the two kiss. The two later resurface (the Brain back to floating in a jar), with no explanation of how they survived the explosion.
In Salvation Run, Brain and Mallah are among the villains exiled to the planet Cygnus 4019. An altercation between Mallah and Gorilla Grodd ends with Grodd beating Mallah to death with Brain's chassis, killing them both.
Brain is later resurrected in The New 52 continuity reboot. This version is a scientist named Ernst who was mortally wounded in an explosion and saved by Monsieur Mallah, who preserved his brain. After becoming distrustful of humans, Brain and Mallah attack humans who they blame for their plight.
In the Dawn of DC series Unstoppable Doom Patrol, Mallah betrays and kills Brain, believing that their relationship is toxic and no longer loving.
== Powers and abilities ==
The Brain is highly intelligent and a master of manipulation. His body is armed with a variety of weapons. On the rare occasion when the Brain has been vulnerable without robotic protection or assistance from other villains, he has protected himself by attacking opponents through telekinesis.
== Other characters named Brain ==
DC Comics previously had other villains named the Brain:
The first villain was a human criminal who earned his nickname for his cleverness and battled the Seven Soldiers of Victory.
The second villain to use the name Brain was a crime boss who fought Flash.
The third villain to use the name Brain is a crime boss who fought Wonder Woman and manipulated her into questioning her own existence.
The fourth villain to use the name Brain is a criminal mastermind who fought Superman.
== Other versions ==
=== Earth-S ===
On Earth-S, the Brain is the name used by Warden Loomis, a serial killer who is an enemy of Mr. Scarlet and Pinky the Whiz Kid.
== In other media ==
=== Television ===
The Brain appears in The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure episode "The Brain, the Brave and the Bold".
The Brain appears in Teen Titans, voiced by Glenn Shadix. This version is the leader of the Brotherhood of Evil.
The Brain appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. This version possesses a variety of weapons mounted on extendable robotic arms.
The Brain appears in Young Justice, voiced initially by Nolan North and subsequently by Corey Burton. This version is a leading member of the Light until he is captured by the Team.
The Brain appears in Teen Titans Go! (2013), voiced by Scott Menville.
The Brain appears in the Justice League Action episode "The Brain Buster", voiced by Jim Ward.
The Brain appears in Doom Patrol, voiced by Riley Shanahan. This version has had several encounters with the eponymous team, with one seeing him using his Ultimax form before Steve Dayton claimed his robotic body, though the Brain escaped. In the present, the Brain tasks Madame Rouge with attacking the Doom Patrol and stealing Robotman's body for him as her initiation into the Brotherhood of Evil. After taking control of the body however, Monsieur Mallah leaves him before Robotman gains control of Brain's brain jar and discarded giant robot and defeats him. After salvaging Robotman's body, Rita Farr kills Brain.
The Brain appears in My Adventures with Superman, voiced by Jesse Inocalla. This version is a kind-hearted but short-tempered German scientist who originally worked for Project Cadmus until Task Force X raided the Brain's base, which resulted in the latter's body being destroyed, though his namesake and heart were saved.
=== Video games ===
The Brain appears in DC Universe Online, voiced by Leif Anders.
The Brain appears as the final boss of the Nintendo DS version of Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame.
The Brain appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
The Brain makes a cameo appearance in Injustice: Gods Among Us as part of the Insurgency headquarters stage.
The Brain appears as a non-playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Jason Spisak.
=== Miscellaneous ===
The Brain appears in Teen Titans Go! (2004).
The Brain appears in Justice League Adventures #6.
The Brain appears in Justice League Unlimited #31.
The Brain appears in Smallville Season 11 #9.
The Young Justice incarnation of the Brain appears in issues #18 and #19 of the Young Justice tie-in comic book series. This version was originally among a group of scientists, led by an old woman who would become the Ultra-Humanite, who settled in Bwunda to conduct experiments on the native gorillas before having his brain transplanted into a robotic container. After building Gorilla City, the scientists enslaved the gorillas, enhanced their intellect with Kobra venom, placed inhibitor collars on them, and took their offspring hostage. Two years later, the scientists are pursued by the Team, who form an alliance with the gorillas. Despite destroying Gorilla City and freeing the offspring, the Brain and Ultra-Humanite escape.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Brain | Jimmy Brain | James Brain (11 September 1900 – 1971) was an English professional football manager and player who played as a centre forward.
== Career ==
Born in Bristol, Brain started his career playing in Wales, having an unsuccessful trial at Cardiff City, before gaining a regular place at Ton Pentre. In 1923, he moved to Arsenal, and in his eight years with Arsenal became one of the club's most successful goalscorers. After a year in the reserve side, Brain started his Arsenal first-team career with a goal on his debut, a 1–0 win against local rivals Tottenham Hotspur on 25 October 1924.
Brain was a prolific striker throughout his career, and was the club's top scorer for four seasons in a row, from 1924–25 to 1928–29; this included 39 goals in the 1925–26 season (second only to Ted Drake's haul of 45 in 1934–35), which included four hat tricks. The next season, 1926–27, Brain scored 34 goals, this haul including two four-goal tallies against Sheffield Wednesday and Burnley. Brain's goalscoring feats helped Arsenal reach their first FA Cup final, in 1926–27, though a mistake by goalkeeper Dan Lewis meant Arsenal lost 1–0 to Cardiff City.
However Brain's form dropped and in 1929–30 he lost out in competing for the front spot with Jack Lambert, David Jack and Dave Halliday all getting the nod ahead of him, meaning Brain only played six league matches this season. Brain therefore missed Arsenal' 1930 Cup final win over Huddersfield Town; Jack and Lambert led the line that day. He played in Arsenal's 2–1 victory over Sheffield Wednesday in the Charity Shield at Stamford Bridge in October 1930. The following season, 1930–31, Brain finally won a medal after playing sixteen matches (scoring four goals) in Arsenal's very first First Division title-winning season. Brain's final appearance in an Arsenal shirt was a 2–0 win over Sheffield Wednesday on 21 March 1931.
By now, Brain's age was catching up with him, and he had been overtaken in the goalscoring stakes by both Lambert and Jack. He left Arsenal for Tottenham for £2,500 in September 1931, becoming one of the few players to have moved directly between the two rival clubs. In total, he scored 139 goals in 232 appearances for Arsenal, making him Arsenal' joint-fifth top scorer of all time, and he was the first player ever to score 100 goals for the club, a feat he achieved in a 6–3 win over Liverpool on 7 March 1928. However, he never played for England; he managed to secure a trial for the national team but was never actually selected.
By the time Brain had joined Spurs he was in his thirties, and only played 47 times for them, scoring 10 goals, before leaving in 1934. He played his final years out at Swansea Town and Bristol City. After retiring as a player, Brain managed first King's Lynn and then Cheltenham Town from 1937 until 1948. During the war Brain briefly turned out for Cheltenham Town. He returned to his role as Cheltenham Town manager until 1948, after which he retired completely from football. He died in 1971, at the age of 71.
== Honours ==
=== Player ===
Arsenal
Football League First Division: 1930–31
FA Charity Shield: 1930
FA Cup runner-up: 1926–27
=== Manager ===
Cheltenham Town
Gloucestershire Northern Senior Professional Cup: 1939–40
== References ==
CitationsBibliography
Harris, Jeff (1995). Hogg, Tony (ed.). Arsenal Who's Who. Independent UK Sports. ISBN 1-899429-03-4. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del_Prize | Gödel Prize | The Gödel Prize is an annual prize for outstanding papers in the area of theoretical computer science, given jointly by the European Association for Theoretical Computer Science (EATCS) and the Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computational Theory (ACM SIGACT). The award is named in honor of Kurt Gödel. Gödel's connection to theoretical computer science is that he was the first to mention the "P versus NP" question, in a 1956 letter to John von Neumann in which Gödel asked whether a certain NP-complete problem could be solved in quadratic or linear time.
The Gödel Prize has been awarded since 1993. The prize is awarded alternately at ICALP (even years) and STOC (odd years). STOC is the ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, one of the main North American conferences in theoretical computer science, whereas ICALP is the International Colloquium on Automata, Languages and Programming, one of the main European conferences in the field. To be eligible for the prize, a paper must be published in a refereed journal within the last 14 (formerly 7) years. The prize includes a reward of US$5000.
The winner of the Prize is selected by a committee of six members. The EATCS President and the SIGACT Chair each appoint three members to the committee, to serve staggered three-year terms. The committee is chaired alternately by representatives of EATCS and SIGACT.
In contrast with the Gödel Prize, which recognizes outstanding papers, the Knuth Prize is awarded to individuals for their overall impact in the field.
== Recipients ==
== Winning papers ==
== See also ==
List of computer science awards
== Notes ==
== References ==
Prize website with list of winners |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Weston_Pickett | Lucy Weston Pickett | Lucy Weston Pickett (January 19, 1904 – November 23, 1997) was a Mary Lyon Professor and Camille and Henry Dreyfus Chair in Chemistry at Mount Holyoke College.
Her research on X-ray crystallography and ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy of organic molecules received numerous honors and was supported by grants from the Office of Naval Research, the National Science Foundation and the Petroleum Research Fund of the American Chemical Society.
== Early life ==
Pickett was born on January 19, 1904, in Beverly, Massachusetts, to Lucy Weston, a former school teacher and elementary school principal, and George Ernest Pickett, a former seaman. She had one brother, Thomas Austin Pickett, who also became a chemist. Both Lucy and Thomas led similar academic and professional lives, while still holding a close relationship.
== Education ==
Lucy W. Pickett attended high school in Beverly and later entered Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1921 and graduated in 1925. Lucy planned on majoring in Latin but changed her mind to work in the sciences, having an attraction to chemistry. She double majored in chemistry and mathematics.
In, 1925, Pickett graduated with summa cum laude, both in chemistry, and in mathematics at Mount Holyoke. She continued to a master's degree in two years before moving to the University of Illinois, where she studied for her doctoral degree. Lucy earned a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois majoring in analytical chemistry with minors in both physical chemistry and physics. Her dissertation research explored the effects of X-rays on chemical reactions and the X-ray structures of organic compounds.
== Career ==
Pickett taught at Illinois and Goucher College before returning to Mount Holyoke in 1930. She would stay there until she retired in 1968. During her 1932–1933 leave she worked with the famous X-ray crystallographer and Nobel laureate Sir William Bragg at the Royal Institution, London. In 1939, on an Educational Foundation Fellowship she worked with Victor Henri at University of Liège, Belgium, and with George Kistiakowsky at Harvard.
As much as Lucy would have liked to have continued her work in X-ray crystallography, she returned to Mount Holyoke College to join in an active team of researchers, including Emma Perry Carr and Mary Sherrill, who were investigating molecular structures through spectroscopy. In 1939, Pickett went to Belgium to the University of Liege, where she began her work with spectroscopist, Victor Henri, and in the same year, to Harvard to work with molecular spectroscopist, George Kistiakowsky. In 1942, Pickett and Carr traveled to Chicago to attend a conference on spectroscopy organized by Robert S. Mulliken. Lucy worked with Milliken in 1952 on theoretical interpretations of the spectrum of the benzenium ion.
Her colleagues and students created The Lucy Pickett Lectureship, a lectureship designed to bring outstanding speakers to the Mount Holyoke campus. The first speaker was Robert Mulliken, 1966 Chemistry Nobel laureate, with whom Pickett had published a paper in 1954. In the 1970s, Pickett requested that the funds be used to honor women scientists.
== Publications ==
The effect of X-rays on chemical reactions...An X-ray study of the structure of organic compounds.
== Honors and awards ==
Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1955.
In 1957 she received the Francis P. Garvan Medal from the American Chemical Society for her research in molecular spectroscopy.
Honorary D.Sc. from Ripon College in 1958
Honorary D.Sc. from Mount Holyoke College in 1975
Upon her retirement, colleagues, students, and friends honored Pickett's many contributions to Mount Holyoke by establishing a lectureship in her name. The chemistry department's Lucy W. Pickett annual lecture series, which brings outstanding women scientist to campus, continues to this day.
In 1975, awarded the honorary doctor of science
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Fleck, George. "Lucy Weston Pickett," in Women in Chemistry and Physics: A Biobibliographic Sourcebook. Edited by L.S. Grinstein, R.K. Rose, and M. Rafailovich. Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1993.
== External links ==
Obituary
MIT Chemist to Deliver Lucy W. Pickett Lecture
Expert on Cell Surfaces to Deliver Lucy W. Pickett Lecture November 20 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danavorexton#:~:text=Danavorexton%20(developmental%20code%20name%20TAK,compound%20and%20is%20administered%20intravenously. | Danavorexton | Danavorexton (developmental code name TAK-925) is a selective orexin 2 receptor agonist. It is a small-molecule compound and is administered intravenously. The compound was found to dose-dependently produce wakefulness to a similar degree as modafinil in a phase 1 clinical trial. As of March 2021, danavorexton is under development for the treatment of narcolepsy, idiopathic hypersomnia, and sleep apnea. It is related to another orexin receptor agonist, firazorexton (TAK-994), the development of which was discontinued for safety reasons in October 2021.
== See also ==
Orexin receptor § Agonists
List of investigational narcolepsy and hypersomnia drugs
== References ==
== External links ==
Danavorexton - AdisInsight |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Life_to_Live | One Life to Live | One Life to Live (often abbreviated as OLTL) is an American soap opera broadcast on the ABC television network for more than 43 years, from July 15, 1968, to January 13, 2012, and then on the internet as a web series on Hulu and iTunes via Prospect Park from April 29 to August 19, 2013. Created by Agnes Nixon, the series was the first daytime drama to primarily feature ethnically and socioeconomically diverse characters and consistently emphasize social issues. One Life to Live was expanded from 30 minutes to 45 minutes on July 26, 1976, and then to an hour on January 16, 1978.
One Life to Live heavily focuses on the members and relationships of the Lord family. Actress Erika Slezak began portraying the series' protagonist Victoria Lord in March 1971 and played the character continuously for the rest of the show's run on ABC Daytime, winning a record six Daytime Emmy Awards for the role. In 2002, the series won an Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series.
On September 17, 2010, One Life to Live became the last American daytime soap opera taped in New York City; it earned this distinction after As the World Turns, which had been taped in New York since its 1956 premiere, aired its final episode. No daytime serial has emanated from New York since; ABC's lone soap, General Hospital, CBS's The Young and the Restless and The Bold and the Beautiful, and Peacock's Days of Our Lives are all recorded in California and CBS's other serial, Beyond the Gates, is produced outside of Atlanta.
On April 14, 2011, ABC announced that it was canceling One Life to Live after nearly 43 years on the air due to low ratings. On July 7, 2011, production company Prospect Park announced that it would continue the show as a web series after its run on ABC, but later suspended the project. The show taped its final scenes for ABC on November 18, 2011, and its final episode on the network aired on January 13, 2012, with a cliffhanger. On January 16, 2012, the following Monday, ABC replaced One Life to Live with a new and short-lived talk show called The Revolution that aired until July 6 of the same year.
On January 7, 2013, Prospect Park resumed its plan to continue One Life to Live as a daily 30-minute web series on Hulu and iTunes via The Online Network. The relaunched series premiered on April 29, 2013. The new series was plagued with several behind-the-scenes problems, most notably a litigation between Prospect Park and ABC regarding the misuse of One Life to Live characters on General Hospital. On September 3, 2013, Prospect Park suspended production of the series until the lawsuit with ABC was resolved.
== Creation ==
Impressed with the ratings success of NBC's Another World, ABC sought out Another World writer Nixon to create a serial for them. Though Nixon's concept for the new series was "built along the classic soap formula of a rich family and a poor family," she was "tired of the restraints imposed by the WASPy, noncontroversial nature of daytime drama." One Life to Live would emphasize "the ethnic and socioeconomic diversity" of the characters in its fictional setting. Nixon would go on to create All My Children in 1970 and Loving in 1983.
The initial main titles of the series featured the image of a roaring fireplace, a visual representation of the originally proposed title—Between Heaven and Hell—ultimately changed to One Life to Live to avoid controversy. One Life to Live's first sponsor was the Colgate-Palmolive company, who also sponsored The Doctors. ABC bought the show from Nixon in December 1974 when they purchased all stock to her Creative Horizons, Inc. The show was originally a half-hour serial until it was expanded to 45 minutes on July 23, 1976, and to one hour on January 16, 1978.
== Series history ==
One Life to Live is set in the fictional city of Llanview, a suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The show continually centers on the wealthy, White Anglo-Saxon Protestant Lord family, with the working-class Polish-American Wolek family, the less wealthy Irish Catholic Riley family, and the first regular African-American characters in U.S. soap operas, working-class mother and daughter Sadie Gray and Carla Gray, are present at the series' inception. One Life to Live has been called "the most peculiarly American of soap operas: the first serial to present a vast array of ethnic types, broad comic situations, a constant emphasis on social issues, and strong male characters."
From the debut episode, One Life to Live centered on fictional character Victoria "Viki" Lord (originated by Gillian Spencer), portrayed by six-time Daytime Emmy Award winner Erika Slezak for longer than any other One Life to Live series actor, from March 1971 through the series finale January 13, 2012, as well as the 2013 web revival. Long-suffering heroine Viki weathered love and loss, widowhood, rape, divorce, stroke and breast cancer, and was plagued by dissociative identity disorder (or DID, once known as multiple personality disorder) on and off for decades. Viki also had heart problems and received a transplant from her dying husband Ben Davidson (Mark Derwin). Featured male protagonist Dr. Larry Wolek also appeared at the debut episode and for 36 years, played from 1969 until the character's last appearance in 2004 by Emmy-nominated actor Michael Storm.
The apparent murder of Marco Dane (Gerald Anthony) by Victoria Lord in 1979 and the ensuing prostitution storyline of Larry Wolek's wife, Karen Wolek (Judith Light), garnered widespread critical acclaim and several Daytime Emmy Awards. The 1980s brought great ratings success with the introduction of the Buchanan family and the rise to prominence of Viki's scheming sister, Tina Lord (notably played by Andrea Evans). In the 1990s, the show introduced one of the first married interracial couples in soap operas with attorneys Hank and Nora Gannon (Nathan Purdee and Hillary B. Smith, respectively), and the story of the involvement of Viki's estranged brother, Todd (Roger Howarth), with the rape of Marty Saybrooke (Susan Haskell), was called "one of the show's most remembered and impactful."
One Life to Live celebrated its 40th anniversary in July 2008 with the return of several former cast members and by revisiting notable plot lines from its past. "Deceased" characters and even creator Agnes Nixon appeared in a storyline in which Slezak's Viki dies and visits Heaven, an homage to Viki's 1987 heavenly trip. Daytime Emmy Award nominee Andrea Evans and others returned for a tribute to Tina Lord's famous 1987 plunge over the Iguazu Falls and the 1990 royal wedding in fictional Mendorra. And like the 1988 Old West storyline in which the character Clint Buchanan steps back 100 years in the past, on July 21, 2008, Robert S. Woods began an extended storyline in which his character Bo Buchanan finds himself transplanted back into his own past—specifically 1968, the year of the series' inception—witnessing the Buchanan family's backstory unfold. Soap Opera Digest subsequently named One Life to Live their "Best Show" of 2008, calling it "the year's most compelling" series and citing a myriad of story lines the magazine found "heartbreaking," "stunning," and "gripping," as well as complimenting its risk-taking and "diverse and talented" cast.
On August 4, 2009, it was announced that One Life to Live, which was taped in New York City, would move from ABC Studio 17 at 56 West 66th Street to Studio 23 at 320 West 66th Street, Manhattan in early 2010. This studio was made available by the move of sister serial All My Children to a production facility in Los Angeles, where that series began taping on January 4, 2010. The new studio was 30% larger than One Life to Live's previous one, and both One Life to Live and All My Children were to be taped and broadcast in high-definition television (HD) after their moves.
On October 8, 2009, ABC announced that it had postponed the transition to HD for One Live to Live, citing the economic climate at the time, though an ABC spokesperson stated that they "...will re-examine it next year." On December 6, 2010, One Life to Live became the fifth daytime serial to broadcast in the 16:9 aspect ratio widescreen picture format but still not in true HD, after Days of Our Lives, The Young and the Restless, and fellow ABC soap operas All My Children and General Hospital, though those series are produced in high definition. ABC's picture disclaimers at the start of the program list it as being aired in "digital widescreen" rather than HD. The September 17, 2010, series ending of As the World Turns left One Life to Live as the last remaining American daytime serial being produced in the New York metropolitan area as well as the only one produced outside the Los Angeles metropolitan area.
=== Cancellation ===
Rumors about a potential cancellation of One Life to Live arose from TV Guide Canada in late 2009, after ABC announced that it was moving All My Children from New York City to Los Angeles. One Life to Live's lone presence in New York among the ABC soap operas, along its non-transition to HD and its struggling ratings, made it a program at risk of cancellation. The article from TV Guide Canada also pointed that once One Life to Live is cancelled, some of the actors could be offered to join the cast of All My Children in Los Angeles. In May 2010, rumors of possible cancellation of not only One Life to Live, but this time of also All My Children and General Hospital, resurfaced when Walt Disney Television officially announced that it was shutting down Soapnet, effective in 2012. After a failed attempt to give Aisha Tyler a talk show in 2009, ABC restarted auditioning a few pilot shows as candidates for its daytime lineup. At this point, All My Children had the lowest ratings so rumors began heating up in March 2011 about the show's demise, with hints that One Life to Live was safe for a while longer. However, early in April 2011, rumors suggested that both All My Children and One Life to Live were in danger of cancellation.
After months of cancellation rumors, ABC announced on April 14, 2011 that All My Children and One Life to Live would end their runs. ABC cited "extensive research into what today's daytime viewers want and the changing viewing patterns of the audience." The network stated it was replacing One Life to Live with a new production entitled The Revolution, which would focus on health and lifestyles. While the cancellations of both soap operas were announced on the same day, One Life to Live was to remain on the air four months longer because its replacement would not be ready until later. In response to the cancellations, vacuum cleaner manufacturer The Hoover Company withdrew its advertising from all ABC programs out of protest.
The final episode aired on January 13, 2012, with villainess Allison Perkins (Barbara Garrick) narrating her views about the people of Llanview. During the last minutes of the episode, Todd Manning (Howarth) is put under arrest for the murder of twin brother Victor Lord, Jr. (Trevor St. John). The show ends with the discovery that Victor Lord, Jr. is still alive and has been kidnapped by Perkins. Perkins closes the 43-year-old soap opera by breaking the fourth wall by throwing a One Life to Live script at Victor saying to him: "But why spoil what happens next. You of all people should know things are rarely what they appear". The decision to conclude One Life to Live with an open-ended story is because the serial was supposed to continue on another network at the time the last scenes were taped (see section below).
On the day of the final episode, The View hosted a tribute to One Life to Live where several actors were invited including Erika Slezak, Robert S. Woods, Robin Strasser, Hillary B. Smith, Kassie DePaiva, James DePaiva, Andrea Evans, Judith Light and the show's creator Agnes Nixon.
The departure of One Life to Live ended a 62-year history of daytime television soap operas taped in New York which started in 1950 with the CBS daytime drama The First Hundred Years.
=== Cast and characters ===
The show originally concentrated on the wealthy, White Anglo-Saxon Protestant Lord family, the less wealthy Siegels (among the first attempts to showcase either an interfaith marriage or Jewish character on daytime television), the middle-class Riley family and Wolek family, and the working-class African-American mother and daughter Sadie Gray and Carla Gray. Heiress Victoria Lord and her extended family remained a prime focus until the series ended. Over the years many other families were introduced, most notably the Buchanan family and the Cramer family, who intermarried with the Lords and also remained a fixture on One Life to Live until its end.
Several actors performed on One Life to Live for 20 years or more, including Erika Slezak, Michael Storm, Robert S. Woods, Philip Carey and Robin Strasser. Actors who became famous for their work on the show and who went on to greater fame with their prime time, feature film or theatre work include Lillian Hayman, Ellen Holly, Tommy Lee Jones, Al Freeman Jr., Laurence Fishburne, Judith Light, Phylicia Rashad, Blair Underwood, Marcia Cross, Roma Downey, Mario Van Peebles, Jessica Tuck, Ryan Phillippe, Hayden Panettiere, Nathan Fillion, Renée Elise Goldsberry and Tika Sumpter.
=== Controversies ===
In 2002, the popularity of antihero Todd Manning (Roger Howarth) prompted ABC to market a rag doll of the character, complete with his signature scar. First offered for sale on April 29, 2002, the doll was pulled on May 7, 2002, after a backlash begun when The Jack Myers Report "harshly criticized the network's judgment" on creating and releasing a doll based on Manning, a character who had notably been convicted of rape in 1993. The New York Times later quoted then-ABC President Angela Shapiro stating, "I was insensitive and take total responsibility for it. I should have been sensitive to the history of the character and I wasn't."
Shortly after receiving a March 2005 GLAAD Media Award for its coverage of LGBT issues, One Life to Live was met with criticism when married district attorney Daniel Colson (Mark Dobies) was revealed to have murdered two people to cover up the fact that he was secretly gay. GLAAD itself criticized the storyline "for reinforcing the idea that being gay is something to be ashamed of," while TV Guide noted "It's hard to disagree with those who say that's a lousy representation of gay folks." Executive Producer Frank Valentini defended the story, saying, "This is a story about the harsher side of intolerance and about one man not being true to himself. There are going to be meaningful, frank discussions that come out of this." Then-head writer Dena Higley explained, "The number one rule of soap opera is never cut drama. Daniel being gay and keeping that a secret is a dramatic story."
In June 2009, actress Patricia Mauceri (a performer on the series since 1995) was replaced in her role as Latin matriarch Carlotta Vega, reportedly after voicing personal religious objections to a planned storyline in which Carlotta would be supportive of a gay relationship.
=== Historical storylines ===
Storylines: 1968–1979
Storylines: 1980–1989
Storylines: 1990–1999
Storylines: 2000–2012
== Prospect Park ==
=== Unsuccessful revival attempt ===
On July 7, 2011, ABC announced that it had licensed the rights to One Life to Live and All My Children to television, film and music production company Prospect Park, allowing both series to continue producing new first-run episodes beyond the conclusion of their television runs on ABC, with the series moving to a new Hulu-style online channel currently in development by Prospect Park; as a result of the company's acquisition of the two soap operas, One Life to Live and All My Children, would become the first soap operas to transition their first-run broadcasts from traditional television to internet television.
On September 16, 2011, executive producer Frank Valentini was retained by Prospect Park for that serial as well as All My Children when both shows would move to The Online Network. On September 28, 2011, Prospect Park confirmed that One Life to Live would start on its The Online Network internet channel in January 2012, but without specifying the exact date. On September 30, 2011, it was announced that head writer Ron Carlivati would be also heading to the internet version of the show.
Since the agreement made between ABC and Prospect Park was not limited to internet television and did allow for One Life to Live to be broadcast on traditional television, there was an announcement on August 3, 2011, about a possibility of One Life to Live airing on a cable television. On October 5, 2011, the project to bring One Life to Live to cable was reiterated in a New York Times article, where it was revealed that Prospect Park planned to first air episodes on The Online Network, then make them available on video on demand and, then weeks later, on cable television.
On November 23, 2011, Prospect Park officially suspended its plans to continue the show after its run on ABC.
Reasons given by Prospect Park included funding problems and poor negotiations with the unions representing the cast of One Life to Live. Writers Guild of America and American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, which, respectively, represent the writer and the actors, have expressed disappointment over Prospect Park's decision. Though not one of the reasons given by Prospect Park, Deadline Hollywood suggested that the company's lack of success in finding a cable network to carry the show may have been instrumental in the company's decision to not pursue the project.
Despite its fruitless attempt to save the series, Prospect Park had succeeded in retaining 13 actors to sign for the online venture, compared to only two actors for All My Children. Matriarch actress Erika Slezak (Victoria Lord) was among the 13. The 12 other actors were Melissa Archer (Nathalie Buchanan), Kassie DePaiva (Blair Cramer), Michael Easton (John McBain), Shenell Edmonds (Destiny Evans), Josh Kelly (Cutter Wentworth), Ted King (Tomás Delgado), Florencia Lozano (Tea Delgado), Kelley Missal (Danielle Manning), Sean Ringgold (Shaun Evans), Andrew Trischitta (Jack Manning), Jerry verDorn (Clint Buchanan) and Tuc Watkins (David Vickers).
=== 2013 revival ===
On January 7, 2013, Prospect Park made an official statement about its plans to restart production of One Life to Live and All My Children as web series. The two soap operas will serve as anchor shows for The Online Network (Prospect Park's new streaming television that was supposed to be launched during the original attempt in 2011). Prospect Park inked deals with SAG-AFTRA and DGA. Prospect
Park confirmed that former coordinating producer, Jennifer Pepperman had signed on as the new executive producer for the web reboot of One Life to Live. Creator Agnes Nixon would work as consultant for the new web series. On January 13, 2013, it was confirmed that soap opera writers Thom Racina and Susan Bedsow Horgan were named as the new Head Writers of One Life to Live. On April 9, 2013, it was reported that Horgan citing "personal reasons" had stepped down as co-HW, leaving Racina as OLTL's sole HW.
On January 22, 2013, Prospect Park released a full cast of the reboot of One Life to Live who signed on, which include Melissa Archer (Natalie Buchanan), Kassie DePaiva (Blair Cramer), Josh Kelly (Cutter Wentworth), Florencia Lozano (Tea Delgado), Kelley Missal (Danielle Manning), Erika Slezak (Victoria Lord), Hillary B. Smith (Nora Buchanan), Robin Strasser (Dorian Lord), Andrew Trischitta (Jack Manning), Jerry verDorn (Clint Buchanan), Tuc Watkins (David Vickers) and Robert S. Woods (Bo Buchanan). Recurring actors who have signed on are Sean Ringgold (Shaun Evans), Shenaz Treasury (Rama Patel) and Nick Choksi (Vimal Patel).
Production of One Life to Live began on February 25, 2013 with taping of new episodes beginning on March 18, 2013. The series premiered on April 29, 2013, at 12 p.m. Eastern The revived One Life to Live is a 30-minute program taped in Stamford, Connecticut. It is available on Hulu and Hulu Plus as well as various iTunes applications including iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch.
On May 17, 2013, The Online Network announced that All My Children and One Life To Live would no longer air five days a week together, due to viewer ratings that have been seen as certain patterns that resemble more closely the typical patterns of online viewing rather than how one would watch traditional television. Starting May 20, 2013 All My Children and One Life to Life would be presented in a new schedule, with All My Children airing on Mondays and Wednesdays and One Life to Live airing Tuesdays and Thursdays. The recap shows MORE All My Children and MORE One Life To Life would also combine together as one show airing on Fridays. The following day on May 18, 2013, both shows were noticeably missing from the FX Canada website and schedule, and subsequently were available on iTunes Canada; it was later revealed that FX Canada dropped All My Children and One Life to Live due to the reduction of episodes, the carriage agreement called for four episodes a week of both shows. With the reduction, FX Canada has said "the agreement is no longer valid." On May 20, 2013, the first episodes of the new All My Children and One Life To Live were available worldwide on The Online Network's YouTube page, TOLNSoaps.
On May 24, 2013, in a press release Prospect Park announced through Agnes Nixon that Racina would be replaced as head writer of One Life to Live by the then-current screenwriters Jessica Klein and Marin Gazzaniga.
On June 5, 2013, due to a labor dispute with the I.A.T.S.E. All My Children and One Life to Live were forced into an early hiatus with the writers, directors and editors still working; there were talks of production being moved out of state, but those plans were later shelved. On June 20, 2013, a deal was reached between Prospect Park and the Union and taping resumed on August 12, 2013. On June 25, 2013, TOLN announced that there would be a scheduling switch for One Life to Live and All My Children. Starting on July 1 (Monday) all episodes of the week, for both shows, would be released on Mondays.
Beginning July 15, 2013, All My Children and One Life to Live aired for a ten-week limited engagement on the Oprah Winfrey Network Monday through Thursday at 1:00 p.m. and 3:00 p.m.
One Life to Live's first-season finale aired on August 19, 2013.
On September 3, 2013, a report from the Los Angeles Times stated that One Life to Live's second season was to be put on hold while Prospect Park dealt with its lawsuit against ABC over General Hospital's treatment of One Life to Live characters loaned to the series when they crossed over in 2012. In December 2016 the lawsuit was dismissed, with the rights to the series reverting to ABC.
== Transition to General Hospital ==
On December 1, 2011, two weeks after One Life to Live finished taping its final scenes, ABC confirmed that former executive producer Frank Valentini and head writer Ron Carlivati would assume the same roles on General Hospital effective January 9, 2012.
Several former One Life to Live actors—Kassie DePaiva, Roger Howarth, Michael Easton and Kristen Alderson—moved with Valentini and Carlivati and reprised their characters on General Hospital. With the exception of DePaiva, all of these actors were eventually put on contract and stayed permanently with the show. On May 9, 2012, Florencia Lozano joined the cast, reprising her One Life to Live role of Téa Delgado in a recurring capacity.
On April 18, 2013, after Prospect Park had announced they would be reviving the series, Prospect Park filed a lawsuit against ABC, alleging ABC failed to honor its part of their licensing agreement. Among the issues named in the lawsuits included ABC's alleged attempts to sabotage Prospect Park's revival of the soap by killing off One Life to Live characters loaned to General Hospital (Cole and Hope Thornhart), failure on ABC's part to consult Prospect Park on storylines involving One Life to Live characters (breaking up popular One Life to Live couple John and Natalie to pair Michael Easton's John McBain with former Port Charles love interest, Kelly Monaco's Sam Morgan, the death of Tea Delgado's baby and the subsequent switching of her baby with Sam Morgan's live baby, orchestrated by Howarth's Todd Manning), as well as claiming one One Life to Live character Tomas Delgado was actually General Hospital character, Lorenzo Alcazar. Effective immediately, the three One Life to Live characters bound to contracts with ABC were to exit the show, and the three actors who played them, Kristen Alderson, Michael Easton and Roger Howarth were rewritten back onto the General Hospital canvas playing new characters, while Howarth also crossed his character of Todd back over to One Life to Live for its inaugural season.
On September 3, 2013, Prospect Park announced that production of One Life to Live would be on hold until their litigation with ABC was settled.
== Crossovers ==
Throughout the show's history, the plot lines of One Life to Live have been established as existing in the same fictional universe as other ABC-owned daytime series, in particular Agnes Nixon's All My Children, which premiered in 1970. As noted from time to time in both series, fictional Pine Valley—the setting of All My Children—is located in Pennsylvania near One Life to Live's Llanview. Over the years, many characters have crossover from one series to another in both short appearances and extended runs. As early as 1968, General Hospital's Steve Hardy appeared in Llanview to consult on Meredith Lord's blood disease as a means to lead General Hospital viewers to the new series; similarly, One Life to Live's Dr. Larry Wolek visited All My Children shortly after its premiere in 1970.
In 1979, when Viki Riley was on trial for the murder of Marco Dane, she was defended by Pine Valley attorney Paul Martin. Two characters that also appeared on All My Children are Sadie Gray (Lillian Hayman), when she sang for the wedding of Dr. Frank and Caroline Grant, and Delilah Ralston (Shelly Burch), when she designed a special dress to be worn by Erica Kane (Susan Lucci).
In 1999, Daytime Emmy Award-winner Linda Dano returned to One Life to Live as Rae Cummings, a character she had previously played on the series from 1978 to 1980. In a 2000 move of network synergy designed to "entice viewers to tune into soap operas that they might not have usually watched," then-President of ABC Daytime Angela Shapiro orchestrated Dano's concurrent appearance as
Gretel on the three other ABC daytime dramas at the time—All My Children, General Hospital and Port Charles—in an extended crossover storyline which was the first time a daytime character had ever appeared on four series. Gretel's search for the child she had given up for adoption takes her to All My Children, where she discovers in 2000 that her own birth mother is Pine Valley's Myrtle Fargate. Following clues to Port Charles and General Hospital, Gretel finally finds her daughter back in Llanview on One Life to Live: Skye Chandler, herself a former All My Children character who had relocated to One Life to Live in 1999. Skye's adopted All My Children father Adam Chandler appears on One Life to Live in 2001, and Gretel initially identifies Skye's biological father as Alan Quartermaine of General Hospital. Both women subsequently appear on that series, with Skye moving to General Hospital full-time in 2001 and Gretel returning to One Life to Live until 2004, making some appearances on General Hospital later in 2002 and 2003.
A December 30, 2003, visit by One Life to Live's Paul Cramer to his estranged secret wife Babe Carey on All My Children ultimately leads to an extensive 2004 "baby switch" storyline which features crossovers of over 20 characters between the two series. With his sister Kelly Cramer desperate for a child to save her marriage after miscarrying her own, Paul finds himself delivering the babies of both Babe and her friend Bianca Montgomery during a rainstorm and subsequent flood in nearby Pine Valley on March 24, 2004. Paul stages a crash with his medical evacuation helicopter; he takes AJ Chandler for Kelly, gives Miranda Montgomery to Babe, and tells Bianca that her baby had died in the accident. Unaware of the child's origins, Kelly brings Babe's infant back to Llanview, passing him off as her child with her husband Kevin Buchanan. Months later, Babe discovers that her daughter is really the grieving Bianca's, but remains silent and allows Paul to manipulate her. Meanwhile, a devastated Kelly discovers that Paul had stolen her son from his mother and, desperate for cash, he blackmails Kelly by threatening to reveal the secret to Kevin. Bianca's daughter is returned to her for Christmas 2004, and once Kevin learns the truth, he and Kelly return Babe's son as well in 2005.
While One Life to Live was off the air from February 2012 to March 2013, the characters of Todd Manning, Starr Manning and John McBain moved to the setting of General Hospital, Port Charles, New York.
After the Prospect Park lawsuit was dismissed, the character of Nora Buchanan made appearances on General Hospital in 2017.
== Executive producers and head writers ==
=== Executive producers ===
=== Head writers ===
== Awards ==
One Life to Live and many of its actors and crew have been nominated for dozens of awards, winning on many occasions. Erika Slezak has received six Daytime Emmy Awards for her acting, a feat tied only by Anthony Geary and Justin Deas.
In 1993, the series won its first GLAAD Media Award for its storyline on homosexuality and intolerance featuring newcomer Ryan Phillippe as Billy Douglas, a teenager who amidst scandal confides his homosexuality in Andrew Carpenter, played by Robert Krimmer. The character is the first openly gay teenager featured in a television series, and is considered groundbreaking in daytime television. The story arc also included an on-air ceremony for the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt. In 2005, the series was awarded another GLAAD Media Award for its coverage of LGBT issues in the 2004 coming out storyline of gay character Mark Solomon (Matt Cavenaugh). One Life to Live won the same award again in 2010 for a well-publicized storyline in which police officer Oliver Fish comes out and reunites with his former college boyfriend and medical school student Kyle Lewis.
=== Daytime Emmy Award wins ===
==== Wins in other categories ====
=== Other awards ===
Writers Guild of America Award (1986, 1993)
Directors Guild of America Award (1993, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012)
== Broadcast history ==
ABC cemented its reputation as a youth-oriented network in daytime with the addition of One Life to Live to its schedule, with much of the rest of its lineup consisting of soap operas like Dark Shadows, sitcom reruns, and game shows packaged by Chuck Barris. One Life to Live replaced the short-lived The Baby Game, in a three-way shuffle with Dark Shadows and The Dating Game. The network placed the new serial at 3:30 p.m. Eastern, against CBS's established hit The Edge of Night and the popular NBC game You Don't Say!. Despite the tough competition, the intense tone of the plot and strong characters allowed the show to get a leg up on You Don't Say, wearing that game down to the point of its cancellation in September 1969; NBC replaced the Tom Kennedy-hosted game in that time slot with three unsuccessful serials: Bright Promise, Return to Peyton Place and How to Survive a Marriage.
One Life to Live initially enjoyed fair-to-middling ratings, but rose rapidly as it entered the 1970s, along with the rest of ABC's daytime lineup. Matters greatly improved for One Life to Live in 1972, when CBS relocated The Edge of Night in response to packager Procter & Gamble's demands. The four-year-old show topped the ratings for the first time over CBS's declining The Secret Storm, and later, the game Hollywood's Talking, which ran for only 13 weeks.
By 1975, NBC became a serious player in that time slot for the first time in over five years when it expanded its strong soap opera Another World to an hour, with its second half occupying the 3:30 timeslot. One Life to Live lost a substantial audience share, but its lead-in, General Hospital, experienced even worse losses. ABC then expanded both One Life to Live and General Hospital to 45 minutes, with each composing half of a 90-minute block between 2:30 p.m. and 4 p.m. Beginning on July 26, 1976, One Life to Live assumed the first position, at 2:30. ABC bet its hopes on viewers staying tuned past the half hour, making them unlikely to switch channels to Another World and All in the Family reruns on CBS (or The Match Game in the case of General Hospital fans). This approach showed some promise, until November 7, 1977, when CBS expanded Guiding Light to an hour. As One Life to Live struggled, its neighbor General Hospital was in danger of cancellation after a 15-year run. In order to save General Hospital (which was airing at 3:15 p.m.) from cancellation, ABC expanded both soaps to an hour beginning on January 16, 1978; The $20,000 Pyramid was moved to the noon Eastern timeslot, where it remained until its run ended in June 1980. ABC contemplated an expansion of The Edge of Night to a full hour if either of these shows were cancelled.
General Hospital rose rapidly to the top spot in the Nielsen ratings by 1979. As for One Life to Live, from its tenth birthday onward, its competitors declined in popularity. Search for Tomorrow, for instance, spent its last several months on CBS against the last half of One Life to Live. Its replacement, Capitol, did little better, and after its cancellation, CBS aligned As the World Turns against One Life to Live and Another World, a configuration that stayed in place until Another World's cancellation in 1999. The 1980s saw One Life to Live reach the height of its popularity, with an estimate of 9 million viewers early in the decade. The show typically ranked between the second and the fourth positions in the 1980s.
Since 1991, One Life to Live returned to the middle of the pack, but its numbers declined, in common with all other soap operas. By the decade's end, the show rested near the bottom of the ratings pack, and it continued to hover around the lower reaches of the weekly ratings throughout the 2000s in terms of total number of viewers; however, the show tended to rank in the mid-range for the target demographic of women aged 18–49, often higher than sister show All My Children and usually still winning its timeslot in the key demographic, well ahead of its competitors such as As The World Turns, Another World and Passions. During the 2000s (decade), One Life to Live ran about even with As the World Turns, with NBC's Another World replacement Passions trailing significantly.
The 2009–2010 season was a particularly difficult year for One Life to Live. During the week of June 28, 2010, the show ranked last among all soap operas with 2.1 million viewers, compared to 2.3 million for As the World Turns. As One Life to Live entered the 2010–2011 season, ratings improved, but not enough to prevent ABC from cancelling the program on April 14, 2011. After the cancellation announcement, One Life to Live began to surpass General Hospital in total number of viewers, but General Hospital continued to dominate One Life to Live in several specific categories, most notably the key demographic of women between 18 and 49 years old, usually prioritized by daytime networks. By November 2011, One Life to Live had dethroned General Hospital in every category. Overall, One Life to Live was the third highest rated program among the five remaining soap operas in its last season, trailing The Young and the Restless and The Bold and the Beautiful, but ahead of General Hospital and Days of Our Lives. The show averaged a 2.3 rating and 3.12 million daily viewers during its final week. Its final episode on January 13, 2012 drew in a 2.7 rating and 3.848 million viewers, one of the highest ratings in the history of soap opera finales.
The One Life to Live continuation's ratings proved impressive. The first episode was the second most downloaded TV episode on iTunes and second most watched episode on Hulu, with the first place on both sites going to All My Children which premiered the same day.
== Schedule ==
The show aired on ABC Daytime for the entirety of its original television run.
† From April 1, 1974 until July 23, 1976, One Life to Live aired at 2:30 p.m. in the Pacific Time Zone.
The show aired on Hulu, Hulu Plus and iTunes during its revival.
April 29, 2013 – May 9, 2013: one new episode a day, Monday through Thursday.
May 13, 2013 – June 28, 2013: a new episode each Tuesday and Thursday.
July 1, 2013 – August 19, 2013: two new episodes every Monday.
Reruns of the show aired on OWN from July 15, 2013 to September 2013.
July 15 – August 2, 2013: 2:00–4:00 p.m. (1:00–3:00 p.m., CT/PT)
August 5 – September 6, 2013: 1:30–2:00 p.m. (12:30–1:00 p.m., CT/PT)
=== Cable ===
Soapnet aired classic One Life to Live episodes at 6:00 a.m. (5:00 a.m. CT/PT), 7:00 a.m. (6:00 a.m. CT/PT) and 8:00 a.m. (7:00 a.m. CT/PT).
Starting July 15, 2013, OWN began a ten-week trial run of both One Life to Live and All My Children on its daytime lineup. Episodes of One Life to Live are broadcast at 1:30 p.m., following All My Children which airs at 1:00 p.m., Mondays through Thursdays.
== See also ==
List of longest-serving soap opera actors
List of One Life to Live characters
List of One Life to Live cast members
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
One Life to Live: Soaps.com
One Life to Live at IMDb
Soap Opera scripts, 1975-1989 Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University_centers_and_institutes | Stanford University centers and institutes | Stanford University has many centers and institutes dedicated to the study of various specific topics. These centers and institutes may be within a department, within a school but across departments, an independent laboratory, institute or center reporting directly to the dean of research and outside any school, or semi-independent of the university itself.
== Independent laboratories, institutes and centers ==
These report directly to the vice-provost and dean of research and are outside any school though any faculty involved in them must belong to a department in one of the schools. These include Bio-X and Spectrum in the area of Biological and Life Sciences; Precourt Institute for Energy and Woods Institute for the Environment in the Environmental Sciences area; the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (CASBS), the Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) (see below), Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies (FSI) (see below), Human-Sciences and Technologies Advance Research Institute (H-STAR), Stanford Center on Longevity (SCL), Stanford Humanities Center (see below), and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) in the area of Humanities and Social Sciences; and, for Physical Sciences, the Edward L. Ginzton Laboratory, the Geballe Laboratory for Advanced Materials, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Photon Ultrafast Laser Science and Engineering (PULSE), Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences (SIMES), and W. W. Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory (HEPL).
=== Center for the Study of Language and Information ===
The Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) is an independent research center at Stanford University. Founded in 1983 by philosophers, computer scientists, linguists, and psychologists from Stanford, SRI International, and Xerox PARC, it strives to study all forms of information and improve how humans and computers acquire and process it.
CSLI was initially funded by a US$15 million grant from the System Development Foundation (SDF) for the Situated Language Project, the name of which reflects the strong influence of the work on situation semantics by philosophers John Perry and Jon Barwise, two of the initial leaders of CSLI. This funding supported operations for the first few years as well as the construction of Cordura Hall. Subsequent funding has come from research grants and from an industrial affiliates program.
CSLI's publications branch, founded and still headed by Dikran Karagueuzian, has grown into an important publisher of work in linguistics and related fields. Researchers associated with CSLI include Ronald Kaplan, Patrick Suppes, Edward N. Zalta, the mathematicians Keith Devlin, and Solomon Feferman, the linguists Ivan Sag and Joan Bresnan, Annie Zaenen, Lauri Karttunen, and psychologists Herb Clark, B. J. Fogg and Clifford Nass.
CSLI houses the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It also housed the Reuters Digital Vision Program.
==== Directors ====
Jon Barwise 1983–1985
John Perry 1985–1986, 1993–1999
Thomas Wasow 1986–1987, 2006–2007
John Etchemendy 1990–1993
David Israel c. 1999–2000
Byron Reeves c. 2001–2005
Stanley Peters 2008–2013
Chris Potts 2013–present
=== Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies ===
The Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies is a university-wide research and teaching institution at Stanford devoted to understanding international problems, policies, and institutions. The institute produces interdisciplinary scholarly research, engages in outreach to policymakers and public institutions throughout the world, and trains scholars and future leaders on international issues. Its teaching programs include the graduate-level Master of International Policy as well as honors programs in international security and in democracy, development, and the rule of law. The school is a full member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA), a group of schools of public policy, public administration, and international studies.
FSI's core and affiliated faculty represent a range of academic backgrounds and perspectives, including medicine, law, engineering, history, political science, economics, and sociology. The faculty's research and teaching focus on a variety of issues, including governance, domestic and international health policy, migration, development, and security. Their work often examines regional dynamics in areas such as Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America. FSI faculty conduct research, lead interdisciplinary research programs, educate graduate and undergraduate students, and organize policy outreach that engages Stanford in addressing some of the world's most pressing problems.
The institute is composed of 12 centers and programs, including six major research centers:
Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law (CDDRL)
Center on Food Security and the Environment (FSE)
Center for Health Policy, Primary Care and Outcomes Research (CHP/PCOR)
Center for International Security and Cooperation (CISAC)
The Europe Center (TEC)
Walter H. Shorenstein Asia–Pacific Research Center (APARC)
==== History ====
The institute was founded in 1987 following a faculty committee review that concluded Stanford "should be leading the way in International Studies as we do in science and technology", encompassing interdisciplinary teaching, research, public service and administrative functions. It was first called the institute for International Studies, and was created under the direction of former Stanford president Richard Wall Lyman.
The institute was renamed the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies in 2005 following a $50 million gift made by Stanford alumni Bradford M. Freeman and Ronald P. Spogli.
The immediate past director of FSI was Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar, the former Stanley Morrison Professor of Law at Stanford Law School and former official in the Obama and Clinton presidential administrations who then served on the California Supreme Court and as president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Previous directors include Stanford President Emeritus Gerhard Casper; Coit D. Blacker, who served as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and Senior Director for Russian, Ukrainian and Eurasian Affairs at the National Security Council under National Security Advisor Anthony Lake during the Clinton administration; David Holloway; Walter Falcon; and Stanford President Emeritus Richard Lyman.
FSI appoints faculty and research staff, funds research and scholarly initiatives, directs research projects, and sponsors lectures, policy seminars and conferences. By tradition, FSI undertakes joint faculty appointments with Stanford's seven schools and draws faculty together from the university's academic departments and schools to conduct interdisciplinary research on international issues that transcend academic boundaries.
The institute is home to 40 billeted faculty members – most with joint appointments – and 115 affiliated faculty members with a wide range of academic perspectives.
In addition to its six centers, the institute sponsors the Ford Dorsey Master's in International Policy, the Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies, the Program on Energy & Sustainable Development, the Rural Education Action Program, the Stanford Center at Peking University, and the Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education.
==== Directors ====
2015–present Michael McFaul
2013–2015 Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar
2012–2013 Gerhard Casper
2003–2012 Coit D. Blacker
1998–2003 David Holloway
1991–1998 Walter Falcon
1987–1991 Richard Wall Lyman
=== Stanford Humanities Center ===
Founded in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center is a multidisciplinary research institute dedicated to advancing knowledge about culture, philosophy, history, and the arts.
==== History ====
Since its founding in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center has been sponsoring advanced research into the historical, philosophical, literary, artistic, and cultural dimensions of the human experience. The Humanities Center's annual fellows, international visitors, research workshops, digital humanities laboratory, and roughly fifty annual public events strengthen the intellectual and creative life of the university, foster innovative and interdisciplinary scholarship and teaching, and enrich our understanding of our common humanity. The humanities support democratic culture by nurturing an informed citizenry and seeking solutions to society's most formidable challenges.
==== Fellowships ====
The center offers approximately forty yearlong residential fellowships to Stanford and non-Stanford scholars at different career stages, giving them the opportunity to pursue their research in a supportive intellectual community.
==== Research Workshops ====
Each year, Stanford faculty and graduate students create fifteen diverse research workshops to ask new intellectual questions that often challenge disciplinary boundaries. In addition to providing a space for incubating new ideas in a collegial setting, the workshops professionalize graduate students by introducing them to the conventions of academic life.
==== Manuscript Workshops ====
Assembling a team of faculty experts from Stanford and other universities, the Manuscript workshops provide critical feedback to junior faculty preparing monographs or other academic manuscripts of similar scope for submission for publication.
==== Public Lectures ====
The center brings eminent scholars, public intellectuals, and renowned critics to the Stanford campus for lectures and interdisciplinary conferences that enrich the Stanford community with a lively exchange of ideas. Speakers have included Isabel Allende, Roger Chartier, Stephen Jay Gould, Douglas Hofstadter, Gayatri Spivak, Marilynne Robinson, David Adjaye, David Eggers, and other well-known scholars.
==== Digital Humanities ====
The Humanities Center, with the Center for Spatial and Textual Analysis (CESTA), is expanding the possibilities of humanities research and teaching at Stanford by creating opportunities for the discovery and dissemination of new knowledge. Humanities Center scholars are on the forefront of innovation with access to new digital tools to interpret the human experience.
==== International Visitors Program ====
The center's short-term visitorships draw distinguished international scholars to Stanford to share their research in lectures and seminars with Stanford faculty and students.
==== Hume Undergraduate Fellowships ====
The Humanities Center awards Hume Honors Fellowships to Stanford seniors writing an honors thesis in a humanities department. In residence for an academic year, Hume Fellows contribute to the collegial life of the center and receive intellectual guidance and mentoring from staff and fellows.
==== Directors ====
Ian P. Watt (1980–1985)
Bliss Carnochan (1985–1991)
Herbert Lindenberger (1991–1992; interim)
Wanda Corn (1992–1995)
Keith Baker (1995–2000)
Peter Stansky (2000–2001)
John Bender (2001–2008)
Aron Rodrigue (2008–2013)
Caroline Winterer (2013–2019)
Roland Greene (2019–Present)
=== Distinguished Careers Institute ===
The Distinguished Careers Institute (DCI), established in 2014, is a year-long residential fellowship for approximately 20 individuals who have already established leadership careers. Fellows are selected based on "how their participation in the program will shape their future life journeys" as well as "what future Fellows will contribute to the program and the broader global community."
=== Stanford High School Program ===
The collaboration among Stanford University's office for Digital Education, the Department of Computer Science, and the Graduate School of Education established Stanford's first dual-enrollment program for high school students from underrepresented backgrounds, which served as an impetus for the establishment of the Qualia Global Scholars Program.
== Other research centers ==
=== Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ===
The Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (also known as the Stanford AI Lab, or SAIL) is the artificial intelligence (AI) research laboratory of Stanford University. The current director is Professor Christopher D. Manning.
==== Early years ====
SAIL was started in 1963 by John McCarthy, after he moved from Massachusetts Institute of Technology to Stanford. Lester D. "Les" Earnest, also previously of MIT, served as executive officer (self-deprecatingly, "Chief Bureaucrat") at SAIL from 1965 to 1980. During almost all of this period (1966–1979), SAIL was housed in the D.C. Power building, named not for "Direct Current" but rather for Donald Clinton Power, who held the positions of president, C.E.O. and chairman of General Telephone & Electronics Corporation (later GTE Corporation) between 1951 and 1971. GT&E donated the unfinished building to Stanford University after abandoning plans to establish a research center there. During this period SAIL was one of the leading centers for AI research and an early ARPANET site.
D.C. Power was on a hill overlooking Felt Lake in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains behind Stanford.
It was about 5 miles (8 km) from the main campus, at 1600 Arastradero Road, midway between Page Mill Road and Alpine Road.
This area was, and remains, quite rural in nature. Combined with the rather extreme 1960s architecture of the place, this remote setting led to a certain isolation. Some people who worked there reported feeling as if they were already in the future. The building was demolished in 1986; as of 2003, the site is home to Portola Pastures (an equestrian center adjacent to the Arastradero Open Space Preserve).
SAIL created the WAITS operating system on a computer called SAIL. WAITS ran on various models of Digital Equipment Corporation PDP computers, starting with the PDP-6, then the KA10 and KL10. WAITS also ran on Foonly systems at CCRMA and LLL. The SAIL system was shut down in 1991.
SAIL, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language, was developed by Dan Swinehart and Bob Sproull of the Stanford AI Lab in 1970.
Around 1972, for its remote site use, people at SAIL developed a computer controlled vending machine, adapted from a machine rented from Canteen Vending, which sold for cash or, though a computer terminal (Teletype Model 33 KSR), on credit. Products included, at least, beer, yogurt, and milk. It was called the Prancing Pony, after the name of the room, named after an inn in Tolkien's Lord of the Rings, as each room at SAIL was named after a place in Middle Earth. A successor version still operates in the Computer Science Department at Stanford, with both hardware and software having been updated.
Alumni of the original SAIL played a major role in many Silicon Valley firms, becoming founders of now-large firms such as Cisco Systems and Sun Microsystems as well as smaller companies such as Vicarm Inc. (acquired by Unimation), Foonly, Elxsi, Imagen, Xidex, Valid Logic Systems, and D.E. Shaw & Co. Research accomplishments at SAIL were many, including in the fields of speech recognition and robotics. Notable people that worked at the original SAIL include Raj Reddy, Hans Moravec, Alan Kay, Victor Scheinman, Larry Tesler, Don Knuth, and Edward Feigenbaum.
==== Demise and rebirth ====
In 1979, SAIL's activities were merged into the university's Computer Science Department and it moved into Margaret Jacks Hall on the main Stanford campus.
After operating for more than 15 Years under the name Robotics Lab, we just re-inaugurated the new Stanford AI Lab. (April 2004)
SAIL was reopened in 2004, now in the Gates Computer Science Building, with Sebastian Thrun becoming its new director. SAIL's 21st century mission is to "change the way we understand the world"; its researchers contribute to fields such as bioinformatics, cognition, computational geometry, computer vision, decision theory, distributed systems, game theory, general game playing, image processing, information retrieval, knowledge systems, logic, machine learning, multi-agent systems, natural language, neural networks, planning, probabilistic inference, sensor networks, and robotics. The best-known achievement of the new SAIL is the Stanley self-driving car that won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge.
Knowledge Systems Laboratory (KSL) was an artificial intelligence research laboratory within the Department of Computer Science at Stanford University until 2007, located in the Gates Computer Science Building, Stanford.
=== Stanford Center for Entrepreneurial Studies ===
The Center for Entrepreneurial Studies (CES) at Stanford University is a multidisciplinary business oriented program targeted to both undergraduate and graduate students. It incorporates courses from Stanford University School of Engineering and Stanford Graduate School of Business. It also incorporates Stanford Mayfield Scholars Program that seeks to give select undergraduate students an opportunity to take business related coursework and to intern in high tech startups. CES was founded by Tom Byers and Charles A. Holloway.
=== Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics ===
The Stanford University Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA), founded by John Chowning, is a multi-discipline facility where composers and researchers work together using computer-based technology both as an artistic medium and as a research tool. CCRMA's director is Chris Chafe. CCRMA's current faculty includes a mix of musicians and engineers including Julius Smith, Jonathan Berger, Max Mathews (emeritus), Ge Wang, Takako Fujioka, Tom Rossing, Jonathan Abel, Marina Bosi, David Berners, Patricia Alessandrini, Jay Kadis, and Fernando Lopez-Lezcano. Emeritus professor Max Mathews died in 2011.
Widely used digital sound synthesis techniques like FM synthesis and digital waveguide synthesis were developed at CCRMA and licensed to industry partners. The FM synthesis patent brought Stanford $20 million before it expired, making it (in 1994) "the second most lucrative licensing agreement in Stanford's history".
Stanford CCRMA is a research center, studying areas of audio and technology including composition, computer music, physical modeling, audio signal processing, sound recording and reproduction, psychoacoustics, acoustics, music information retrieval, audio networking, and spatial sound. The center houses academic courses for Stanford students as well as seminars, small interest group meetings, summer workshops and colloquia for the broader community. Concerts of computer and experimental music are presented regularly throughout year.
==== The Knoll ====
Almost 100 years ago, this Spanish Gothic residence, known as the Knoll, was originally designed by Louis Christian Mullgardt, and built as a residence for the university's president. In 1946, the building became home to the Music Department, and then in 1986, CCRMA took over residency.
Damaged in 1989 during the Loma Prieta earthquake, the Knoll nonetheless housed CCRMA in its damaged condition until a complete internal reconstruction between 2004 and 2005. The reopening of the facility was celebrated in the Spring of 2005 with the CCRMA: newStage Festival. This unique building now comprises several state-of-the-art music studios and top-notch research facilities, hosting a variety of students, artists and scientists.
CCRMA is affiliated with the Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities (CCARH), also located at Stanford. CCARH conducts research on constructing computer databases for music and on creating programs that allow researchers to access, analyze, print, and electronically perform the music.
=== Stanford Institute for Creativity and the Arts (SiCa) ===
The Stanford Institute for Creativity and the Arts (SiCa), established in 2006, serves as the core programmatic hub for the Stanford Arts Initiative, leading the development of new undergraduate arts programs, hosting artists in residence, awarding grants for multidisciplinary arts research and teaching, incubating collaborative performances and exhibitions with campus partners and other institutions, and providing centralized communication for arts events and programs at Stanford University.
=== National Performance of Dams Program ===
The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering maintains the National Performance of Dams Program, a national database of structural and operational data related to dam systems in the U.S. Begun in 1994, this program provides data to the dam engineering and safety community about the in-service performance of dam systems. The analysis of this data covering both successful operations and incidents, including failures, is intended to lead to improvements in design and requirements, engineering processes and standards, operational procedures and guidelines, and public policy development.
=== Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research ===
Founded in 1974, and named after economist Michelle R. Clayman, the Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research at Stanford University is one of the nation's oldest research organizations focused on the study of gender. The Clayman Institute designs basic interdisciplinary research, creates knowledge, networks people and ideas at Stanford, nationally, and internationally to effect change and promote gender equality. The Clayman Institute plays an integral role in the Stanford community by bringing together local, national and international scholars and thought leaders from across disciplines to create knowledge and effect change. The place where the Clayman Institute is located was renamed the Carolyn Lewis Attneave House in 2019. It was formerly named Serra House after Junípero Serra.
==== History ====
In 1972 faculty and graduate students in the feminist movement were the impetus behind the formation of the institute. In 1974, the Center for Research on Women (CROW) was the first interdisciplinary center or institute of its kind and quickly built a strong reputation under the direction of Myra Strober, the founding Director. The reputation of CIGR grew outside Stanford, and the University of Chicago Press chose Stanford as the base of the second five-year rotation of its new interdisciplinary journal, Signs.
In 1983 the institute was renamed the Institute for Research on Women and Gender (IRWG) and continued to expand the gender conversation with the "Difficult Dialogues" program, which ran in the 1990s through 2004. In 2004, the new director, Professor Londa Schiebinger, a historian of science, formed a plan to create a series of research initiatives on gender issues, backed by a research fellowship program, that would attract scholars from Stanford and abroad. With the help of matching funds from the Hewlett Foundation and strong support from the institute's Advisory Council, Schiebinger spearheaded a fundraising drive to create an endowment for the institute. IRWG was renamed in honor of Michelle R. Clayman, the major donor in the campaign, who serves as the chair of the institute's Advisory Council.
==== Research ====
The Clayman Institute designs basic research and supports the creation of knowledge through its Fellowships and interdisciplinary programs. Recent reports/publications include:
Gendered Innovations in Science and Engineering, Londa Schiebinger, ed., 2008.
Dual-Career Academic Couples: What Universities Need to Know. The Michelle R. Clayman Institute, 2008. This Clayman Institute research study shows that over 70% of faculty are in dual-career relationships. This report tackles tough questions and recommends policies to maximize options.
Climbing the Technical Ladder: Obstacles and Solutions for Mid-Level Women in Information Technology. The Michelle R. Clayman Institute and the Anita Borg Institute, 2008. This report provides an in-depth look into the barriers to retention and advancement of technical women in Silicon Valley's high tech industry and provides practical recommendations to employers on overcoming these barriers.
==== Fellowships ====
The Clayman Institute runs two fellowship programs. The Faculty Research Fellowships seek to drive intellectual and social innovation through interdisciplinary gender studies. They include residential fellowships for tenured, tenure-track, and postdoctoral scholars from Stanford University, and U.S. and foreign universities. The Clayman Institute also offers Graduate Dissertation Fellowships for Stanford University doctoral students. Fellowships are awarded to students who are in the writing stages of their dissertations, and whose research focuses on women and/or gender.
==== Directors ====
1974–77 Myra Strober
1977–79 Diane Middlebrook
1979–84 Myra Strober
1984–85 Marilyn Yalom (deputy director, as acting director)
1985–86 Judith Brown (acting director)
1986–90 Deborah Rhode
1990–97 Iris Litt
1997–2001 Laura Carstensen
2001–04 Barbara Gelpi (acting director)
2004–10 Londa Schiebinger
2010–present Shelley J. Correll
=== Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute ===
Stanford is home to the Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute which grew out of and still contains the Martin Luther King Jr. Papers Project, a collaboration with the King Center to publish the King papers held by the King Center.
=== Stanford Internet Observatory ===
The Stanford Internet Observatory is a multidisciplinary program for the study of abuse in information technologies, with a focus on social media, established in 2019. It is part of the Stanford Cyber Policy Center, a joint initiative of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Stanford Law School. The Observatory has identified the Russian government's online involvement in global elections since the program began. The program's projects such as the "Virality Project" have been criticized as censorship since the release of the Twitter files by some students, Matt Taibbi, and others outside the university.
=== Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI) ===
Stanford HAI was founded in 2019 by Fei-Fei Li, John Etchemendy, James Landay, and Chris Manning. HAI's mission is to advance AI research that prioritizes human well-being, fostering collaboration across disciplines to ensure AI is developed ethically and inclusively.
In its first five years, HAI has directed over $40 million into AI research, supported over 300 scholars, and launched specialized centers like the Stanford Digital Economy Lab and the Center for Research on Foundation Models. The institute has also fostered partnerships with policymakers and industry leaders, advocating for the democratization of AI research. HAI continues to push for new models of collaboration, emphasizing the need for large-scale resources to address the growing complexity of AI systems.
==== Stanford HAI's Role in Governor Gavin Newsom's AI Policy ====
The Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI) plays a crucial role in Governor Gavin Newsom's efforts to ensure the safe and responsible development of artificial intelligence (AI) in California. Dr. Fei-Fei Li, co-director of Stanford HAI, has been a key figure in advising the state on AI policy, contributing to initiatives aimed at balancing innovation with risk mitigation.
Building on the partnership established by Newsom's 2023 executive order, the Governor has called upon Stanford HAI to continue its leadership in developing empirical, science-based guidelines for the deployment of generative AI (GenAI). This future work will focus on assessing the potential risks and benefits of frontier AI models, crafting adaptive policies, and ensuring that California remains at the forefront of AI governance. Newsom's administration relies on HAI's expertise to navigate AI's rapid advancements while protecting the public from potential harms.
== Affiliations ==
Stanford's Center for Computer Research and Acoustics is part of a consortium with CNMAT and the Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM) in Paris.
== See also ==
Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank affiliated with Stanford. It has staffed numerous positions for Republican presidents from Richard Nixon to Donald Trump.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, a particle physics research facility. Run by Stanford University under the programmatic direction of the United States Department of Energy
SRI International, originally the Stanford Research Institute, but independent since 1970
== References ==
== External links ==
Dean of Research list of Independent Laboratories, Institutes and Centers
Research Centers (not independent)
SAIL homepage
CCRMA homepage
Searchable CCRMA archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20090118104407/http://www.nabble.com/CCRMA-f2875.html
CSLI's website
Official Web Site of FSI
Arts Initiative/SiCa Website
Stanford Humanities Center main website
National Performance of Dams Program (NPDP)
Michelle R. Clayman Institute
Oral history interviews on the Michelle R. Clayman Institute with Nannerl Keohane and Marilyn Yalom, Stanford Historical Society Oral History Program
Oral history interviews with Terry Winograd, Raj Reddy, Bruce Buchanan and Allen Newell. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Francis_Kramer | Lawrence Francis Kramer | Lawrence Francis "Pat" Kramer Jr. (February 24, 1933 – August 24, 2023) was an American politician who was the Mayor of Paterson, New Jersey from 1967 to 1972 and 1975 until 1982.
Kramer ran for Governor of New Jersey in the Republican primary in 1981. He came in second to future Governor Thomas Kean.
== Early life ==
Lawrence Francis Kramer was born on February 24, 1933. He was the fifth child and first son of Lawrence and Ann Kramer. He attended public schools in Paterson, graduating from School No. 20, Central High School (now John F. Kennedy High School). He attended Clemson University before earning a degree from Fairleigh Dickinson University.
== Political career ==
Kramer, who owned a lumberyard, entered Paterson city politics by serving on the Board of Education and city planning board.
=== Mayoralty ===
==== 1966 election ====
In 1966, incumbent mayor Frank X. Graves Jr. was prohibited from seeking a third consecutive term. Republican municipal chairman Herman Steinberg and former U.S. Representative Gordon Canfield backed Kramer for the nomination for mayor over a large field of potential contenders, including sheriff Frank Davenport. Kramer faced Housing Authority chairman John Wegner in the November general election. Although Kramer was the underdog in the heavily Democratic city, he benefited from divided opposition following a bitter Democratic primary, in which Wegner, with the support of Passaic County boss Anthony Grossi, had narrowly defeated former mayor Michael DeVita. DeVita refused to endorse Wegner, and many of his supporters backed Kramer. Kramer won an impressive victory with 57% of the vote, carrying 67 of the 92 voting districts in Paterson and winning by roughly 6,000 votes. The victory instantly made Kramer a rising star in New Jersey Republican politics, and he was quickly mentioned as a future candidate for governor or United States Senate.
Following his election, Kramer and Davenport seized control of the Passaic County Republican organization; Davenport became county chairman.
==== First term (1967–1970) ====
Kramer quickly became popular in Paterson during his first term. President Richard Nixon appointed him one of four mayors to serve on the White House Advisory Council on Intergovernmental Relations.
==== 1969 election ====
In his re-election bid, Kramer faced a tough challenge in former mayor Frank X. Graves, who was eligible for a third non-consecutive term. Kramer won with 56% of the vote over Graves.
=== Commissioner of Community Affairs ===
In September 1972, Governor of New Jersey William T. Cahill appointed Kramer, who was ineligible to run for a third consecutive term that fall, to his cabinet as Commissioner of Community Affairs. His tenure in office was short-lived, however, as Cahill lost re-nomination in the June 1973 Republican primary. Kramer spent the rest of the term as a lame duck and officially resigned office in 1974, when Cahill was succeeded by Brendan Byrne.
=== Return to mayoralty ===
==== 1974 election ====
In 1974, Paterson adopted non-partisan May municipal elections, giving a Kramer a path to return to office despite the anti-Republican sentiment in New Jersey during the Watergate scandal. He challenged his successor, Thomas Rooney, in a nasty and close general election campaign. On election day, Kramer prevailed by 161 votes out of over 25,000 cast.
==== Third term (1975–78) ====
During his third term in office, Kramer considered running for governor against Byrne in 1977 but ultimately opted not to run. He was successful in bringing President Gerald Ford to visit Paterson for the dedication of the Great Falls as a National Historic Landmark District in 1976 and National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark and National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1977.
==== 1978 election ====
In 1978, Kramer was re-elected over Rooney and John Bell, the city's human resources director, with 55% of the vote.
=== 1981 campaign for governor ===
In 1981, Kramer began to traverse the state to campaign for governor. As a moderate, Kramer accumulated significantly more party organization support than his opponents and had endorsements from nine Republican county chairmen. Under the county line system, in which endorsed candidates received preferable ballot positioning and typically won the lion's share of the vote, Kramer appeared to be the favorite for the nomination. However, Kramer's leading opponent, former Assembly Speaker Thomas Kean, working with Governor Byrne and allies in the legislature, worked to pass a bill to eliminate the county line for the 1981 primaries. The move, which was proposed by Kean advisor Roger Stone and supported by state senator Bill Gormley, effectively neutered Kramer's campaign late in the race, forcing him to change his campaign strategy to appeal directly to voters throughout the state.
Ultimately, Kean won the primary with 31% of the vote and went on to be elected to two terms as governor. Kramer finished second with 21% of the vote, followed closely by businessman Bo Sullivan with 17% and state senator James Wallwork with 15%.
=== Later career ===
After leaving office in 1982, Kramer declined to run for Passaic County Freeholder and began work as a consultant and developer, as well as a lobbyist for federal funding for Paterson. In 1983, Governor Kean nominated him for a seat on the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority, but his nomination was blocked by Joseph Bubba through the practice of senatorial courtesy.
He made his final run for office in 1991, when he ran for New Jersey Senate in the competitive 35th legislative district. Despite the Republican wave in that year's elections, which gained the party ten seats, Kramer was defeated by interim senator John Girgenti by 1,894 votes.
== Personal life and death ==
Kramer died on August 24, 2023, at the age of 90. His former political opponent and eventual successor as mayor, Bill Pascrell, mourned Kramer as "a true public servant and a pillar of our city," as well as a "brilliant advisor, collaborator, and friend."
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eremiaphila_aristidis | Eremiaphila aristidis | Eremiaphila aristidis is a species of praying mantis in the family Eremiaphilidae.
== See also ==
List of mantis genera and species
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound#:~:text=In%20July%202015%2C%20The%20Economist,ultrasound%20studies%20using%20graphene%20diaphragms. | Ultrasound | Ultrasound is sound with frequencies greater than 20 kilohertz. This frequency is the approximate upper audible limit of human hearing in healthy young adults. The physical principles of acoustic waves apply to any frequency range, including ultrasound. Ultrasonic devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz.
Ultrasound is used in many different fields. Ultrasonic devices are used to detect objects and measure distances. Ultrasound imaging or sonography is often used in medicine. In the nondestructive testing of products and structures, ultrasound is used to detect invisible flaws. Industrially, ultrasound is used for cleaning, mixing, and accelerating chemical processes. Animals such as bats and porpoises use ultrasound for locating prey and obstacles.
== History ==
Acoustics, the science of sound, starts as far back as Pythagoras in the 6th century BC, who wrote on the mathematical properties of stringed instruments. Echolocation in bats was discovered by Lazzaro Spallanzani in 1794, when he demonstrated that bats hunted and navigated by inaudible sound, not vision. Francis Galton in 1893 invented the Galton whistle, an adjustable whistle that produced ultrasound, which he used to measure the hearing range of humans and other animals, demonstrating that many animals could hear sounds above the hearing range of humans.
The first article on the history of ultrasound was written in 1948. According to its author,
during the First World War, a Russian engineer named Chilowski submitted an idea for submarine detection to the French Government. The latter invited Paul Langevin, then Director of the School of Physics and Chemistry in Paris, to evaluate it. Chilowski's proposal was to excite a cylindrical, mica condenser by a high-frequency Poulsen arc at approximately 100 kHz and thus to generate an ultrasound beam for detecting submerged objects. The idea of locating underwater obstacles had been suggested prior by L. F. Richardson, following the Titanic disaster. Richardson had proposed to position a high-frequency hydraulic whistle at the focus of a mirror and use the beam for locating submerged navigational hazards. A prototype was built by Sir Charles Parsons, the inventor of the vapour turbine, but the device was found not to be suitable for this purpose.
Langevin's device made use of the piezoelectric effect, which he had been acquainted with whilst a student at the laboratory of Jacques and Pierre Curie. Langevin calculated and built an ultrasound transducer comprising a thin sheet of quartz sandwiched between two steel plates. Langevin was the first to report cavitation-related bioeffects from ultrasound.
== Definition ==
Ultrasound is defined by the American National Standards Institute as "sound at frequencies greater than 20 kHz". In air at atmospheric pressure, ultrasonic waves have wavelengths of 1.9 cm or less.
Ultrasound can be generated at very high frequencies; ultrasound is used for sonochemistry at frequencies up to multiple hundreds of kilohertz. Medical imaging equipment uses frequencies in the MHz range. UHF ultrasound waves have been generated as high as the gigahertz range.
Characterizing extremely high-frequency ultrasound poses challenges, as such rapid movement causes waveforms to steepen and form shock waves.
== Perception ==
=== Humans ===
The upper frequency limit in humans (approximately 20 kHz) is due to limitations of the middle ear. Auditory sensation can occur if high‐intensity ultrasound is fed directly into the human skull and reaches the cochlea through bone conduction, without passing through the middle ear.
Children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to decrease with age. An American cell phone company has used this to create ring signals that supposedly are only audible to younger humans, but many older people can hear the signals, which may be because of the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in the upper hearing threshold.
=== Animals ===
Bats use a variety of ultrasonic ranging (echolocation) techniques to detect their prey. They can detect frequencies beyond 100 kHz, possibly up to 200 kHz.
Many insects have good ultrasonic hearing, and most of these are nocturnal insects listening for echolocating bats. These include many groups of moths, beetles, praying mantises and lacewings. Upon hearing a bat, some insects will make evasive manoeuvres to escape being caught. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that causes it to drop slightly in its flight to evade attack. Tiger moths also emit clicks which may disturb bats' echolocation, and in other cases may advertise the fact that they are poisonous by emitting sound.
Dogs and cats' hearing range extends into the ultrasound; the top end of a dog's hearing range is about 45 kHz, while a cat's is 64 kHz. The wild ancestors of cats and dogs evolved this higher hearing range to hear high-frequency sounds made by their preferred prey, small rodents. A dog whistle is a whistle that emits ultrasound, used for training and calling dogs. The frequency of most dog whistles is within the range of 23 to 54 kHz.
Toothed whales, including dolphins, can hear ultrasound and use such sounds in their navigational system (biosonar) to orient and to capture prey. Porpoises have the highest known upper hearing limit at around 160 kHz. Several types of fish can detect ultrasound. In the order Clupeiformes, members of the subfamily Alosinae (shad) have been shown to be able to detect sounds up to 180 kHz, while the other subfamilies (e.g. herrings) can hear only up to 4 kHz.
No bird species have been reported to be sensitive to ultrasound.
Commercial ultrasonic systems have been sold for supposed indoors electronic pest control and outdoors ultrasonic algae control. However, no scientific evidence exists on the success of such devices for these purposes.
== Detection and ranging ==
=== Non-contact sensor ===
An ultrasonic level or sensing system requires no contact with the target. For many processes in the medical, pharmaceutical, military and general industries this is an advantage over inline sensors that may contaminate the liquids inside a vessel or tube or that may be clogged by the product.
Both continuous wave and pulsed systems are used. The principle behind a pulsed-ultrasonic technology is that the transmit signal consists of short bursts of ultrasonic energy. After each burst, the electronics looks for a return signal within a small window of time corresponding to the time it takes for the energy to pass through the vessel. Only a signal received during this window will qualify for additional signal processing.
A popular consumer application of ultrasonic ranging was the Polaroid SX-70 camera, which included a lightweight transducer system to focus the camera automatically. Polaroid later licensed this ultrasound technology and it became the basis of a variety of ultrasonic products.
=== Motion sensors and flow measurement ===
A common ultrasound application is an automatic door opener, where an ultrasonic sensor detects a person's approach and opens the door. Ultrasonic sensors are also used to detect intruders; the ultrasound can cover a wide area from a single point. The flow in pipes or open channels can be measured by ultrasonic flowmeters, which measure the average velocity of flowing liquid. In rheology, an acoustic rheometer relies on the principle of ultrasound. In fluid mechanics, fluid flow can be measured using an ultrasonic flow meter.
=== Nondestructive testing ===
Ultrasonic testing is a type of nondestructive testing commonly used to find flaws in materials and to measure the thickness of objects. Frequencies of 2 to 10 MHz are common, but for special purposes other frequencies are used. Inspection may be manual or automated and is an essential part of modern manufacturing processes. Most metals can be inspected as well as plastics and aerospace composites. Lower frequency ultrasound (50–500 kHz) can also be used to inspect less dense materials such as wood, concrete and cement.
Ultrasound inspection of welded joints has been an alternative to radiography for nondestructive testing since the 1960s. Ultrasonic inspection eliminates the use of ionizing radiation, with safety and cost benefits. Ultrasound can also provide additional information such as the depth of flaws in a welded joint. Ultrasonic inspection has progressed from manual methods to computerized systems that automate much of the process. An ultrasonic test of a joint can identify the existence of flaws, measure their size, and identify their location. Not all welded materials are equally amenable to ultrasonic inspection; some materials have a large grain size that produces a high level of background noise in measurements.
Ultrasonic thickness measurement is one technique used to monitor quality of welds.
=== Ultrasonic range finding ===
A common use of ultrasound is in underwater range finding; this use is also called sonar. An ultrasonic pulse is generated in a particular direction. If there is an object in the path of this pulse, part or all of the pulse will be reflected back to the transmitter as an echo and can be detected through the receiver path. By measuring the difference in time between the pulse being transmitted and the echo being received, it is possible to determine the distance.
The measured travel time of Sonar pulses in water is strongly dependent on the temperature and the salinity of the water. Ultrasonic ranging is also applied for measurement in air and for short distances. For example, hand-held ultrasonic measuring tools can rapidly measure the layout of rooms.
Although range finding underwater is performed at both sub-audible and audible frequencies for great distances (1 to several kilometers), ultrasonic range finding is used when distances are shorter and the accuracy of the distance measurement is desired to be finer. Ultrasonic measurements may be limited through barrier layers with large salinity, temperature or vortex differentials. Ranging in water varies from about hundreds to thousands of meters, but can be performed with centimeters to meters accuracy
=== Ultrasound Identification (USID) ===
Ultrasound Identification (USID) is a Real-Time Locating System (RTLS) or Indoor Positioning System (IPS) technology used to automatically track and identify the location of objects in real time using simple, inexpensive nodes (badges/tags) attached to or embedded in objects and devices, which then transmit an ultrasound signal to communicate their location to microphone sensors.
== Imaging ==
The potential for ultrasonic imaging of objects, in which a 3 GHz sound wave could produce resolution comparable to an optical image, was recognized by Sergei Sokolov in 1939. Such frequencies were not possible at the time, and what technology did exist produced relatively low-contrast images with poor sensitivity.
Ultrasonic imaging uses frequencies of 2 megahertz and higher; the shorter wavelength allows resolution of small internal details in structures and tissues. The power density is generally less than 1 watt per square centimetre to avoid heating and cavitation effects in the object under examination. Ultrasonic imaging applications include industrial nondestructive testing, quality control and medical uses.
=== Acoustic microscopy ===
Acoustic microscopy is the technique of using sound waves to visualize structures too small to be resolved by the human eye. High and ultra high frequencies up to several gigahertz are used in acoustic microscopes. The reflection and diffraction of sound waves from microscopic structures can yield information not available with light.
=== Human medicine ===
Medical ultrasound is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs to capture their size, structure and any pathological lesions with real time tomographic images. Ultrasound has been used by radiologists and sonographers to image the human body for at least 50 years and has become a widely used diagnostic tool. The technology is relatively inexpensive and portable, especially when compared with other techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). Ultrasound is also used to visualize fetuses during routine and emergency prenatal care. Such diagnostic applications used during pregnancy are referred to as obstetric sonography. As currently applied in the medical field, properly performed ultrasound poses no known risks to the patient. Sonography does not use ionizing radiation, and the power levels used for imaging are too low to cause adverse heating or pressure effects in tissue. Although the long-term effects due to ultrasound exposure at diagnostic intensity are still unknown, currently most doctors feel that the benefits to patients outweigh the risks. The ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle has been advocated for an ultrasound examination – that is, keeping the scanning time and power settings as low as possible but consistent with diagnostic imaging – and that by that principle nonmedical uses, which by definition are not necessary, are actively discouraged.
Ultrasound is also increasingly being used in trauma and first aid cases, with emergency ultrasound being used by some EMT response teams. Furthermore, ultrasound is used in remote diagnosis cases where teleconsultation is required, such as scientific experiments in space or mobile sports team diagnosis.
According to RadiologyInfo, ultrasounds are useful in the detection of pelvic abnormalities and can involve techniques known as abdominal (transabdominal) ultrasound, vaginal (transvaginal or endovaginal) ultrasound in women, and also rectal (transrectal) ultrasound in men.
=== Veterinary medicine ===
Diagnostic ultrasound is used externally in horses for evaluation of soft tissue and tendon injuries, and internally in particular for reproductive work – evaluation of the reproductive tract of the mare and pregnancy detection. It may also be used in an external manner in stallions for evaluation of testicular condition and diameter as well as internally for reproductive evaluation (deferent duct etc.).
By 2005, ultrasound technology began to be used by the beef cattle industry to improve animal health and the yield of cattle operations. Ultrasound is used to evaluate fat thickness, rib eye area, and intramuscular fat in living animals. It is also used to evaluate the health and characteristics of unborn calves.
Ultrasound technology provides a means for cattle producers to obtain information that can be used to improve the breeding and husbandry of cattle. The technology can be expensive, and it requires a substantial time commitment for continuous data collection and operator training. Nevertheless, this technology has proven useful in managing and running a cattle breeding operation.
== Processing and power ==
High-power applications of ultrasound often use frequencies between 20 kHz and a few hundred kHz. Intensities can be very high; above 10 watts per square centimeter, cavitation can be inducted in liquid media, and some applications use up to 1000 watts per square centimeter. Such high intensities can induce chemical changes or produce significant effects by direct mechanical action, and can inactivate harmful microorganisms.
=== Physical therapy ===
Ultrasound has been used since the 1940s by physical and occupational therapists for treating connective tissue: ligaments, tendons, and fascia (and also scar tissue). Conditions for which ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples: ligament sprains, muscle strains, tendonitis, joint inflammation, plantar fasciitis, metatarsalgia, facet irritation, impingement syndrome, bursitis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and scar tissue adhesion.
Relatively high power ultrasound can break up stony deposits or tissue, increase skin permeability, accelerate the effect of drugs in a targeted area, assist in the measurement of the elastic properties of tissue, and can be used to sort cells or small particles for research.
=== Ultrasonic impact treatment ===
Ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) uses ultrasound to enhance the mechanical and physical properties of metals. It is a metallurgical processing technique in which ultrasonic energy is applied to a metal object. Ultrasonic treatment can result in controlled residual compressive stress, grain refinement and grain size reduction. Low and high cycle fatigue are enhanced and have been documented to provide increases up to ten times greater than non-UIT specimens. Additionally, UIT has proven effective in addressing stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue and related issues.
When the UIT tool, made up of the ultrasonic transducer, pins and other components, comes into contact with the work piece it acoustically couples with the work piece, creating harmonic resonance. This harmonic resonance is performed at a carefully calibrated frequency, to which metals respond very favorably.
Depending on the desired effects of treatment a combination of different frequencies and displacement amplitude is applied. These frequencies range between 25 and 55 kHz, with the displacement amplitude of the resonant body of between 22 and 50 μm (0.00087 and 0.0020 in).
UIT devices rely on magnetostrictive transducers.
=== Processing ===
Ultrasonication offers great potential in the processing of liquids and slurries, by improving the mixing and chemical reactions in various applications and industries. Ultrasonication generates alternating low-pressure and high-pressure waves in liquids, leading to the formation and violent collapse of small vacuum bubbles. This phenomenon is termed cavitation and causes high speed impinging liquid jets and strong hydrodynamic shear-forces. These effects are used for the deagglomeration and milling of micrometre and nanometre-size materials as well as for the disintegration of cells or the mixing of reactants. In this aspect, ultrasonication is an alternative to high-speed mixers and agitator bead mills. Ultrasonic foils under the moving wire in a paper machine will use the shock waves from the imploding bubbles to distribute the cellulose fibres more uniformly in the produced paper web, which will make a stronger paper with more even surfaces. Furthermore, chemical reactions benefit from the free radicals created by the cavitation as well as from the energy input and the material transfer through boundary layers. For many processes, this sonochemical (see sonochemistry) effect leads to a substantial reduction in the reaction time, like in the transesterification of oil into biodiesel.
Substantial ultrasonic intensity and high ultrasonic vibration amplitudes are required for many processing applications, such as nano-crystallization, nano-emulsification, deagglomeration, extraction, cell disruption, as well as many others. Commonly, a process is first tested on a laboratory scale to prove feasibility and establish some of the required ultrasonic exposure parameters. After this phase is complete, the process is transferred to a pilot (bench) scale for flow-through pre-production optimization and then to an industrial scale for continuous production. During these scale-up steps, it is essential to make sure that all local exposure conditions (ultrasonic amplitude, cavitation intensity, time spent in the active cavitation zone, etc.) stay the same. If this condition is met, the quality of the final product remains at the optimized level, while the productivity is increased by a predictable "scale-up factor". The productivity increase results from the fact that laboratory, bench and industrial-scale ultrasonic processor systems incorporate progressively larger ultrasonic horns, able to generate progressively larger high-intensity cavitation zones and, therefore, to process more material per unit of time. This is called "direct scalability". It is important to point out that increasing the power of the ultrasonic processor alone does not result in direct scalability, since it may be (and frequently is) accompanied by a reduction in the ultrasonic amplitude and cavitation intensity. During direct scale-up, all processing conditions must be maintained, while the power rating of the equipment is increased in order to enable the operation of a larger ultrasonic horn.
=== Ultrasonic manipulation and characterization of particles ===
A researcher at the Industrial Materials Research Institute, Alessandro Malutta, devised an experiment that demonstrated the trapping action of ultrasonic standing waves on wood pulp fibers diluted in water and their parallel orienting into the equidistant pressure planes. The time to orient the fibers in equidistant planes is measured with a laser and an electro-optical sensor. This could provide the paper industry a quick on-line fiber size measurement system. A somewhat different implementation was demonstrated at Pennsylvania State University using a microchip which generated a pair of perpendicular standing surface acoustic waves allowing to position particles equidistant to each other on a grid. This experiment, called acoustic tweezers, can be used for applications in material sciences, biology, physics, chemistry and nanotechnology.
=== Ultrasonic cleaning ===
Ultrasonic cleaners, sometimes mistakenly called supersonic cleaners, are used at frequencies from 20 to 40 kHz for jewellery, lenses and other optical parts, watches, dental instruments, surgical instruments, diving regulators and industrial parts. An ultrasonic cleaner works mostly by energy released from the collapse of millions of microscopic cavitation bubbles near the dirty surface. The collapsing bubbles form tiny shockwaves that break up and disperse contaminants on the object's surface.
=== Ultrasonic disintegration ===
Similar to ultrasonic cleaning, biological cells including bacteria can be disintegrated. High power ultrasound produces cavitation that facilitates particle disintegration or reactions. This has uses in biological science for analytical or chemical purposes (sonication and sonoporation) and in killing bacteria in sewage. High power ultrasound can disintegrate corn slurry and enhance liquefaction and saccharification for higher ethanol yield in dry corn milling plants.
=== Ultrasonic humidifier ===
The ultrasonic humidifier, one type of nebulizer (a device that creates a very fine spray), is a popular type of humidifier. It works by vibrating a metal plate at ultrasonic frequencies to nebulize (sometimes incorrectly called "atomize") the water. Because the water is not heated for evaporation, it produces a cool mist. The ultrasonic pressure waves nebulize not only the water but also materials in the water including calcium, other minerals, viruses, fungi, bacteria, and other impurities. Illness caused by impurities that reside in a humidifier's reservoir fall under the heading of "Humidifier Fever".
Ultrasonic humidifiers are frequently used in aeroponics, where they are generally referred to as foggers.
=== Ultrasonic welding ===
In ultrasonic welding of plastics, high frequency (15 kHz to 40 kHz) low amplitude vibration is used to create heat by way of friction between the materials to be joined. The interface of the two parts is specially designed to concentrate the energy for maximum weld strength.
=== Sonochemistry ===
Power ultrasound in the 20–100 kHz range is used in chemistry. The ultrasound does not interact directly with molecules to induce the chemical change, as its typical wavelength (in the millimeter range) is too long compared to the molecules. Instead, the energy causes cavitation which generates extremes of temperature and pressure in the liquid where the reaction happens. Ultrasound also breaks up solids and removes passivating layers of inert material to give a larger surface area for the reaction to occur over. Both of these effects make the reaction faster. In 2008, Atul Kumar reported synthesis of Hantzsch esters and polyhydroquinoline derivatives via multi-component reaction protocol in aqueous micelles using ultrasound.
Ultrasound is used in extraction, using different frequencies.
== Other uses ==
When applied in specific configurations, ultrasound can produce short bursts of light in a phenomenon known as sonoluminescence.
Ultrasound is used when characterizing particulates through the technique of ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy or by observing electroacoustic phenomena or by transcranial pulsed ultrasound.
=== Wireless communication ===
Audio can be propagated by modulated ultrasound.
A formerly popular consumer application of ultrasound was in television remote controls for adjusting volume and changing channels. Introduced by Zenith in the late 1950s, the system used a hand-held remote control containing short rod resonators struck by small hammers, and a microphone on the set. Filters and detectors discriminated between the various operations. The principal advantages were that no battery was needed in the hand-held control box and, unlike radio waves, the ultrasound was unlikely to affect neighboring sets. Ultrasound remained in use until displaced by infrared systems starting in the late 1980s.
In July 2015, The Economist reported that researchers at the University of California, Berkeley have conducted ultrasound studies using graphene diaphragms. The thinness and low weight of graphene combined with its strength make it an effective material to use in ultrasound communications. One suggested application of the technology would be underwater communications, where radio waves typically do not travel well.
Ultrasonic signals have been used in "audio beacons" for cross-device tracking of Internet users.
== Safety ==
Occupational exposure to ultrasound in excess of 120 dB may lead to hearing loss. Exposure in excess of 155 dB may produce heating effects that are harmful to the human body, and it has been calculated that exposures above 180 dB may lead to death. The UK's independent Advisory Group on Non-ionising Radiation (AGNIR) produced a report in 2010, which was published by the UK Health Protection Agency (HPA). This report recommended an exposure limit for the general public to airborne ultrasound sound pressure levels (SPL) of 70 dB (at 20 kHz), and 100 dB (at 25 kHz and above).
In medical ultrasound, guidelines exist to prevent inertial cavitation from happening. The risk of inertial cavitation damage is expressed by the mechanical index.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Guidelines for the Safe Use of Ultrasound: valuable insight on the boundary conditions tending towards abuse of ultrasound |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Srinagar_bombing | 2022 Srinagar bombing | On 6 March 2022, a militant threw a grenade at a marketplace in Srinagar, Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, injuring twenty-four people and killing two.
The attack occurred at a market in Hari Singh High Street near the Amira Kadal bridge at around 4:20 P.M. The street was very busy and a large number of people were in the marketplace when the bombing struck. The terrorist threw a grenade at security forces, injuring dozens of people, including at least one policeman.
Later that day, 60-year old Muhammad Aslam Makdhoomi from Nowhatta succumbed to his injuries. 19-year old Rafiya Jan died the following day.
The bombing received widespread condemnation in India, including from Manoj Sinha, Farooq and Omar Abdullah, Mehbooba Mufti, the Jammu Kashmir Pradesh Congress Committee, the Bharatiya Janata Party, and many more.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont_Serme | Pont Serme | The Pont Serme or Pons Selinus, later called the Pons Septimus, was a Roman bridge of the Via Domitia in the Aude department, commune of Coursan, Occitania southern France. The approximately 1500 m long viaduct crossed the wide marshes of the Aude River and the Etang de Capestang west of Béziers, surpassing in length even the Trajan's Bridge over the Danube. Today, few traces remain of the viaduct, other than its name, which has passed over to a nearby wine-estate called "Domaine de Pontserme "
== See also ==
List of Roman bridges
Roman architecture
Roman engineering
== Notes ==
== Sources ==
O’Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, pp. 99 (G12), ISBN 0-521-39326-4
== External links ==
Pictures of the Marches of Capestang once crossed by the Pont Serme Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Australian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles#Section_6 | 2019 Australian Open – Men's singles | Novak Djokovic defeated Rafael Nadal in the final, 6–3, 6–2, 6–3 to win the men's singles tennis title at the 2019 Australian Open. It was his record seventh Australian Open title and 15th major title overall, surpassing Pete Sampras for third place on the all-time list. Djokovic and Nadal were both in contention for the world No. 1 singles ranking; Djokovic retained the top ranking by reaching the fourth round. Nadal was attempting to become the first man in the Open Era to achieve a double career Grand Slam, a feat he would achieve three years later.
Roger Federer was the two-time defending champion, but lost in the fourth round to Stefanos Tsitsipas. Tsitsipas was the first Greek player to reach the semifinals at a singles major.
This was the first Australian Open since 1982 to feature a final set tie-break. Upon reaching 6–6 in the fifth set, a match tie-break is played where the winner is the first to reach ten points and lead by two points. The first men's singles main-draw match to feature the ten-point tiebreak was the first-round match between Jérémy Chardy and Ugo Humbert.
== Seeds ==
All seedings per ATP rankings.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
== Draw ==
Key
=== Finals ===
=== Top half ===
==== Section 1 ====
==== Section 2 ====
==== Section 3 ====
==== Section 4 ====
=== Bottom half ===
==== Section 5 ====
==== Section 6 ====
==== Section 7 ====
==== Section 8 ====
== Other entry information ==
=== Wildcards ===
=== Qualifying ===
== Championship match ratings ==
554 thousand on ESPN, in the USA
== References ==
== External links ==
Draw
2019 Australian Open – Men's draws and results at the International Tennis Federation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylan_Sprouse#Personal_life | Dylan Sprouse | Dylan Thomas Sprouse (born August 4, 1992) is an American actor. He is known for his role as Zack Martin on the Disney Channel series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and its spin-off, The Suite Life on Deck, where he starred alongside his twin brother Cole Sprouse. He is an owner of the All-Wise Meadery in Brooklyn, New York.
== Early life ==
Sprouse was born August 4, 1992, in Arezzo, Italy, to American parents, Matthew Sprouse and Melanie Wright. Dylan was born 15 minutes before his twin brother Cole Sprouse and was named after Welsh poet and writer Dylan Thomas. When the twins were four months old, they moved to Long Beach, California, their parents' hometown.
== Career ==
Sprouse started his career in 1993 on television, alongside his twin brother Cole Sprouse, sharing the role of Patrick Kelly in Grace Under Fire until 1998. For the next several years, he continued to appear in several films and television series with his brother. Sprouse co-starred alongside his brother in the Disney Channel series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody from 2005 to 2008; during his time on the show he was, according to Kim Rhodes, body-shamed for putting on weight.
In 2017, he was cast in the lead role of Lucas Ward for the thriller film Dismissed. In the same year, he appeared in a short film, Carte Blanche, and was cast in comedy film Banana Split as Nick. In 2018, Sprouse opened All-Wise Meadery in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, the name of which is a reference to his Heathen religion.
He joined the short film Daddy as Paul in 2019.
In 2020, Sprouse starred as Trevor in After We Collided, the sequel to the 2019 film After. In May 2020, it was announced that Heavy Metal and DiGa Studios would be releasing the first issue of Sprouse's comic book Sun Eater.
In 2021, he starred in Tyger Tyger as Luke Hart and in the Chinese film The Curse of Turandot as Calaf.
== Personal life ==
After the end of The Suite Life on Deck in 2011, Sprouse attended New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study and obtained a four-year degree in video game design. He has identified as a Heathen since age 15.
Since 2018, Sprouse has been in a relationship with model Barbara Palvin. They resided in Brooklyn for over two years, before moving to Los Angeles in 2021. In June 2023, they announced that they had been engaged since September 2022. The couple married on July 15, 2023.
Sprouse is a co-founder and brand ambassador of Thor's Skyr, an American-made high-protein cultured dairy product.
== Filmography ==
With the exception of Piggy Banks and Snow Buddies, all appearances prior to 2017 were either roles shared with Cole Sprouse—that is, in which the two portrayed one single character—or projects on which they both worked but portrayed separate characters.
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
=== Video games ===
=== Other ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== Discography ==
"A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes" (Disneymania 4) (2005)
"A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes" (Princess Disneymania) (2008)
== References ==
== External links ==
Dylan Sprouse at IMDb
Dylan Sprouse on Instagram
Dylan Sprouse on Twitter |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenth_Doctor | Tenth Doctor | The Tenth Doctor is an incarnation of The Doctor, the protagonist of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. He is played by David Tennant in three series and nine specials. As with previous incarnations of The Doctor, the character has also appeared in other Doctor Who spin-offs both during and after the character's televised appearances. In 2023, Tennant returned to the role, this time as the fourteenth incarnation of The Doctor.
Within the series' narrative, the Doctor is a centuries-old alien Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey who travels in time and space in the TARDIS, frequently with companions. The Doctor regenerates; as a result, the physical appearance and personality of the Doctor changes. Tennant's portrayal of the Tenth Doctor is of an outwardly charismatic and charming adventurer whose likable and easygoing attitude can quickly turn to righteous fury when provoked. Preceded in regeneration by the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston), he is followed by the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith).
This incarnation's companions include some who travelled with his previous incarnation: working-class shop assistant Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), her boyfriend Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke), and former "Time Agent" Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman), as well as medical student Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman) and fiery temp worker Donna Noble (Catherine Tate). He eventually parts ways with them all by the end of the 2008 series finale, "Journey's End", after which he attempts to travel alone for the duration of the 2008–2010 specials before being accompanied by Donna's grandfather Wilfred Mott (Bernard Cribbins) on his final adventure in "The End of Time".
== Overview ==
Executive producer Russell T Davies revived Doctor Who after a 16-year absence with the premiere of "Rose" in 2005. Following the BBC's announcement of a second series being commissioned, the story broke that Christopher Eccleston, who played the titular Ninth Doctor, would not be returning for the second series. On 16 April 2005, the BBC announced that David Tennant had been selected for the role of the Tenth Doctor. His first appearance in the series was for 20 seconds following the Ninth Doctor's regeneration at the end of "The Parting of the Ways". His first full episode as the Doctor, barring an appearance in a "mini-episode" during the 2005 Children in Need show, was the 2005 Christmas Special, "The Christmas Invasion". He then appeared in the 2006, 2007 and 2008 series. Rather than a traditional series run, 2009 and early 2010 featured Tennant in a series of four specials. He also guest-starred in the 2009 two-part The Sarah Jane Adventures story The Wedding of Sarah Jane Smith. Tennant also appears in two animated serials The Infinite Quest and Dreamland. In 2013, Tennant reprised his role as the Tenth Doctor for the 50th anniversary special, "The Day of the Doctor", and returned to Doctor Who as the Fourteenth Doctor in 2023 for three 60th anniversary specials.
== Personality ==
The Tenth Doctor speaks with an Estuary English accent, rather than the Lancashire dialect (Christopher Eccleston's own dialect) that the Ninth Doctor used, the Received Pronunciation of most earlier Doctors, or Tennant's Scottish English. David Tennant told SFX magazine in 2006 that Russell T Davies had asked him to drop his natural Scottish accent, because he felt "we'd like to not go for another obvious regional accent, because I suppose they'd done that". In a 23 December interview on BBC Radio 1, Tennant explained that a line had been scripted for the Christmas special explaining that the newly regenerated Doctor had imprinted on Rose Tyler's accent "like a chick hatching from an egg", but the line was cut from the final episode. He also has two "catchphrases" which were allons-y (a French term meaning "let's go".) and molto bene (an Italian term meaning "very good"). These two terms were apparent in many of his episodes. Langston Mooney Ganesh or LMG came up with the phrase "allons-y" to be used by the Tenth Doctor. There was a niche reference made as tribute to him in the first episode of Torchwood.
In the audiobook The Last Voyage, the Tenth Doctor states that he is not neurotypical. The depictions of the personalities of the Tenth and Eleventh Doctors shared certain similarities e.g. both being youthful, energetic, friendly, childlike, "good boyfriend Doctors", as Steven Moffat described them and, according to Mark Gatiss "very human Doctors" when compared to other incarnations.
=== Appearance ===
The Doctor complains that his tenth incarnation is not "ginger". However, this incarnation was happy to have sideburns and to have more hair than his previous incarnation. He wears his own brown hair in various ways throughout the series (unstyled in "The Christmas Invasion", a 1950s-style quiff in "The Idiot's Lantern", and flattened forwards in "The Runaway Bride" and "The Day of the Doctor") but mainly styled it in a spiked-up fashion throughout most of the series, with this style being described by friend and later one-time companion Wilfred Mott as being a "modern style sort of hair. All sticky-uppy". He has dark brown eyes and is perceived by most, including companions and other characters such as his future incarnation as "slim and a little bit foxy". They chose these kind of foxier, more slim and younger men for the show earlier on to attract attention and gain traction for this "regenerated" version of Doctor Who called "New Who".
His costume was unveiled on 27 July 2005. He generally wears either a dark brown (with blue pinstripes) or a blue (with rust red pinstripes) four-buttoned suit with a shirt and a tie, or a shirt and t-shirt, a light brown faux-suede duster coat (which he claims was given to him by Janis Joplin), and different coloured pairs of Converse All-Star trainers, depending on his suit. According to an interview on Parkinson, David Tennant and Russell T Davies got the idea for the Tenth Doctor's costume from an outfit Jamie Oliver had worn on Parkinson just after Tennant had taken the role. David Tennant has commented that he would vary the combination of the buttons he fastened on his jacket in different episodes. Tennant thought the look was very geek chic.
The Doctor dons a pair of dark tortoise-shell rectangular frame glasses, an affectation (along with his signature footwear) borrowed from the Fifth Doctor. On one occasion, he wears a pair of Red-Cyan 3D glasses, both as a joke and for practical reasons. Despite appearing in only one story, the glasses became an accessory commonly associated with Tennant's incarnation of the character. Costume Designer Louise Page cited that it is the costume she is most proud of from her time on Doctor Who.
== Appearances ==
=== Television ===
The Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston) regenerates into the Tenth Doctor at the climax of the first-series (2005) finale, "The Parting of the Ways"; he then reintroduces himself to his companion Rose Tyler (Billie Piper) in a Children in Need mini-episode called "Born Again". In the 2005 Christmas special, "The Christmas Invasion", he is in a comatose state for most of the episode, following his regeneration. After eventually waking up, he defeats the alien Sycorax and saves Earth; in the process, he loses a hand, which regrows owing to his recent regeneration. Amongst other second-series (2006) adventures, the Doctor and Rose save Queen Victoria (Pauline Collins) from a werewolf in "Tooth and Claw", resulting in the creation of the anti-alien Torchwood Institute. In "School Reunion", The Doctor shares an adventure with two former companions, journalist Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen) and robot dog K9 (voiced by John Leeson), before taking on Rose's boyfriend Mickey (Noel Clarke) as a second companion. The TARDIS slips through a crack in the Time Vortex causing them to be stranded on a parallel Earth, where they encounter the Cybermen in the episode, "Rise of the Cybermen". After saving parallel Earth, Mickey decides to stay and help stop the Cybermen around the world despite The Doctor telling him he can never return in "The Age of Steel". He and Rose become stranded on a planet orbiting around a black hole in "The Impossible Planet", where The Beast is waiting far underground. While there, in "The Satan Pit", The Beast taunts The Doctor and Rose about Rose's death. During the 2012 Olympic Games in "Fear Her", The Doctor picks up the Olympic flame and carries it to the end, starting the Games. The series finale takes place in contemporary London, where modern-day Torchwood is the scene for war between the evil alien Daleks and parallel-universe cyborgs the Cybermen; saving the Earth costs the Doctor Rose, who is stranded in a parallel universe, along with Mickey and her mother, in "Doomsday".
In the closing scene of "Doomsday", a mysterious bride called Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) inexplicably appears in his TARDIS. The 2006 Christmas special, "The Runaway Bride" sees The Doctor and bride-to-be Donna save the Earth; Donna saves The Doctor from going too far in his revenge against the alien Racnoss, and although she declines his offer of companionship, she tells The Doctor he may need a new companion to keep him in check. In the third series (2007), The Doctor takes on Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman) as his new companion. Together, they witness the mysterious Face of Boe (Struan Rodger) prophecy to The Doctor that "you are not alone", in "Gridlock". They are rejoined by former companion Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) in a three-episode adventure beginning with "Utopia", where presumed-deceased archenemy and fellow Time Lord The Master (John Simm) becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and ages The Doctor. Martha's plan sees The Doctor infused with the world's psychic energies, and he easily defeats The Master, who seemingly refuses to regenerate and dies in The Doctor's arms. Following this adventure, in the dénouement of series finale "Last of the Time Lords", Jack and Martha both depart the TARDIS, and The Doctor is shocked to see what appears to be the RMS Titanic crash into it. Set moments prior, another Children in Need mini-episode, "Time Crash", features a brief encounter between Tennant's Tenth Doctor and the Fifth Doctor (Peter Davison), containing meta-humour surrounding the fact David Tennant had watched and loved Davison's Doctor as a child. In parallel with the third series, Tennant lends his voice to the animated serial The Infinite Quest.
The 2007 Christmas special, "Voyage of the Damned", sees The Doctor and a waitress, Astrid Peth (Kylie Minogue), save the Earth from the impending crash of the starship Titanic; Astrid dies heroically, and The Doctor encounters Wilfred Mott (Bernard Cribbins) for the first time. In the premiere episode of the fourth series (2008), "Partners in Crime", The Doctor is reunited with Donna Noble, Wilfred's granddaughter, who becomes his regular companion. In "Planet of the Ood", the alien Ood prophesy the Tenth Doctor's demise. Martha accompanies them for three episodes; in two, entitled "The Sontaran Stratagem" and "The Poison Sky", The Doctor battles the war-hungry alien Sontarans, and last of which sees him become a father of sorts to Jenny (Georgia Tennant), in "The Doctor's Daughter". He meets archaeologist and future companion River Song (Alex Kingston) for the first time from his perspective in the two-parter, "Silence in the Library" and "Forest of the Dead"; she dies, but he stores her consciousness to a hard drive to live on forever, after accepting that one day she will come to mean a lot to him. After Donna encounters Rose in a parallel world in "Turn Left", the Doctor realises that Rose's words to Donna — "Bad Wolf" — must herald the end of the world. In finale episodes "The Stolen Earth" and "Journey's End" (which cross over with spin-offs Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures), the Doctor and Donna reunite with former companions Rose, Sarah Jane, Martha, Jack, and Mickey to save the universe from Davros (Julian Bleach), the creator of the Daleks. The Doctor was fatally wounded during the event, causing him to regenerate, although he chooses to maintain his current self while transferring residual energy into his previously severed hand. This results in a metacrisis that creates a half-human Doctor who would leave to have a romantic relationship with Rose in the parallel universe, while also imbuing Donna with a Time Lord's mind. This forces the Doctor to erase Donna's memories of their adventures together in order to save her life. A Doctor Who Prom mini-episode, "Music of the Spheres", features a lone Doctor composing his musical Ode to the Universe before being interrupted by the small alien Graske (Jimmy Vee).
In lieu of a 2009 series, Tennant appears as the Tenth Doctor, without a regular companion, in several special episodes over the course of 2008 and 2009, the last of which aired on New Year's Day, 2010. In the Christmas special "The Next Doctor", The Doctor mistakenly believes he has met a later incarnation of himself in an amnesiac Londoner (David Morrissey), with whom he saves Victorian-era London. "Planet of the Dead" (Easter 2009) features jewel thief Lady Christina de Souza (Michelle Ryan) as The Doctor's one-off companion, and The Doctor is presented with a prophecy of his imminent death, with a woman telling him 'he will knock four times'. Tennant makes a crossover appearance in a The Sarah Jane Adventures two-parter, "The Wedding of Sarah Jane Smith", in which a powerful being known as the Trickster (Paul Marc Davis) also alludes to the Tenth Doctor's impending demise. In "The Waters of Mars", The Doctor tries to alter history and avert the death of one-off companion Adelaide Brooke (Lindsay Duncan); when she kills herself, he begins to feel his mortality weigh down upon him. In the animated serial Dreamland, The Doctor is joined by two one-off companions in 1950s Roswell, New Mexico. In the two-part send-off "The End of Time", The Doctor confronts the Ood about their original prophecy and is led to contemporary Earth where, in the second part, the again-resurrected Master restores Gallifrey and the Time Lords to existence, although he redeems himself by assisting The Doctor to defeat Time Lord President Rassilon (Timothy Dalton) before disappearing alongside the other Time Lords. However, Wilfred finds himself trapped in a chamber that is about to be flooded with radiation. He knocks on the glass door four times, fulfilling the prophecy of The Doctor's death. The Doctor sacrifices his life to prevent Wilfred's death, exposing himself to 500,000 rads of deadly radiation and triggering his regeneration. He holds it back and is shown visiting several companions. He gives Donna a winning lottery ticket on her wedding day, buying it with money he borrowed from her late father in the past, saves Martha and Mickey from a Sontaran sniper, saves Sarah Jane's son Luke (Tommy Knight) from a car, introduces Jack to a romantic interest (Russell Tovey), and finally, just before regenerating into the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith), informs Rose in 2005 that she is about to have a "great year". As he begins regenerating once in the TARDIS, his last words are "I don't want to go".
Tennant reprised the role for the show's 50th anniversary in "The Day of the Doctor" (2013), appearing alongside the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith), future companion Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) and a forgotten past incarnation, the War Doctor, played by John Hurt. In the special, which from the Tenth Doctor's perspective takes place between the 2008–2010 specials "The Waters of Mars" and "The End of Time", the Doctor unintentionally marries Queen Elizabeth I (Joanna Page) while luring out a Zygon. He helps the other Doctors in saving Gallifrey at the Time War's conclusion, but will not retain memories of the event. His final words are, once again "I don't want to go" after being told that he will die on Trenzalore.
At the conclusion of the 2022 specials, the Thirteenth Doctor regenerates into the Fourteenth Doctor, who bears the same form as the Tenth.
=== Spoofs ===
David Tennant has also made numerous cameo appearances as The Doctor outside of Doctor Who, frequently in spoof appearances. Singer and actress Charlotte Church spoofs Doctor Who alongside an actor playing the Tenth Doctor in her own The Charlotte Church Show (2006). In an appearance on The Friday Night Project in 2007, Tennant plays a female companion to the Tenth Doctor (Justin Lee Collins) on the Pink Planet, where they are confronted by the alien Gay Lord (Alan Carr). When the show became The Sunday Night Project, Catherine Tate appeared in a skit playing the Tenth Doctor. Tennant starred opposite Catherine Tate in her own The Catherine Tate Show special (2007) as Lauren Cooper's (Tate) teacher Mr. Logan, whom Cooper teases for his resemblance to the Doctor; eventually, he reveals himself to be the Tenth Doctor and shrinks Cooper into a 5" Rose Tyler action figure. In the final episode of Extras (December 2007), a brief scene shows The Doctor and an unidentified Wren companion attacked by Schlong, a slug-like alien played by Andy Millman (Ricky Gervais). The Tenth Doctor is also featured in political satire; in a 2007 episode of Dead Ringers, when faced by the question of Gordon Brown's succession, Tony Blair (impressionist Jon Culshaw) regenerates into David Tennant after promising "New Labour is all about renewal", later vowing 100 more years of power. Tennant modifies his first line in "The Parting of the Ways" ("New teeth, that's weird"), to "New Labour, that's weird" and proceeds to address the public in a Tony Blair impression resembling Culshaw's. Tennant also guest-voiced his incarnation of The Doctor in an episode of Family Guy (2016). He later played the role in full costume for a sketch with The Muppets in a live performance at The O2 Arena in 2018.
=== Literature ===
As the face of the Doctor Who franchise for 2005–2010, the Tenth Doctor appears extensively in Doctor Who spin-off media; in the majority of these series, the character simply takes after the place of the Ninth Doctor, and in turn is replaced by the Eleventh following the debut of the 2010 series. Novels featuring the Tenth Doctor are all published by BBC Books. The character appears in New Series Adventures novels spanning from The Stone Rose (April 2006) to The Krillitane Storm (September 2009). A number of Decide Your Destiny novels were published between July 2007 and March 2008, as well as five books published as a part of Quick Reads Initiative, a government-sponsored adult literacy project. BBC Children's Books released their own 10-part series, The Darksmith Legacy, supported by an interactive tie-in website. Additionally, short stories are frequently published in Doctor Who Magazine, The Doctor Who Storybook series (2007–2010 editions), the BBC website, and annuals and suchlike; one example is the story "The Lodger" by Gareth Roberts, later adapted into an Eleventh Doctor television episode of the same name. National newspapers The Daily Telegraph and The Sunday Times have each published one Christmas-themed Tenth Doctor short story. Additionally, the Tenth Doctor appears in a novelisation of his The Sarah Jane Adventures crossover appearance. The Tenth Doctor also appears extensively in comic books, replacing the Ninth Doctor in those published in Doctor Who Magazine, and the younger-audience Doctor Who Adventures and Doctor Who: Battles in Time. American comic book publisher initially published a 2008 Tenth Doctor and Martha Jones miniseries between January and June 2006. This was later followed by a truly ongoing Tenth Doctor series in July 2009, set during the 2008–2010 specials and lasting sixteen issues before relaunching with the Eleventh Doctor. In stories set after "Journey's End", The Doctor is accompanied by numerous one-off and recurring companions who do not feature in the television series.
Outside of Doctor Who literature, penciller Georges Jeanty includes a cameo of the Tenth Doctor and Rose in a panel of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight story arc "No Future for You". The Tenth Doctor was utilised in the American satirical political cartoon strip, This Modern World. Arriving in 2003, the Doctor hints to Sparky the Wonder Penguin (the strip's main character) that in five years' time, the next President could be a black man, with the middle name Hussein, whose father was a Muslim. The character also appeared in a story arc of the webcomic PvP, in which character Brent Sienna hallucinates materialising in the TARDIS.
=== Audio drama ===
As is the case with the BBC Books novels, the Tenth Doctor replaced the Ninth as the face of the Doctor Who audiobook series, beginning with Pest Control in May 2008 and ending with Dead Air in March 2010. The majority are read by David Tennant, save one read by Michelle Ryan and two by Catherine Tate. A number of Tenth Doctor novels were also abridged to become audiobooks, again featuring David Tennant's voice alongside other cast members such as Freema Agyeman and television series guest stars such as Georgia Tennant, Reggie Yates and Anthony Head; the last of these scheduled is Judgement of the Judoon, for December 2010.
On 26 October 2015, it was announced Tennant would reprise his role for The Tenth Doctor Adventures, a series of full-cast audio stories produced by Big Finish Productions. The first volume of stories had the reprise of Catherine Tate as Donna Noble, consisting of Technophobia, Time Reaver, and Death and the Queen, which were released in May 2016. The second volume of stories saw Billie Piper reprise her role as Rose Tyler alongside Tennant. The stories consisted of Infamy of the Zaross (with Camille Coduri as Jackie Tyler), Sword of the Chevalier, and Cold Vengeance, which were released in November 2017. A third volume was released in May 2019, once again with Catherine Tate as Donna Noble, in the stories No Place (with as Jacqueline King as Sylvia Noble and Bernard Cribbins as Wilfred Mott), One Mile Down and The Creeping Death.
Outside of The Tenth Doctor Adventures, David Tennant has appeared as the Doctor for several special Big Finish releases. He made brief cameos at the end of the Jenny – The Doctor's Daughter series and the final story of Big Finish's multi-Doctor anniversary special The Legacy of Time. The Tenth Doctor made a significant appearance in the final story of the Donna Noble: Kidnapped! spin-off series starring Catherine Tate as Donna Noble. In 2020, Tennant appeared alongside Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor in the first story of the Out of Time trilogy and co-starred in three audio plays opposite Alex Kingston as River Song in The Tenth Doctor and River Song. Tennant also made an uncredited cameo in series eight of The Diary of River Song as the Doctor.
In 2021, as well as starring in the nine-part Dalek Universe saga (which sees the Tenth Doctor trapped in the pre-Time War universe and separated from the TARDIS), Tennant reprised the Tenth Doctor for the second part of the Out of Time trilogy, fighting Cybermen with the Fifth Doctor (Peter Davison) in The Gates of Hell. As part of the multi-platform Time Lord Victorious storyline, Tennant co-starred in Echoes of Extinction alongside Paul McGann as the Eighth Doctor. He was set to be the first Doctor to appear in the spin-off series Torchwood, reuniting Tennant with John Barrowman as Captain Jack Harkness and Gareth David-Lloyd as Ianto Jones, for Absent Friends. However, while this story was recorded, its release was cancelled in May 2021.
The Out of Time trilogy concluded in June 2022 with Wink, featuring the Tenth Doctor and the Sixth Doctor battling Weeping Angels. In the same month, Tennant appeared as the Doctor in the seventh series of The War Master opposite Derek Jacobi as The Master. In September 2022, Big Finish released the Tenth Doctor, Classic Companions special, which reunites the Doctor with K9, Ace, Leela and Nyssa; he retrieves K9 from a temporal anomaly, helps an alternate version of Leela save a village, rescues Nyssa from a criminal using Time Lord technology as part of a scam, and subsequently leaves K9 with Ace after they stop Axos ("The Claws of Axos") from escaping its time loop prison.
Marking Doctor Who's 60th anniversary, Big Finish released the Once and Future series, in which an unspecified incarnation of the Doctor (later revealed to be the War Doctor) is attacked with a weapon that causes them to switch randomly between past and future incarnations. Tennant appears as the Tenth Doctor for The Martian Invasion of Planetoid 50 alongside Michelle Gomez as Missy. This production was recorded in October 2020, long before Tennant was cast as the Fourteenth Doctor for the television 60th anniversary specials.
The Tenth Doctor has made other Big Finish appearances that did not involve Tennant, using other actors to voice the Doctor. In April 2018, The Tenth Doctor Chronicles featured four new stories and starred voice actor Jacob Dudman as the Doctor and narrator; Jacqueline King and Michelle Ryan reprised their roles as Sylvia Noble and Lady Christina de Souza respectively. The Churchill Years featured stories of the show's portrayal of Winston Churchill – played by Ian McNeice narrating in-character – meeting various incarnations of the Doctor, including the Tenth Doctor in the episodes Hounded and Churchill Victorious. Likewise, the Tenth Doctor appears in three episodes of Tales from New Earth voiced by Kieran Hodgson.
In the Short Trips range, the Tenth Doctor appeared in the two-part story The Jago and Litefoot Revival alongside the Eleventh Doctor, narrated by Christopher Benjamin and Trevor Baxter. Camille Coduri reprised her role as Jackie Tyler to narrate a pair of stories featuring the Tenth Doctor's meta-crisis clone in The Siege of Big Ben and Flight into Hull set on the parallel Earth.
=== Video games ===
The Tenth Doctor appears alongside his fellow incarnations as a playable character in the 2015 toys-to-life crossover game LEGO Dimensions. He is shown wearing his duster coat and brown pinstripe suit. The character uses voice lines taken from the BBC archives. His TARDIS interior is a location that players can explore.
He, as well as the Thirteenth Doctor, appears as a playable character that users could purchase for free from the Avatar Shop within Roblox for a limited time, which also featured the Pting as a shoulder accessory, and the TARDIS in the form of a backpack. These items were added as part of a sponsorship between the Roblox Corporation and the BBC to promote the series finale of Series 12.
== Reception ==
Tennant's tenure as the Tenth Doctor is highly regarded among fans of the show and his character received critical acclaim for his complexity and humanity. He is generally considered one of the greatest incarnations of the Doctor, often ranked alongside Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor. The BBC went as far as to consider ending the show in 2010, thinking it would fail without Tennant. In 2006, readers of Doctor Who Magazine voted Tennant's Doctor "Best Doctor" over perennial favourite Tom Baker. He also won the National Television Awards award for Most Popular Actor in 2006 and 2007, and the award for Outstanding Drama Performance in 2008 and 2010. In a poll conducted by Radio Times in March 2007, Tennant's Doctor was named the "coolest character on television". IGN ranked the Tenth Doctor the best Doctor in 2011. In 2013, IGN again ranked Tennant as the best Doctor, along with the Daily Mirror and Radio Times, with Billie Piper also being voted as best companion. Users of Plusnet also voted David Tennant as the best Doctor in 2013. Users of DoctorWhoTV also voted Tennant as 'Ultimate Doctor' in 2013. Voters on Digital Spy also rated Tennant as the greatest Doctor in 2013 with 50.05% of the votes, and again in 2015. Readers of The Telegraph voted Tennant as the greatest actor to play the Doctor in 2014.
Jenna Coleman, who played Clara Oswald and appeared with Tennant in "The Day of the Doctor", said that he was her favourite Doctor, along with Tom Baker. Writer Terry Pratchett considered Tennant's portrayal to be the greatest Doctor.
In 2016, Digital Spy readers voted the Tenth Doctor the best TV character of the 21st century.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Tenth Doctor on Tardis Wiki, the Doctor Who Wiki
"The Tenth Doctor", Doctor Who, UK: The BBC.
Doctor Who series two (press launch report and audio interviews), Wiltshire: BBC. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Different_World_(Alan_Walker_album)#Track_listing | Different World (Alan Walker album) | Different World is the debut studio album by Norwegian DJ and record producer Alan Walker. It was released on 14 December 2018 through MER Musikk and Sony Music Entertainment and includes his successful 2015 single "Faded". The album also succeeds a trilogy of releases leading up to the album, entitled World of Walker, which consisted of the singles "All Falls Down", "Darkside" and "Diamond Heart". The album was also nominated for Top Dance/Electronic Albums at the 2020 Billboard Music Awards.
== Background ==
Featuring artists such as Steve Aoki, Noah Cyrus, and Digital Farm Animals, the album is noted for its mixture of "recognizable releases" such as "Faded" with "new material" such as "Lost Control". Walker said of the album "It's an incredible feeling to be able to release my debut album, Different World. These last years were absolutely surreal, and I certainly never imagined it would get to that point when I started. very different for me. It's something I've worked on for some time, and I'm super excited to finally share with the world and hear the reaction of my fans!" A campaign for the album was launched, titled "#CreateADifferentWorld". It is to raise awareness regarding the theme of climate change.
== Singles ==
The album's first single, "Faded", features uncredited Naustdal pop singer Iselin Solheim and was released on 3 December 2015. The single reached number one in the annual charts in Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Sweden, was nominated for British Single of the Year at the 2017 Brit Awards and won Årets Låt (Song of the Year) at the Spellemannprisen.
The second single, "Sing Me to Sleep", also featuring Iselin Solheim as "Faded", was released on June 3, 2016. The song reached number one in Norway and number one on the iTunes charts in seven countries.
"Alone", featuring uncredited singer Noonie Bao, was released as the third single on December 2, 2016. The single charted on several international charts and reached number one on the Norwegian Singles Chart.
"All Falls Down", featuring Noah Cyrus and Digital Farm Animals, was released as the fourth single from the album on 27 October 2017. The single peaked at number one on the Norwegian Singles Chart and the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart.
"Darkside", a song featuring Antiguan-German singer-songwriter Au/Ra and Norwegian singer Tomine Harket, was released as the fifth single on 27 July 2018. The song was also released with a remix by Dutch DJ Afrojack, which reached number 1 on the Norwegian charts and number 10 on the Swedish charts.
The single "Diamond Heart", featuring Swedish singer-songwriter Sophia Somajo, was released as the sixth single on September 28, 2018. Two remixes have been officially released, one by Syn Cole and one by Dzeko. The song's music video was nominated for Best Cinematography at the 2019 Berlin Music Video Awards.
The song "Different World", featuring American singer Sofia Carson, Norwegian music producer K-391 and Chinese music producer Corsak, was released as the album's lead single on November 30, 2018. The song was released to coincide with a campaign entitled "#CreateADifferentWorld" and features Walker speaking about the importance of climate change. The song reached number 31 in the Norwegian charts.
== Critical reception ==
Dancing Astronaut wrote that the album "extends the fullest portrait of his distinctive sound" and described it as "a tightly threaded collection of songs, which articulates Walker's sonic artistry." Billboard described it as "turning bleating synth melodies into sing-alongs, melts warm Caribbean rhythms with hardstyle booms, and electrifies the dance floor as much as it aims for radio readiness." Manuel Probst of German music site Dance-Charts says, "Alan Walker's typical sound design runs through Different World like a common thread, creating a special atmosphere with its melancholy melodies. I am creating it. Even though the superstar stays true to his style, his attention to detail allows him to constantly change and give each song his own unique touch". Marit Johansen Jegthaug of NRK P3 said: "There are too few new songs and the album is poorly structured. It lacks variety, dramaturgy, something that would distinguish it from the stagnant singles with a clear distinction between old and new and all over the place". Tor Martin Bøe of Verdens Gang gave the album a "die throw" rating of 3 out of 6, describing it as "manic and gloomy" and stating that "the dark sense of abandonment feels almost tacked on". Anjali Raguraman of The Straits Times described it as a "cinematic, vocals-driven album" and said that "it feels like Walker has played it safe by sticking to what he is familiar with".
== Commercial performance ==
At the time of Billboard's 2019 mid-year report, the album had logged 93,000 equivalent album sales in the United States and "Faded" had amassed 192,396,000 streams.
== Track listing ==
Notes
^[a] signifies a co-producer
^[c] signifies a vocal producer
"Intro" features background vocals from Emelie Hollow and Anna-Marie Kimber.
"Sing Me to Sleep" features uncredited vocals from Iselin Solheim.
"Alone" features uncredited vocals from Noonie Bao.
"Faded" features uncredited vocals from Iselin Solheim.
"The Spectre" features uncredited vocals from Jesper Borgen.
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamy_Awards | Streamy Awards | The YouTube Streamy Awards, also known as the Streamy Awards or Streamys, are an awards show presented annually by Dick Clark Productions and Tubefilter to recognize excellence in online video, including directing, acting, producing, and writing. The formal ceremony at which the awards are presented takes place in Los Angeles, California. It was the first awards show dedicated entirely to web series.
== History ==
The Streamy Awards were initially devised by Drew Baldwin, Brady Brim-DeForest and Marc Hustvedt of Tubefilter and Joshua Cohen and Jamison Tilsner of Tilzy.tv. Prior to the Streamy Awards, other award shows existed to celebrate online content, but the Streamy Awards was the first to celebrate web series in particular.
The 1st Annual Streamy Awards were held on March 28, 2009 at the Wadsworth Theatre in Los Angeles. Presented by the International Academy of Web Television (IAWTV) and co-hosted by Tubefilter, NewTeeVee and Tilzy.TV, the event was reportedly attended by 1,300 audience members. Winners in the 25 categories included The Guild and Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along, which both won multiple awards, Joss Whedon and Felicia Day.
The 2nd Annual Streamy Awards were hosted by comedian Paul Scheer and streamed live online from the Orpheum Theatre on April 11, 2010. The production experienced technical problems and interruptions due to people streaking the stage. Scheer's jokes were also poorly received with audience members and influencers in attendance finding them unfunny, sexist and deprecatory of internet culture. Due to poor reception and execution of the show, the IAWTV halted its partnership with Tubefilter and co-production of the award ceremony and formed their own Web TV awards presentation.
Following the poorly received 2nd Streamy Awards, the Streamys went into hiatus for two years. During this time, in 2011, Tubefilter entered a partnership with established entertainment industry awards show producer Dick Clark Productions (producers of the American Music Awards, among others) to co-produce the 3rd Streamy Awards in an attempt to repair the award's legitimacy. They were held in 2013 at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles, and livestreamed across YouTube and multiple streaming networks simultaneously. Commentators noted the show's increased professionalism but some creators such as Felicia Day criticized the shift towards acceptance of old media.
The 4th Streamy Awards were hosted by Grace Helbig and Hannah Hart and were held on September 7, 2014 at The Beverly Hilton hotel in Beverly Hills. The event introduced ten new award categories, including one for the short-form video website Vine, and featured fan-voted submissions for the first time. A toast dedicated to the recently passed-away Joan Rivers was described as "the evening's most somber moment" and "an authentic and intimate salute". But the show was also criticized for being more corporate, with the inclusion of product placement and shout-outs to large companies.
The 5th Streamy Awards were broadcast live on VH1 on September 17, 2015, and hosted by Grace Helbig and Tyler Oakley. Held at the Hollywood Palladium, they were the first Streamy Awards to be televised. They were also simultaneously livestreamed. New award categories were once again added for videos posted to social media websites such as Instagram, Snapchat, and Vine. They were also the first Streamys to feature the Breakout Creator and Breakthrough Artist awards.
The 6th Streamy Awards were hosted by King Bach and broadcast live on YouTube on October 4, 2016, from The Beverly Hilton hotel. Unlike the 5th Streamy Awards, the show was not televised, apparently due to a desire to "return to its digital roots". The ceremony featured a medley of songs dedicated to Christina Grimmie, who was shot and killed outside of a concert venue earlier in the year, which was praised by a number of publications.
The 7th Streamy Awards were hosted by Jon Cozart and broadcast live on Twitter on September 26, 2017, from The Beverly Hilton. It featured the first live musical performance by the Village People in over 30 years. TheWrap described the event as "rowdy, political and Jake Paul-hating" and The Hollywood Reporter said that the night's main themes were politics and diversity. The first annual Purpose Awards @ the Streamys were also held on September 25, 2017, hosted by Burnie Burns and Ashley Jenkins.
The 8th Streamy Awards were hosted by The Try Guys and was broadcast live on YouTube on October 22, 2018, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel.
The 9th Streamy Awards was broadcast live on YouTube on December 13, 2019, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel. It was the first Streamy Award ceremony to run without a host.
In 2020, YouTube acquired the naming rights to the Streamy Awards.
The 10th Streamy Awards were broadcast on YouTube on December 12, 2020, and were hosted by drag queens Trixie Mattel and Katya Zamolodchikova. To adhere to social distancing restrictions, the duo presented the awards on a party bus being driven around Los Angeles.
The 11th Streamy Awards were broadcast on YouTube on December 11, 2021. They were hosted by American YouTuber Larray, alongside Issa Twaimz, once again being driven in a party bus around Los Angeles.
The 12th Streamy Awards were held on December 4, 2022, at The Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles and were hosted by the YouTuber Airrack (known in real life as Eric Decker), and also featured a performance by Yung Gravy.
The 13th Streamy Awards was held on August 27, 2023, at The Beverly Hilton and was hosted by MatPat. MrBeast won Creator of the year for the fourth year in a row.
The Streamy Awards did not hold ceremonies in 2024 and 2025.
== Award categories ==
The current award categories for the Streamy Awards are separated into the main Streamy Awards and the Streamys Brand Awards.
== List of shows ==
== See also ==
Shorty Awards
Emmy Awards
Webby Awards
List of web awards
TikTok Awards Night
== References ==
== External links ==
Streamy Awards |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimegepant#:~:text=PubChem%20CID,51049968 | Rimegepant | Rimegepant, sold under the brand name Nurtec ODT among others, is a medication used for the acute treatment of migraine with or without aura in adults and the prophylactic treatment of episodic migraine in adults. It is taken by mouth to dissolve on or under the tongue. It works by blocking CGRP receptors.
In the United States, rimegepant was approved for treating acute migraine in February 2020, and its approval was extended to preventing episodic migraine in June 2021. It is produced and marketed by Pfizer. In March 2021, rimegepant was approved for medical use in the United Arab Emirates and in Israel. It was approved for medical use in Canada in December 2023. In the United Kingdom, rimegepant is approved by NICE for the prophylaxis and treatment of acute migraine in adults. In 2023, it was the 206th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2 million prescriptions
.
== Medical uses ==
Rimegepant is indicated for the treatment of acute migraine with or without aura in adults and for the preventative treatment of episodic migraine in adults.
== Mechanism of action ==
Rimegepant is a small molecule calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonist.
== History ==
Rimegepant was developed by Biohaven Pharmaceuticals, which markets the drug in the United States after receiving FDA approval in February 2020. Approval was based on evidence from one clinical trial of 1,351 subjects with migraine headaches.
== Society and culture ==
=== Legal status ===
In February 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Vydura, intended for the prophylaxis and acute treatment of migraine. The applicant for this medicinal product is Biohaven Pharmaceutical Ireland DAC. Rimegepant was approved for medical use in the European Union in April 2022.
=== Economics ===
Pfizer reported revenue of US$928 million for Nurtec ODT/Vydura in 2023.
Marketing
American singer, songwriter and actress Lady Gaga is featured in advertisements for rimegepant, under the Nurtec ODT brand. Her involvement sparked criticism of the role of celebrities in pharmaceutical endorsements.
== References ==
== External links ==
Clinical trial number NCT03461757 for "Trial in Adult Subjects With Acute Migraines" at ClinicalTrials.gov
Clinical trial number NCT03732638 for "Efficacy and Safety Trial of Rimegepant for Migraine Prevention in Adults" at ClinicalTrials.gov |
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