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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider | Large Hadron Collider | The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998 and 2008, in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries. It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference and as deep as 175 metres (574 ft) beneath the France–Switzerland border near Geneva.
The first collisions were achieved in 2010 at an energy of 3.5 tera-electronvolts (TeV) per beam, about four times the previous world record. The discovery of the Higgs boson at the LHC was announced in 2012. Between 2013 and 2015, the LHC was shut down and upgraded; after those upgrades it reached 6.5 TeV per beam (13.0 TeV total collision energy). At the end of 2018, it was shut down for maintenance and further upgrades, and reopened over three years later in April 2022.
The collider has four crossing points where the accelerated particles collide. Nine detectors, each designed to detect different phenomena, are positioned around the crossing points. The LHC primarily collides proton beams, but it can also accelerate beams of heavy ions, such as in lead–lead collisions and proton–lead collisions.
The LHC's goal is to allow physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics, including measuring the properties of the Higgs boson, searching for the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories, and studying other unresolved questions in particle physics.
== Background ==
The term hadron refers to subatomic composite particles composed of quarks held together by the strong force (analogous to the way that atoms and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force). The best-known hadrons are the baryons such as protons and neutrons; hadrons also include mesons such as the pion and kaon, which were discovered during cosmic ray experiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
A collider is a type of a particle accelerator that brings two opposing particle beams together such that the particles collide. In particle physics, colliders, though harder to construct, are a powerful research tool because they reach a much higher center of mass energy than fixed target setups. Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of the subatomic world and the laws of nature governing it. Many of these byproducts are produced only by high-energy collisions, and they decay after very short periods of time. Thus many of them are hard or nearly impossible to study in other ways.
== Purpose ==
Many physicists hope that the Large Hadron Collider will help answer some of the fundamental open questions in physics, which concern the basic laws governing the interactions and forces among elementary particles and the deep structure of space and time, particularly the interrelation between quantum mechanics and general relativity.
These high-energy particle experiments can provide data to support different scientific models. For example, the Standard Model and Higgsless model required high-energy particle experiment data to validate their predictions and allow further theoretical development. The Standard Model was completed by detection of the Higgs boson by the LHC in 2012.
LHC collisions have explored other questions, including:
Do all known particles have supersymmetric partners, as part of supersymmetry in an extension of the Standard Model and Poincaré symmetry?
Are there extra dimensions, as predicted by various models based on string theory, and can we detect them?
What is the nature of the dark matter, a hypothetical form of matter which appears to account for 27% of the mass-energy of the universe?
Other open questions that may be explored using high-energy particle collisions include:
It is already known that electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are different manifestations of a single force called the electroweak force. The LHC may clarify whether the electroweak force and the strong nuclear force are similarly just different manifestations of one universal unified force, as predicted by various Grand Unification Theories.
Why is the fourth fundamental force (gravity) so many orders of magnitude weaker than the other three fundamental forces? See also Hierarchy problem.
Are there additional sources of quark flavour mixing beyond those already present within the Standard Model?
Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter? See also CP violation.
What are the nature and properties of quark–gluon plasma, thought to have existed in the early universe and in certain compact and strange astronomical objects today? This will be investigated by heavy ion collisions, mainly in ALICE, but also in CMS, ATLAS and LHCb. First observed in 2010, findings published in 2012 confirmed the phenomenon of jet quenching in heavy-ion collisions.
== Design ==
The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of 26.7 kilometres (16.6 mi), at a depth ranging from 50 to 175 metres (164 to 574 ft) underground. The variation in depth was deliberate, to reduce the amount of tunnel that lies under the Jura Mountains to avoid having to excavate a vertical access shaft there. A tunnel was chosen to avoid having to purchase expensive land on the surface and to take advantage of the shielding against background radiation that the Earth's crust provides.
The 3.8-metre (12 ft) wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large Electron–Positron Collider. The tunnel crosses the border between Switzerland and France at four points, with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants.
The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beamlines (or beam pipes) each containing a beam, which travel in opposite directions around the ring. The beams intersect at four points around the ring, which is where the particle collisions take place. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path (see image), while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused, with stronger quadrupole magnets close to the intersection points in order to maximize the chances of interaction where the two beams cross. Magnets of higher multipole orders are used to correct smaller imperfections in the field geometry. In total, about 10,000 superconducting magnets are installed, with each of the 1232 dipole magnets having a mass of 35 tonnes. About 96 tonnes of superfluid helium-4 is needed to keep the magnets, made of copper-clad niobium-titanium, at their operating temperature of 1.9 K (−271.25 °C), making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature. LHC uses 470 tonnes of Nb–Ti superconductor.
During LHC operations, the CERN site draws roughly 200 MW of electrical power from the French electrical grid, which, for comparison, is about one-third the energy consumption of the city of Geneva; the LHC accelerator and detectors draw about 120 MW thereof. Each day of its operation generates 140 terabytes of data.
When running an energy of 6.5 TeV per proton, once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 6.5 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets is increased from 0.54 to 7.7 teslas (T). The protons each have an energy of 6.5 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy, the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 6,930 and move at about 0.999999990 c, or about 3.1 m/s (11 km/h) slower than the speed of light (c). It takes less than 90 microseconds (μs) for a proton to travel 26.7 km around the main ring. This results in 11,245 revolutions per second for protons whether the particles are at low or high energy in the main ring, since the speed difference between these energies is beyond the fifth decimal.
Rather than having continuous beams, the protons are bunched together, into up to 2,808 bunches, with 115 billion protons in each bunch so that interactions between the two beams take place at discrete intervals, mainly 25 nanoseconds (ns) apart, providing a bunch collision rate of 40 MHz. It was operated with fewer bunches in the first years. The design luminosity of the LHC is 1034 cm−2s−1, which was first reached in June 2016. By 2017, twice this value was achieved.
Before being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively increase their energy. The first system is the linear particle accelerator Linac4 generating 160 MeV negative hydrogen ions (H− ions), which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There, both electrons are stripped from the hydrogen ions leaving only the nucleus containing one proton. Protons are then accelerated to 2 GeV and injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV. Finally, the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used to increase their energy further to 450 GeV before they are at last injected (over a period of several minutes) into the main ring. Here, the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of 20 minutes) to their peak energy, and finally circulated for 5 to 24 hours while collisions occur at the four intersection points.
The LHC physics programme is mainly based on proton–proton collisions. However, during shorter running periods, typically one month per year, heavy-ion collisions are included in the programme. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead ions (see A Large Ion Collider Experiment). The lead ions are first accelerated by the linear accelerator LINAC 3, and the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) is used as an ion storage and cooler unit. The ions are then further accelerated by the PS and SPS before being injected into LHC ring, where they reach an energy of 2.3 TeV per nucleon (or 522 TeV per ion), higher than the energies reached by the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavy-ion programme is to investigate quark–gluon plasma, which existed in the early universe.
=== Detectors ===
Nine detectors have been built in large caverns excavated at the LHC's intersection points. Two of them, the ATLAS experiment and the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), are large general-purpose particle detectors. ALICE and LHCb have more specialized roles, while the other five—TOTEM, MoEDAL, LHCf, SND and FASER—are much smaller and are for very specialized research. The ATLAS and CMS experiments discovered the Higgs boson, which is strong evidence that the Standard Model has the correct mechanism of giving mass to elementary particles.
=== Computing and analysis facilities ===
Data produced by LHC, as well as LHC-related simulation, were estimated at 200 petabytes per year.
The LHC Computing Grid was constructed as part of the LHC design, to handle the large amounts of data expected for its collisions. It is an international collaborative project that consists of a grid-based computer network infrastructure initially connecting 140 computing centres in 35 countries (over 170 in more than 40 countries as of 2012). It was designed by CERN to handle the significant volume of data produced by LHC experiments, incorporating both private fibre optic cable links and existing high-speed portions of the public Internet to enable data transfer from CERN to academic institutions around the world. The LHC Computing Grid consists of global federations across Europe, Asia Pacific and the Americas.
The distributed computing project LHC@home was started to support the construction and calibration of the LHC. The project uses the BOINC platform, enabling anybody with an Internet connection and a computer running Mac OS X, Windows or Linux to use their computer's idle time to simulate how particles will travel in the beam pipes. With this information, the scientists are able to determine how the magnets should be calibrated to gain the most stable "orbit" of the beams in the ring. In August 2011, a second application (Test4Theory) went live which performs simulations against which to compare actual test data, to determine confidence levels of the results.
By 2012, data from over 6 quadrillion (6×1015) LHC proton–proton collisions had been analysed. The LHC Computing Grid had become the world's largest computing grid in 2012, comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across more than 40 countries.
== Operational history ==
The LHC first went operational on 10 September 2008, but initial testing was delayed for 14 months from 19 September 2008 to 20 November 2009, following a magnet quench incident that caused extensive damage to over 50 superconducting magnets, their mountings, and the vacuum pipe.
During its first run (2010–2013), the LHC collided two opposing particle beams of either protons at up to 4 teraelectronvolts (4 TeV or 0.64 microjoules), or lead nuclei (574 TeV per nucleus, or 2.76 TeV per nucleon). Its first run discoveries included the long-sought Higgs boson, several composite particles (hadrons) like the χb (3P) bottomonium state, the first creation of a quark–gluon plasma, and the first observations of the very rare decay of the Bs meson into two muons (Bs0 → μ+μ−), which challenged the validity of existing models of supersymmetry.
=== Construction ===
==== Operational challenges ====
The size of the LHC constitutes an exceptional engineering challenge with unique operational issues on account of the amount of energy stored in the magnets and the beams. While operating, the total energy stored in the magnets is 10 GJ (2,400 kilograms of TNT) and the total energy carried by the two beams reaches 724 MJ (173 kilograms of TNT).
Loss of only one ten-millionth part (10−7) of the beam is sufficient to quench a superconducting magnet, while each of the two beam dumps must absorb 362 MJ (87 kilograms of TNT). These energies are carried by very little matter: under nominal operating conditions (2,808 bunches per beam, 1.15×1011 protons per bunch), the beam pipes contain 1.0×10−9 gram of hydrogen, which, in standard conditions for temperature and pressure, would fill the volume of one grain of fine sand.
==== Cost ====
With a budget of €7.5 billion (about $9bn or £6.19bn as of June 2010), the LHC is one of the most expensive scientific instruments ever built. The total cost of the project is expected to be approximately 4.6bn Swiss francs (SFr) (about $4.4bn, €3.1bn, or £2.8bn as of January 2010) for the accelerator and 1.16bn (SFr) (about $1.1bn, €0.8bn, or £0.7bn as of January 2010) for the CERN contribution to the experiments.
The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of SFr 2.6bn, with another SFr 210M for the experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated in a major review in 2001 at around SFr 480M for the accelerator and SFr 50M for the experiments, along with a reduction in CERN's budget, pushed the completion date from 2005 to April 2007. The superconducting magnets were responsible for SFr 180M of the cost increase. There were also further costs and delays owing to engineering difficulties encountered while building the cavern for the Compact Muon Solenoid, to magnet supports that were insufficiently strongly designed and failed their initial testing (2007), and to damage from a magnet quench and liquid helium escape (inaugural testing, 2008). Because electricity costs are lower during the summer, the LHC normally does not operate over the winter months, although exceptions over the 2009/10 and 2012/2013 winters were made to make up for the 2008 start-up delays and to improve precision of measurements of the new particle discovered in 2012, respectively.
==== Construction accidents and delays ====
On 25 October 2005, José Pereira Lages, a technician, was killed in the LHC when a switchgear that was being transported fell on top of him.
On 27 March 2007, a cryogenic magnet support designed and provided by Fermilab and KEK broke during an initial pressure test involving one of the LHC's inner triplet (focusing quadrupole) magnet assemblies. No one was injured. Fermilab director Pier Oddone stated "In this case we are dumbfounded that we missed some very simple balance of forces". The fault had been present in the original design, and remained during four engineering reviews over the following years. Analysis revealed that its design, made as thin as possible for better insulation, was not strong enough to withstand the forces generated during pressure testing. Details are available in a statement from Fermilab, with which CERN is in agreement. Repairing the broken magnet and reinforcing the eight identical assemblies used by LHC delayed the start-up date, then planned for November 2007.
On 19 September 2008, during initial testing, a faulty electrical connection led to a magnet quench (the sudden loss of a superconducting magnet's superconducting ability owing to warming or electric field effects). Six tonnes of supercooled liquid helium—used to cool the magnets—escaped, with sufficient force to break 10-ton magnets nearby from their mountings, and caused considerable damage and contamination of the vacuum tube. Repairs and safety checks caused a delay of around 14 months.
Two vacuum leaks were found in July 2009, and the start of operations was further postponed to mid-November 2009.
==== Exclusion of Russia ====
With the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the participation of Russians with CERN was called into question. About 8% of the workforce are of Russian nationality. In June 2022, CERN said the governing council "intends to terminate" CERN's cooperation agreements with Belarus and Russia when they expire, respectively in June and December 2024. CERN said it would monitor developments in Ukraine and remains prepared to take additional steps as warranted. CERN further said that it would reduce the Ukrainian contribution to CERN for 2022 to the amount already remitted to the Organization, thereby waiving the second installment of the contribution.
==== Initial lower magnet currents ====
In both of its runs (2010 to 2012 and 2015), the LHC was initially run at energies below its planned operating energy, and ramped up to just 2 x 4 TeV energy on its first run and 2 x 6.5 TeV on its second run, below the design energy of 2 x 7 TeV. This is because massive superconducting magnets require considerable magnet training to handle the high currents involved without losing their superconducting ability, and the high currents are necessary to allow a high proton energy. The "training" process involves repeatedly running the magnets with lower currents to provoke any quenches or minute movements that may result. It also takes time to cool down magnets to their operating temperature of around 1.9 K (close to absolute zero). Over time the magnet "beds in" and ceases to quench at these lesser currents and can handle the full design current without quenching; CERN media describe the magnets as "shaking out" the unavoidable tiny manufacturing imperfections in their crystals and positions that had initially impaired their ability to handle their planned currents. The magnets, over time and with training, gradually become able to handle their full planned currents without quenching.
=== Inaugural tests (2008) ===
The first beam was circulated through the collider on the morning of 10 September 2008. CERN successfully fired the protons around the tunnel in stages, three kilometres at a time. The particles were fired in a clockwise direction into the accelerator and successfully steered around it at 10:28 local time. The LHC successfully completed its major test: after a series of trial runs, two white dots flashed on a computer screen showing the protons travelled the full length of the collider. It took less than one hour to guide the stream of particles around its inaugural circuit. CERN next successfully sent a beam of protons in an anticlockwise direction, taking slightly longer at one and a half hours owing to a problem with the cryogenics, with the full circuit being completed at 14:59.
==== Quench incident ====
On 19 September 2008, a magnet quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, where an electrical fault vented about six tonnes of liquid helium (the magnets' cryogenic coolant) into the tunnel. The escaping vapour expanded with explosive force, damaging 53 superconducting magnets and their mountings, and contaminating the vacuum pipe, which also lost vacuum conditions.
Shortly after the incident, CERN reported that the most likely cause of the problem was a faulty electrical connection between two magnets. It estimated that repairs would take at least two months, owing to the time needed to warm up the affected sectors and then cool them back down to operating temperature. CERN released an interim technical report and preliminary analysis of the incident on 15 and 16 October 2008 respectively, and a more detailed report on 5 December 2008. The analysis of the incident by CERN confirmed that an electrical fault had indeed been the cause. The faulty electrical connection had led (correctly) to a failsafe power abort of the electrical systems powering the superconducting magnets, but had also caused an electric arc (or discharge) which damaged the integrity of the supercooled helium's enclosure and vacuum insulation, causing the coolant's temperature and pressure to rapidly rise beyond the ability of the safety systems to contain it, and leading to a temperature rise of about 100 degrees Celsius in some of the affected magnets. Energy stored in the superconducting magnets and electrical noise induced in other quench detectors also played a role in the rapid heating. Around two tonnes of liquid helium escaped explosively before detectors triggered an emergency stop, and a further four tonnes leaked at lower pressure in the aftermath. A total of 53 magnets were damaged in the incident and were repaired or replaced during the winter shutdown. This accident was thoroughly discussed in a 22 February 2010 Superconductor Science and Technology article by CERN physicist Lucio Rossi.
In the original schedule for LHC commissioning, the first "modest" high-energy collisions at a centre-of-mass energy of 900 GeV were expected to take place before the end of September 2008, and the LHC was expected to be operating at 10 TeV by the end of 2008. However, owing to the delay caused by the incident, the collider was not operational until November 2009. Despite the delay, LHC was officially inaugurated on 21 October 2008, in the presence of political leaders, science ministers from CERN's 20 Member States, CERN officials, and members of the worldwide scientific community.
Most of 2009 was spent on repairs and reviews from the damage caused by the quench incident, along with two further vacuum leaks identified in July 2009; this pushed the start of operations to November of that year.
=== Run 1: first operational run (2009–2013) ===
On 20 November 2009, low-energy beams circulated in the tunnel for the first time since the incident, and shortly after, on 30 November, the LHC achieved 1.18 TeV per beam to become the world's highest-energy particle accelerator, beating the Tevatron's previous record of 0.98 TeV per beam held for eight years.
The early part of 2010 saw the continued ramp-up of beam in energies and early physics experiments towards 3.5 TeV per beam and on 30 March 2010, LHC set a new record for high-energy collisions by colliding proton beams at a combined energy level of 7 TeV. The attempt was the third that day, after two unsuccessful attempts in which the protons had to be "dumped" from the collider and new beams had to be injected. This also marked the start of the main research programme.
The first proton run ended on 4 November 2010. A run with lead ions started on 8 November 2010, and ended on 6 December 2010, allowing the ALICE experiment to study matter under extreme conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang.
CERN originally planned that the LHC would run through to the end of 2012, with a short break at the end of 2011 to allow for an increase in beam energy from 3.5 to 4 TeV per beam. At the end of 2012, the LHC was planned to be temporarily shut down until around 2015 to allow upgrade to a planned beam energy of 7 TeV per beam. In late 2012, in light of the July 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson, the shutdown was postponed for some weeks into early 2013, to allow additional data to be obtained before shutdown.
=== Long Shutdown 1 (2013–2015) ===
The LHC was shut down on 13 February 2013 for its two-year upgrade called Long Shutdown 1 (LS1), which was to touch on many aspects of the LHC: enabling collisions at 14 TeV, enhancing its detectors and pre-accelerators (the Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron), as well as replacing its ventilation system and 100 km (62 mi) of cabling impaired by high-energy collisions from its first run. The upgraded collider began its long start-up and testing process in June 2014, with the Proton Synchrotron Booster starting on 2 June 2014, the final interconnection between magnets completing and the Proton Synchrotron circulating particles on 18 June 2014, and the first section of the main LHC supermagnet system reaching operating temperature of 1.9 K (−271.25 °C), a few days later. Due to the slow progress with "training" the superconducting magnets, it was decided to start the second run with a lower energy of 6.5 TeV per beam, corresponding to a current in the magnet of 11,000 amperes. The first of the main LHC magnets were reported to have been successfully trained by 9 December 2014, while training the other magnet sectors was finished in March 2015.
=== Run 2: second operational run (2015–2018) ===
On 5 April 2015, the LHC restarted after a two-year break, during which the electrical connectors between the bending magnets were upgraded to safely handle the current required for 7 TeV per beam (14 TeV collision energy). However, the bending magnets were only trained to handle up to 6.5 TeV per beam (13 TeV collision energy), which became the operating energy for 2015 to 2018. The energy was first reached on 10 April 2015. The upgrades culminated in colliding protons together with a combined energy of 13 TeV. On 3 June 2015, the LHC started delivering physics data after almost two years offline. In the following months, it was used for proton–proton collisions, while in November, the machine switched to collisions of lead ions and in December, the usual winter shutdown started.
In 2016, the machine operators focused on increasing the luminosity for proton–proton collisions. The design value was first reached 29 June, and further improvements increased the collision rate to 40% above the design value. The total number of collisions in 2016 exceeded the number from Run 1 – at a higher energy per collision. The proton–proton run was followed by four weeks of proton–lead collisions.
In 2017, the luminosity was increased further and reached twice the design value. The total number of collisions was higher than in 2016 as well.
The 2018 physics run began on 17 April and stopped on 3 December, including four weeks of lead–lead collisions.
=== Long Shutdown 2 (2018–2022) ===
Long Shutdown 2 (LS2) started on 10 December 2018. The LHC and the whole CERN accelerator complex was maintained and upgraded. The goal of the upgrades was to implement the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) project that will increase the luminosity by a factor of 10. LS2 ended in April 2022. The Long Shutdown 3 (LS3) in the 2020s will take place before the HL-LHC project is done.
=== Run 3: third operational run (2022) ===
LHC became operational again on 22 April 2022 with a new maximum beam energy of 6.8 TeV (13.6 TeV collision energy), which was first achieved on 25 April. It officially commenced its run 3 physics season on 5 July 2022. This round is expected to continue until 2026. In addition to a higher energy the LHC is expected to reach a higher luminosity, which is expected to increase even further with the upgrade to the HL-LHC after Run 3.
== Timeline of operations ==
== Findings and discoveries ==
An initial focus of research was to investigate the possible existence of the Higgs boson, a key part of the Standard Model of physics which was predicted by theory, but had not yet been observed before due to its high mass and elusive nature. CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard Model was correct, the LHC would produce several Higgs bosons every minute, allowing physicists to finally confirm or disprove the Higgs boson's existence. In addition, the LHC allowed the search for supersymmetric particles and other hypothetical particles as possible unknown areas of physics. Some extensions of the Standard Model predict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge bosons, which are also estimated to be within reach of the LHC to discover.
=== First run (data taken 2009–2013) ===
The first physics results from the LHC, involving 284 collisions which took place in the ALICE detector, were reported on 15 December 2009. The results of the first proton–proton collisions at energies higher than Fermilab's Tevatron proton–antiproton collisions were published by the CMS collaboration in early February 2010, yielding greater-than-predicted charged-hadron production.
After the first year of data collection, the LHC experimental collaborations started to release their preliminary results concerning searches for new physics beyond the Standard Model in proton–proton collisions. No evidence of new particles was detected in the 2010 data. As a result, bounds were set on the allowed parameter space of various extensions of the Standard Model, such as models with large extra dimensions, constrained versions of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, and others.
On 24 May 2011, it was reported that quark–gluon plasma (the densest matter thought to exist besides black holes) had been created in the LHC.
Between July and August 2011, results of searches for the Higgs boson and for exotic particles, based on the data collected during the first half of the 2011 run, were presented in conferences in Grenoble and Mumbai. In the latter conference, it was reported that, despite hints of a Higgs signal in earlier data, ATLAS and CMS exclude with 95% confidence level (using the CLs method) the existence of a Higgs boson with the properties predicted by the Standard Model over most of the mass region between 145 and 466 GeV. The searches for new particles did not yield signals either, allowing to further constrain the parameter space of various extensions of the Standard Model, including its supersymmetric extensions.
On 13 December 2011, CERN reported that the Standard Model Higgs boson, if it exists, is most likely to have a mass constrained to the range 115–130 GeV.
Both the CMS and ATLAS detectors have also shown intensity peaks in the 124–125 GeV range, consistent with either background noise or the observation of the Higgs boson.
On 22 December 2011, it was reported that a new composite particle had been observed, the χb (3P) bottomonium state.
On 4 July 2012, both the CMS and ATLAS teams announced the discovery of a boson in the mass region around 125–126 GeV, with a statistical significance at the level of 5 sigma each. This meets the formal level required to announce a new particle. The observed properties were consistent with the Higgs boson, but scientists were cautious as to whether it is formally identified as actually being the Higgs boson, pending further analysis. On 14 March 2013, CERN announced confirmation that the observed particle was indeed the predicted Higgs boson.
On 8 November 2012, the LHCb team reported on an experiment seen as a "golden" test of supersymmetry theories in physics, by measuring the very rare decay of the
B
s
{\displaystyle B_{s}}
meson into two muons (
B
s
0
→
μ
+
μ
−
{\displaystyle B_{s}^{0}\rightarrow \mu ^{+}\mu ^{-}}
). The results, which match those predicted by the non-supersymmetrical Standard Model rather than the predictions of many branches of supersymmetry, show the decays are less common than some forms of supersymmetry predict, though could still match the predictions of other versions of supersymmetry theory. The results as initially drafted are stated to be short of proof but at a relatively high 3.5 sigma level of significance. The result was later confirmed by the CMS collaboration.
In August 2013, the LHCb team revealed an anomaly in the angular distribution of B meson decay products which could not be predicted by the Standard Model; this anomaly had a statistical certainty of 4.5 sigma, just short of the 5 sigma needed to be officially recognized as a discovery. It is unknown what the cause of this anomaly would be, although the Z' boson has been suggested as a possible candidate.
On 19 November 2014, the LHCb experiment announced the discovery of two new heavy subatomic particles, Ξ′−b and Ξ∗−b. Both of them are baryons that are composed of one bottom, one down, and one strange quark. They are excited states of the bottom Xi baryon.
The LHCb collaboration has observed multiple exotic hadrons, possibly pentaquarks or tetraquarks, in the Run 1 data.
On 4 April 2014, the collaboration confirmed the existence of the tetraquark candidate Z(4430) with a significance of over 13.9 sigma. On 13 July 2015, results consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom Lambda baryons (Λ0b) were reported.
On 28 June 2016, the collaboration announced four tetraquark-like particles decaying into a J/ψ and a φ meson, only one of which was well established before (X(4274), X(4500) and X(4700) and X(4140)).
In December 2016, ATLAS presented a measurement of the W boson mass, researching the precision of analyses done at the Tevatron.
=== Second run (2015–2018) ===
At the conference EPS-HEP 2015 in July, the collaborations presented first cross-section measurements of several particles at the higher collision energy.
On 15 December 2015, the ATLAS and CMS experiments both reported a number of preliminary results for Higgs physics, supersymmetry (SUSY) searches and exotics searches using 13 TeV proton collision data. Both experiments saw a moderate excess around 750 GeV in the two-photon invariant mass spectrum, but the experiments did not confirm the existence of the hypothetical particle in an August 2016 report.
In July 2017, many analyses based on the large dataset collected in 2016 were shown. The properties of the Higgs boson were studied in more detail and the precision of many other results was improved.
As of March 2021, the LHC experiments have discovered 59 new hadrons in the data collected during the first two runs.
=== Third run (2022 – present) ===
The third run of the LHC began in July of 2022, after more than three years of upgrades, and is planned to last until July of 2026.
On 5 July 2022, LHCb reported the discovery of a new type of pentaquark made up of a charm quark and a charm antiquark and an up, a down and a strange quark, observed in an analysis of decays of charged B mesons. The first ever pair of tetraquarks was also reported.
On 18 September 2024, ATLAS reported the first observation of quantum entanglement between quarks, with it also being the highest-energy observation of entanglement so far.
== Future plans ==
=== "High-luminosity" upgrade ===
After some years of running, any particle physics experiment typically begins to suffer from diminishing returns: as the key results reachable by the device begin to be completed, later years of operation discover proportionately less than earlier years. A common response is to upgrade the devices involved, typically in collision energy, luminosity, or improved detectors. In addition to a possible increase to 14 TeV collision energy, a luminosity upgrade of the LHC, called the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider, started in June 2018 that will boost the accelerator's potential for new discoveries in physics, starting in 2030. The upgrade aims at increasing the luminosity of the machine by a factor of 10, up to 1035 cm−2s−1, providing a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements.
=== Proposed Future Circular Collider ===
CERN has several preliminary designs for a Future Circular Collider (FCC)—which would be the most powerful particle accelerator ever built—with different types of collider ranging in cost from around €9 billion (US$10.2 billion) to €21 billion. It would use the LHC ring as preaccelerator, similar to how the LHC uses the smaller Super Proton Synchrotron. It is CERN's opening bid in a priority-setting process called the European Strategy for Particle Physics Update, and will affect the field's future well into the second half of the century. As of 2023, no fixed plan exists and it is unknown if the construction will be funded.
== Safety of particle collisions ==
The experiments at the Large Hadron Collider sparked fears that the particle collisions might produce doomsday phenomena, involving the production of stable microscopic black holes or the creation of hypothetical particles called strangelets. Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews examined these concerns and concluded that the experiments at the LHC present no danger and that there is no reason for concern, a conclusion endorsed by the American Physical Society.
The reports also noted that the physical conditions and collision events that exist in the LHC and similar experiments occur naturally and routinely in the universe without hazardous consequences, including ultra-high-energy cosmic rays observed to impact Earth with energies far higher than those in any human-made collider, like the Oh-My-God particle which had 320 million TeV of energy, and a collision energy tens of times more than the most energetic collisions produced in the LHC.
== Popular culture ==
The Large Hadron Collider gained a considerable amount of attention from outside the scientific community and its progress is followed by most popular science media. The LHC has also inspired works of fiction including novels, TV series, video games and films.
CERN employee Katherine McAlpine's "Large Hadron Rap" surpassed 8 million YouTube views as of 2022.
The band Les Horribles Cernettes was founded by women from CERN. The name was chosen so to have the same initials as the LHC.
National Geographic Channel's World's Toughest Fixes, Season 2 (2010), Episode 6 "Atom Smasher" features the replacement of the last superconducting magnet section in the repair of the collider after the 2008 quench incident. The episode includes actual footage from the repair facility to the inside of the collider, and explanations of the function, engineering, and purpose of the LHC.
The song "Munich" on the 2012 studio album Scars & Stories by The Fray is inspired by the Large Hadron Collider. Lead singer Isaac Slade said in an interview, "There's this large particle collider out in Switzerland that is kind of helping scientists peel back the curtain on what creates gravity and mass. Some very big questions are being raised, even some things that Einstein proposed, that have just been accepted for decades are starting to be challenged. They're looking for the God Particle, basically, the particle that holds it all together. That song is really just about the mystery of why we're all here and what's holding it all together, you know?"
The Large Hadron Collider was the focus of the 2012 student film Decay, with the movie being filmed on location in CERN's maintenance tunnels.
=== Fiction ===
The novel Angels & Demons, by Dan Brown, involves antimatter created at the LHC to be used in a weapon against the Vatican. In response, CERN published a "Fact or Fiction?" page discussing the accuracy of the book's portrayal of the LHC, CERN, and particle physics in general. The movie version of the book has footage filmed on-site at one of the experiments at the LHC; the director, Ron Howard, met with CERN experts in an effort to make the science in the story more accurate.
The novel FlashForward, by Robert J. Sawyer, involves the search for the Higgs boson at the LHC. CERN published a "Science and Fiction" page interviewing Sawyer and physicists about the book and the TV series based on it.
In the television series The Flash, the LHC serves as inspiration for the fictional particle accelerator at S.T.A.R. Labs nicknamed The Pipeline. In the show's timeline, this particle accelerator undergoes an explosion that grants Barry Allen (the Flash) his superpowers.
In the visual novel/anime series Steins;Gate, CERN is depicted as the secret organization SERN, who are researching time travel in order to control the world. In this fictional world, SERN uses the LHC to create Kerr Black Holes, allowing them to send matter through time.
== See also ==
List of accelerators in particle physics
Accelerator projects
Circular Electron Positron Collider
Compact Linear Collider
Future Circular Collider
International Linear Collider
Very Large Hadron Collider
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Overview of the LHC at CERN's public webpage
CERN Courier magazine
LHC Portal Web portal
Evans, Lyndon; Bryant, Philip (2008). Lyndon Evans; Philip Bryant (eds.). "LHC Machine". Journal of Instrumentation. 3 (8) S08001. Bibcode:2008JInst...3S8001E. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08001. Full documentation for design and construction of the LHC and its six detectors (2008).
Video
CERN, how LHC works on YouTube
"Petabytes at the LHC". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
Animation of LHC in collision production mode (June 2015)
News
Eight Things To Know As The Large Hadron Collider Breaks Energy Records |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weight_of_These_Wings | The Weight of These Wings | The Weight of These Wings is the sixth studio album by American country music artist Miranda Lambert. It was released on November 18, 2016, via RCA Records Nashville. The album consists of two discs, with Disc 1 titled The Nerve, and Disc 2 titled The Heart. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Albums chart and No. 3 on the all-genre US Billboard 200 chart, and has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In addition to winning Album of the Year at the 2017 ACM Awards, it is considered by several music publications as one of the best albums of the year. In 2020, the album was ranked at 480 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.
== Background and music ==
In an August 2016 interview with Billboard, Lambert stated she had been working on the album for a year, which included writing and recording. She admitted she was nervous about her new music since she had mostly stayed quiet while writing it. Songwriter Luke Dick was one of the musicians who worked on the album. He co-wrote "Highway Vagabond" with Natalie Hemby and Shane McAnally. He found the line "I want to go somewhere nobody knows; and I want to know somewhere that nobody goes" while waiting at a deli and not willing to mix with other people. This became a road song with the word "vagabond" at the center, with a production sounding like country Siouxsie and the Banshees.
The album's content is about her divorce with Blake Shelton and her subsequent relationship with Anderson East.
== Release and promotion ==
The album was released on November 18, 2016, through RCA Records Nashville.
In support of her album, Lambert started the Highway Vagabond Tour. It started on January 26, 2017, in Evansville, Indiana and concluded on October 21, 2017, in White Springs, Florida. A rehearsal show occurred on January 24, 2017, two days before the tour started, at Joe's Bar in Chicago. Lambert first announced the tour in October 2016. Old Dominion and Aubrie Sellers served as opening acts. The tour marks Lambert's first solo tour dates in Europe (after previously playing shows in the UK as part of the C2C: Country to Country festival in 2016).
=== Singles ===
"Vice" was released as the album's lead single on July 18, 2016. In its first week it sold 64,000 copies and debuted (and peaked) at number 2 on the Hot Country Songs chart. It ultimately reached a peak of number 11 on the Country Airplay chart. As of March 2017, the song has sold 508,000 copies in the United States.
"We Should Be Friends" was released as the second single on December 12, 2016. It was a Top 30 hit on the Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay charts. "Tin Man" was released as the third single on April 3, 2017, immediately following Lambert's acoustic performance of the song on 52nd Academy of Country Music Awards. It peaked in the Top 20 of the Hot Country Songs chart, and the Top 30 of the Country Airplay chart.
"Keeper of the Flame" was released as the fourth single on April 16, 2018.
== Critical reception ==
The Weight of These Wings received widespread acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 81 out of 100, which indicates "universal acclaim" based on 11 reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic rated the album at five out of five and in his review stated "It may have mainstream songs, but The Weight of These Wings isn't produced like a country-pop album, so it demands attention and rewards close listening." Paul Grein of HITS Daily Double predicted the album to be in contention for Album of the Year at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
The Weight of These Wings won the award for Album of the Year at the 2017 ACM Awards. It marks Lambert's fifth consecutive album to win the award, a record for any artist or group.
=== Accolades ===
== Awards ==
== Track listing ==
All tracks produced by Frank Liddell, Eric Masse, and Glenn Worf.
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from AllMusic.
Vocals
Musicians
Production and imagery
== Commercial performance ==
The Weight of These Wings debuted at number one on the Billboard Country Albums chart and number three on the all-genre US Billboard 200 chart, moving 133,000 equivalent album units in its first week of release. It sold 122,000 copies, with the remainder of its unit total reflecting the album's streaming activity and track sales. It is Lambert's fifth straight album to debut in the top ten of the Billboard 200, following Platinum (number one, 2014), Four the Record (number three, 2011), Revolution (number eight, 2009) and Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (number six, 2007). In its second week of release, the album moved 36,000 units and fell to number nine.
Following the 52nd Academy of Country Music Awards on April 2, 2017, where Lambert won multiple awards and performed "Tin Man", the album moved 31,000 units, including 23,000 in pure sales, and jumped from number 192 to number 12 on the Billboard 200 chart. The album was certified Platinum on July 10, 2017, and it has sold 438,600 copies in the US as of August 2018.
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
Source: Amazon.com
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units | List of Nvidia graphics processing units | This list contains general information about graphics processing units (GPUs) and video cards from Nvidia, based on official specifications. In addition some Nvidia motherboards come with integrated onboard GPUs. Limited/special/collectors' editions or AIB versions are not included.
== Field explanations ==
The fields in the table listed below describe the following:
Model – The marketing name for the processor, assigned by Nvidia.
Launch – Date of release for the processor.
Code name – The internal engineering codename for the processor (typically designated by an NVXY name and later GXY where X is the series number and Y is the schedule of the project for that generation).
Fab – Fabrication process. Average feature size of components of the processor.
Bus interface – Bus by which the graphics processor is attached to the system (typically an expansion slot, such as PCI, AGP, or PCI-Express).
Memory – The amount of graphics memory available to the processor.
SM Count – Number of streaming multiprocessors.
Core clock – The factory core clock frequency; while some manufacturers adjust clocks lower and higher, this number will always be the reference clocks used by Nvidia.
Memory clock – The factory effective memory clock frequency (while some manufacturers adjust clocks lower and higher, this number will always be the reference clocks used by Nvidia). All DDR/GDDR memories operate at half this frequency, except for GDDR5, which operates at one quarter of this frequency.
Core config – The layout of the graphics pipeline, in terms of functional units. Over time the number, type, and variety of functional units in the GPU core has changed significantly; before each section in the list there is an explanation as to what functional units are present in each generation of processors. In later models, shaders are integrated into a unified shader architecture, where any one shader can perform any of the functions listed.
Fillrate – Maximum theoretical fill rate in textured pixels per second. This number is generally used as a maximum throughput number for the GPU and generally, a higher fill rate corresponds to a more powerful (and faster) GPU.
Memory subsection
Bandwidth – Maximum theoretical bandwidth for the processor at factory clock with factory bus width. GHz = 109 Hz.
Bus type – Type of memory bus or buses used.
Bus width – Maximum bit width of the memory bus or buses used. This will always be a factory bus width.
API support section
Direct3D – Maximum version of Direct3D fully supported.
OpenGL – Maximum version of OpenGL fully supported.
OpenCL – Maximum version of OpenCL fully supported.
Vulkan – Maximum version of Vulkan fully supported.
CUDA - Maximum version of Cuda fully supported.
Features – Added features that are not standard as a part of the two graphics libraries.
== Desktop GPUs ==
=== Pre-GeForce ===
=== GeForce 256 series ===
All models are made via TSMC 220 nm fabrication process
All models support Direct3D 7.0 and OpenGL 1.2
All models support hardware Transform and Lighting (T&L) and Cube Environment Mapping
=== GeForce2 series ===
All models support Direct3D 7 and OpenGL 1.2
All models support TwinView Dual-Display Architecture, Second-Generation Transform and Lighting (T&L),Nvidia Shading Rasterizer (NSR), High-Definition Video Processor (HDVP)
GeForce2 MX models support Digital Vibrance Control (DVC)
=== GeForce3 series ===
All models are made via TSMC 150 nm fabrication process
All models support Direct3D 8.0 and OpenGL 1.3
All models support 3D Textures, Lightspeed Memory Architecture (LMA), nFiniteFX Engine, Shadow Buffers
=== GeForce4 series ===
All models are manufactured via TSMC 150 nm manufacturing process
All models support Accuview Antialiasing (AA), Lightspeed Memory Architecture II (LMA II), nView
=== GeForce FX (5xxx) series ===
All models support Direct3D 9.0a and OpenGL 1.5 (2.1 (software) with latest drivers)
The GeForce FX series runs vertex shaders in an array
=== GeForce 6 (6xxx) series ===
All models support Direct3D 9.0c and OpenGL 2.1
All models support Transparency AA (starting with version 91.47 of the ForceWare drivers) and PureVideo
G
f
l
o
p
s
=
(
PixelShader
×
12
+
VertexShader
×
8
)
×
clock (MHz)
1000
{\textstyle Gflops={\bigl (}{\text{PixelShader}}\times 12+{\text{VertexShader}}\times 8{\bigr )}\times {\frac {\text{clock (MHz)}}{1000}}}
==== Features ====
=== GeForce 7 (7xxx) series ===
All models support Direct3D 9.0c and OpenGL 2.1
All models support Transparency AA (starting with version 91.47 of the ForceWare drivers)
==== Features ====
=== GeForce 8 (8xxx) series ===
All models support coverage sample anti-aliasing, angle-independent anisotropic filtering, and 128-bit OpenEXR HDR.
==== Features ====
Compute Capability 1.1: has support for Atomic functions, which are used to write thread-safe programs.
Compute Capability 1.2: for details see CUDA
=== GeForce 9 (9xxx) series ===
All models support Coverage Sample Anti-Aliasing, Angle-Independent Anisotropic Filtering, 128-bit OpenEXR HDR
==== Features ====
Compute Capability: 1.1 has support for Atomic functions, which are used to write thread-safe programs.
=== GeForce 100 series ===
=== GeForce 200 series ===
All models support Coverage Sample Anti-Aliasing, Angle-Independent Anisotropic Filtering, 240-bit OpenEXR HDR
==== Features ====
Compute Capability: 1.1 (G92 [GTS250] GPU)
Compute Capability: 1.2 (GT215, GT216, GT218 GPUs)
Compute Capability: 1.3 has double precision support for use in GPGPU applications. (GT200a/b GPUs only)
=== GeForce 300 series ===
All models support the following API levels: Direct3D 10.1 and OpenGL 3.3
=== GeForce 400 series ===
All cards have a PCIe 2.0 x16 Bus interface.
The base requirement for Vulkan 1.0 in terms of hardware features was OpenGL ES 3.1 which is a subset of OpenGL 4.3, which is supported on all Fermi and newer cards.
Memory bandwidths stated in the following table refer to Nvidia reference designs. Actual bandwidth can be higher or lower depending on the maker of the graphic board.
=== GeForce 500 series ===
=== GeForce 600 series ===
Add NVENC on GTX cards
Several 600 series cards are rebranded 400 or 500 series cards.
=== GeForce 700 series ===
The GeForce 700 series for desktop. The GM107-chips are Maxwell-based, the GF1xx are Fermi-based, and the GKxxx-chips Kepler.
Improve NVENC
=== GeForce 900 series ===
All models support the following APIs: Direct3D 12_1, OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0 and Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 5.2
Improve NVENC (YUV4:4:4, predictive lossless encoding).
Add H265 hardware support on GM20x
GM108 does not have NVENC hardware encoder support.
=== GeForce 10 series ===
Supported display standards: DP 1.4 (no DSC), HDMI 2.0b, Dual-link DVI
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 (12_1), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 6.1
Improved NVENC (HEVC Main10, decode 8K30, etc.)
=== Volta series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 (12_1), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 7.0
=== GeForce 16 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 (feature level 12_1), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 7.5
NVENC 6th generation (B-frame, etc.)
TU117 only supports Volta NVENC (5th generation)
=== GeForce RTX 20 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 Ultimate (12_2), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 7.5
Unlike previous generations the RTX Non-Super (RTX 2070, RTX 2080, RTX 2080 Ti) Founders Edition cards no longer have reference clocks, but are "Factory-OC". However, RTX Supers (RTX 2060 Super, RTX 2070 Super, and RTX 2080 Super) Founders Edition are reference clocks.
NVENC 6th generation (B-frame, etc.)
=== GeForce RTX 30 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 Ultimate (12_2), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 8.6
Supported display connections: HDMI 2.1, DisplayPort 1.4a
NVENC 7th generation
Tensor core 3rd gen
RT Core 2nd gen
RTX IO
Improved NVDEC with AV1 decode
NVIDIA DLSS 2.0
=== GeForce RTX 40 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 Ultimate (12_2), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 8.9
Supported display connections: HDMI 2.1, DisplayPort 1.4a
Tensor core 4th gen
RT core 3rd gen
NVIDIA DLSS 3
NVIDIA DLSS 3.5
Shader Execution Reordering
Dual NVENC with 8K 10-bit 60FPS AV1 fixed function hardware encoding
Opacity Micro-Maps (OMM)
Displacement Micro-Meshes (DMM)
No NVLink support, Multi-GPU over PCIe 5.0
=== GeForce RTX 50 series ===
GeForce RTX 50 series desktop GPUs are the first consumer GPUs to utilize a PCIe 5.0 interface and GDDR7 video memory.
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12.2, OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.4 and CUDA 12.x
Supported display connections: HDMI 2.1b, DisplayPort 2.1b
9th gen NVENC (3×/2×/1×) / 6th gen NVDEC (2×/1×)
NVIDIA DLSS 4 (Multi Frame Generation support)
AI Management Processor (AMP)
Reflex 2 optimized
Tensor core 5th gen (INT4/FP4 capabilities and second-generation FP8 Transformer Engine)
RT core 4th gen
Shader processors, RT cores and tensor cores optimized for RTX Neural Shaders and new neural workloads
Mega Geometry Technology optimized (Shader processors and RT cores)
Shader Execution Reordering (SER) 2.0
Linear Swept Spheres (LSS)
== Mobile GPUs ==
Mobile GPUs are either soldered to the mainboard or to some Mobile PCI Express Module (MXM).
=== GeForce2 Go series ===
All models are manufactured with a 180 nm manufacturing process
All models support Direct3D 7.0 and OpenGL 1.2
Celsius (microarchitecture)
=== GeForce4 Go series ===
All models are made via 150 nm fabrication process
=== GeForce FX Go 5 (Go 5xxx) series ===
The GeForce FX Go 5 series for notebooks architecture.
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
* The GeForce FX series runs vertex shaders in an array
** GeForce FX series has limited OpenGL 2.1 support(with the last Windows XP driver released for it, 175.19).
Rankine (microarchitecture)
=== GeForce Go 6 (Go 6xxx) series ===
All models support Direct3D 9.0c and OpenGL 2.1
Curie (microarchitecture)
1 Pixel shaders: vertex shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== GeForce Go 7 (Go 7xxx) series ===
The GeForce Go 7 series for notebooks architecture.
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 Graphics card supports TurboCache, memory size entries in bold indicate total memory (graphics + system RAM), otherwise entries are graphics RAM only
Curie (microarchitecture)
=== GeForce 8M (8xxxM) series ===
The GeForce 8M series for notebooks architecture Tesla.
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== GeForce 9M (9xxxM) series ===
The GeForce 9M series for notebooks architecture. Tesla (microarchitecture)
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== GeForce 100M (1xxM) series ===
The GeForce 100M series for notebooks architecture. Tesla (microarchitecture) (103M, 105M, 110M, 130M are rebranded GPU i.e. using the same GPU cores of previous generation, 9M, with promised optimisation on other features)
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== GeForce 200M (2xxM) series ===
The GeForce 200M series is a graphics processor architecture for notebooks, Tesla (microarchitecture)
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== GeForce 300M (3xxM) series ===
The GeForce 300M series for notebooks architecture, Tesla (microarchitecture)
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 To calculate the processing power see Tesla (microarchitecture)#Performance.
=== GeForce 400M (4xxM) series ===
The GeForce 400M series for notebooks architecture, Fermi (microarchitecture)
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 To calculate the processing power see Fermi (microarchitecture)#Performance.
3 Each SM in the GF100 also contains 4 texture address units and 16 texture filtering units. Total for the full GF100 64 texture address units and 256 texture filtering units. Each SM in the GF104/106/108 architecture contains 8 texture filtering units for every texture address unit. The complete GF104 die contains 64 texture address units and 512 texture filtering units, the complete GF106 die contains 32 texture address units and 256 texture filtering units and the complete GF108 die contains 16 texture address units and 128 texture filtering units.
=== GeForce 500M (5xxM) series ===
The GeForce 500M series for notebooks architecture, Fermi (microarchitecture)
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 On Some Dell XPS17
=== GeForce 600M (6xxM) series ===
The GeForce 600M series for notebooks architecture, Fermi (microarchitecture) and Kepler (microarchitecture). The processing power is obtained by multiplying shader clock speed, the number of cores, and how many instructions the cores can perform per cycle.
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
Non GTX Graphics, lack support NVENC
=== GeForce 700M (7xxM) series ===
The GeForce 700M series for notebooks architecture. The processing power is obtained by multiplying shader clock speed, the number of cores, and how many instructions the cores can perform per cycle.
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
Non GTX variants lack NVENC support
=== GeForce 800M (8xxM) series ===
The GeForce 800M series for notebooks architecture. The processing power is obtained by multiplying shader clock speed, the number of cores, and how many instructions the cores can perform per cycle.
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
810M to 845M lack NVENC support
=== GeForce 900M (9xxM) series ===
The GeForce 900M series for notebooks architecture. The processing power is obtained by multiplying shader clock speed, the number of cores, and how many instructions the cores can perform per cycle.
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
920M to 940M lack NVENC support
=== GeForce 10 series ===
Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
Improved NVENC (Better support for H265, VP9,...)
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 (12_1), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 6.1
=== GeForce 16 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 (12_1), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 7.5, improve NVENC
No SLI, no TensorCore, and no Raytracing hardware acceleration.
=== GeForce RTX 20 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 (12_2), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 7.5, improve NVENC (Support B-Frame on H265...)
MX Graphics lack NVENC and they are based on Pascal architecture.
Add TensorCore and Ray tracing hardware acceleration, RTX IO (Only on RTX cards)
Nvidia DLSS
=== GeForce RTX 30 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 Ultimate (12_2), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 8.6
Tensor core 3rd gen
RT core 2nd gen
RTX IO
Improve NVDEC (Add AV1)
=== GeForce RTX 40 series ===
Supported APIs: Direct3D 12 Ultimate (12_2), OpenGL 4.6, OpenCL 3.0, Vulkan 1.3 and CUDA 8.9
Tensor core 4th gen
RT core 3rd gen
DLSS 3 (Super Resolution + Frame Generation)
SER
=== GeForce RTX 50 series ===
Laptops featuring GeForce RTX 50 series laptop GPUs were shown at CES 2025. Laptops with RTX 50 series GPUs were paired with Intel's Arrow Lake-HX and AMD's Strix Point and Fire Range CPUs. Nvidia claims that Blackwell architecture's new Max-Q features can increase battery life by up to 40% over GeForce 40 series laptops. For example, Advanced Power Gating saves power by turning off areas of the GPU that are unused and the paired GDDR7 memory can run in an "ultra" low-voltage state. Initial RTX 50 series laptops will become available in March 2025.
=== GeForce MX series ===
== Workstation / Mobile Workstation GPUs ==
=== Quadro NVS ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
* NV31, NV34 and NV36 are 2x2 pipeline designs if running vertex shader, otherwise they are 4x1 pipeline designs.
=== Mobility Quadro NVS series ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Mobility NVS series ===
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro Go (GL) & Quadro FX Go series ===
Early mobile Quadro chips based on the GeForce2 Go up to GeForce Go 6800. Precise specifications on these old mobile workstation chips are very hard to find, and conflicting between Nvidia press releases and product lineups in GPU databases like TechPowerUp's GPUDB.
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro FX series ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro FX (x300) series ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro FX (x400) series ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro FX (x500) series ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
Quadro FX (x500M) series. GeForce 7-Series based.
=== Quadro FX (x600) series ===
1 Vertex shaders: pixel shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
GeForce 8-Series (except FX 560M and FX 3600M) based. First Quadro Mobile line to support DirectX 10.
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro FX (x700) series ===
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
Quadro FX (x700M) series.
=== Quadro FX (x800) series ===
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
The last DirectX 10 based Quadro mobile cards.
=== Quadro x000 series ===
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
4 Each SM in the Fermi architecture contains 4 texture filtering units for every texture address unit. Total for the full GF100 64 texture address units and 256 texture filtering units
Mobile version of the Quadro x000 series.
=== Quadro Kxxx series ===
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
Mobile version of the Quadro (Kxxx) series.
=== Quadro Mxxx series ===
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors
Mobile version of the Quadro (Mxxxx) series.
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
=== Quadro Pxxx series ===
1Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors
Mobile version of the Quadro (Px000) series series.
=== Quadro GVxxx series ===
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors: tensor cores
=== Quadro RTX x000 / Tx00 / Tx000 series ===
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors: tensor cores
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors
Mobile version of the Quadro RTX / T x000 series.
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors: tensor cores (or FP16 Cores in T x000 Series)
=== RTX Ax000 series ===
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: streaming multiprocessors: tensor cores
Mobile version of the RTX Ax000 series.×
=== RTX Ada Generation ===
Mobile version of the RTX Ada Generation.
1 CUDA cores: RT cores: Tensor cores
=== RTX PRO Blackwell series ===
1 Unified shaders: texture mapping units: render output units: Tensor cores: RT cores
Mobile/laptop version of the RTX PRO Blackwell series
== Tegra GPU ==
== Data center GPUs ==
=== GRID ===
Data from GRID GPUS
=== Tesla ===
Notes
A10G GPU accelerator (PCIe card)-300W TDP, Ampere, 24GB GDDR6@600GB/s, 80 RT Cores
== Console/handheld GPUs ==
1 Pixel shaders: vertex shaders: texture mapping units: render output units
2 Unified shaders: Texture mapping units : Render output units
3 Unified shaders (SM count): Texture mapping units : Render output units : Ray tracing cores : Tensor Core
== See also ==
nouveau (software)
Scalable Link Interface (SLI)
TurboCache
Tegra
Apple M1
CUDA
Nvidia NVDEC
Nvidia NVENC
Qualcomm Adreno
ARM Mali
Comparison of Nvidia nForce chipsets
List of AMD graphics processing units
List of Intel graphics processing units
List of eponyms of Nvidia GPU microarchitectures
Imageon by ATI (Now AMD)
== References ==
== External links ==
OpenGL 2.0 support on Nvidia GPUs (PDF document)
Release Notes for Nvidia OpenGL Shading Language Support (PDF document) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal | Mammal | A mammal (from Latin mamma 'breast') is a vertebrate animal of the class Mammalia (). Mammals are characterised by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a broad neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, from which their ancestors diverged in the Carboniferous Period over 300 million years ago. Around 6,640 extant species of mammals have been described and divided into 27 orders. The study of mammals is called mammalogy.
The largest orders of mammals, by number of species, are the rodents, bats, and eulipotyphlans (including hedgehogs, moles and shrews). The next three are the primates (including humans, monkeys and lemurs), the even-toed ungulates (including pigs, bovids and whales), and the Carnivora (including cats, dogs, and seals).
Mammals are the only living members of Synapsida; this clade, together with Sauropsida (reptiles and birds), constitutes the larger Amniota clade. Early synapsids are referred to as "pelycosaurs." The more advanced therapsids became dominant during the Guadalupian. Mammals originated from cynodonts, an advanced group of therapsids, during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic. Mammals achieved their modern diversity in the Paleogene and Neogene periods of the Cenozoic era, after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, and have been the dominant terrestrial animal group from 66 million years ago to the present.
The basic mammalian body type is quadrupedal, with most mammals using four limbs for terrestrial locomotion; but in some, the limbs are adapted for life at sea, in the air, in trees or underground. The bipeds have adapted to move using only the two lower limbs, while the rear limbs of cetaceans and the sea cows are mere internal vestiges. Mammals range in size from the 30–40 millimetres (1.2–1.6 in) bumblebee bat to the 30 metres (98 ft) blue whale—possibly the largest animal to have ever lived. Maximum lifespan varies from two years for the shrew to 211 years for the bowhead whale. All modern mammals give birth to live young, except the five species of monotremes, which lay eggs. The most species-rich group is the viviparous placental mammals, so named for the temporary organ (placenta) used by offspring to draw nutrition from the mother during gestation.
Most mammals are intelligent, with some possessing large brains, self-awareness, and tool use. Mammals can communicate and vocalise in several ways, including the production of ultrasound, scent marking, alarm signals, singing, echolocation; and, in the case of humans, complex language. Mammals can organise themselves into fission–fusion societies, harems, and hierarchies—but can also be solitary and territorial. Most mammals are polygynous, but some can be monogamous or polyandrous.
Domestication of many types of mammals by humans played a major role in the Neolithic Revolution, and resulted in farming replacing hunting and gathering as the primary source of food for humans. This led to a major restructuring of human societies from nomadic to sedentary, with more co-operation among larger and larger groups, and ultimately the development of the first civilisations. Domesticated mammals provided, and continue to provide, power for transport and agriculture, as well as food (meat and dairy products), fur, and leather. Mammals are also hunted and raced for sport, kept as pets and working animals of various types, and are used as model organisms in science. Mammals have been depicted in art since Paleolithic times, and appear in literature, film, mythology, and religion. Decline in numbers and extinction of many mammals is primarily driven by human poaching and habitat destruction, primarily deforestation.
== Classification ==
Mammal classification has been through several revisions since Carl Linnaeus initially defined the class, and at present, no classification system is universally accepted. McKenna & Bell (1997) and Wilson & Reeder (2005) provide useful recent compendiums. Simpson (1945) provides systematics of mammal origins and relationships that had been taught universally until the end of the 20th century.
However, since 1945, a large amount of new and more detailed information has gradually been found: The paleontological record has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematisation itself, partly through the new concept of cladistics. Though fieldwork and lab work progressively outdated Simpson's classification, it remains the closest thing to an official classification of mammals, despite its known issues.
Most mammals, including the six most species-rich orders, belong to the placental group. The three largest orders in numbers of species are Rodentia: mice, rats, porcupines, beavers, capybaras, and other gnawing mammals; Chiroptera: bats; and Eulipotyphla: shrews, moles, and solenodons. The next three biggest orders, depending on the biological classification scheme used, are the primates: apes, monkeys, and lemurs; Cetartiodactyla: whales and even-toed ungulates; and Carnivora which includes cats, dogs, weasels, bears, seals, and allies. According to Mammal Species of the World, 5,416 species were identified in 2006. These were grouped into 1,229 genera, 153 families and 29 orders. In 2008, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) completed a five-year Global Mammal Assessment for its IUCN Red List, which counted 5,488 species. According to research published in the Journal of Mammalogy in 2018, the number of recognised mammal species is 6,495, including 96 recently extinct.
=== Definitions ===
The word "mammal" is modern, from the scientific name Mammalia coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, derived from the Latin mamma ("teat, pap"). In an influential 1988 paper, Timothy Rowe defined Mammalia phylogenetically as the crown group of mammals, the clade consisting of the most recent common ancestor of living monotremes (echidnas and platypuses) and therians (marsupials and placentals) and all descendants of that ancestor. Since this ancestor lived in the Jurassic Period, Rowe's definition excludes all animals from the earlier Triassic, despite the fact that Triassic fossils in the Haramiyida have been referred to the Mammalia since the mid-19th century. If Mammalia is considered as the crown group, its origin can be roughly dated as the first known appearance of animals more closely related to some extant mammals than to others. Ambondro is more closely related to monotremes than to therian mammals while Amphilestes and Amphitherium are more closely related to the therians; as fossils of all three genera are dated about 167 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic, this is a reasonable estimate for the appearance of the crown group.
T. S. Kemp has provided a more traditional definition: "Synapsids that possess a dentary–squamosal jaw articulation and occlusion between upper and lower molars with a transverse component to the movement" or, equivalently in Kemp's view, the clade originating with the last common ancestor of Sinoconodon and living mammals. The earliest-known synapsid satisfying Kemp's definitions is Tikitherium, dated 225 Ma, so the appearance of mammals in this broader sense can be given this Late Triassic date. However, this animal may have actually evolved during the Neogene.
=== Molecular classification of placentals ===
As of the early 21st century, molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families. Most of these findings have been independently validated by retrotransposon presence/absence data. Classification systems based on molecular studies reveal three major groups or lineages of placentals—Afrotheria, Xenarthra and Boreoeutheria—which diverged in the Cretaceous. The relationships between these three lineages is contentious, and all three possible hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal. These hypotheses are Atlantogenata (basal Boreoeutheria), Epitheria (basal Xenarthra) and Exafroplacentalia (basal Afrotheria). Boreoeutheria in turn contains two major lineages—Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria.
Estimates for the divergence times between these three placental groups range from 105 to 120 million years ago, depending on the type of DNA used (such as nuclear or mitochondrial) and varying interpretations of paleogeographic data.
Mammal phylogeny according to Álvarez-Carretero et al., 2022:
== Evolution ==
=== Origins ===
Synapsida, a clade that contains mammals and their extinct relatives, originated during the Pennsylvanian subperiod (~323 million to ~300 million years ago), when they split from the reptile lineage. Crown group mammals evolved from earlier mammaliaforms during the Early Jurassic. The cladogram takes Mammalia to be the crown group.
=== Evolution from older amniotes ===
The first fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes. Like their amphibious early tetrapod predecessors, they had lungs and limbs. Amniotic eggs, however, have internal membranes that allow the developing embryo to breathe but keep water in. Hence, amniotes can lay eggs on dry land, while amphibians generally need to lay their eggs in water.
The first amniotes apparently arose in the Pennsylvanian subperiod of the Carboniferous. They descended from earlier reptiliomorph amphibious tetrapods, which lived on land that was already inhabited by insects and other invertebrates as well as ferns, mosses and other plants. Within a few million years, two important amniote lineages became distinct: the synapsids, which would later include the common ancestor of the mammals; and the sauropsids, which now include turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodilians and dinosaurs (including birds). Synapsids have a single hole (temporal fenestra) low on each side of the skull. Primitive synapsids included the largest and fiercest animals of the early Permian such as Dimetrodon. Nonmammalian synapsids were traditionally—and incorrectly—called "mammal-like reptiles" or pelycosaurs; we now know they were neither reptiles nor part of reptile lineage.
Therapsids, a group of synapsids, evolved in the Middle Permian, about 265 million years ago, and became the dominant land vertebrates. They differ from basal eupelycosaurs in several features of the skull and jaws, including: larger skulls and incisors which are equal in size in therapsids, but not for eupelycosaurs. The therapsid lineage leading to mammals went through a series of stages, beginning with animals that were very similar to their early synapsid ancestors and ending with probainognathian cynodonts, some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals. Those stages were characterised by:
The gradual development of a bony secondary palate.
Abrupt acquisition of endothermy among Mammaliamorpha, thus prior to the origin of mammals by 30–50 millions of years .
Progression towards an erect limb posture, which would increase the animals' stamina by avoiding Carrier's constraint. But this process was slow and erratic: for example, all herbivorous nonmammaliaform therapsids retained sprawling limbs (some late forms may have had semierect hind limbs); Permian carnivorous therapsids had sprawling forelimbs, and some late Permian ones also had semisprawling hindlimbs. In fact, modern monotremes still have semisprawling limbs.
The dentary gradually became the main bone of the lower jaw which, by the Triassic, progressed towards the fully mammalian jaw (the lower consisting only of the dentary) and middle ear (which is constructed by the bones that were previously used to construct the jaws of reptiles).
=== First mammals ===
The Permian–Triassic extinction event about 252 million years ago, which was a prolonged event due to the accumulation of several extinction pulses, ended the dominance of carnivorous therapsids. In the early Triassic, most medium to large land carnivore niches were taken over by archosaurs which, over an extended period (35 million years), came to include the crocodylomorphs, the pterosaurs and the dinosaurs; however, large cynodonts like Trucidocynodon and traversodontids still occupied large sized carnivorous and herbivorous niches respectively. By the Jurassic, the dinosaurs had come to dominate the large terrestrial herbivore niches as well.
The first mammals (in Kemp's sense) appeared in the Late Triassic epoch (about 225 million years ago), 40 million years after the first therapsids. They expanded out of their nocturnal insectivore niche from the mid-Jurassic onwards; the Jurassic Castorocauda, for example, was a close relative of true mammals that had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish. Most, if not all, are thought to have remained nocturnal (the nocturnal bottleneck), accounting for much of the typical mammalian traits. The majority of the mammal species that existed in the Mesozoic Era were multituberculates, eutriconodonts and spalacotheriids. The earliest-known fossil of the Metatheria ("changed beasts") is Sinodelphys, found in 125-million-year-old Early Cretaceous shale in China's northeastern Liaoning Province. The fossil is nearly complete and includes tufts of fur and imprints of soft tissues.
The oldest-known fossil among the Eutheria ("true beasts") is the small shrewlike Juramaia sinensis, or "Jurassic mother from China", dated to 160 million years ago in the late Jurassic. A later eutherian relative, Eomaia, dated to 125 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, possessed some features in common with the marsupials but not with the placentals, evidence that these features were present in the last common ancestor of the two groups but were later lost in the placental lineage. In particular, the epipubic bones extend forwards from the pelvis. These are not found in any modern placental, but they are found in marsupials, monotremes, other nontherian mammals and Ukhaatherium, an early Cretaceous animal in the eutherian order Asioryctitheria. This also applies to the multituberculates. They are apparently an ancestral feature, which subsequently disappeared in the placental lineage. These epipubic bones seem to function by stiffening the muscles during locomotion, reducing the amount of space being presented, which placentals require to contain their fetus during gestation periods. A narrow pelvic outlet indicates that the young were very small at birth and therefore pregnancy was short, as in modern marsupials. This suggests that the placenta was a later development.
One of the earliest-known monotremes was Teinolophos, which lived about 120 million years ago in Australia. Monotremes have some features which may be inherited from the original amniotes such as the same orifice to urinate, defecate and reproduce (cloaca)—as reptiles and birds also do— and they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified.
=== Earliest appearances of features ===
Hadrocodium, whose fossils date from approximately 195 million years ago, in the early Jurassic, provides the first clear evidence of a jaw joint formed solely by the squamosal and dentary bones; there is no space in the jaw for the articular, a bone involved in the jaws of all early synapsids.
The earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of Castorocauda and Megaconus, from 164 million years ago in the mid-Jurassic. In the 1950s, it was suggested that the foramina (passages) in the maxillae and premaxillae (bones in the front of the upper jaw) of cynodonts were channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae (whiskers) and so were evidence of hair or fur; it was soon pointed out, however, that foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae, as the modern lizard Tupinambis has foramina that are almost identical to those found in the nonmammalian cynodont Thrinaxodon. Popular sources, nevertheless, continue to attribute whiskers to Thrinaxodon. Studies on Permian coprolites suggest that non-mammalian synapsids of the epoch already had fur, setting the evolution of hairs possibly as far back as dicynodonts.
When endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals is uncertain, though it is generally agreed to have first evolved in non-mammalian therapsids. Modern monotremes have lower body temperatures and more variable metabolic rates than marsupials and placentals, but there is evidence that some of their ancestors, perhaps including ancestors of the therians, may have had body temperatures like those of modern therians. Likewise, some modern therians like afrotheres and xenarthrans have secondarily developed lower body temperatures.
The evolution of erect limbs in mammals is incomplete—living and fossil monotremes have sprawling limbs. The parasagittal (nonsprawling) limb posture appeared sometime in the late Jurassic or early Cretaceous; it is found in the eutherian Eomaia and the metatherian Sinodelphys, both dated to 125 million years ago. Epipubic bones, a feature that strongly influenced the reproduction of most mammal clades, are first found in Tritylodontidae, suggesting that it is a synapomorphy between them and Mammaliaformes. They are omnipresent in non-placental Mammaliaformes, though Megazostrodon and Erythrotherium appear to have lacked them.
It has been suggested that the original function of lactation (milk production) was to keep eggs moist. Much of the argument is based on monotremes, the egg-laying mammals. In human females, mammary glands become fully developed during puberty, regardless of pregnancy.
=== Rise of the mammals ===
Therians took over the medium- to large-sized ecological niches in the Cenozoic, after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 million years ago emptied ecological space once filled by non-avian dinosaurs and other groups of reptiles, as well as various other mammal groups, and underwent an exponential increase in body size (megafauna). The increase in mammalian diversity was not, however, solely because of expansion into large-bodied niches. Mammals diversified very quickly, displaying an exponential rise in diversity. For example, the earliest-known bat dates from about 50 million years ago, only 16 million years after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.
Molecular phylogenetic studies initially suggested that most placental orders diverged about 100 to 85 million years ago and that modern families appeared in the period from the late Eocene through the Miocene. However, no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the Cretaceous. The earliest undisputed fossils of placentals come from the early Paleocene, after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. (Scientists identified an early Paleocene animal named Protungulatum donnae as one of the first placental mammals, but it has since been reclassified as a non-placental eutherian.) Recalibrations of genetic and morphological diversity rates have suggested a Late Cretaceous origin for placentals, and a Paleocene origin for most modern clades.
The earliest-known ancestor of primates is Archicebus achilles from around 55 million years ago. This tiny primate weighed 20–30 grams (0.7–1.1 ounce) and could fit within a human palm.
== Anatomy ==
=== Distinguishing features ===
Living mammal species can be identified by the presence of sweat glands, including those that are specialised to produce milk to nourish their young. In classifying fossils, however, other features must be used, since soft tissue glands and many other features are not visible in fossils.
Many traits shared by all living mammals appeared among the earliest members of the group:
Jaw joint – The dentary (the lower jaw bone, which carries the teeth) and the squamosal (a small cranial bone) meet to form the joint. In most gnathostomes, including early therapsids, the joint consists of the articular (a small bone at the back of the lower jaw) and quadrate (a small bone at the back of the upper jaw).
Middle ear – In crown-group mammals, sound is carried from the eardrum by a chain of three bones, the malleus, the incus and the stapes. Ancestrally, the malleus and the incus are derived from the articular and the quadrate bones that constituted the jaw joint of early therapsids.
Tooth replacement – Teeth can be replaced once (diphyodonty) or (as in toothed whales and murid rodents) not at all (monophyodonty). Elephants, manatees, and kangaroos continually grow new teeth throughout their life (polyphyodonty).
Prismatic enamel – The enamel coating on the surface of a tooth consists of prisms, solid, rod-like structures extending from the dentin to the tooth's surface.
Occipital condyles – Two knobs at the base of the skull fit into the topmost neck vertebra; most other tetrapods, in contrast, have only one such knob.
For the most part, these characteristics were not present in the Triassic ancestors of the mammals. Nearly all mammaliaforms possess an epipubic bone, the exception being modern placentals.
=== Sexual dimorphism ===
On average, male mammals are larger than females, with males being at least 10% larger than females in over 45% of investigated species. Most mammalian orders also exhibit male-biased sexual dimorphism, although some orders do not show any bias or are significantly female-biased (Lagomorpha). Sexual size dimorphism increases with body size across mammals (Rensch's rule), suggesting that there are parallel selection pressures on both male and female size. Male-biased dimorphism relates to sexual selection on males through male–male competition for females, as there is a positive correlation between the degree of sexual selection, as indicated by mating systems, and the degree of male-biased size dimorphism. The degree of sexual selection is also positively correlated with male and female size across mammals. Further, parallel selection pressure on female mass is identified in that age at weaning is significantly higher in more polygynous species, even when correcting for body mass. Also, the reproductive rate is lower for larger females, indicating that fecundity selection selects for smaller females in mammals. Although these patterns hold across mammals as a whole, there is considerable variation across orders.
=== Biological systems ===
The majority of mammals have seven cervical vertebrae (bones in the neck). The exceptions are the manatee and the two-toed sloth, which have six, and the three-toed sloth which has nine. All mammalian brains possess a neocortex, a brain region unique to mammals. Placental brains have a corpus callosum, unlike monotremes and marsupials.
==== Circulatory systems ====
The mammalian heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the discharging chambers. The heart has four valves, which separate its chambers and ensures blood flows in the correct direction through the heart (preventing backflow). After gas exchange in the pulmonary capillaries (blood vessels in the lungs), oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via one of the four pulmonary veins. Blood flows nearly continuously back into the atrium, which acts as the receiving chamber, and from here through an opening into the left ventricle. Most blood flows passively into the heart while both the atria and ventricles are relaxed, but toward the end of the ventricular relaxation period, the left atrium will contract, pumping blood into the ventricle. The heart also requires nutrients and oxygen found in blood like other muscles, and is supplied via coronary arteries.
The red blood cells of mammals also lack a nucleus to make space for more haemoglobin, which significantly increases the cell's oxygen-carrying capacity.
==== Respiratory systems ====
The lungs of mammals are spongy and honeycombed. Breathing is mainly achieved with the diaphragm, which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome convex to the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome, increasing the volume of the lung cavity. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities, and travels through the larynx, trachea and bronchi, and expands the alveoli. Relaxing the diaphragm has the opposite effect, decreasing the volume of the lung cavity, causing air to be pushed out of the lungs. During exercise, the abdominal wall contracts, increasing pressure on the diaphragm, which forces air out quicker and more forcefully. The rib cage is able to expand and contract the chest cavity through the action of other respiratory muscles. Consequently, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung due to its resemblance to blacksmith bellows.
==== Integumentary systems ====
The integumentary system (skin) is made up of three layers: the outermost epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis. The epidermis is typically 10 to 30 cells thick; its main function is to provide a waterproof layer. Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is made up of many components, such as bony structures and blood vessels. The hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue, which stores lipids and provides cushioning and insulation. The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species; marine mammals require a thick hypodermis (blubber) for insulation, and right whales have the thickest blubber at 20 inches (51 cm). Although other animals have features such as whiskers, feathers, setae, or cilia that superficially resemble it, no animals other than mammals have hair. It is a definitive characteristic of the class, though some mammals have very little.
==== Digestive systems ====
Herbivores have developed a diverse range of physical structures to facilitate the consumption of plant material. To break up intact plant tissues, mammals have developed teeth structures that reflect their feeding preferences. For instance, frugivores (animals that feed primarily on fruit) and herbivores that feed on soft foliage have low-crowned teeth specialised for grinding foliage and seeds. Grazing animals that tend to eat hard, silica-rich grasses, have high-crowned teeth, which are capable of grinding tough plant tissues and do not wear down as quickly as low-crowned teeth. Most carnivorous mammals have carnassial teeth (of varying length depending on diet), long canines and similar tooth replacement patterns.
The stomach of even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) is divided into four sections: the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum (only ruminants have a rumen). After the plant material is consumed, it is mixed with saliva in the rumen and reticulum and separates into solid and liquid material. The solids lump together to form a bolus (or cud), and is regurgitated. When the bolus enters the mouth, the fluid is squeezed out with the tongue and swallowed again. Ingested food passes to the rumen and reticulum where cellulolytic microbes (bacteria, protozoa and fungi) produce cellulase, which is needed to break down the cellulose in plants. Perissodactyls, in contrast to the ruminants, store digested food that has left the stomach in an enlarged cecum, where it is fermented by bacteria. Carnivora have a simple stomach adapted to digest primarily meat, as compared to the elaborate digestive systems of herbivorous animals, which are necessary to break down tough, complex plant fibres. The cecum is either absent or short and simple, and the large intestine is not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine.
==== Excretory and genitourinary systems ====
The mammalian excretory system involves many components. Like amphibians, mammals are ureotelic, and convert ammonia into urea, which is done by the liver as part of the urea cycle. Bilirubin, a waste product derived from blood cells, is passed through bile and urine with the help of enzymes excreted by the liver. The passing of bilirubin via bile through the intestinal tract gives mammalian feces a distinctive brown coloration. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla, which is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle. Only the mammalian kidney has a bean shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds, cetaceans and bears. Most adult placentals have no remaining trace of the cloaca. In the embryo, the embryonic cloaca divides into a posterior region that becomes part of the anus, and an anterior region that has different fates depending on the sex of the individual: in females, it develops into the vestibule or urogenital sinus that receives the urethra and vagina, while in males it forms the entirety of the penile urethra. However, the afrosoricids and some shrews retain a cloaca as adults. In marsupials, the genital tract is separate from the anus, but a trace of the original cloaca does remain externally. Monotremes, which translates from Greek into "single hole", have a true cloaca. Urine flows from the ureters into the cloaca in monotremes and into the bladder in placentals.
=== Sound production ===
As in all other tetrapods, mammals have a larynx that can quickly open and close to produce sounds, and a supralaryngeal vocal tract which filters this sound. The lungs and surrounding musculature provide the air stream and pressure required to phonate. The larynx controls the pitch and volume of sound, but the strength the lungs exert to exhale also contributes to volume. More primitive mammals, such as the echidna, can only hiss, as sound is achieved solely through exhaling through a partially closed larynx. Other mammals phonate using vocal folds. The movement or tenseness of the vocal folds can result in many sounds such as purring and screaming. Mammals can change the position of the larynx, allowing them to breathe through the nose while swallowing through the mouth, and to form both oral and nasal sounds; nasal sounds, such as a dog whine, are generally soft sounds, and oral sounds, such as a dog bark, are generally loud.
Some mammals have a large larynx and thus a low-pitched voice, namely the hammer-headed bat (Hypsignathus monstrosus) where the larynx can take up the entirety of the thoracic cavity while pushing the lungs, heart, and trachea into the abdomen. Large vocal pads can also lower the pitch, as in the low-pitched roars of big cats. The production of infrasound is possible in some mammals such as the African elephant (Loxodonta spp.) and baleen whales. Small mammals with small larynxes have the ability to produce ultrasound, which can be detected by modifications to the middle ear and cochlea. Ultrasound is inaudible to birds and reptiles, which might have been important during the Mesozoic, when birds and reptiles were the dominant predators. This private channel is used by some rodents in, for example, mother-to-pup communication, and by bats when echolocating. Toothed whales also use echolocation, but, as opposed to the vocal membrane that extends upward from the vocal folds, they have a melon to manipulate sounds. Some mammals, namely the primates, have air sacs attached to the larynx, which may function to lower the resonances or increase the volume of sound.
The vocal production system is controlled by the cranial nerve nuclei in the brain, and supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the superior laryngeal nerve, branches of the vagus nerve. The vocal tract is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve and facial nerves. Electrical stimulation of the periaqueductal grey (PEG) region of the mammalian midbrain elicit vocalisations. The ability to learn new vocalisations is only exemplified in humans, seals, cetaceans, elephants and possibly bats; in humans, this is the result of a direct connection between the motor cortex, which controls movement, and the motor neurons in the spinal cord.
=== Fur ===
The primary function of the fur of mammals is thermoregulation. Others include protection, sensory purposes, waterproofing, and camouflage. Different types of fur serve different purposes:
Definitive – which may be shed after reaching a certain length
Vibrissae – sensory hairs, most commonly whiskers
Pelage – guard hairs, under-fur, and awn hair
Spines – stiff guard hair used for defence (such as in porcupines)
Bristles – long hairs usually used in visual signals. (such as a lion's mane)
Velli – often called "down fur" which insulates newborn mammals
Wool – long, soft and often curly
==== Thermoregulation ====
Hair length is not a factor in thermoregulation: for example, some tropical mammals such as sloths have the same length of fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals. The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring 30 cm (12 in) as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F). Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach 70 °C (158 °F) in the summer, but the skin stays at 40 °C (104 °F). Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.
==== Coloration ====
Mammalian coats are coloured for a variety of reasons, the major selective pressures including camouflage, sexual selection, communication, and thermoregulation. Coloration in both the hair and skin of mammals is mainly determined by the type and amount of melanin; eumelanins for brown and black colours and pheomelanin for a range of yellowish to reddish colours, giving mammals an earth tone. Some mammals have more vibrant colours; certain monkeys such mandrills and vervet monkeys, and opossums such as the Mexican mouse opossums and Derby's woolly opossums, have blue skin due to light diffraction in collagen fibres. Many sloths appear green because their fur hosts green algae; this may be a symbiotic relation that affords camouflage to the sloths.
Camouflage is a powerful influence in a large number of mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus), stoat (Mustela erminea), and snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven largely by camouflage. Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution.
Aposematism, warning off possible predators, is the most likely explanation of the black-and-white pelage of many mammals which are able to defend themselves, such as in the foul-smelling skunk and the powerful and aggressive honey badger. Coat color is sometimes sexually dimorphic, as in many primate species. Differences in female and male coat color may indicate nutrition and hormone levels, important in mate selection. Coat color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected. Mammals with a darker coloured coat can absorb more heat from solar radiation, and stay warmer, and some smaller mammals, such as voles, have darker fur in the winter. The white, pigmentless fur of arctic mammals, such as the polar bear, may reflect more solar radiation directly onto the skin. The dazzling black-and-white striping of zebras appear to provide some protection from biting flies.
=== Reproductive system ===
Mammals reproduce by internal fertilisation and are solely gonochoric (an animal is born with either male or female genitalia, as opposed to hermaphrodites where there is no such schism). Male mammals ejaculate semen during copulation through a penis, which may be contained in a prepuce when not erect. Male placentals also urinate through a penis, and some placentals also have a penis bone (baculum). Marsupials typically have forked penises, while the echidna penis generally has four heads with only two functioning. Depending on the species, an erection may be fuelled by blood flow into vascular, spongy tissue or by muscular action. The testicles of most mammals descend into the scrotum which is typically posterior to the penis but is often anterior in marsupials. Female mammals generally have a vulva (clitoris and labia) on the outside, while the internal system contains paired oviducts, one or two uteri, one or two cervices and a vagina. Marsupials have two lateral vaginas and a medial vagina. The "vagina" of monotremes is better understood as a "urogenital sinus". The uterine systems of placentals can vary between a duplex, where there are two uteri and cervices which open into the vagina, a bipartite, where two uterine horns have a single cervix that connects to the vagina, a bicornuate, which consists where two uterine horns that are connected distally but separate medially creating a Y-shape, and a simplex, which has a single uterus.
The ancestral condition for mammal reproduction is the birthing of relatively undeveloped young, either through direct vivipary or a short period as soft-shelled eggs. This is likely due to the fact that the torso could not expand due to the presence of epipubic bones. The oldest demonstration of this reproductive style is with Kayentatherium, which produced undeveloped perinates, but at much higher litter sizes than any modern mammal, 38 specimens. Most modern mammals are viviparous, giving birth to live young. However, the five species of monotreme, the platypus and the four species of echidna, lay eggs. The monotremes have a sex-determination system different from that of most other mammals. In particular, the sex chromosomes of a platypus are more like those of a chicken than those of a therian mammal.
Viviparous mammals are in the subclass Theria; those living today are in the marsupial and placental infraclasses. Marsupials have a short gestation period, typically shorter than its estrous cycle and generally giving birth to a number of undeveloped newborns that then undergo further development; in many species, this takes place within a pouch-like sac, the marsupium, located in the front of the mother's abdomen. This is the plesiomorphic condition among viviparous mammals; the presence of epipubic bones in all non-placentals prevents the expansion of the torso needed for full pregnancy. Even non-placental eutherians probably reproduced this way. The placentals give birth to relatively complete and developed young, usually after long gestation periods. They get their name from the placenta, which connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake. In placentals, the epipubic is either completely lost or converted into the baculum; allowing the torso to be able to expand and thus birth developed offspring. The great majority of mammals give birth multiple times during their lifespan, but a few species are semelparous.
The mammary glands of mammals are specialised to produce milk, the primary source of nutrition for newborns. The monotremes branched early from other mammals and do not have the teats seen in most mammals, but they do have mammary glands. The young lick the milk from a mammary patch on the mother's belly. Compared to placental mammals, the milk of marsupials changes greatly in both production rate and in nutrient composition, due to the underdeveloped young. In addition, the mammary glands have more autonomy allowing them to supply separate milks to young at different development stages. Lactose is the main sugar in placental milk while monotreme and marsupial milk is dominated by oligosaccharides. Weaning is the process in which a mammal becomes less dependent on their mother's milk and more on solid food.
=== Endothermy ===
Nearly all mammals are endothermic ("warm-blooded"). Most mammals also have hair to help keep them warm. Like birds, mammals can forage or hunt in weather and climates too cold for ectothermic ("cold-blooded") reptiles and insects. Endothermy requires plenty of food energy, so mammals eat more food per unit of body weight than most reptiles. Small insectivorous mammals eat prodigious amounts for their size. A rare exception, the naked mole-rat produces little metabolic heat, so it is considered an operational poikilotherm. Birds are also endothermic, so endothermy is not unique to mammals.
=== Species lifespan ===
Among mammals, species maximum lifespan varies significantly from one year in the yellow-sided opossum to 211 years in the oldest bowhead whale recorded. Although the underlying basis for these lifespan differences is still uncertain, numerous studies indicate that the ability to repair DNA damage is an important determinant of mammalian lifespan. In a 1974 study by Hart and Setlow, it was found that DNA excision repair capability increased systematically with species lifespan among seven mammalian species. Species lifespan was observed to be robustly correlated with the capacity to recognise DNA double-strand breaks as well as the level of the DNA repair protein Ku80. In a study of the cells from sixteen mammalian species, genes employed in DNA repair were found to be up-regulated in the longer-lived species. The cellular level of the DNA repair enzyme poly ADP ribose polymerase was found to correlate with species lifespan in a study of 13 mammalian species. Three additional studies of a variety of mammalian species also reported a correlation between species lifespan and DNA repair capability.
=== Locomotion ===
==== Terrestrial ====
Most vertebrates are plantigrade, walking on the whole of the underside of the foot. Many mammals, such as cats and dogs, are digitigrade, walking on their toes, the greater stride length allowing more speed. Some animals such as horses are unguligrade, walking on the tips of their toes. This even further increases their stride length and thus their speed. A few mammals, namely the great apes, are also known to walk on their knuckles, at least for their front legs. Giant anteaters and platypuses are also knuckle-walkers. Some mammals are bipeds, using only two limbs for locomotion, which can be seen in, for example, humans and the great apes. Bipedal species have a larger field of vision than quadrupeds, conserve more energy and have the ability to manipulate objects with their hands, which aids in foraging. Instead of walking, some bipeds hop, such as kangaroos and kangaroo rats.
Animals will use different gaits for different speeds, terrain and situations. For example, horses show four natural gaits, the slowest horse gait is the walk, then there are three faster gaits which, from slowest to fastest, are the trot, the canter and the gallop. Animals may also have unusual gaits that are used occasionally, such as for moving sideways or backwards. For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running, but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces. Mammals show a vast range of gaits, the order that they place and lift their appendages in locomotion. Gaits can be grouped into categories according to their patterns of support sequence. For quadrupeds, there are three main categories: walking gaits, running gaits and leaping gaits. Walking is the most common gait, where some feet are on the ground at any given time, and found in almost all legged animals. Running is considered to occur when at some points in the stride all feet are off the ground in a moment of suspension.
==== Arboreal ====
Arboreal animals frequently have elongated limbs that help them cross gaps, reach fruit or other resources, test the firmness of support ahead and, in some cases, to brachiate (swing between trees). Many arboreal species, such as tree porcupines, silky anteaters, spider monkeys, and possums, use prehensile tails to grasp branches. In the spider monkey, the tip of the tail has either a bare patch or adhesive pad, which provides increased friction. Claws can be used to interact with rough substrates and reorient the direction of forces the animal applies. This is what allows squirrels to climb tree trunks that are so large to be essentially flat from the perspective of such a small animal. However, claws can interfere with an animal's ability to grasp very small branches, as they may wrap too far around and prick the animal's own paw. Frictional gripping is used by primates, relying upon hairless fingertips. Squeezing the branch between the fingertips generates frictional force that holds the animal's hand to the branch. However, this type of grip depends upon the angle of the frictional force, thus upon the diameter of the branch, with larger branches resulting in reduced gripping ability. To control descent, especially down large diameter branches, some arboreal animals such as squirrels have evolved highly mobile ankle joints that permit rotating the foot into a 'reversed' posture. This allows the claws to hook into the rough surface of the bark, opposing the force of gravity. Small size provides many advantages to arboreal species: such as increasing the relative size of branches to the animal, lower center of mass, increased stability, lower mass (allowing movement on smaller branches) and the ability to move through more cluttered habitat. Size relating to weight affects gliding animals such as the sugar glider. Some species of primate, bat and all species of sloth achieve passive stability by hanging beneath the branch. Both pitching and tipping become irrelevant, as the only method of failure would be losing their grip.
==== Aerial ====
Bats are the only mammals that can truly fly. They fly through the air at a constant speed by moving their wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of the wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This generates a lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole.
The wings of bats are much thinner and consist of more bones than those of birds, allowing bats to manoeuvre more accurately and fly with more lift and less drag. By folding the wings inwards towards their body on the upstroke, they use 35% less energy during flight than birds. The membranes are delicate, ripping easily; however, the tissue of the bat's membrane is able to regrow, such that small tears can heal quickly. The surface of their wings is equipped with touch-sensitive receptors on small bumps called Merkel cells, also found on human fingertips. These sensitive areas are different in bats, as each bump has a tiny hair in the center, making it even more sensitive and allowing the bat to detect and collect information about the air flowing over its wings, and to fly more efficiently by changing the shape of its wings in response.
==== Fossorial and subterranean ====
A fossorial (from Latin fossor, meaning "digger") is an animal adapted to digging which lives primarily, but not solely, underground. Some examples are badgers, and naked mole-rats. Many rodent species are also considered fossorial because they live in burrows for most but not all of the day. Species that live exclusively underground are subterranean, and those with limited adaptations to a fossorial lifestyle sub-fossorial. Some organisms are fossorial to aid in temperature regulation while others use the underground habitat for protection from predators or for food storage.
Fossorial mammals have a fusiform body, thickest at the shoulders and tapering off at the tail and nose. Unable to see in the dark burrows, most have degenerated eyes, but degeneration varies between species; pocket gophers, for example, are only semi-fossorial and have very small yet functional eyes, in the fully fossorial marsupial mole, the eyes are degenerated and useless, Talpa moles have vestigial eyes and the Cape golden mole has a layer of skin covering the eyes. External ears flaps are also very small or absent. Truly fossorial mammals have short, stout legs as strength is more important than speed to a burrowing mammal, but semi-fossorial mammals have cursorial legs. The front paws are broad and have strong claws to help in loosening dirt while excavating burrows, and the back paws have webbing, as well as claws, which aids in throwing loosened dirt backwards. Most have large incisors to prevent dirt from flying into their mouth.
Many fossorial mammals such as shrews, hedgehogs, and moles were classified under the now obsolete order Insectivora.
==== Aquatic ====
Fully aquatic mammals, the cetaceans and sirenians, have lost their legs and have a tail fin to propel themselves through the water. Flipper movement is continuous. Whales swim by moving their tail fin and lower body up and down, propelling themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers. Most species have a dorsal fin to prevent themselves from turning upside-down in the water. The flukes of sirenians are raised up and down in long strokes to move the animal forward, and can be twisted to turn. The forelimbs are paddle-like flippers which aid in turning and slowing.
Semi-aquatic mammals, like pinnipeds, have two pairs of flippers on the front and back, the fore-flippers and hind-flippers. The elbows and ankles are enclosed within the body. Pinnipeds have several adaptions for reducing drag. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they have smooth networks of muscle bundles in their skin that may increase laminar flow and make it easier for them to slip through water. They also lack arrector pili, so their fur can be streamlined as they swim. They rely on their fore-flippers for locomotion in a wing-like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles. Fore-flipper movement is not continuous, and the animal glides between each stroke. Compared to terrestrial carnivorans, the fore-limbs are reduced in length, which gives the locomotor muscles at the shoulder and elbow joints greater mechanical advantage; the hind-flippers serve as stabilizers. Other semi-aquatic mammals include beavers, hippopotamuses, otters and platypuses. Hippos are very large semi-aquatic mammals, and their barrel-shaped bodies have graviportal skeletal structures, adapted to carrying their enormous weight, and their specific gravity allows them to sink and move along the bottom of a river.
== Behavior ==
=== Communication and vocalisation ===
Many mammals communicate by vocalising. Vocal communication serves many purposes, including in mating rituals, as warning calls, to indicate food sources, and for social purposes. Males often call during mating rituals to ward off other males and to attract females, as in the roaring of lions and red deer. The songs of the humpback whale may be signals to females; they have different dialects in different regions of the ocean. Social vocalisations include the territorial calls of gibbons, and the use of frequency in greater spear-nosed bats to distinguish between groups. The vervet monkey gives a distinct alarm call for each of at least four different predators, and the reactions of other monkeys vary according to the call. For example, if an alarm call signals a python, the monkeys climb into the trees, whereas the eagle alarm causes monkeys to seek a hiding place on the ground. Prairie dogs similarly have complex calls that signal the type, size, and speed of an approaching predator. Elephants communicate socially with a variety of sounds including snorting, screaming, trumpeting, roaring and rumbling. Some of the rumbling calls are infrasonic, below the hearing range of humans, and can be heard by other elephants up to 6 miles (9.7 km) away at still times near sunrise and sunset.
Mammals signal by a variety of means. Many give visual anti-predator signals, as when deer and gazelle stot, honestly indicating their fit condition and their ability to escape, or when white-tailed deer and other prey mammals flag with conspicuous tail markings when alarmed, informing the predator that it has been detected. Many mammals make use of scent-marking, sometimes possibly to help defend territory, but probably with a range of functions both within and between species. Microbats and toothed whales including oceanic dolphins vocalise both socially and in echolocation.
=== Feeding ===
To maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive—mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet. While the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet their dietary requirements in a variety of ways. Some eat other animals—this is a carnivorous diet (and includes insectivorous diets). Other mammals, called herbivores, eat plants, which contain complex carbohydrates such as cellulose. An herbivorous diet includes subtypes such as granivory (seed eating), folivory (leaf eating), frugivory (fruit eating), nectarivory (nectar eating), gummivory (gum eating) and mycophagy (fungus eating). The digestive tract of an herbivore is host to bacteria that ferment these complex substances, and make them available for digestion, which are either housed in the multichambered stomach or in a large cecum. Some mammals are coprophagous, consuming feces to absorb the nutrients not digested when the food was first ingested. An omnivore eats both prey and plants. Carnivorous mammals have a simple digestive tract because the proteins, lipids and minerals found in meat require little in the way of specialised digestion. Exceptions to this include baleen whales who also house gut flora in a multi-chambered stomach, like terrestrial herbivores.
The size of an animal is also a factor in determining diet type (Allen's rule). Since small mammals have a high ratio of heat-losing surface area to heat-generating volume, they tend to have high energy requirements and a high metabolic rate. Mammals that weigh less than about 18 ounces (510 g; 1.1 lb) are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive process of an herbivore. Larger animals, on the other hand, generate more heat and less of this heat is lost. They can therefore tolerate either a slower collection process (carnivores that feed on larger vertebrates) or a slower digestive process (herbivores). Furthermore, mammals that weigh more than 18 ounces (510 g; 1.1 lb) usually cannot collect enough insects during their waking hours to sustain themselves. The only large insectivorous mammals are those that feed on huge colonies of insects (ants or termites).
Some mammals are omnivores and display varying degrees of carnivory and herbivory, generally leaning in favour of one more than the other. Since plants and meat are digested differently, there is a preference for one over the other, as in bears where some species may be mostly carnivorous and others mostly herbivorous. They are grouped into three categories: mesocarnivory (50–70% meat), hypercarnivory (70% and greater of meat), and hypocarnivory (50% or less of meat). The dentition of hypocarnivores consists of dull, triangular carnassial teeth meant for grinding food. Hypercarnivores, however, have conical teeth and sharp carnassials meant for slashing, and in some cases strong jaws for bone-crushing, as in the case of hyenas, allowing them to consume bones; some extinct groups, notably the Machairodontinae, had sabre-shaped canines.
Some physiological carnivores consume plant matter and some physiological herbivores consume meat. From a behavioural aspect, this would make them omnivores, but from the physiological standpoint, this may be due to zoopharmacognosy. Physiologically, animals must be able to obtain both energy and nutrients from plant and animal materials to be considered omnivorous. Thus, such animals are still able to be classified as carnivores and herbivores when they are just obtaining nutrients from materials originating from sources that do not seemingly complement their classification. For example, it is well documented that some ungulates such as giraffes, camels, and cattle, will gnaw on bones to consume particular minerals and nutrients. Also, cats, which are generally regarded as obligate carnivores, occasionally eat grass to regurgitate indigestible material (such as hairballs), aid with haemoglobin production, and as a laxative.
Many mammals, in the absence of sufficient food requirements in an environment, suppress their metabolism and conserve energy in a process known as hibernation. In the period preceding hibernation, larger mammals, such as bears, become polyphagic to increase fat stores, whereas smaller mammals prefer to collect and stash food. The slowing of the metabolism is accompanied by a decreased heart and respiratory rate, as well as a drop in internal temperatures, which can be around ambient temperature in some cases. For example, the internal temperatures of hibernating Arctic ground squirrels can drop to −2.9 °C (26.8 °F); however, the head and neck always stay above 0 °C (32 °F). A few mammals in hot environments aestivate in times of drought or extreme heat, for example the fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius).
=== Drinking ===
=== Intelligence ===
In intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger relative to the rest of the brain. Intelligence itself is not easy to define, but indications of intelligence include the ability to learn, matched with behavioural flexibility. Rats, for example, are considered to be highly intelligent, as they can learn and perform new tasks, an ability that may be important when they first colonise a fresh habitat. In some mammals, food gathering appears to be related to intelligence: a deer feeding on plants has a brain smaller than a cat, which must think to outwit its prey.
Tool use by animals may indicate different levels of learning and cognition. The sea otter uses rocks as essential and regular parts of its foraging behaviour (smashing abalone from rocks or breaking open shells), with some populations spending 21% of their time making tools. Other tool use, such as chimpanzees using twigs to "fish" for termites, may be developed by watching others use tools and may even be a true example of animal teaching. Tools may even be used in solving puzzles in which the animal appears to experience a "Eureka moment". Other mammals that do not use tools, such as dogs, can also experience a Eureka moment.
Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the 2⁄3 or 3⁄4 exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging 8,000 cubic centimetres (490 cu in) and 7.8 kilograms (17 lb) in mature males.
Self-awareness appears to be a sign of abstract thinking. Self-awareness, although not well-defined, is believed to be a precursor to more advanced processes such as metacognitive reasoning. The traditional method for measuring this is the mirror test, which determines if an animal possesses the ability of self-recognition. Mammals that have passed the mirror test include Asian elephants (some pass, some do not); chimpanzees; bonobos; orangutans; humans, from 18 months (mirror stage); common bottlenose dolphins; orcas; and false killer whales.
=== Social structure ===
Eusociality is the highest level of social organisation. These societies have an overlap of adult generations, the division of reproductive labour and cooperative caring of young. Usually insects, such as bees, ants and termites, have eusocial behaviour, but it is demonstrated in two rodent species: the naked mole-rat and the Damaraland mole-rat.
Presociality is when animals exhibit more than just sexual interactions with members of the same species, but fall short of qualifying as eusocial. That is, presocial animals can display communal living, cooperative care of young, or primitive division of reproductive labour, but they do not display all of the three essential traits of eusocial animals. Humans and some species of Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins) are unique among primates in their degree of cooperative care of young. Harry Harlow set up an experiment with rhesus monkeys, presocial primates, in 1958; the results from this study showed that social encounters are necessary in order for the young monkeys to develop both mentally and sexually.
A fission–fusion society is a society that changes frequently in its size and composition, making up a permanent social group called the "parent group". Permanent social networks consist of all individual members of a community and often varies to track changes in their environment. In a fission–fusion society, the main parent group can fracture (fission) into smaller stable subgroups or individuals to adapt to environmental or social circumstances. For example, a number of males may break off from the main group in order to hunt or forage for food during the day, but at night they may return to join (fusion) the primary group to share food and partake in other activities. Many mammals exhibit this, such as primates (for example orangutans and spider monkeys), elephants, spotted hyenas, lions, and dolphins.
Solitary animals defend a territory and avoid social interactions with the members of its species, except during breeding season. This is to avoid resource competition, as two individuals of the same species would occupy the same niche, and to prevent depletion of food. A solitary animal, while foraging, can also be less conspicuous to predators or prey.
In a hierarchy, individuals are either dominant or submissive. A despotic hierarchy is where one individual is dominant while the others are submissive, as in wolves and lemurs, and a pecking order is a linear ranking of individuals where there is a top individual and a bottom individual. Pecking orders may also be ranked by sex, where the lowest individual of a sex has a higher ranking than the top individual of the other sex, as in hyenas. Dominant individuals, or alphas, have a high chance of reproductive success, especially in harems where one or a few males (resident males) have exclusive breeding rights to females in a group. Non-resident males can also be accepted in harems, but some species, such as the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), may be more strict.
Some mammals are perfectly monogamous, meaning that they mate for life and take no other partners (even after the original mate's death), as with wolves, Eurasian beavers, and otters. There are three types of polygamy: either one or multiple dominant males have breeding rights (polygyny), multiple males that females mate with (polyandry), or multiple males have exclusive relations with multiple females (polygynandry). It is much more common for polygynous mating to happen, which, excluding leks, are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammals. Lek mating occurs when males congregate around females and try to attract them with various courtship displays and vocalisations, as in harbour seals.
All higher mammals (excluding monotremes) share two major adaptations for care of the young: live birth and lactation. These imply a group-wide choice of a degree of parental care. They may build nests and dig burrows to raise their young in, or feed and guard them often for a prolonged period of time. Many mammals are K-selected, and invest more time and energy into their young than do r-selected animals. When two animals mate, they both share an interest in the success of the offspring, though often to different extremes. Mammalian females exhibit some degree of maternal aggression, another example of parental care, which may be targeted against other females of the species or the young of other females; however, some mammals may "aunt" the infants of other females, and care for them. Mammalian males may play a role in child rearing, as with tenrecs, however this varies species to species, even within the same genus. For example, the males of the southern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) do not participate in child care, whereas the males of the Japanese macaque (M. fuscata) do.
== Humans and other mammals ==
=== In human culture ===
Non-human mammals play a wide variety of roles in human culture. They are the most popular of pets, with tens of millions of dogs, cats and other animals including rabbits and mice kept by families around the world. Mammals such as mammoths, horses and deer are among the earliest subjects of art, being found in Upper Paleolithic cave paintings such as at Lascaux. Major artists such as Albrecht Dürer, George Stubbs and Edwin Landseer are known for their portraits of mammals. Many species of mammals have been hunted for sport and for food; deer and wild boar are especially popular as game animals. Mammals such as horses and dogs are widely raced for sport, often combined with betting on the outcome. There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with rights of their own. Mammals further play a wide variety of roles in literature, film, mythology, and religion.
=== Uses and importance ===
The domestication of mammals was instrumental in the Neolithic development of agriculture and of civilisation, causing farmers to replace hunter-gatherers around the world. This transition from hunting and gathering to herding flocks and growing crops was a major step in human history. The new agricultural economies, based on domesticated mammals, caused "radical restructuring of human societies, worldwide alterations in biodiversity, and significant changes in the Earth's landforms and its atmosphere... momentous outcomes".
Domestic mammals form a large part of the livestock raised for meat across the world. They include (2009) around 1.4 billion cattle, 1 billion sheep, 1 billion domestic pigs, and (1985) over 700 million rabbits. Working domestic animals including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanised transport and agricultural machinery. In 2004 they still provided some 80% of the power for the mainly small farms in the third world, and some 20% of the world's transport, again mainly in rural areas. In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled vehicles, pack animals continue to transport goods. Mammal skins provide leather for shoes, clothing and upholstery. Wool from mammals including sheep, goats and alpacas has been used for centuries for clothing.
Mammals serve a major role in science as experimental animals, both in fundamental biological research, such as in genetics, and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested exhaustively to demonstrate their safety. Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used in experiments each year. A knockout mouse is a genetically modified mouse with an inactivated gene, replaced or disrupted with an artificial piece of DNA. They enable the study of sequenced genes whose functions are unknown. A small percentage of the mammals are non-human primates, used in research for their similarity to humans.
Despite the benefits domesticated mammals had for human development, humans have an increasingly detrimental effect on wild mammals across the world. It has been estimated that the mass of all wild mammals has declined to only 4% of all mammals, with 96% of mammals being humans and their livestock now (see figure). In fact, terrestrial wild mammals make up only 2% of all mammals.
=== Hybrids ===
Hybrids are offspring resulting from the breeding of two genetically distinct individuals, which usually will result in a high degree of heterozygosity, though hybrid and heterozygous are not synonymous. The deliberate or accidental hybridising of two or more species of closely related animals through captive breeding is a human activity which has been in existence for millennia and has grown for economic purposes. Hybrids between different subspecies within a species (such as between the Bengal tiger and Siberian tiger) are known as intra-specific hybrids. Hybrids between different species within the same genus (such as between lions and tigers) are known as interspecific hybrids or crosses. Hybrids between different genera (such as between sheep and goats) are known as intergeneric hybrids. Natural hybrids will occur in hybrid zones, where two populations of species within the same genera or species living in the same or adjacent areas will interbreed with each other. Some hybrids have been recognised as species, such as the red wolf (though this is controversial).
Artificial selection, the deliberate selective breeding of domestic animals, is being used to breed back recently extinct animals in an attempt to achieve an animal breed with a phenotype that resembles that extinct wildtype ancestor. A breeding-back (intraspecific) hybrid may be very similar to the extinct wildtype in appearance, ecological niche and to some extent genetics, but the initial gene pool of that wild type is lost forever with its extinction. As a result, bred-back breeds are at best vague look-alikes of extinct wildtypes, as Heck cattle are of the aurochs.
Purebred wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, the uncontrolled hybridisation, introgression genetic swamping which leads to homogenisation or out-competition from the heterosic hybrid species. When new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact, extinction in some species, especially rare varieties, is possible. Interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool. For example, the endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the domestic water buffalo. Such extinctions are not always apparent from a morphological standpoint. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionary process, nevertheless, hybridisation threatens the existence of rare species.
=== Threats ===
The loss of species from ecological communities, defaunation, is primarily driven by human activity. This has resulted in empty forests, ecological communities depleted of large vertebrates. In the Quaternary extinction event, the mass die-off of megafaunal variety coincided with the appearance of humans, suggesting a human influence. One hypothesis is that humans hunted large mammals, such as the woolly mammoth, into extinction. The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES states that the total biomass of wild mammals has declined by 82 per cent since the beginning of human civilisation. Wild animals make up just 4% of mammalian biomass on earth, while humans and their domesticated animals make up 96%.
Various species are predicted to become extinct in the near future, among them the rhinoceros, giraffes, and species of primates and pangolins. According to the WWF's 2020 Living Planet Report, vertebrate wildlife populations have declined by 68% since 1970 as a result of human activities, particularly overconsumption, population growth and intensive farming, which is evidence that humans have triggered a sixth mass extinction event. Hunting alone threatens hundreds of mammalian species around the world. Scientists claim that the growing demand for meat is contributing to biodiversity loss as this is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon rainforest, are being converted to agricultural land for meat production. Another influence is over-hunting and poaching, which can reduce the overall population of game animals, especially those located near villages, as in the case of peccaries. The effects of poaching can especially be seen in the ivory trade with African elephants. Marine mammals are at risk from entanglement from fishing gear, notably cetaceans, with discard mortalities ranging from 65,000 to 86,000 individuals annually.
Attention is being given to endangered species globally, notably through the Convention on Biological Diversity, otherwise known as the Rio Accord, which includes 189 signatory countries that are focused on identifying endangered species and habitats. Another notable conservation organisation is the IUCN, which has a membership of over 1,200 governmental and non-governmental organisations.
Recent extinctions can be directly attributed to human influences. The IUCN characterises 'recent' extinction as those that have occurred past the cut-off point of 1500, and around 80 mammal species have gone extinct since that time and 2015. Some species, such as the Père David's deer are extinct in the wild, and survive solely in captive populations. Other species, such as the Florida panther, are ecologically extinct, surviving in such low numbers that they essentially have no impact on the ecosystem. Other populations are only locally extinct (extirpated), still existing elsewhere, but reduced in distribution, as with the extinction of grey whales in the Atlantic.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
As of this edit, this article uses content from "Anatomy and Physiology", which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
ASM Mammal Diversity Database Archived 25 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
Biodiversitymapping.org – All mammal orders in the world with distribution maps Archived 26 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Paleocene Mammals Archived 3 February 2024 at the Wayback Machine, a site covering the rise of the mammals, paleocene-mammals.de
Evolution of Mammals Archived 25 January 2024 at the Wayback Machine, a brief introduction to early mammals, enchantedlearning.com
European Mammal Atlas EMMA Archived 25 January 2024 at the Wayback Machine from Societas Europaea Mammalogica, European-mammals.org
Marine Mammals of the World Archived 8 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine – An overview of all marine mammals, including descriptions, both fully aquatic and semi-aquatic, noaa.gov
Mammalogy.org Archived 1 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine The American Society of Mammalogists was established in 1919 for the purpose of promoting the study of mammals, and this website includes a mammal image library |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davyd_Whaley | Davyd Whaley | Davyd Whaley (December 6, 1967 – October 15, 2014) was an American abstract painter known for expressing in his paintings Jungian themes related to the world of the subconscious.
== Biography ==
Davyd Whaley was born in Bristol, Tennessee, in 1967. He was a Los Angeles-based painter. He was a United States Navy Veteran of four years. Previous to his career as a painter, he was an electrical engineer for twenty years. He met television director Norman Buckley in 2004, and they were married (as soon as they were legally able) from 2008 until Whaley's death on October 15, 2014, in Los Angeles.
== Painter ==
Whaley was primarily self-taught, but he also studied painting at the Art Students League of New York from 2008 to 2011, working with mentors Ronnie Landfield and Larry Poons. His painting style is known for using brilliant colors and for its Jungian themes, reflecting his interest in dream analysis and in the world of the subconscious.
His work appeared on numerous television shows, including CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Californication and Pretty Little Liars.
He later moved his studio out of his home and into the Santa Fe Art Colony in downtown Los Angeles.
== Foundation ==
In 2016, The Davyd Whaley Foundation was established by Whaley's husband Norman Buckley to honor Whaley's legacy of service, through the awarding of grants to artists to follow their own creative paths. Whaley was a philanthropist. He taught art to the underprivileged, counseled grieving families in hospitals, and taught terminally-ill and war-scarred children to paint. He was honored as volunteer of the year by Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors in 2012. Davyd's goals were always evident: make art; buy the art of others; help people whenever possible; grow in consciousness. The mission of the foundation was designed around these tenets.
== Monograph ==
A monograph of Davyd Whaley's work was published in 2016 with an essay called "A Hero's Journey" by Peter Clothier.
== Exhibitions ==
Galerie Michael, Beverly Hills, California, "Davyd Whaley", February 2013
UCLA Design & Arts It's Your Show, Award of Distinction, "Heaven & Hell", May 2013
Aqua Art Miami, Miami Beach, Florida, Galerie Michael, "Davyd Whaley", December 3, 2013 – December 8, 2013
Florence Biennale, Florence, Italy, "Revelations", November 30, 2013 – December 8, 2013
Galerie Michael, Beverly Hills, California, "Davyd Whaley: Subconscious Tendencies", February 2014
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHK_Broadcasting_Center#:~:text=NHK%20Hall%20(Japanese%3A%20NHK%20%E3%83%9B%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB,operation%20on%20June%2020%2C%201973. | NHK Broadcasting Center | The NHK Broadcasting Center (NHK放送センター, Enueichikei Hōsō Sentā), the headquarters of NHK, is located in Jinnan, Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. It includes studios and offices, as well as shops and Studio Park, which is a popular attraction for schoolchildren and tourists.
Located within the same complex is the NHK Hall, in which performances are regularly held and often televised.
The center also hosts offices of international broadcasters, including KBS of South Korea, China Central Television, the Public Broadcasting Service, and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
A number of NHK-related companies have offices at buildings in nearby streets.
The center also houses the NHK Metropolitan Bureau which handles the main Kanto region feeds of NHK's radio and television services.
== Overview ==
Most of the nationwide network programs are produced and transmitted here, and it also serves as a base for block broadcasting for the Kanto-Koshinetsu region. There are satellite broadcasting stations that carry out satellite broadcasting and international broadcasting stations that carry out international broadcasting (NHK World TV, NHK World Radio Japan) outside of Japan.
=== Reconstruction on the Broadcasting Center ===
The Shibuya Broadcasting Center, which is also the headquarters of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation, is the oldest facility, and nearly half a century has passed since its construction. Therefore, from around 2010, it was decided to consider reconstructing all facilities as a "long-term project".
On August 30, 2016, the Japan Broadcasting Corporation announced the basic plan for rebuilding the broadcasting center. According to it, construction will start in September 2020, and the first phase of construction (information building) will be completed in 2025, the 100th anniversary of the start of broadcasting. After that, the second phase of construction (production/office building and public building) will be carried out, and the entire construction will be completed in 2036. Construction costs for the building (not including broadcasting equipment costs) are expected to be 170 billion yen.
== Information on the NHK Buildings ==
=== East Building (東館) ===
Completed in 1965, the oldest in the NHK Broadcasting Center.
=== West Building (西館) ===
Construction started after the completion of the East Building. Completed in 1968 as the second building.
=== Main Building (High-Rise) (本館) ===
The most conspicuous building in the NHK Broadcasting Center. Completed in 1972. After completion, the functions of the Tokyo Broadcasting Center (Former Headquarters) were transferred.
=== NHK Hall ===
NHK Hall (Japanese: NHK ホール) is a multipurpose hall located in Shibuya Ward, Tokyo. The architectural design is Nikken Sekkei (日建設計). It was completed in November 1972 and started operation on June 20, 1973. The current one is the second generation, and the first NHK Hall existed in the NHK Tokyo Broadcasting Center. It is operated by the NHK Service Center, an affiliated corporation of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK).
It is also the home of the NHK Symphony Orchestra.
=== North Building (北館) ===
Completed in 1988.
== References ==
== See also ==
List of NHK broadcasting stations |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahaetulla_anomala | Ahaetulla anomala | The variable colored vine snake (Ahaetulla anomala) is a species of opisthoglyphous (rear-fanged venomous) colubrid vine snake found in Bangladesh and India. It is the first reported sexually dichromatic snake from the Indian Subcontinent, and until 2017 was formerly regarded as a subspecies of the green vine snake, Ahaetulla nasuta.
== Taxonomy ==
This snake was first described by Thomas Nelson Annandale (the first director of the Zoological Survey of India) in 1906. It was later considered a subspecies of Ahaetulla nasuta in 1943. There has long been taxonomic confusion due to the sexually dimorphic coloring of species, with the green males resembling the long-nosed whip snake (Ahaetulla nasuta), while females are brown in color and physically resemble the brown-speckled whipsnake (Ahaetulla pulverulenta). To resolve this confusion, in 2017, a team of biologists conducted a molecular and morphological study of the snake, ultimately finding it to be a distinct species, closely related to its sister taxon Ahaetulla pulverulenta, as shown in the cladogram below (with possible paraphyletic species noted):
The status of Ahaetulla anomala as a separate species is still in dispute, as a 2020 study found A. anomala to be possibly conspecific with Ahaetulla oxyrhyncha.
== Distribution ==
It is limited to India (Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar) and Bangladesh.
== Description ==
This species is sexually dichromatic, with the males being green, while females are brown in color. Sexual dichromatism is rare among snakes and is mostly only documented in some groups such as vipers (Bothrops), Comoran snakes (Lycodryas), and Malagasy leaf-nosed snakes (Langaha madagascariensis).
It has rear fangs typical of the Ahaetulla genus, and a long prominent appendage at the tip of its snout, covered by many small scales above, which is unique among related species. The holotype was 95.5 cm (37.6 in) long in total body length.
== Behavior ==
The snake is diurnal and arboreal, and mostly found on shrubs, trees, and bushes. It feeds primarily on lizards, and it is ovoviviparous.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Noda | Ken Noda | Ken Noda (born October 5, 1962) is an American concert pianist, accompanist, vocal coach, and composer. He began composing music and performing as a concert pianist before the age of 11. He has performed with symphony orchestras throughout the world, and has composed numerous art songs and five operas. He worked as a vocal coach at the Metropolitan Opera from 1991 until retiring from his full time position in July 2019.
== Early life and education ==
Born to Japanese parents in Dobbs Ferry, New York, Noda grew up in Scarborough and was educated at the Hackley School (graduated 1980).
He began studying the piano at age five and was admitted into the Juilliard School on a full scholarship at the age of seven. He has studied piano privately with Daniel Barenboim, Adele Marcus, and Sylvia Rabinof. He studied singing with Beverley Peck Johnson, and for many years was her studio accompanist at Juilliard. In 1986 he was awarded an Avery Fisher Career Grant worth $10,000 (equivalent to $28,685 in 2024).
== Opera compositions ==
Noda composed his first opera, The Canary and the Baseball, at the age of 10, a work which premiered at the Brevard Music Festival on August 18, 1973, and was later staged by the educational wing of the New York City Opera. At the age of 13 he was awarded a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts to compose a three-act opera, The Rivalry (1976), which was his third work in that genre. He has since composed two more operas: The Highwayman (1979) and The Magic Turtle (1980). By the time he was 16 years old he had composed 65 art songs.
== Performance career ==
Noda began performing at a young age, and by the age of 14 he had already appeared as a soloist in concerts with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, the Minnesota Orchestra, the St. Louis Symphony, and the New York Philharmonic. Other orchestras he has performed with include the Berlin Philharmonic, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra, the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the Montreal Symphony Orchestra, the National Symphony Orchestra, the Orchestre de Paris, the Philharmonia Orchestra, and the Vienna Philharmonic among others.
In 1980 Noda performed at Royal Albert Hall for the BBC Proms. In 1982, at the age of 20, he was invited by President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan to perform alongside violinist Itzhak Perlman in the East Room of the White House. The performance was recorded for the PBS television program In Performance at the White House. In 1983 he closed out the Mostly Mozart Festival at Lincoln Center playing Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 conducted by Leonard Slatkin. In 1989 he performed in concert with the Emerson String Quartet for the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center.
In 1991 Noda ceased his performance career after becoming disillusioned with the classical musical world and the role he was playing in it. In an interview with The New York Times several years later, Noda stated the following:
Young people like romance stories and war stories and good-and-evil stories and old movies because their emotional life mostly is and should be fantasy. They put that fantasized emotion into their playing, and it is very convincing. I had an amazing capacity for imagining these feelings, and that's part of what talent is. But it dries up, in everyone. That's why so many prodigies have midlife crises in their late teens or early 20s. If our imagination is not replenished with experience, the ability to reproduce these feelings in one's playing gradually diminishes.
After halting his performance career, Noda joined the staff of the Metropolitan Opera as a vocal coach and administrator in 1991 and has since only performed rarely as a soloist. He continues to perform with regularity as an accompanist to singers in recitals in New York City. Performers he has accompanied include, among others:
== Educator and work at the Metropolitan Opera ==
Since 1999 Noda has taught on the faculty at the Marlboro Music School and Festival. He also spent four summers teaching at the Renata Scotto Opera Academy and gives master classes in opera at the Yale School of Music and the Juilliard School. He currently serves on the staff of the Metropolitan Opera as an instructor to singers in the Lindemann Young Artist Development Program. He has also served as a judge for the final round of the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions. He began working at the Met as a vocal coach in 1991.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)#:~:text=BBC%20Radio%204.-,Honorary%20doctorates,University%20of%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro. | Adrian Smith (statistician) | Sir Adrian Frederick Melhuish Smith, FRS (born 9 September 1946) is a British statistician who was chief executive of the Alan Turing Institute from 2018 to 2023 and president of the Royal Society from 2020 to 2025.
== Early life and education ==
Smith was born on 9 September 1946 in Dawlish in Devon. He was educated at Selwyn College, Cambridge, and University College London, where his PhD supervisor was Dennis Lindley.
== Career ==
From 1977 until 1990, he was professor of statistics and head of department of mathematics at the University of Nottingham. He was subsequently at Imperial College, London, where he was head of the mathematics department. Smith is a former deputy vice-chancellor of the University of London and became vice-chancellor of the university on 1 September 2012. He stood down from the role in August 2018 to become the director of the Alan Turing Institute.
Smith is a member of the governing body of the London Business School. He served on the Advisory Council for the Office for National Statistics from 1996 to 1998, was statistical advisor to the Nuclear Waste Inspectorate from 1991 to 1998 and was advisor on Operational Analysis to the Ministry of Defence from 1982 to 1987.
He is a former president of the Royal Statistical Society. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2001. His FRS citation included "his diverse contributions to Bayesian statistics. His monographs are the most comprehensive available and his work has had a major impact on the development of monitoring tools for clinicians."
In statistical theory, Smith is a proponent of Bayesian statistics and evidence-based practice—a general extension of evidence-based medicine into all areas of public policy. With Antonio Machi, he translated Bruno de Finetti's Theory of Probability into English. He wrote an influential paper in 1990 along with Alan E. Gelfand, which drew attention to the significance of the Gibbs sampler technique for Bayesian numerical integration problems. He was also co-author of the seminal paper on the particle filter (Gordon, Salmond and Smith, 1993).
In mathematics and statistics education, Smith led the team which produced the Smith Report on secondary mathematics education in the United Kingdom.
In April 2008, Smith was appointed as director general of science and research at the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills (since merged with other departments to form the UK's BEIS). He took up his post in September 2008. His annual remuneration for this role was £160,000.
Smith was knighted in the 2011 New Year Honours. In 2023 he was a guest on The Life Scientific on BBC Radio 4.
== Honorary doctorates ==
In 2011, Smith was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Plymouth University in 2015, an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Ohio State University, and in 2020, an Honorary Doctorate Honoris Causa from Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. He also was awarded Honorary Doctorates from City University, University of Loughborough, Queen Mary and University of London.
== Bibliography ==
Gelfand, A. E.; Smith, A. F. M. (1990). "Sampling-Based Approaches to Calculating Marginal Densities". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 85 (410): 398–409. doi:10.2307/2289776. JSTOR 2289776.
Gordon, N.J.; Salmond, D.J.; Smith, A.F.M. (1993). "Novel approach to nonlinear/non-Gaussian Bayesian state estimation". IEE Proceedings F - Radar and Signal Processing. 140 (2). Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET): 107. doi:10.1049/ip-f-2.1993.0015. ISSN 0956-375X.
Smith, Adrian (2004). Making Mathematics Count: The Report of Professor Adrian Smith's Inquiry into Post-14 Mathematics Education. London, England: The Stationery Office.
== See also ==
List of Vice-Chancellors of the University of London
List of presidents of the Royal Society
== References ==
== External links ==
Making Mathematics Count (Smith report)
There is a photograph at "Adrian F M Smith" on the Portraits of Statisticians page
Dellaportas, Petros; Stephens, David A. (2020). "Interview with Professor Adrian FM Smith". International Statistical Review. 88 (2): 265–279. doi:10.1111/insr.12395. S2CID 225600734. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectations_(Bebe_Rexha_album) | Expectations (Bebe Rexha album) | Expectations is the debut studio album by American singer-songwriter Bebe Rexha. It was released on June 22, 2018, by Warner Bros. Records. The album was announced following the success of her collaboration with country duo Florida Georgia Line, "Meant to Be". Expectations went out for pre-order on April 13, 2018, with the release of two promotional singles: "Ferrari" and "2 Souls on Fire". The album includes the singles "I Got You" and "Meant to Be" from All Your Fault: Pt. 1 and All Your Fault: Pt. 2, respectively. It features appearances from rappers Quavo and Tory Lanez, along with Florida Georgia Line.
Expectations received generally positive reviews from music critics, who praised its production and Rexha's vocal performance, while others criticized its lyricism. The album debuted at number thirteen on the US Billboard 200 chart, earning 24,000 album-equivalent units (including 10,000 copies as pure album sales) in its first week. As of January 2019, the album has sold 604,000 units (with 37,000 copies in pure album sales) in the US. The album was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over a million units in the United States.
== Background ==
Following the release of All Your Fault: Pt. 2 (2017), Rexha began teasing new songs for a third installment in the All Your Fault series, with her manager going on record about its release. However, it appeared plans had changed, as Rexha revealed her next project would be called Expectations through a tweet in November 2017. Rexha revealed the cover art on April 8, 2018, with the album being available for pre-order on April 13.
== Singles ==
"I'm a Mess" was released as the lead single from the album on June 15, following an early radio release in the United States. It has so far peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Rexha's first top 40 hit as a solo lead artist. "I Got You" and "Meant to Be" featuring Florida Georgia Line, from the first and second parts of All Your Fault respectively, were also included on the album.
=== Promotional singles ===
"Ferrari" and "2 Souls on Fire", the latter of which features Quavo of Migos, were released as promotional singles on April 13, 2018, with the pre-order of the album. "Ferrari" has since received a vertical video.
== Critical reception ==
Expectations received mostly positive reviews. According to Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 65, based on six reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". AllMusic's Neil Z. Yeung viewed the album as "an improvement upon her trio of EP releases that succeeds in presenting mature, forward-thinking pop of the dark, introspective variety" and concluded, "While it could benefit from some tightening – the middle stretch stalls the momentum – Expectations affirms Rexha's songwriting prowess, ear for catchy hooks, and ability to pull emotion from otherwise serviceable radio pop". Craig Jenkins from Vulture referred to the album as "a showcase for the versatility of her instrument, which is both high and hearty and also a little wan, capable of hitting incredible marks in its upper register at the cost of coming in a little shrill". He especially praised album's intriguing ideas, playful lyrics and memorable hooks, dubbing it "one of the week's easiest pleasures".
Ilana Kaplan and Nick Hasted from The Independent highlighted album's ballads "Grace" and "Knees", describing Expectations as "album full of flawed, self-deprecating and boundary-pushing pop offerings". Idolator's Mike Nied stated that the album "perfectly captures the superstar's ethos" and that Rexha's "very recognizable voice is absolutely riveting." Nevertheless, he opined that the inclusion of "Meant to Be" "feels out of place", despite being "her biggest hit to date". Nick Levine from NME perceived Rexha more as an "emo singer", while Refinery29's Courtney E. Smith described Rexha as an "anti-hero" and a "dangerous woman fiercely playing with themes of depression, a lack of self-control, and unpredictability". In addition, Smith expressed that the singer "did a masterful job of painting a nihilistic scene in which she's an observer, and sometimes an unreliable narrator", but emphasized a lack of "autobiographical impression". Rolling Stone's Sarah Grant wrote that on Expectations, Rexha "paints herself as a heroine trapped in an ivory tower of her own making, but her cat-scratching upper register suggests sensitivity more than vengeance", calling it "an impressive debut album full of nostalgic heartache". Tommy Monroe from The Quietus stated that "a few tracks do do lack energy", however he described Rexha as "no ordinary singer" and "a chameleon who can switch vocals, blend with any sound, and find rhythm with any tempo".
In a less positive review, Laura Snapes of The Guardian criticized the overuse of Auto-Tune and Rexha's "desperate search of an identity" throughout the album, citing "Ferrari" as the "only remotely distinctive song".
== Commercial performance ==
Expectations debuted at number 13 on the US Billboard 200 chart, earning 24,000 album-equivalent units (including 10,000 copies as pure album sales) in its first week. In Canada, the album debuted at number fourteen on the Billboard Canadian Albums . As of January 2019, the album has sold 604,000 units (with 37,000 copies in pure album sales) in the US. On October 23, 2020, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over a million units in the United States.
== Track listing ==
Sample credit
"I'm a Mess" contains an interpolation of the 1997 song "Bitch", performed by Meredith Brooks.
Notes
^[a] signifies an additional vocal producer.
^[b] signifies an additional producer.
== Personnel ==
Production
Management – Adam Mersel
Mitch McCarthy – mixing (tracks 1–5, and 7–13)
Manny Marroquin – mixing (track 6)
Emerson Mancini – mastering
Ron Blake – trumpet (track 7)
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_Angluin | Dana Angluin | Dana Angluin is a professor emeritus of computer science at Yale University. She is known for foundational work in computational learning theory and distributed computing.
== Education ==
Angluin received her B.A. (1969) and Ph.D. (1976) at University of California, Berkeley. Her thesis, entitled "An application of the theory of computational complexity to the study of inductive inference" was one of the first works to apply complexity theory to the field of inductive inference. Angluin joined the faculty at Yale in 1979.
== Research ==
Angluin's work helped establish the theoretical foundations of machine learning.
L* Algorithm
Angluin has written highly cited papers on computational learning theory, particularly in the context of learning regular language sets from membership and equivalence queries using the L* algorithm. This algorithm addresses the problem of identifying an unknown set. In essence, this algorithm is a way for programs to learn complex systems through the process of trial and error of educated guesses, to determine the behavior of the system. Through the responses, the algorithm can continue to refine its understanding of the system. This algorithm uses a minimally adequate Teacher (MAT) to pose questions about the unknown set. The MAT provides yes or no answers to membership queries, saying whether an input is a member of the unknown set, and equivalence queries, saying whether a description of the set is accurate or not. The Learner uses responses from the Teacher to refine its understanding of the set S in polynomial time. Though Angluin's paper was published in 1987, a 2017 article by computer science Professor Frits Vaandrager says "the most efficient learning algorithms that are being used today all follow Angluin's approach of a minimally adequate teacher".
=== Learning from Noisy Examples ===
Angluin's work on learning from noisy examples has also been very influential to the field of machine learning. Her work addresses the problem of adapting learning algorithms to cope with incorrect training examples (noisy data). Angluin's study demonstrates that algorithms exist for learning in the presence of errors in the data.
=== Other Achievements ===
In distributed computing, she co-invented the population protocol model and studied the problem of consensus. In probabilistic algorithms, she has studied randomized algorithms for Hamiltonian circuits and matchings.
Angluin helped found the Computational Learning Theory (COLT) conference, and has served on program committees and steering committees for COLT She served as an area editor for Information and Computation from 1989 to 1992. She organized Yale's Computer Science Department's Perlis Symposium in April 2001: "From Statistics to Chat: Trends in Machine Learning". She is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery and the Association for Women in Mathematics.
Angluin is highly celebrated as an educator, having won "three of the most distinguished teaching prizes Yale College has to offer": the Dylan Hixon Prize for Teaching Excellence in the Sciences, The Bryne/Sewall Prize for distinguished undergraduate teaching, and the Phi Beta Kappa DeVane Medal.
Angluin has also published works on Ada Lovelace and her involvement with the Analytical Engine.
== Selected publications ==
Dana Angluin (1988). Queries and concept learning. Machine Learning. 2 (4): 319–342.
Dana Angluin (1987). "Learning Regular Sets from Queries and Counter-Examples" (PDF). Information and Control. 75 (2): 87–106. doi:10.1016/0890-5401(87)90052-6. S2CID 11873053. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-02.
Dana Angluin and Philip Laird (1988). Learning from noisy examples. Machine Learning 2 (4), 343–370.
Dana Angluin and Leslie Valiant (1979). Fast probabilistic algorithms for Hamiltonian circuits and matchings. Journal of Computer and system Sciences 18 (2), 155–193
Dana Angluin (1980). "Finding Patterns Common to a Set of Strings". Journal of Computer and System Sciences. 21: 46–62. doi:10.1016/0022-0000(80)90041-0.
Dana Angluin (1980). "Inductive Inference of Formal Languages from Positive Data" (PDF). Information and Control. 45 (2): 117–135. doi:10.1016/s0019-9958(80)90285-5. [4]
Dana Angluin, James Aspnes, Zoë Diamadi, Michael J Fischer, René Peralta (2004). Computation in networks of passively mobile finite-state sensors. Distributed computing 18 (4), 235–253.
Dana Angluin (1976). An Application of the Theory of Computational Complexity to the Study of Inductive Inference (Ph.D.). University of California at Berkeley.
== See also ==
Automata theory
Distributed computing
Computational learning theory
== References ==
== External links ==
Angluin's home page at Yale University
Dana Angluin publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothee_Kern | Dorothee Kern | Dorothee Kern (born 1966) is a professor of Biochemistry at Brandeis University and former player for the East German national basketball team.
In 2016, she cofounded Relay Therapeutics, a Massachusetts-based drug research company studying the motion of proteins using genomic data and computational biology. In 2020, she cofounded MOMA Therapeutics, a company working on drug discovery.
In 2017 she became a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, a scientific advisory body to the German government and citizens that serves as a liaison between the German scientific community and the rest of the world.
== Life and career ==
=== Early life ===
Born in Halle, a town in former East Germany, to parents Gerhard and Gertraude Hübner, she was an energetic child who began learning to play basketball as early as age seven. She achieved her goal of playing for the East German national basketball team by the time she was a teenager playing the position point guard, and she served as captain of the team. Both of her parents were employed by Martin Luther University as biochemists.
Growing up in Communist East Germany, Kern and her family experienced backlash and obstacles from the government due to their lack of support of the Communist party. The Hübner family would not work in conjunction with the East German government or their loyal police force, the Stasi. This led to surveillance of the family by the government, as well as the loss of her mother's job and the stunting of her father's career. Due to the division between East and West Germany and the Communist Party, scientists in East Germany rarely had the opportunity to collaborate with scientists from the West, thus limiting the Hübner family's access to other research, tools, and scientific equipment that researchers utilized in the West Germany.
=== Education ===
Kern attended Martin Luther University in Halle, Germany and received her B.S, M.S, and Ph.D. in biochemistry from the institution. She also attended UC Berkeley where she completed postdoctoral work.
=== Family ===
Kern is married to Gunther Kern and has two daughters, Julia and Nadja. Julia Kern attended Dartmouth College and is a member of the US Ski Team, participating in the cross-country skiing event. Nadja Kern attended UC San Diego and played on the women's basketball team at the university. She is now attending graduate school at UCSF studying biophysics.
== Research ==
She has published papers on, and continues to research, protein folding, especially using NMR techniques. Examples of her research include the activation of proteins and changes in protein shape and the connection to allosteric regulation.
Kern's major research area of focus involves protein dynamics and how proteins move over time. Along with her father and husband, Kern published a paper on Vitamin B1 enzyme activation and was able to record the process unfolding utilizing a combination of NMR spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, and biological computing.
This granted Kern notability in the scientific community and ultimately paved the way for her tenure at Brandeis University where she continued her investigation of protein movement. After the founding of Relay Therapeutics in 2016, she began to apply her previous protein research to cancer biology. Along with her research team at Brandeis, Kern published a paper detailing their discoveries in which they utilized high-level biological computing and imaging to study the evolutionary shifts in protein structure of certain proteins and enzymes commonly involved in cancer over three million years of evolutionary history. This research was highly praised by the scientific community and has many potential future implications in specific targeting of anti-cancer drugs to cancer cells without affecting healthy cells.
Following this work, she was inducted into the German Academy of Scientists Leopoldina in 2017.
In 2020, Kern cofounded MOMA Therapeutics, a pharmaceutical company studying molecular machines and their role in disease. The goal of MOMA Therapeutics is to develop new drugs using the knowledge of molecular machines, protein conformational changes, and enzyme-substrate interaction in order to deliver medications more precisely.
=== Selected publications ===
Henzler-Wildman, Katherine; Kern, Dorothee (2007). "Dynamic personalities of proteins". Nature. 450 (7172): 964–972. Bibcode:2007Natur.450..964H. doi:10.1038/nature06522. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 18075575. S2CID 4412556.
Eisenmesser, Elan Z.; Millet, Oscar; Labeikovsky, Wladimir; Korzhnev, Dmitry M.; Wolf-Watz, Magnus; Bosco, Daryl A.; Skalicky, Jack J.; Kay, Lewis E.; Kern, Dorothee (2005). "Intrinsic dynamics of an enzyme underlies catalysis". Nature. 438 (7064): 117–121. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..117E. doi:10.1038/nature04105. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 16267559. S2CID 4380264.
Kern, Dorothee; Zuiderweg, Erik RP (2003). "The role of dynamics in allosteric regulation". Current Opinion in Structural Biology. 13 (6): 748–757. doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2003.10.008. PMID 14675554.
Kern, D. (1997-01-03). "How Thiamin Diphosphate Is Activated in Enzymes". Science. 275 (5296): 67–70. doi:10.1126/science.275.5296.67. PMID 8974393. S2CID 42796172.
== Awards and honors ==
Young Investigator Award of the International Association for Protein Structure Analysis (2002)
Pfizer Award in Enzyme Chemistry, American Chemical Society (2003)
Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award (2004)
Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator (2005)
National Lecturer of the Biophysical Society (2009)
== References ==
== External links ==
group website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_World_Series | 2007 World Series | The 2007 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2007 season. The 103rd edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Colorado Rockies and the American League (AL) champion Boston Red Sox; the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games.
It is the Rockies' first and only appearance in a World Series as of 2025. Boston’s victory was their second World Series championship in four seasons, their second consecutive World Series sweep and their seventh World Series victory overall; it also marked the third sweep in four years by the AL champions. The series began on Wednesday, October 24 and ended on Sunday, October 28.
Terry Francona became the second Red Sox manager to win two World Series titles, following Bill Carrigan, who won the 1915 and 1916 World Series. Including the last three games of the AL Championship Series, the Red Sox outscored their opposition 59–15 over their final seven games. Francona also became the first manager to win his first 8 World Series games. The Rockies, meanwhile, became the first NL team to get swept in a World Series after sweeping the League Championship Series, and just the second team ever to suffer such a fate, following the Oakland Athletics in 1990. This fate would again be suffered by the 2012 Detroit Tigers, being swept by the San Francisco Giants in the World Series after sweeping the New York Yankees in the ALCS. As of the conclusion of the 2024 season, 2007 remains the most recent season an American League team has swept a National League team in the World Series.
== Background ==
This was the fourth time since the beginning of interleague play in 1997 that a World Series matchup would be a rematch from the regular season. The Rockies beat the Red Sox 2-1 in a three game series at Fenway Park from June 12–14.
Over the course of 29 days in September through the middle of October, the Rockies won 21 games and lost just once, including sweeps of the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLDS and the division rival Arizona Diamondbacks in the NLCS. They also beat the San Diego Padres in the NL Wild Card tie-breaker. The Rockies run in 2007 proved to be one of the most unlikely postseason runs in MLB history, having just 33/1 odds at the start of 2007 to win the National League. The Rockies' eight-day layoff was the longest in MLB postseason history, caused by their sweep in the NLCS, the ALCS going seven games, and scheduling by MLB.
The Red Sox were more a conventionally dominant team, leading the American League East for most the season. In the postseason, the Red Sox swept the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the ALDS and defeated the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS after trailing three games to one, taking the final three contests by a combined score of 30–5. There were a number of the famed curse-breaking 2004 Red Sox players still with the team. Neither participating team was in the previous year's postseason.
Per the 2006 Collective Bargaining Agreement, the Red Sox had home-field advantage in the World Series following the American League's 5–4 win in the 2007 All-Star Game. The first two games took place in Boston, with games 3 and 4 in Denver.
=== Ticket controversy ===
On October 17, 2007, a week before the first game of the World Series, the Colorado Rockies announced that tickets would be made available to the general public via online sales only, despite prior arrangements to sell the tickets at local retail outlets. Five days later, California-based ticket vendor Paciolan, Inc., the sole contractor authorized by the Colorado Rockies to distribute tickets, was forced to suspend sales after less than an hour due to an exorbitant number of purchase attempts.
The Rockies organization said that they were the victims of a denial-of-service attack. The FBI started its own investigation into these claims. Ticket sales resumed the next day, with all three home games selling out within 2+1⁄2 hours.
The Red Sox also relied primarily on online sales to sell the game tickets, although some Fenway Park tickets were sold on the phone and at the box office. The Sox held a random drawing for the right to buy post season tickets on October 15, and winners bought tickets at a private online sale. Street prices were lower in Boston this time than in 2004: the average price, according to StubHub, was about $1500 in 2007, down about $300 from three years previously. Some Sox fans found that it was cheaper to travel to Denver to see World Series games than to pay the street price for Boston game tickets.
== Summary ==
Boston won the series, 4–0.
== Matchups ==
=== Game 1 ===
The Red Sox cruised to a blowout win in Game 1 behind ALCS MVP Josh Beckett, who struck out nine batters, including the first four he faced, over seven innings en route to his fourth win of the 2007 postseason. Mike Timlin and Éric Gagné pitched a perfect eighth and ninth, respectively.
Boston Hall of Famer Carl Yastrzemski threw the ceremonial first pitch, as he had done before Game 1 in 2004. Rookie Dustin Pedroia led off the Sox' first inning with a home run over the Green Monster in Fenway Park off of Jeff Francis. Pedroia's homer was only the second lead-off home run to start a World Series (the only other one was hit by Baltimore's Don Buford in 1969). Kevin Youkilis then doubled to right, moved to third on David Ortiz's groundout, and scored on Manny Ramirez's single. After Mike Lowell flew out, Jason Varitek singled before J. D. Drew doubled to score Ramirez and make it 3-0 Red Sox.
The Rockies got on the board in the second when Garrett Atkins doubled with one out off Beckett and scored on Troy Tulowitzki's double one out later, but the Red Sox got that run back off of Francis when Youkilis walked with two outs and scored on Ortiz's double. In the fourth, the Red Sox loaded the bases with two outs on a single, double, and intentional walk when Varitek's two-run double put them up 6–1.
They put the game out of reach with seven runs in the fifth. Julio Lugo hit a leadoff single off of reliever Franklin Morales before Jacoby Ellsbury bunted into a forceout at second. After Pedroia popped out, a balk moved Ellsbury to second before he scored on Youkilis's double. Ortiz's double and Ramirez's single scored a run each. The Red Sox loaded the bases on a double and walk before Drew's single scored another run. Ryan Speier relieved Morales and walked all three batters he faced to force in three more Boston runs. Matt Herges relieved Speier and got Youkilis to fly out to right to end the inning.
Though Herges and two relievers held Boston scoreless for the rest of the game, the Red Sox finished with 13 runs, the most ever in a World Series Game 1, and tied another record with nine extra base hits. The last 11 of the Red Sox runs came with two outs.
=== Game 2 ===
The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by Andrew Madden, a 13-year-old heart transplant recipient, accompanied by Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame member Dwight Evans. After the debacle of Game 1, Colorado appeared to return to form, scoring quickly on a groundout by Todd Helton with runners on second and third in the first. However, this would be the only time the Rockies ever led in the series as postseason veteran Curt Schilling (5+1⁄3 IP, one run, four hits) and Boston's bullpen (Okajima, 2+1⁄3 IP; Papelbon, 1+1⁄3 IP) allowed no other runs in the contest. The Red Sox tied the game in the fourth off of Ubaldo Jimenez on Jason Varitek's sacrifice fly with runners on second and third, then took the lead next inning on Mike Lowell's RBI double with runners on first and second. Matt Holliday had four of Colorado's five hits in Game 2, including a base hit off Papelbon with two outs in the eighth. Before throwing another pitch, Papelbon caught Holliday leaning too far off first base and picked him off—Papelbon's first career pickoff.
=== Game 3 ===
This was the first World Series game ever played in Colorado. At 4 hours 19 minutes, it became the longest nine-inning game in World Series history. Game 3 was also the 600th World Series game ever played. Starting pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka pitched five innings of scoreless ball and left in the sixth with no runs allowed. The Red Sox struck first with a six-run third inning. Rookie Jacoby Ellsbury hit a leadoff double, moved to third on Dustin Pedroia's single, and scored on David Ortiz's double. After Manny Ramirez was intentionally walked, Mike Lowell's single scored two more runs. J. D. Drew popped out before Ramirez was thrown out at home on Jason Varitek's single with Lowell advancing to third. After Julio Lugo walked to load the bases, Matsuzaka hit a two-run single for his first base hit and RBI in the Major Leagues. Ellsbury capped the scoring with his second double of the inning to knock Colorado starter Josh Fogg out of the game. The Rockies' bats came to life in the sixth and seventh innings against a normally-solid but now-shaky Boston bullpen. After Matsuzaka walked two straight in the sixth with one out, reliever Javier López allowed back-to-back RBI singles to Brad Hawpe and Yorvit Torrealba. Mike Timlin allowed two straight leadoff singles in the seventh before NLCS MVP Matt Holliday brought the Rockies to within one run with a three-run home run off Hideki Okajima. Brian Fuentes gave back those runs in the eighth by walking Lugo with one out and allowing a subsequent single to Coco Crisp before Ellsbury and Dustin Pedroia, who had four and three hits, respectively, on the night (the first time in World Series history two rookies had at least three hits in a game) hit back-to-back RBI doubles, raising Boston's lead to 9–5. Jonathan Papelbon came on for a four-out save, getting Holliday to fly out on one pitch, leaving runners on first and second. Jason Varitek would tack on Boston's tenth run in the top of the ninth off of LaTroy Hawkins with a sacrifice fly, scoring Mike Lowell who, not generally considered a stolen base threat, had just stolen third base—the first time a Red Sox baserunner stole third base in the World Series since 1975—after hitting a leadoff single and moving to second on a sacrifice bunt. Papelbon came back out in the bottom of the ninth to complete the save, getting the first two outs before surrendering a two-out triple to Brad Hawpe, then finishing the game with a groundout from Yorvit Torrealba. The Red Sox took Game 3 by a final score of 10–5.
The Red Sox continued to set World Series records during Game 3:
Ellsbury (four hits) and Pedroia (three) combined to score three runs and drive in four, while being the first rookies to bat 1–2 in a World Series lineup.
Ellsbury became the third rookie in Series history with four hits in a game, joining Freddie Lindstrom of the New York Giants (Game 5, 1924) and Joe Garagiola of the Cardinals (Game 4, 1946).
Matsuzaka became the first Japanese pitcher to start and win a World Series game. The only pitchers in Red Sox history, other than Matsuzaka, to have two RBI and be the winning pitcher were Babe Ruth in 1918 and Cy Young in 1903.
The Red Sox' 16 doubles tied a World Series record, set by the 1982 Champion Cardinals. The Red Sox would break the record in Game 4, finishing with 18.
=== Game 4 ===
The Red Sox struck early. Rookie Jacoby Ellsbury began the first inning with a double and was advanced by Dustin Pedroia with a groundout, followed by an RBI single from David Ortiz. Series MVP Mike Lowell hit a leadoff double in the fifth and scored on Jason Varitek's single, making the score 2–0 Boston. In the seventh inning, Lowell hit a home run to give Boston a 3–0 lead and knock starter Aaron Cook out of the game. The Colorado offense answered when left fielder Brad Hawpe hit a home run off of a Manny Delcarmen fastball, bringing the Rockies within two. Relief pitcher Brian Fuentes gave back that run abruptly, allowing Boston pinch-hitter Bobby Kielty to hit a ball into the left field stands on the first pitch of the inning, extending the Red Sox lead to 4–1. In the bottom of the inning Boston pitcher Hideki Okajima allowed a one-out single to Todd Helton followed by a Garrett Atkins two-run home run, bringing the Rockies within one. Jonathan Papelbon relieved Okajima and earned his third save of the series. At 12:06 a.m. EDT on Monday, October 29, Papelbon struck out Colorado pinch hitter Seth Smith for the final out of the 2007 season. Boston had won its second World Series title in four years and seventh all-time.
There was controversy in the top of the eighth when Fox's broadcast announced that Alex Rodriguez would be opting out of his contract with the Yankees to become a free agent. Commissioner Bud Selig made it clear during the World Series that an embargo had been placed on all Major League Baseball stories until the sport's top event had come to an end. Rodriguez and his agent Scott Boras would later apologize for the incident.
The Rockies became the third team in Series history (the 1937 Yankees and 1966 Orioles were the others) not to commit an error in a World Series of any length. They were the first team to do so while losing the World Series.
== Composite line score ==
2007 World Series (4–0): Boston Red Sox (A.L.) beat Colorado Rockies (N.L.).
== Series Statistics ==
=== Boston Red Sox ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
=== Colorado Rockies ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
== Celebration ==
While the celebratory crowd at Kenmore Square was not as unruly as in 2004, cars were overturned and 37 arrests were made. The Red Sox victory parade, yet again in duck boats and called a "Rolling Rally" as in 2004, was on October 30, 2007 with closer Jonathan Papelbon doing his infamous "Irish Jig" while local punk band the Dropkick Murphys played their hit "I'm Shipping Up to Boston".
The Red Sox World Series win in 2007 continued the success of Boston-area teams in recent years. The Celtics won their 17th championship, their first championship since 1986, the last time the Red Sox lost in the World Series, 7+1⁄2 months later. They would win their 18th championship in 2024. Furthermore, the New England Patriots had victories in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016 and 2018, the Boston Bruins in 2011, and the Red Sox three years earlier in 2004 and six years later in 2013 and five years after that in 2018.
== Broadcasting ==
The World Series was televised by Fox in the United States, with Joe Buck and Tim McCarver as booth announcers. The starting time for each television broadcast was 8:00 pm EDT (6:00 pm MDT). The series broke with the recent tradition of starting the World Series on a Saturday, as Major League Baseball had become convinced that weekend games drew lower television ratings. Prior to this season, every World Series since 1985 had opened on a Saturday, with the exception of the 1990 World Series. This was the first World Series to start on a Wednesday since 1968.
Rogers Sportsnet (RSN) in Canada used the MLB International feed with Dave O'Brien and Rick Sutcliffe as booth announcers. NASN showed the games live to most of Europe, while in the UK, all games were shown terrestrially on Five. NHK aired the Series in Japan.
On radio, the Series was broadcast nationally by ESPN Radio, with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan announcing. Locally, Joe Castiglione and Glenn Geffner called the Series for the Red Sox on WRKO in Boston, while Jack Corrigan and Jeff Kingery called it for the Rockies on KOA in Denver. Per contractual obligation, the non-flagship stations on the teams' radio networks carried the ESPN Radio broadcasts.
== Aftermath ==
=== Red Sox ===
The Red Sox won two more World Series titles in 2013 and 2018; both of those titles were managed by two members of the 2007 club. Pitching coach John Farrell served as the skipper of the 2013 Red Sox, featuring 2007 holdovers Clay Buchholz (DNP), Jacoby Ellsbury, Jon Lester, David Ortiz, and Dustin Pedroia. The 2018 Red Sox was managed by Alex Cora, an infielder on the 2007 team.
The Red Sox finished as a wild-card team in the 2008 season, winning 95 games. They were defeated in the ALCS by the Tampa Bay Rays in seven games. The Red Sox again qualified as a 95-win wild-card team in 2009, but lost 3–0 to the Los Angeles Angels in the ALDS. In both 2010 and 2011, the Red Sox missed the postseason despite winning 89 and 90 games, respectively. The 2011 season saw the Red Sox hold a nine-game lead in the wild card heading to September, only to lose 13 of their final 20 games to miss the playoffs. This led to the dismissal of skipper Terry Francona, and the end of an era for Red Sox baseball. By their next championship in 2013, they had both a new general manager and manager.
=== Rockies ===
The Rockies World Series run was nicknamed “Rocktober” — a portmanteau of the Rockies team name and October.
After making the World Series in 2007, the Rockies proceeded to appear in the playoffs only three times in the next 15 seasons with the 2007 season being the Rockies sole World Series berth. In 2009, the Rockies won a wild-card berth after winning 92 games, but in a rematch of the 2007 NLDS, the Rockies lost in four games to the Philadelphia Phillies. During that season, the Rockies fired Clint Hurdle and replaced him with Jim Tracy. The Rockies never finished higher than third place in the NL West between 2010 and 2017, though in the latter season, they returned to postseason play as a second wild-card team. There, the Rockies lost in the Wild Card Game to the Arizona Diamondbacks. The following season, the Rockies made consecutive postseason appearances for the first time in team history, winning the Wild Card Game against the Chicago Cubs, but losing in the NLDS to the Milwaukee Brewers 3–0.
After managing the Rockies, Hurdle was hired by the Pittsburgh Pirates in 2011, and in 2013, ended a major North American professional sports record 20-year drought without a winning season. The Pirates proceeded to make the postseason three consecutive years under Hurdle, winning the 2013 National League Wild Card Game during that span.
Three members of the 2007 Rockies went on to win a World Series ring with other teams. Outfielder Matt Holliday won in 2011 with the St. Louis Cardinals, pitcher Jeremy Affeldt won in 2010, 2012 and 2014 with the San Francisco Giants, and pitcher Franklin Morales won in 2013 with the Red Sox, and in 2015 with the Kansas City Royals.
== See also ==
2007 Asia Series
2007 Korean Series
2007 Japan Series
List of World Series sweeps
== Notes ==
== External links ==
2007 World Series at Baseball Almanac
2007 World Series at Baseball-Reference.com
The 2007 Post-Season Games (box scores and play-by-play) at Retrosheet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naledi_Pandor#:~:text=Pandor%20completed%20high%20school%20in%20Botswana. | Naledi Pandor | Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor (née Matthews; born 7 December 1953) is a South African politician, educator and academic who served as the Minister of International Relations and Cooperation from 2019 until 2024. She also served as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the African National Congress (ANC) from 1994 to 2024.
Born in Durban, Pandor completed high school in Botswana. She qualified as a teacher and taught at multiple schools and universities, while she achieved various degrees from different universities. Pandor took office as a Member of Parliament in 1994. She soon became Deputy Chief Whip of the ANC caucus in 1995. She was elected Deputy Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces in 1998 and became chairperson in 1999.
She initially became a member of the national cabinet in 2004, following President Thabo Mbeki's decision to appoint her as Minister of Education. She retained her post in the cabinet of Kgalema Motlanthe. Newly elected President Jacob Zuma named her Minister of Science and Technology in 2009. She served in the position until her appointment as Minister of Home Affairs in 2012. She returned to the post of Minister of Science and Technology in 2014 and held it until 2018, when she became Minister of Higher Education and Training in the first cabinet of President Cyril Ramaphosa. After the 2019 general election, Pandor was mentioned as a possible candidate for Deputy President of South Africa. She was instead appointed Minister of International Relations and Cooperation. Pandor unsuccessfully stood for re-election to the National Assembly at the 2024 general election.
She has been the chair of the board of trustees of the Nelson Mandela Foundation since the 1st of October 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Grace Naledi Mandisa Matthews was born on 7 December 1953 in Durban, Natal, to Regina Thelma (died 2002) and Joe Matthews (1929–2010), a political and anti-apartheid activist and the son of academic Z. K. Matthews (1901–1968). She received her primary and secondary education in Botswana. She matriculated from Gaborone Secondary School. Between 1973 and 1977, she achieved a Certificate for Continuing Education and a bachelor's degree from the University of Swaziland and the University of Botswana, respectively. She then went overseas and fulfilled a Diploma in Education and an MA degree from the University of London between 1978 and 1979.
Pandor obtained a diploma in higher education, administration and leadership from the Bryn Mawr Summer Programme in 1992, and soon enrolled at Harvard Kennedy School to receive a diploma in leadership in development in 1997. She also attained an MA degree in linguistics from the University of Stellenbosch in the same year. Pandor received her PhD in education at the University of Pretoria in 2019, with a thesis titled "The contested meaning of transformation in higher education in post-apartheid South Africa".
== Teaching career ==
Pandor became a teacher at the Ernest Bevin School in London in 1980. She was subsequently employed as a teacher in Gaborone from 1981 to 1984, and as an instructor at the Taung College of Education from 1984 to 1986. Pandor worked as a senior lecturer in English at the University of Bophuthatswana from 1986 to 1989, and then as a senior fellow in the Academic Support Programme of the University of Cape Town from 1989 to 1994.
While at the University of Bophuthatswana, Pandor served as the chair of the university's Union of Democratic Staff Associations between 1988 and 1990. She was appointed the chairperson of the Western Cape National Executive Committee of the National Education Coordinating Committee in 1991 and served in the position until 1993. At the same time, she was part of the ANC's Western Cape Education Committee.
Additionally, Pandor chaired the ANC Athlone Central branch, while serving as both the head of the Desmond Tutu Education Trust and the Western Cape School Building Trust.
From 1992 to 1995, she worked as deputy head of the Tertiary Education Fund of South Africa. She soon became head of the fund. She was also deputy chairperson of the Joint Education Trust Board of Trustees between 1993 and 2001.
She was chancellor of Cape Technikon from 2002 to 2004. During the same period, she was a member of the governing council of the University of Fort Hare.
== Early parliamentary career ==
Pandor became a Member of the Parliament in the lower house of Parliament, the National Assembly, following the 1994 general election. Within the ANC caucus, she served as Deputy Chief Whip from 1995 until her deployment to the upper house of Parliament, the National Council of Provinces, in 1998. She served as Deputy Chairperson until her appointment as Chairperson following the 1999 general election. She succeeded inaugural Chairperson Mosioua Lekota when she assumed the office on 21 June 1999. She was the first woman to hold the role. Joyce Kgoali succeeded Pandor in 2004 and consequently became the second woman to hold the role.
== National government ==
=== Minister of Education (2004–2009) ===
Pandor returned to the National Assembly following the 2004 general election. President Thabo Mbeki appointed her to the role of Minister of Education; she took office on 12 May 2004. During her tenure in the portfolio, she was responsible for a complete overhaul of the nation's education system. Pandor initiated reforms to the country's failed implementation of the outcomes-based education (OBE) system. Mbeki resigned in 2008 and left Kgalema Motlanthe in charge. Motlanthe retained Pandor in her position in his interim cabinet.
=== Minister of Science and Technology (2009–2012) ===
Following the 2009 general election, Jacob Zuma became the new President of South Africa. He unbundled the Education Ministry into two new portfolios and appointed Pandor to the newly established post of Minister of Science and Technology in May 2009. During her time in the position, Pandor served as a driving force for South Africa to host the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) in the Karoo region. South Africa won the bid.
=== Minister of Home Affairs (2012–2014) ===
In October 2012, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma resigned as Minister of Home Affairs in order for her to take up the role as Chair of the African Union. Her resignation caused a vacancy in the cabinet. Zuma consequently appointed Pandor as Minister of Home Affairs in an acting capacity on 2 October 2012. Soon after on 4 October 2012, Zuma formally appointed her as Minister of Home Affairs. In October 2013, she served as acting president for a day as Zuma visited the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
=== Minister of Science and Technology (2014–2018) ===
Following her re-election in the 2014 general election, Zuma announced that Pandor would return to the Department of Science and Technology. Malusi Gigaba succeeded her as Minister of Home Affairs. She took office on 26 May 2014 and succeeded Derek Hanekom.
=== Minister of Higher Education and Training (2018–2019) ===
Cyril Ramaphosa assumed the office of President in February 2018. Pandor was appointed Minister of Higher Education and Training and took office on 27 February 2018, succeeding Hlengiwe Mkhize.
=== Minister of International Relations and Cooperation (2019–2024) ===
After the 2019 general election, the Ministry of Higher Education and Training was split. Pandor was speculated to be appointed Deputy President of South Africa. She was Ramaphosa's original choice for Deputy President back in 2017 at the ANC's elective conference. She was instead appointed Minister of International Relations and Cooperation and assumed office on 30 May 2019.
In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Pandor and the Department of International Relations and Cooperation were initially critical of the invasion and released a statement, in which they called on Russia to withdraw its forces in Ukraine immediately. Ramaphosa was reportedly unhappy with Pandor and the department's statement, because it contradicted South Africa's position that negotiation was needed to end the war. Pandor later backtracked on her position, toeing the party line instead.
On 10 March 2022, Pandor said that she supported the idea of a single African currency to increase intra-continental trade.
In September 2022, Pandor stood in for Ramaphosa at the Seventy-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly after he had decided to return to South Africa due to the ongoing electricity crisis after his working visit in Washington, D.C. In her address to the assembly, Pandor said that all ongoing wars and conflicts around the world should be given equal attention. She also called for Israel to be held accountable for its "destructive actions" in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, for the embargo against Cuba to be lifted and echoed the African Union's call for sanctions against Zimbabwe to be lifted.
Pandor was one of a number of sitting cabinet ministers who unsuccessfully sought re-election to the National Executive Committee of the African National Congress at the party's 55th National Conference in December 2022.
Reacting to the ICC arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin, Pandor criticized the International Criminal Court (ICC) for not having what she called an "evenhanded approach" to all leaders responsible for violations of international law. South Africa, which failed in its obligation to arrest visiting Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in June 2015, invited Russian President Vladimir Putin to the 15th BRICS Summit of leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa in August 2023. In May 2023, Pandor announced that she had approved diplomatic immunity for Vladimir Putin and his officials so that they could attend the 15th BRICS Summit despite the ICC arrest warrant.
Pandor is known, in part, for her strong anti-Israel stance. Following the October 7th attack on Israel, Pandor held a telephone call with Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh. According to reports, the phone call was described as "embarrassing" for President Cyril Ramaphosa, who was stated to have had "no prior knowledge" of its occurrence. Following news of the call, the South African Jewish Board of Deputies (SAJBD) issued a statement criticizing Minister Pandor’s reported expression of “support” for Hamas in the aftermath of the October 7 attacks on Israeli targets. The SAJBD argued that this stance had placed South Africa in "very dangerous waters" and subsequently called for Pandor’s immediate resignation or dismissal. On 12 November 2023, Pandor called on the ICJ to speed up its investigation of Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip and that she expects the ICC to issue an arrest warrant for Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu.
Pandor lost her seat in Parliament at the 2024 general election, having been ranked 86th on the ANC's national parliamentary list and the ANC only winning 73 national list seats.
== Personal life ==
Pandor is married to Sharif Joseph Pandor, whom she met while studying in Botswana, and they have four children together.
Her daughter, Aisha Pandor, is a prominent tech entrepreneur and investor, becoming CEO of California-based AI health platform Pandora Health.
She converted to Islam after she met her husband. Her in-laws gave her the Islamic name of Nadia. On her religious conversion, Pandor said: "My parents said God is God. As long as you worship Him we will support you and the Islamic principles are universal. Certainly, Islam demands much more of you in terms of observance."
== References ==
== External links ==
Naledi Pandor at People's Assembly
Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor – South African History Online
Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor, Ms – South African Government
Profile: Dr Naledi Pandor, Minister – Dirco
Naledi Pandor Biographical notes – dst.gov.za Archived 4 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matija_Radovi%C4%87 | Matija Radović | Matija Radović (Serbian Cyrillic: Матија Радовић, born April 25, 1998) is a Serbian professional basketball player for Slodes SoccerBet of the Basketball League of Serbia. He played college basketball for the Hofstra Pride and the American International Yellow Jackets.
== Early career ==
Radović started to play basketball for the Crvena zvezda youth system. Radović played in the 2015–16 season Finals of Euroleague NGT where he recorded 18 points. In July 2016, he had moved to the United States, to Montverde Academy in Montverde, Florida where he played as a senior.
== College career ==
In June 2017, the Hofstra Pride added Radović to their roster. As a freshman, Radović appeared in 25 games at the Hofstra Pride in their 2017–18 season. In the freshman season, he averaged 2.2 points and 1.8 rebounds per game. In 2019, Radović moved to the American International Yellow Jackets for his junior season.
== Professional career ==
In August 2020, Radović signed for Mladost Zemun.
== International career ==
Radović was a member of the Serbia national U16 team that played at the 2014 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship. Over nine tournament games, he averaged 7.0 points, 3.7 rebounds and 1.8 assists per game.
== References ==
== External links ==
Profile at eurobasket.com
Profile at realgm.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer_Rashid#:~:text=Rashid%20obtained%20a%20Bachelor%20of,civil%20engineering%20two%20years%20later. | Engineer Rashid | Sheikh Abdul Rashid (born 19 August 1967), better known as Engineer Rashid, is an Indian politician, and currently member of Lok Sabha representing Baramulla constituency in Jammu and Kashmir, India. In September 2024, he was released on interim bail to campaign during the assembly elections.
Earlier he was a member of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly, from the Langate constituency in Handwara. He is the founder and patron of the Jammu and Kashmir Awami Ittehad Party. He is famous for his speeches and is known as the Pain of Al-Baen (Plough) which is the symbol of National Conference.
== Early life ==
Rashid was born c. 1967 in his hometown Langate. He got involved with Kashmiri secessionist politics as a teenager, and joined the Abdul Ghani Lone-led People's Conference in 1978. In 1987, the People's Conference was a leading member of the Muslim United Front which fought the 1987 election on an Islamist agenda. The election saw widespread rigging, and is mentioned as a prime factor in the rise of Kashmir insurgency two years later.
Rashid obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in 1988, and a diploma in civil engineering two years later.
He worked for over a decade as an engineer in the state government-run Jammu and Kashmir Projects Construction Corporation. He is seen as a simple man, dressed in Khan suit, taking public transportation and occasionally hitching rides on motor cycles.
== Political career ==
Rashid transitioned from a career in construction engineering to politics in 2008, winning the Langate constituency as an independent candidate in the 2008 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election and retained it in the 2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election. Rashid subsequently established the Jammu and Kashmir Awami Ittehad Party. Despite facing imprisonment on terror-funding charges, he secured a significant victory over former Chief Minister Omar Abdullah in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, underscoring his substantial grassroots support and political influence in the region. Rashid defeated former and current chief minister of Jammu & Kashmir Omar Abdullah in 2024 Lok Sabha election from Baramulla Lok Sabha constituency.
== Arrests ==
In the year 2005, Rashid was arrested by the SOG in Srinagar for supporting militants and subsequently jailed for three months and 17 days. He was charged with committing anti-national activities, and was kept in Cargo, Humhama and Raj bagh prisons. Later the Chief Judicial Magistrate of Srinagar dropped all charges against him on humanitarian grounds. According to Rashid he was arrested by a motley group of counter-insurgents that worked closely with the state police, who took him to an interrogation centre, where he was "interrogated." After five months of custody, he negotiated his release, paying ₹1.14 lakhs.
In August 2019, he was arrested under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) on terror funding charges. He contested the 2024 parliamentary election from jail and won. However, he remained in jail, and had no opportunity to attend the parliament.
On 11 September 2024, he was granted interim bail until 2 October, allowing him to campaign for the 2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election.
On 1 October 2024, his interim bail, which was earlier until 2 October was further extended by Patiala house court, Delhi until 12 October 2024, allowing him to witness the results of the 2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election . His bail was again extended till 28 October 2024 and after the interim bail expired he was sent back to jail.
== Attacks ==
On 8 October 2015 Engineer Rashid was assaulted by BJP MLAs inside the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly for hosting a party where he served beef on the lawns of the government circuit with a view to oppose the controversial central Government order banning the consumption of beef in India.
He was also attacked with black ink in Press Club New Delhi by BJP cadets a day after his critical comments regarding the lynching of a Kashmiri truck driver in Udhampur.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum | Computer History Museum | The Computer History Museum (CHM) is a computer museum in Mountain View, California. The museum presents stories and artifacts of Silicon Valley and the Information Age, and explores the computing revolution and its impact on society.
== History ==
The museum's origins date to 1968 when Gordon Bell began a quest for a historical collection and, at that same time, others were looking to preserve the Whirlwind computer. The resulting Museum Project had its first exhibit in 1975, located in a converted coat closet in a DEC lobby. In 1978, the museum, now The Digital Computer Museum (TDCM), moved to a larger DEC lobby in Marlborough, Massachusetts and opened to the public in September 1979. Maurice Wilkes presented the first lecture at TDCM in 1979 – the presentation of such lectures has continued to the present time.
TDCM incorporated as The Computer Museum (TCM) in 1982. In 1984, TCM moved to Boston, locating on Museum Wharf.
In 1996/1997, the TCM History Center (TCMHC) was established; a site at Moffett Field was provided by NASA (an old building that was previously the Naval Base furniture store) and a large number of artifacts were shipped there from TCM.
In 1999, TCMHC incorporated and TCM ceased operation, shipping its remaining artifacts to TCMHC in 2000. The name TCM had been retained by the Boston Museum of Science, so the name TCMHC was changed to Computer History Museum (CHM) in 2000.
In 2002, CHM opened its new building, previously occupied by Silicon Graphics, at 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd in Mountain View, California, to the public.
In 2009, CHM hosted the National Inventors Hall of Fame's annual induction ceremony, the venue significant as that year's fifteen inductees were all contributors to semiconductor technology and 2009 marked the golden jubilee of the integrated circuit.
The facility was later heavily renovated and underwent a two-year $19 million makeover before reopening in January 2011.
John Hollar, a former media executive, was appointed CEO in July 2008. Dan'l Lewin, a former technology executive, replaced Hollar as CEO in March 2018. CHM appointed former NASA Communications Leader Marc Etkind as its next President and Chief Executive Officer on February 19th, 2025.
== Public programs ==
The Computer History Museum hosts regular public programs (currently under the "CHM Live" banner) with notable leaders (past and present) from Silicon Valley and the global tech sector, including past speakers such as Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Reid Hoffman, Elon Musk, and Eric Schmidt, as well as academics, historians, and others on the impact of technology. The Museum also produces special events marking key anniversaries, such as the 40th Anniversary of the Apple Macintosh and the 50th Anniversary of Ethernet, featuring panels reflecting on the history and impact of key computing technologies. Recordings of the Museum's past events are viewable on its YouTube channel.
The Museum also hosts TechFest events for families.
== Collections and exhibition space ==
The Computer History Museum claims to house the largest and most significant collection of computing artifacts in the world. This includes many rare or one-of-a-kind objects such as a Cray-1 supercomputer as well as a Cray-2, Cray-3, the Utah teapot, the 1969 Neiman Marcus Kitchen Computer, an Apple I, and an example of the first generation of Google's racks of custom-designed web servers. The collection comprises nearly 90,000 objects, photographs and films, as well as 4,000 ft (1,200 m) of cataloged documentation and several hundred gigabytes of software.
The CHM oral history program conducts video interviews around the history of computing, this includes computer systems, networking, data-processing, memory, and data-storage. There are over 1,000 interviews recorded as of 2021, including panel discussions on the origins of the IBM PC and the hard disk drive, and individual interviews with Joanna Hoffman, Steve Chen, Dame Stephanie Shirley, and Donald Knuth.
The museum's 25,000 sq ft (2,300 m2) exhibit "Revolution: The First 2000 Years of Computing", opened to the public on January 13, 2011. It covers the history of computing in 20 galleries, from the abacus to the Internet. The entire exhibition is also available online.On January 28, 2017, the Museum launched a 6,000 sq ft (560 m2) exhibit "Make Software: Change the World!" The exhibit covers how people's lives are transformed by software. Designed for middle schoolers and up, it features multimedia and touchscreen interactives, including a software lab where visitors can explore coding hands-on.
Other exhibits include a restoration of an historic PDP-1 minicomputer, two restored IBM 1401 computers, and a restored IBM Ramac 350 disk drive.
An operating difference engine designed by Charles Babbage in the 1840s and constructed by the Science Museum of London was on display until January 31, 2016. It had been on loan since 2008 from its owner, Nathan Myhrvold, a former Microsoft executive.
=== Software ===
The CHM is also home to an extensive collection of software, curated by Al Kossow, a former employee of Apple Computer whom the museum hired in 2006. Kossow is responsible for preservation and accession of software in the museum, as well as for developing CHM's software-themed exhibitions. Kossow was a contributor to the museum long before being hired full-time and is the proprietor of Bitsavers, a large online repository of historical computer manuals and archived software and firmware acquired from his own collection and through donations from his peers.
In 2010 the museum began with the collection of source code of important software, beginning with Apple's MacPaint 1.3, written in a combination of assembly language and Pascal and available as download for the public.
Many other accessions have followed over the years. APL programming language was received in 2012. Adobe donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code in 2013, and Postscript in 2022. Microsoft followed with the source code donation of SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11 as well as Word for Windows 1.1a under their own license. On October 21, 2014, Xerox Alto's source code was released. On January 19, 2023, the Apple Lisa source code was released to the public.
=== Past exhibits ===
On June 23, 1990, the Walk-Through Computer exhibit opened to help visitors learn how computers work. The interactive exhibit included a desktop computer, a giant monitor, a 25-foot (7.6 m) keyboard, and a 40-inch (1,016 mm) diameter trackball (initially planned to be a "bumper-car sized mouse") used by visitors to control the World Traveler program. In the Software Theater, animation and hardware video is used alongside a video feed of the World Traveler Program to show how computer programs work. This exhibit was closed on August 5, 1995, and re-opened as the Walk-Through Computer 2000 on October 21, 1995, to include an updated monitor, 3D graphics, and more interactive features. One of these features allowed visitors to change the pits imprinted on a giant CD-ROM, and the changes are seen on a monitor.
In 2016, the museum had a Liquid Galaxy in the "Going Places: A History of Silicon Valley" exhibit. The exhibit had 20 preselected locations that visitors can fly to on the Liquid Galaxy. An exhibit on the history of autonomous vehicles, from torpedoes to self-driving cars was also on display.
== Fellows ==
The CHM Fellow Awards Program honors distinguished technology pioneers for their outstanding merits and significant contributions to the advancement of computing and the evolution of the digital age. The CHM Fellows are men and women 'whose ideas have changed the world [and] affected nearly every human alive today'. The first fellow was Rear Admiral Grace Hopper in 1987. The fellows program has grown to 100 members as of 2025. Fellow nominations are open to the public and are accepted year round.
== See also ==
Computer museums
History of computing
History of computer science
Living Computers: Museum + Labs
Vintage Computer Festival held annually at The Computer History Museum
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bell, Gordon (April 4, 2011). Out of a Closet: The Early Years of the Computer [x]* Museum (PDF) (Technical report). Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Research. MSR-TR-2011-44. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 18, 2012. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
== External links ==
Official website
The Computer Museum Archive (predecessor museum in Boston, Massachusetts) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside | Oliver Heaviside | Oliver Heaviside ( HEV-ee-syde; 18 May 1850 – 3 February 1925) was a British mathematician and electrical engineer who invented a new technique for solving differential equations (equivalent to the Laplace transform), independently developed vector calculus, and rewrote Maxwell's equations in the form commonly used today. He significantly shaped the way Maxwell's equations were understood and applied in the decades following Maxwell's death. Also, in 1893, he extended them to gravitoelectromagnetism, which was confirmed by Gravity Probe B in 2005. His formulation of the telegrapher's equations became commercially important during his own lifetime, after their significance went unremarked for a long while, as few others were versed at the time in his novel methodology. Although at odds with the scientific establishment for most of his life, Heaviside changed the face of telecommunications, mathematics, and science.
== Early years ==
Oliver Heaviside was born on 18 May 1850 at 55 Kings Street (now Plender Street) in Camden Town, England, the youngest of three children of Thomas Heaviside, a draughtsman and wood engraver, and Rachel Elizabeth West. He was a short and red-headed child, and suffered from scarlet fever when young, which left him with a hearing impairment. A small legacy enabled the family to move to a better part of Camden when he was thirteen and he was sent to Camden House Grammar School. He was a good student, placing fifth out of five hundred pupils in 1865, but his parents could not keep him at school after he was 16, so he continued studying for a year by himself and had no further formal education.
Heaviside's uncle by marriage was Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875), an internationally celebrated expert in telegraphy and electromagnetism, and the original co-inventor of the first commercially successful telegraph in the mid-1830s. Wheatstone took a strong interest in his nephew's education, and in 1867 sent him north to work with his older brother Arthur Wheatstone, who was managing one of Charles' telegraph companies in Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Two years later he took a job as a telegraph operator with the Danish Great Northern Telegraph Company laying a cable from Newcastle to Denmark using British contractors. He soon became an electrician. Heaviside continued to study while working, and by the age of 22 he published an article in the prestigious Philosophical Magazine on 'The Best Arrangement of Wheatstone's Bridge for measuring a Given Resistance with a Given Galvanometer and Battery' which received positive comments from physicists who had unsuccessfully tried to solve this algebraic problem, including Sir William Thomson, to whom he gave a copy of the paper, and James Clerk Maxwell. When he published an article on the duplex method of using a telegraph cable, he poked fun at R. S. Culley, the engineer in chief of the Post Office telegraph system, who had been dismissing duplex as impractical. Later in 1873 his application to join the Society of Telegraph Engineers was turned down with the comment that "they didn't want telegraph clerks". This riled Heaviside, who asked Thomson to sponsor him, and along with support of the society's president he was admitted "despite the P.O. snobs".
In 1873, Heaviside had encountered Maxwell's newly published, and later famous, two-volume Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. In his old age Heaviside recalled:
I remember my first look at the great treatise of Maxwell's when I was a young man... I saw that it was great, greater and greatest, with prodigious possibilities in its power... I was determined to master the book and set to work. I was very ignorant. I had no knowledge of mathematical analysis (having learned only school algebra and trigonometry which I had largely forgotten) and thus my work was laid out for me. It took me several years before I could understand as much as I possibly could. Then I set Maxwell aside and followed my own course. And I progressed much more quickly... It will be understood that I preach the gospel according to my interpretation of Maxwell.
Undertaking research from home, he helped develop transmission line theory (also known as the "telegrapher's equations"). Heaviside showed mathematically that uniformly distributed inductance in a telegraph line would diminish both attenuation and distortion, and that, if the inductance were great enough and the insulation resistance not too high, the circuit would be distortionless in that currents of all frequencies would have equal speeds of propagation. Heaviside's equations helped further the implementation of the telegraph.
== Middle years ==
From 1882 to 1902, except for three years, Heaviside contributed regular articles to the trade paper The Electrician, which wished to improve its standing, for which he was paid £40 per year. This was hardly enough to live on, but his demands were very small and he was doing what he most wanted to. Between 1883 and 1887 he averaged 2–3 articles per month and these articles later formed the bulk of his Electromagnetic Theory and Electrical Papers.
In 1880, Heaviside researched the skin effect in telegraph transmission lines. That same year he patented, in England, the coaxial cable. In 1884 he recast Maxwell's mathematical analysis from its original cumbersome form (they had already been recast as quaternions) to its modern vector terminology, thereby reducing twelve of the original twenty equations in twenty unknowns down to the four differential equations in two unknowns we now know as Maxwell's equations. These four re-formulated equations describe the nature of electric charges (both static and moving), magnetic fields, and the relationship between the two, namely electromagnetic fields.
Between 1880 and 1887, Heaviside developed the operational calculus using
p
{\displaystyle p}
for the differential operator, (which Boole had previously denoted by
D
{\displaystyle D}
), giving a method of solving differential equations by direct solution as algebraic equations. This later caused a great deal of controversy, owing to its lack of rigour. He famously said, "Mathematics is an experimental science, and definitions do not come first, but later on. They make themselves, when the nature of the subject has developed itself." On another occasion he asked, "Shall I refuse my dinner because I do not fully understand the process of digestion?"
In 1887, Heaviside worked with his brother Arthur on a paper entitled "The Bridge System of Telephony". However the paper was blocked by Arthur's superior, William Henry Preece of the Post Office, because part of the proposal was that loading coils (inductors) should be added to telephone and telegraph lines to increase their self-induction and correct the distortion which they suffered. Preece had recently declared self-inductance to be the great enemy of clear transmission. Heaviside was also convinced that Preece was behind the sacking of the editor of The Electrician which brought his long-running series of articles to a halt (until 1891). There was a long history of animosity between Preece and Heaviside. Heaviside considered Preece to be mathematically incompetent, an assessment supported by the biographer Paul J. Nahin: "Preece was a powerful government official, enormously ambitious, and in some remarkable ways, an utter blockhead." Preece's motivations in suppressing Heaviside's work were more to do with protecting Preece's own reputation and avoiding having to admit error than any perceived faults in Heaviside's work.
The importance of Heaviside's work remained undiscovered for some time after publication in The Electrician. In 1897, AT&T employed one of its own scientists, George A. Campbell, and an external investigator Michael I. Pupin to find some respect in which Heaviside's work was incomplete or incorrect. Campbell and Pupin extended Heaviside's work, and AT&T filed for patents covering not only their research, but also the technical method of constructing the coils previously invented by Heaviside. AT&T later offered Heaviside money in exchange for his rights; it is possible that the Bell engineers' respect for Heaviside influenced this offer. However, Heaviside refused the offer, declining to accept any money unless the company were to give him full recognition. Heaviside was chronically poor, making his refusal of the offer even more striking. In 1959, Norbert Wiener published his fiction The Tempter and accused AT&T (named Williams Controls Company) and Michael I. Pupin (named Diego Dominguez) of having usurped Heaviside's inventions.
But this setback turned Heaviside's attention towards electromagnetic radiation, and in two papers of 1888 and 1889, he calculated the deformations of electric and magnetic fields surrounding a moving charge, as well as the effects of it entering a denser medium. This included a prediction of what is now known as Cherenkov radiation, and inspired his friend George FitzGerald to suggest what now is known as the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction.
In 1889, Heaviside first published a correct derivation of the magnetic force on a moving charged particle, which is the magnetic component of what is now called the Lorentz force.
In the late 1880s and early 1890s, Heaviside worked on the concept of electromagnetic mass. Heaviside treated this as material mass, capable of producing the same effects. Wilhelm Wien later verified Heaviside's expression (for low velocities).
In 1891 the British Royal Society recognized Heaviside's contributions to the mathematical description of electromagnetic phenomena by naming him a Fellow of the Royal Society, and the following year devoting more than fifty pages of the Philosophical Transactions of the Society to his vector methods and electromagnetic theory. He was elected to honorary membership of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1894. In 1905 Heaviside was given an honorary doctorate by the University of Göttingen.
== Later years and views ==
In 1896, FitzGerald and John Perry obtained a civil list pension of £120 per year for Heaviside, who was now living in Devon, and persuaded him to accept it, after he had rejected other charitable offers from the Royal Society.
In 1902, Heaviside proposed the existence of what is now known as the Kennelly–Heaviside layer of the ionosphere. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's curvature. The existence of the ionosphere was confirmed in 1923. The predictions by Heaviside, combined with Planck's radiation theory, probably discouraged further attempts to detect radio waves from the Sun and other astronomical objects. For whatever reason, there seem to have been no attempts for 30 years, until Jansky's development of radio astronomy in 1932.
Heaviside was an opponent of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. Mathematician Howard Eves has commented that Heaviside "was the only first-rate physicist at the time to impugn Einstein, and his invectives against relativity theory often bordered on the absurd".
In later years his behavior became quite eccentric. According to associate B.A. Behrend, he became a recluse who was so averse to meeting people that he delivered the manuscripts of his Electrician papers to a grocery store, where the editors picked them up.
Though he had been an active cyclist in his youth, his health seriously declined in his sixth decade. During this time Heaviside would sign letters with the initials "W.O.R.M." after his name. Heaviside also reportedly started painting his fingernails pink and had granite blocks moved into his house for furniture. In 1922, he became the first recipient of the Faraday Medal, which was established that year.
On Heaviside's religious views, he was a Unitarian, but not religious. He was even said to have made fun of people who put their faith in a supreme being.
Heaviside died on 3 February 1925 in Torquay at the age of 74, after falling from a ladder. He is buried just behind and to the right of the building near the southeast corner of Paignton cemetery. He is buried with his father, Thomas, and his mother, Rachel. The gravestone was cleaned thanks to an anonymous donor sometime in 2005. He was always held in high regard by most electrical engineers, particularly after his correction to Kelvin's transmission line analysis was vindicated, but most of his wider recognition was gained posthumously.
=== Heaviside Memorial Project ===
In July 2014, academics at Newcastle University, UK and the Newcastle Electromagnetics Interest Group founded the Heaviside Memorial Project in a bid to fully restore the monument through public subscription. The restored memorial was ceremonially unveiled on 30 August 2014 by Alan Heather, a distant relative of Heaviside. The unveiling was attended by the Mayor of Torbay, the Member of Parliament (MP) for Torbay, an ex-curator of the Science Museum (representing the Institution of Engineering and Technology), the Chairman of the Torbay Civic Society, and delegates from Newcastle University.
=== Institution of Engineering and Technology ===
A collection of Heaviside's papers is held at the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) Archive Centre. The collection consists of notebooks containing mathematical equations and calculations, annotated pamphlets mainly relating to telegraphy, manuscript notes, drafts of papers, correspondence, drafts of articles for ‘Electromagnetic Theory’.
An audio tribute from 1950 to Oliver Heaviside by Oliver E Buckley, President of Bell Telephone Labs, has been digitised and accessible on the IET Archives biography of Oliver Heaviside.
In 1908, Heaviside was made an Honorary Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE). His entry reads as: “1908 Oliver Heaviside FRS” in the IEE Roll of Honorary Members and Faraday Medallists 1871-1921
In 1922, he became the first recipient of the Faraday Medal, which was established that year. Later on, in 1950 the Institution of Electrical Engineers Council established the Heaviside Premium Award “The Committee have considered the establishment of some form of permanent memorial to Oliver Heaviside and as a result recommend that a Heaviside Premium to the value of £10 be awarded each year for the best mathematical paper accepted.”
== Innovations and discoveries ==
Heaviside did much to develop and advocate vector methods and vector calculus. Maxwell's formulation of electromagnetism consisted of 20 equations in 20 variables. Heaviside employed the curl and divergence operators of the vector calculus to reformulate 12 of these 20 equations into four equations in four variables (
B
,
E
,
J
and
ρ
{\displaystyle {\textbf {B}},{\textbf {E}},{\textbf {J}}~{\text{and}}~\rho }
), the form by which they have been known ever since (see Maxwell's equations). Less well known is that Heaviside's equations and Maxwell's are not exactly the same, and in fact it is easier to modify the former to make them compatible with quantum physics. The possibility of gravitational waves was also discussed by Heaviside using the analogy between the inverse-square law in gravitation and electricity. With quaternion multiplication, the square of a vector is a negative quantity, much to Heaviside's displeasure. As he advocated abolishing this negativity, he has been credited by C. J. Joly with developing hyperbolic quaternions, though in fact that mathematical structure was largely the work of Alexander Macfarlane.
He invented the Heaviside step function, using it to calculate the current when an electric circuit is switched on. He was the first to use the unit impulse function now usually known as the Dirac delta function. He invented his operational calculus method for solving linear differential equations. This resembles the currently used Laplace transform method based on the "Bromwich integral" named after Bromwich who devised a rigorous mathematical justification for Heaviside's operator method using contour integration. Heaviside was familiar with the Laplace transform method but considered his own method more direct.
Heaviside developed the transmission line theory (also known as the "telegrapher's equations"), which increased the transmission rate over transatlantic cables by a factor of ten. It originally took ten minutes to transmit each character, and this immediately improved to one character per minute. Closely related to this was his discovery that telephone transmission could be greatly improved by placing electrical inductance in series with the cable. Heaviside also independently discovered the Poynting vector.
Heaviside advanced the idea that the Earth's uppermost atmosphere contained an ionised layer known as the ionosphere; in this regard, he predicted the existence of what later was dubbed the Kennelly–Heaviside layer. In 1947, Edward Appleton received the Nobel Prize in Physics for proving that this layer really existed.
=== Electromagnetic terms ===
Heaviside coined the following terms of art in electromagnetic theory:
admittance (reciprocal of impedance) (December 1887);
elastance (reciprocal of permittance, reciprocal of capacitance) (1886);
conductance (real part of admittance, reciprocal of resistance) (September 1885);
electret for the electric analogue of a permanent magnet, or, in other words, any substance that exhibits a quasi-permanent electric polarization (e.g. ferroelectric);
impedance (July 1886);
inductance (February 1886);
permeability (September 1885);
permittance (now called capacitance) and permittivity (June 1887);
reluctance (May 1888);
Heaviside is sometimes incorrectly credited with coining susceptance (the imaginary part of admittance) and reactance (the imaginary part of impedance). The former was coined by Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1894). The latter was coined by Édouard Hospitalier (1893).
== Publications ==
1885, 1886, and 1887, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation", The Electrician.
1888/89, "Electromagnetic waves, the propagation of potential, and the electromagnetic effects of a moving charge", The Electrician.
1889, "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric", Phil.Mag.S.5 27: 324.
1892 "On the Forces, Stresses, and Fluxes of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field" Phil.Trans.Royal Soc. A 183:423–80.
1892 "On Operators in Physical Mathematics" Part I. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1892 Jan 1. vol.52 pp. 504–529
1892 Heaviside, Oliver (1892). Electrical Papers. Vol. 1. Macmillan Co, London and New York. ISBN 9780828402354.
1893 "On Operators in Physical Mathematics" Part II Proc. Roy. Soc. 1893 Jan 1. vol.54 pp. 105–143
1893 "A gravitational and electromagnetic analogy," The Electrician, vol.31, pp. 281–282 (part I), p. 359 (part II)
1893 reproduced in, Electromagnetic Theory vol I, Chapter 4 Appendix B pp. 455-466
1893 Heaviside, Oliver (1893). Electromagnetic Theory. Vol. 1. The Electrician Printing and Publishing Co, London. ISBN 978-0-8284-0235-4.
1894 Heaviside, Oliver (1894). Electrical Papers. Vol. 2. Macmillan Co, London and New York.
1899 Heaviside, Oliver (1899). Electromagnetic Theory. Vol. 2. The Electrician Printing and Publishing Co, London.
1912 Heaviside, Oliver (1912). Electromagnetic Theory. Vol. 3. The Electrician Printing and Publishing Co, London.
1925. Electrical Papers. 2 vols Boston 1925 (Copley)
1950 Electromagnetic theory: The complete & unabridged edition. (Spon) reprinted 1950 (Dover)
1970 Heaviside, Oliver (1970). Electrical Papers. Chelsea Publishing Company, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8284-0235-4.
1971 "Electromagnetic theory; Including an account of Heaviside's unpublished notes for a fourth volume" Chelsea, ISBN 0-8284-0237-X
2001 Heaviside, Oliver (1 December 2001). Electrical Papers. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-2840-3.
== See also ==
1850 in science
Electric displacement field
Biot–Savart law
Bridge circuit § Heaviside bridge
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
=== Archival collections ===
Oliver Heaviside selected papers [microform], 1874-1922, Niels Bohr Library & Archives |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Different_World_%28Alan_Walker_album%29 | Different World (Alan Walker album) | Different World is the debut studio album by Norwegian DJ and record producer Alan Walker. It was released on 14 December 2018 through MER Musikk and Sony Music Entertainment and includes his successful 2015 single "Faded". The album also succeeds a trilogy of releases leading up to the album, entitled World of Walker, which consisted of the singles "All Falls Down", "Darkside" and "Diamond Heart". The album was also nominated for Top Dance/Electronic Albums at the 2020 Billboard Music Awards.
== Background ==
Featuring artists such as Steve Aoki, Noah Cyrus, and Digital Farm Animals, the album is noted for its mixture of "recognizable releases" such as "Faded" with "new material" such as "Lost Control". Walker said of the album "It's an incredible feeling to be able to release my debut album, Different World. These last years were absolutely surreal, and I certainly never imagined it would get to that point when I started. very different for me. It's something I've worked on for some time, and I'm super excited to finally share with the world and hear the reaction of my fans!" A campaign for the album was launched, titled "#CreateADifferentWorld". It is to raise awareness regarding the theme of climate change.
== Singles ==
The album's first single, "Faded", features uncredited Naustdal pop singer Iselin Solheim and was released on 3 December 2015. The single reached number one in the annual charts in Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Sweden, was nominated for British Single of the Year at the 2017 Brit Awards and won Årets Låt (Song of the Year) at the Spellemannprisen.
The second single, "Sing Me to Sleep", also featuring Iselin Solheim as "Faded", was released on June 3, 2016. The song reached number one in Norway and number one on the iTunes charts in seven countries.
"Alone", featuring uncredited singer Noonie Bao, was released as the third single on December 2, 2016. The single charted on several international charts and reached number one on the Norwegian Singles Chart.
"All Falls Down", featuring Noah Cyrus and Digital Farm Animals, was released as the fourth single from the album on 27 October 2017. The single peaked at number one on the Norwegian Singles Chart and the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart.
"Darkside", a song featuring Antiguan-German singer-songwriter Au/Ra and Norwegian singer Tomine Harket, was released as the fifth single on 27 July 2018. The song was also released with a remix by Dutch DJ Afrojack, which reached number 1 on the Norwegian charts and number 10 on the Swedish charts.
The single "Diamond Heart", featuring Swedish singer-songwriter Sophia Somajo, was released as the sixth single on September 28, 2018. Two remixes have been officially released, one by Syn Cole and one by Dzeko. The song's music video was nominated for Best Cinematography at the 2019 Berlin Music Video Awards.
The song "Different World", featuring American singer Sofia Carson, Norwegian music producer K-391 and Chinese music producer Corsak, was released as the album's lead single on November 30, 2018. The song was released to coincide with a campaign entitled "#CreateADifferentWorld" and features Walker speaking about the importance of climate change. The song reached number 31 in the Norwegian charts.
== Critical reception ==
Dancing Astronaut wrote that the album "extends the fullest portrait of his distinctive sound" and described it as "a tightly threaded collection of songs, which articulates Walker's sonic artistry." Billboard described it as "turning bleating synth melodies into sing-alongs, melts warm Caribbean rhythms with hardstyle booms, and electrifies the dance floor as much as it aims for radio readiness." Manuel Probst of German music site Dance-Charts says, "Alan Walker's typical sound design runs through Different World like a common thread, creating a special atmosphere with its melancholy melodies. I am creating it. Even though the superstar stays true to his style, his attention to detail allows him to constantly change and give each song his own unique touch". Marit Johansen Jegthaug of NRK P3 said: "There are too few new songs and the album is poorly structured. It lacks variety, dramaturgy, something that would distinguish it from the stagnant singles with a clear distinction between old and new and all over the place". Tor Martin Bøe of Verdens Gang gave the album a "die throw" rating of 3 out of 6, describing it as "manic and gloomy" and stating that "the dark sense of abandonment feels almost tacked on". Anjali Raguraman of The Straits Times described it as a "cinematic, vocals-driven album" and said that "it feels like Walker has played it safe by sticking to what he is familiar with".
== Commercial performance ==
At the time of Billboard's 2019 mid-year report, the album had logged 93,000 equivalent album sales in the United States and "Faded" had amassed 192,396,000 streams.
== Track listing ==
Notes
^[a] signifies a co-producer
^[c] signifies a vocal producer
"Intro" features background vocals from Emelie Hollow and Anna-Marie Kimber.
"Sing Me to Sleep" features uncredited vocals from Iselin Solheim.
"Alone" features uncredited vocals from Noonie Bao.
"Faded" features uncredited vocals from Iselin Solheim.
"The Spectre" features uncredited vocals from Jesper Borgen.
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Karlovi%C4%87 | Ivan Karlović | Ivan Karlović (c. 1485 – 9 August 1531), also known as by his Latin name Johannes Torquatus, was the Count of Krbava. His life during critical periods of Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War was marked by constant efforts to stop Ottoman conquests of Croatia, during which he held position of Ban of Croatia twice: from 1521 to 1524 and again from 1527 to 1531. He was also one of the Croatian magnates who participated in 1527 Election in Cetin.
He was the last male descendant of the Kurjaković family from the noble tribe of Gusić, and after his death the estates were passed on to Nikola III Zrinski who married his sister Jelena Kurjaković. Karlović is also remembered in the folk poetry of Molise Croats.
== Early life ==
Ivan was born c. 1485 in Udbina, as the son of Karlo Kurjaković, and Dorothea Frankopan. After his father's death in 1493, he inherited vast estates of the family, including županijas Krbava, Odorje, Hotuča, Lapac, part of Lika and several fortified cities in near županijas, as well the title of the Count of Krbava. During his lifetime, in a similar fashion to other Croatian and European noblemen, he had an anachronistic tendency to trace his family ancestry to Roman patricians. In his case, to Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus, a thesis which was also wrongly argued by Miklós Istvánffy and Pavao Ritter Vitezović,. He and his sister Klara therefore named themselves as "Torkvat".
== History ==
At the time, his estates were on the first front of the Ottoman Empire expansion. In struggle against the Ottomans, he tried to rely on the help of: Hungarian-Croatian King, the House of Habsburg, Republic of Venice (by serving as their Condottiero) or even agreements of paying tribute with the Ottomans in 1506 and 1511. In 1500, he defeated Ottoman army near Gradac (today Gračac). In the Hungarian succession crisis, he supported Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor against Hungarian-Croatian King Vladislaus II of Hungary in 1506. Between 1505 and 1509 he owned town Mutnik and market town Belaj (today village Bilaj near Gospić). In 1508, he temporary fought against Maximilian I's army in the hinterland of Venice, when on return he successfully defended Mutnik from Croatian noblemen, and was possibly helped by the Ottoman forces. Between 1509 and 1524, he made several Condottieri contracts with Venice to defend the Republic's estates in Dalmatia. In 1510, refused to be one the military commanders in a campaign to free Dalmatia from Venetian authority, but due to lack of finances the war did not happen.
In 1513, as Vice-Ban and Captain of Croatia and Dalmatia (1512–1513), along with Petar Berislavić, then Ban of Croatia, and other noblemen he participated in Battle of Dubica. However, in 1514 the Ottomans raided his estates in Krbava and Lika, as well fought against in Bosnia. In 1517 and mid-1520s, as the situation for him was becoming ever more desperate, he tried to replace his estates with forts with those in Lombardia under Venetian authority. However, he was rejected with only a promise of financial help. In 1519, Stjepan Posedarski, a humanist, chaplain and envoy of Karlović from the Posedarski branch of the Gusić tribe, in the name of Karlović delivered anti-Ottoman speech Oratio Stephani Possedarski habita apud Leonem decimum pontificem maximum pro domino Ioanne Torquato comite Corbauie defensore Crouacie to Pope Leo X. In it, Karlović was represented as a true defender of his and other lands, in the name of faith, freedom, and survival, who is losing faith in defending the Holy Church and is asking for help. The speech was noted in the West but had little success. In 1520, as Petar Berislavić got killed in fight against the Ottomans in Plješivica mountain, Karlović was informed by Berislavić's surviving soldiers about Berislavić's death. Upon learning this in Udbina, Karlović assembled his men and went to Plješivica, where they managed to find late ban's severed head and decapitated body. His remains were then taken to nearby Bihać and subsequently to Veszprem.
In 1521, in the name of a group of Croatian nobility, he unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate with the Ottomans. In the same year was named as Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. He was trying to organize a defense against the Ottomans and decided to only engage in field battles as could not get support for the defense of royal towns. In that sense, he was not able to prevent the fall of Knin, fall of Skradin and Ostrovica Fortress. He regularly received military and financial aid from Archduke Ferdinand I, but not from his real monarch Hungarian-Croatian King Louis II. As he steadily impoverished due to permanent warfare and noblemen did not accept new taxes in order to the increase revenues in 1523, he resigned from the position of Ban in 1524.
In December 1526, he took part in Croatian Election in Cetin along with several other most important Croatian noble magnates. There, on 1 January 1527 Croatian nobility signed a charter by which they elected Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg for a new King of Croatia, as they regarded him the only possible option which could help Croatians defend against the Ottoman invasions. The election was part of a succession crisis and civil war as lower nobility in Hungary and Slavonia chose to support John Zápolya. Karlović mostly remained neutral during the war, and after the death of Christoph Frankopan, he attempted to reconcile the former conflicting parties in 1530.
In 1527, along Ferenc Batthyány, was again appointed Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, which he remained until his death in 1531. As Ottomans conquered his forts of Obrovac, Udbina, Komić, and Mrsinj-grad, he received substitute estates of Medvedgrad, Lukavec and Rakovec in Turopolje from Ferdinand I. In 1528, near Belaj he commanded Croatian army with reinforced by Carniolan forces, which defeated several thousand Ottoman troops preparing to raid Carniola. In the next year, he led Croatian forces to help at 1529 Siege of Vienna.
== Death ==
Ivan Karlović died on 9 August 1531, in Medvedgrad. He was placed to rest in the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Remete, Zagreb, under the great altar. As he did not have any descendants in marriage with the niece of cardinal Tamás Bakócz, according to the inheritance contract with Nikola III Zrinski from 1509, who married his sister Jelena Kurjaković, the estates were inherited by Zrinski family. At the time, Karlović had 22 forts and cities in three županijas and two župas. The most prominent of those were Udbina, Krbava, Kurjak-grad, Turan, Počitelj, Podlapčec (Podlapac), Mrsinj-grad, Lovinac, Gradac (Gračac), Novigrad, Zvonigrad, Zelengrad, Kličevac (Kličevica), Bag, Obrovac and Stari Obrovac.
His sister Jelena was mother of the future Ban of Croatia and Szigetvár hero, Nikola IV Zrinski. Karlović nephews Nikola and Ivan Zrinski in 1541 arranged to carve the inscription on his tombstone, saying "Sepultus genere Spectabilis militiaque praeditus magnificus dominus Torquatus, comes Corbaviae regnorumque Croatiae et Sclavoniae banus mole sub hac tegitur". This inscription, along with the coat of arms got lost over the centuries. In a 16th century Glagolithic document about his seal and coats of arms, described it to depict a goose on a shield, above them letters I. C., meaning Joannes Caroli. In 1736, Hungarian polymath Samuel Timon described the alleged coat of arms on the tombstone, and according to it, in 1802 Károly Wagner described the color, but they were inspired by 17th-century armorials like Opus Insignium Armorumque (1687–1688) by Johann Weikhard von Valvasor.
== Legacy ==
In the folk tradition, the fortified towns in ruin like Komić, Kozja Draga, and Mazin are still called as Karlovića dvori ("Karlović's palaces"). Karlović is the main character of the novel Ivan Hrvaćanin (1926) by Fran Binički.
=== Folk poetry ===
Karlović is also remembered in the folk poetry including bugarštica (for example Kad se Ivan Karlović vjerio za kćer kralja Budimskoga), and of the Molise Croats in Southern Italy, Burgenland Croats in Austria, and Bosniaks, probably the descendants of his former subjects. He is mentioned as Ivan or Jivan Karlović, Ive Karlovićev, Ivan Dovice, did Karlović, Karlo Vića, and Ivan Hrvaćanin. In Molise are preserved several fragmented variations of an old song in Shtokavian-Chakavian with Ikavian accent, while longer variation can be found in Chakavian with Ekavian-Ikavian accent.
He is generally featured as a noble and good master, tireless warrior against the Ottomans. On the other hand, in Molise has a negative connotation, depicted as being feared by girls picking flowers in a meadow. The story about girls being feared of intercourse with heroes is a common folk theme where heroes identity is less significant as the songs were preserved and performed in wedding customs. There his true identity was forgotten and possibly was related to the fear and danger during the Ottomans conquest, but his mention is indicative for the date of migration and ethnic identity of the community in Molise.
=== Comparison with Job ===
Due to the fact that he lost most of his personal holdings in defending Croatia, as well as inscription on his tombstone which quoted the biblical Book of Job, he is sometimes called "Job of Croatia".
== See also ==
Croatian nobility
List of noble families of Croatia
Twelve noble tribes of Croatia
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
Croatian Encyclopedia (2011), Karlović, Ivan
Bošković-Stulli, Maja (2004), "Bugarštice", Narodna Umjetnost: Croatian Journal of Ethnology and Folklore Research (in Croatian), 41 (2), Institute of Ethonology and Folklore Research: 9–51 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske
Klaić, Vjekoslav (1898), "Rodoslovje knezova Krbavskih od plemena Gusić" [Genealogy of Counts of Krbava from the tribe of Gusić], Rad (in Serbo-Croatian) (49), Zagreb: JAZU: 191–214
Magaš, Damir; Brtan, Josip (2015), Prostor i vrijeme knezova Posedarskih: Zemljopisna obilježja i povijesni razvoj Općine Posedarje: Posedarje, Slivnica, Vinjerac, Podgradina, Islam Latinski, Ždrilo i Grgurice [The Space and the Time of Posedarski Counts: Geographic Features and Historic Development of Posedarje Municipality: Posedarje, Slivnica, Vinjerac, Podgradina, Islam Latinski, Ždrilo and Grgurice] (in Croatian), Zadar: Sveučilište u Zadru, Centar za istraživanje krša i priobalja, Odjel za geografiju, Hrvatsko geografsko društvo Zadar, ISBN 978-953-331-059-6
Majnarić, Ivan (2013), "Kurjakovići (Krbavski knezovi, Kurjaković Krbavski)", Croatian Biographical Lexicon (HBL) (in Croatian), Miroslav Krleža Lexicographical Institute
Mujadžević, Dino (2009), "Karlović, Ivan (Krbavski; Ivan Torkvat, Johannes Torquatus comes Corbauie, Zuan de Corbavia)", Croatian Biographical Lexicon (HBL) (in Croatian), Miroslav Krleža Lexicographical Institute
Perinić, Ana (2006), "Moliški Hrvati. Rekonstrukcija kreiranja i reprezentacije jednog etničkog identiteta", Etnološka tribina (in Croatian), 36 (29), Croatian Ethnological Society and Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb: 91–106 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske
Sulejmanagić, Amer (2016). "Coins with Coats-of-Arms of the Croatian Clans of Kurjaković Krbavski (from the Gusić Clan) and Lapčani – Coins of Georg Ludwig Count of Sinzendorf from 1676". Numizmatičke Vijesti (in Croatian). 58 (69): 68–88 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske.
Šimunović, Petar (1984), "Sklavunske naseobine u južnoj Italiji i naša prva zapisana bugaršćica", Narodna Umjetnost: Croatian Journal of Ethnology and Folklore Research (in Croatian), 21 (1), Institute of Ethonology and Folklore Research: 54–68 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske
Other bibliography
Petar Grgec, Hrvatski Job šesnaestoga vijeka ban Ivan Karlović, 1932, Hrv. knjiž. društvo sv. Jeronima, Zagreb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_lion | Asiatic lion | The Asiatic lion is a lion population in the Indian state of Gujarat that belongs to the subspecies Panthera leo leo. The first scientific description of the Asiatic lion published in 1826 was based on a specimen from Persia.
Until the 19th century, it ranged from Saudi Arabia, eastern Turkey, Iran, Mesopotamia and southern Pakistan to Central India. Since the turn of the 20th century, its range has been restricted to Gir National Park and surrounding areas.
The Indian population has steadily increased since 2010. In 2015, the 14th Asiatic Lion Census was conducted over an area of about 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi); the lion population was estimated at 523 individuals, and in 2017 at 650 individuals. In 2020 the population was 674 and by 2025 it had increased to 891.
== Taxonomy ==
Felis leo persicus was the scientific name proposed by Johann N. Meyer in 1826 who described an Asiatic lion skin from Persia.
In the 19th century, several zoologists described lion zoological specimen from other parts of Asia that used to be considered synonyms of P. l. persica:
Felis leo bengalensis proposed by Edward Turner Bennett in 1829 was a lion kept in the menagerie of the Tower of London. Bennett's essay contains a drawing titled 'Bengal lion'.
Felis leo goojratensis proposed by Walter Smee in 1833 was based on two skins of maneless lions from Gujarat that Smee exhibited in a meeting of the Zoological Society of London.
Leo asiaticus proposed by Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet in 1834 was a lion from India.
Felis leo indicus proposed by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in 1843 was based on an Asiatic lion skull.
In 2017, the Asiatic lion was subsumed to P. l. leo due to close morphological and molecular genetic similarities with Barbary lion specimens.
However, several scientists continue using P. l. persica for the Asiatic lion. A standardised haplogroup phylogeny supports that the Asiatic lion is not a distinct subspecies, and that it represents a haplogroup of the northern P. l. leo.
== Evolution ==
Lions first left Africa at least 700,000 years ago, giving rise to the Eurasian Panthera fossilis which later evolved into Panthera spelaea (commonly known as the cave lion), which became extinct around 14,000 years ago. Genetic analysis of P. spelaea indicates that it represented a distinct species from the modern lion that diverged from them around 500,000 years ago and unrelated to modern Asian lions. Pleistocene fossils assigned as belonging or probably belonging to the modern lion have been reported from several sites in the Middle East, such as Shishan Marsh in the Azraq Basin, Jordan, dating to around 250,000 years ago, and Wezmeh Cave in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran, dating to around 70–10,000 years ago, with other reports from Pleistocene deposits in Nadaouiyeh Ain Askar and Douara Cave, Syria. In 1976, fossil lion remains were reported from Pleistocene deposits in West Bengal. A fossil carnassial excavated from Batadomba Cave indicates that lions inhabited Sri Lanka during the Late Pleistocene. This population may have become extinct around 39,000 years ago, before the arrival of humans in Sri Lanka.
=== Phylogeography ===
Results of a phylogeographic analysis based on mtDNA sequences of lions from across the global range, including now extinct populations like Barbary lions, indicates that sub-Saharan African lions are phylogenetically basal to all modern lions. These findings support an African origin of modern lion evolution with a probable centre in East and Southern Africa. It is likely that lions migrated from there to West Africa, eastern North Africa and via the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula into Turkey, southern Europe and northern India during the last 20,000 years. The Sahara, Congolian rainforests and the Great Rift Valley are natural barriers to lion dispersal.
Genetic markers of 357 samples from captive and wild lions from Africa and India were examined. Results indicate four lineages of lion populations: one in Central and North Africa to Asia, one in Kenya, one in Southern Africa, and one in Southern and East Africa; the first wave of lion expansion probably occurred about 118,000 years ago from East Africa into West Asia, and the second wave in the late Pleistocene or early Holocene periods from Southern Africa towards East Africa.
The Asiatic lion is genetically closer to North and West African lions than to the group comprising East and Southern African lions. The two groups probably diverged about 186,000–128,000 years ago. It is thought that the Asiatic lion remained connected to North and Central African lions until gene flow was interrupted due to extinction of lions in Western Eurasia and the Middle East during the Holocene.
Asiatic lions are less genetically diverse than African lions, which may be the result of a founder effect in the recent history of the remnant population in the Gir Forest.
== Characteristics ==
The Asiatic lion's fur ranges in colour from ruddy-tawny, heavily speckled with black, to sandy or buffish grey, sometimes with a silvery sheen in certain lighting. Males have only moderate mane growth at the top of the head, so that their ears are always visible. The mane is scanty on the cheeks and throat, where it is only 10 cm (4 in) long. About half of Asiatic lions' skulls from the Gir forest have divided infraorbital foramina, whereas African lions have only one foramen on either side. The sagittal crest is more strongly developed, and the post-orbital area is shorter than in African lions. Skull length in adult males ranges from 330–340 mm (13–13+1⁄2 in), and in females, from 292–302 mm (11+1⁄2–11+7⁄8 in). It differs from the African lion by a larger tail tuft and less inflated auditory bullae.
The most striking morphological character of the Asiatic lion is a longitudinal fold of skin running along its belly.
Males have a shoulder height of up to 107–120 cm (42–47 in), and females of 80–107 cm (31+1⁄2–42 in). Two lions in Gir Forest measured 1.98 m (6 ft 6 in) from head to body with a 0.79–0.89 m (31–35 in) long tail of and total lengths of 2.82–2.87 m (9 ft 3 in – 9 ft 5 in). The Gir lion is similar in size to the Central African lion, and smaller than large African lions.
An adult male Asiatic lion weighs 160.1 kg (353 lb) on average with the limit being 190 kg (420 lb); a wild female weighs 100 to 130 kg (220 to 285 lb).[1]
=== Manes ===
Colour and development of manes in male lions varies between regions, among populations and with age of lions. In general, the Asiatic lion differs from the African lion by a less developed mane. The manes of most lions in ancient Greece and Asia Minor were also less developed and did not extend to below the belly, sides or ulnas. Lions with such smaller manes were also known in the Syrian region, Arabian Peninsula and Egypt.
=== Exceptionally sized lions ===
The confirmed record total length of a male Asiatic lion is 2.92 m (9 ft 7 in), including the tail. Emperor Jahangir allegedly speared a lion in the 1620s that measured 3.10 m (10 ft 2 in) and weighed 306 kg (675 lb).
In 1841, English traveller Austen Henry Layard accompanied hunters in Khuzestan, Iran, and sighted a lion which "had done much damage in the plain of Ram Hormuz," before one of his companions killed it. He described it as being "unusually large and of very dark brown colour", with some parts of its body being almost black.
In 1935, a British admiral claimed to have sighted a maneless lion near Quetta in Pakistan. He wrote "It was a large lion, very stocky, light tawny in colour, and I may say that no one of us three had the slightest doubt of what we had seen until, on our arrival at Quetta, many officers expressed doubts as to its identity, or to the possibility of there being a lion in the district."
== Distribution and habitat ==
In Saurashtra's Gir forest, an area of 1,412.1 km2 (545.2 sq mi) was declared as a sanctuary for Asiatic lion conservation in 1965. This sanctuary and the surrounding areas are the only habitats supporting the Asiatic lion. After 1965, a national park was established covering an area of 258.71 km2 (99.89 sq mi) where human activity is not allowed. In the surrounding sanctuary only Maldharis have the right to take their livestock for grazing.
Lions inhabit remnant forest habitats in the two hill systems of Gir and Girnar that comprise Gujarat's largest tracts of tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, thorny forest and savanna, and provide valuable habitat for a diverse flora and fauna. Five protected areas currently exist to protect the Asiatic lion: Gir Sanctuary, Gir National Park, Pania Sanctuary, Mitiyala Sanctuary, and Girnar Sanctuary. The first three protected areas form the Gir Conservation Area, a 1,452 km2 (561 sq mi) large forest block that represents the core habitat of the lion population. The other two sanctuaries Mitiyala and Girnar protect satellite areas within dispersal distance of the Gir Conservation Area. An additional sanctuary is being established in the nearby Barda Wildlife Sanctuary to serve as an alternative home for lions. The drier eastern part is vegetated with acacia thorn savanna and receives about 650 mm (26 in) annual rainfall; rainfall in the west is higher at about 1,000 mm (39 in) per year.
The lion population recovered from the brink of extinction to 411 individuals by 2010. In that year, approximately 105 lions lived outside the Gir forest, representing a quarter of the entire lion population. Dispersing sub-adults established new territories outside their natal prides, and as a result the satellite lion population has been increasing since 1995.
By 2015, the total population had grown to an estimated 523 individuals, inhabiting an area of 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi) in the Saurashtra region., comprising 109 adult males, 201 adult females and 213 cubs. The Asiatic Lion Census conducted in 2017 revealed about 650 individuals.
By 2020, at least six satellite populations had spread to eight districts in Gujarat and live in human-dominated areas outside the protected area network. 104 lived near the coastline. Lions living along the coast, as well as those between the coastline and the Gir forest, have larger individual ranges. By the time of the census, approximately 300–325 lions lived within the Gir preserve itself. The remainder of the population was instead spread across the adjoining Amreli, Bhavnagar, and Gir Somnath Districts, with populations recorded in the Girnar, Mitiyala, and Pania Wildlife Sanctuaries in addition to areas outside protected zones. In 2024 and 2025, lions began swimming to Diu Island, separated from the mainland of Gujarat by a narrow channel. These individuals were relocated to Gujarat on request of the Diu administration over concerns of disruption to human life, although conservationists protested the removal as unnecessary.
=== Former range ===
During the Holocene, from around 6,500 years ago and possibly as early as 8,000 years ago, modern lions colonised Southeast Europe (including modern Bulgaria and Greece in the Balkans), as well as parts of Central Europe like Hungary and Ukraine in Eastern Europe. Analysis of remains of these European lions suggests that they do not differ from those of modern Asiatic lions, and they should be assigned to this population. Historical records suggest that lions became extinct in Europe during Classical antiquity, though it has been suggested that they may have survived as late as the Middle Ages in Ukraine.
The Asiatic lion used to occur in Arabia, the Levant, Mesopotamia and Baluchistan. In South Caucasia, it was known since the Holocene and became extinct in the 10th century. Until the middle of the 19th century, it survived in regions adjoining Mesopotamia and Syria, and was still sighted in the upper reaches of the Euphrates River in the early 1870s. By the late 19th century, it had become extinct in Saudi Arabia and Turkey. The last known lion in Iraq was killed on the lower Tigris in 1918.
Historical records in Iran indicate that it ranged from the Khuzestan Plain to Fars province at elevations below 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in steppe vegetation and pistachio-almond woodlands. It was widespread in the country, but in the 1870s, it was sighted only on the western slopes of the Zagros Mountains, and in the forest regions south of Shiraz. It served as the national emblem and appeared on the country's flag. Some of the country's last lions were sighted in 1941 between Shiraz and Jahrom in Fars province, and in 1942, a lion was spotted about 65 km (40 mi) northwest of Dezful. In 1944, the corpse of a lioness was found on the banks of the Karun River in Iran's Khuzestan province.
In India, the Asiatic lion occurred in Sind, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Bihar and eastward as far as Palamau and Rewa, Madhya Pradesh in the early 19th century. It once ranged to Bangladesh in the east and up to Narmada River in the south.
Because of the lion's restricted distribution in India, Reginald Innes Pocock assumed that it arrived from Europe, entering southwestern Asia through Balochistan only recently, before humans started limiting its dispersal in the country. The advent and increasing availability of firearms led to its local extirpation over large areas.
Heavy hunting by British colonial officers and Indian rulers caused a steady and marked decline of lion numbers in the country. Lions were exterminated in Palamau by 1814, in Baroda State, Hariana and Ahmedabad district in the 1830s, in Kot Diji and Damoh district in the 1840s. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, a British officer shot 300 lions. The last lions of Gwalior and Rewah were shot in the 1860s. One lion was killed near Allahabad in 1866. The last lion of Mount Abu in Rajasthan was spotted in 1872. By the late 1870s, lions were extinct in Rajasthan. By 1880, no lion survived in Guna, Deesa and Palanpur districts, and only about a dozen lions were left in Junagadh district. By the turn of the century, the Gir Forest held the only Asiatic lion population in India, which was protected by the Nawab of Junagarh in his private hunting grounds.
== Ecology and behaviour ==
Male Asiatic lions are solitary, or associate with up to three males, forming a loose pride. Pairs of males rest, hunt and feed together, and display marking behaviour at the same sites. Females associate with up to twelve other females, forming a stronger pride together with their cubs. They share large carcasses among each other, but seldom with males. Female and male lions usually associate only for a few days when mating, but rarely live and feed together.
Results of a radio telemetry study indicate that annual home ranges of male lions vary from 144 to 230 km2 (56 to 89 sq mi) in dry and wet seasons. Home ranges of females are smaller, varying between 67 and 85 km2 (26 and 33 sq mi). During hot and dry seasons, they favour densely vegetated and shady riverine habitats, where prey species also congregate.
Coalitions of males defend home ranges containing one or more female prides.
Together, they hold a territory for a longer time than single lions. Males in coalitions of three to four individuals exhibit a pronounced hierarchy with one male dominating the others.
The lions in Gir National Park are active at twilight and by night, showing a high temporal overlap with sambar (Rusa unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus).
=== Feeding ecology ===
In general, lions prefer large prey species within a weight range of 190 to 550 kg (420 to 1,210 lb), irrespective of their availability. Domestic cattle have historically been a major component of the Asiatic lions' diet in the Gir Forest.
Inside Gir Forest National Park, lions predominantly kill chital (Axis axis), sambar deer, nilgai, cattle (Bos taurus), domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), and less frequently wild boar. They most commonly kill chital, which weighs only around 50 kg (110 lb). They prey on sambar deer when the latter descend from the hills during summer. Outside the protected area where wild prey species do not occur, lions prey on water buffalo and cattle, and rarely on dromedary (Camelus dromedarius). They generally kill most prey less than 100 m (330 ft) away from water bodies, charge prey from close range and drag carcasses into dense cover.
They regularly visit specific sites within the protected area to scavenge on dead livestock dumped by Maldhari livestock herders.
During dry, hot months, they also prey on mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) on the banks of Kamleshwar Dam.
In 1974, the Forest Department estimated the wild ungulate population at 9,650 individuals. In the following decades, the wild ungulate population has grown consistently to 31,490 in 1990 and 64,850 in 2010, including 52,490 chital, 4,440 wild boar, 4,000 sambar, 2,890 nilgai, 740 chinkara (Gazella bennetti), and 290 four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). In contrast, populations of domestic buffalo and cattle declined following resettlement, largely due to direct removal of resident livestock from the Gir Conservation Area. The population of 24,250 domestic livestock in the 1970s declined to 12,500 by the mid-1980s, but increased to 23,440 animals in 2010. Following changes in both predator and prey communities, Asiatic lions shifted their predation patterns. Today, very few livestock kills occur within the sanctuary, and instead most occur in peripheral villages. Depredation records indicate that in and around the Gir Forest, lions killed on average 2,023 livestock annually between 2005 and 2009, and an additional 696 individuals in satellite areas.
Dominant males consume about 47% more from kills than their coalition partners. Aggression between partners increases when coalitions are large, but kills are small.
=== Reproduction ===
Asiatic lions mate foremost between October and November. Mating lasts three to six days. During these days, they usually do not hunt, but only drink water. Gestation lasts about 110 days. Litters comprise one to four cubs.
The average interval between births is 24 months, unless cubs die due to infanticide by adult males or because of diseases and injuries. Cubs become independent at the age of about two years. Subadult males leave their natal pride latest at the age of three years and become nomads until they establish their own territory.
Dominant males mate more frequently than their coalition partners. During a study carried out between December 2012 and December 2016, three females were observed switching mating partners in favour of the dominant male. Monitoring of more than 70 mating events showed that females mated with males of several rivaling prides that shared their home ranges, and that these males were tolerant toward the same cubs. Only new males that entered the female territories killed unfamiliar cubs. Young females mated foremost with males within their home ranges. Older females selected males at the periphery of their home ranges.
== Threats ==
The Asiatic lion currently exists as a single subpopulation, and is thus vulnerable to extinction from unpredictable events, such as an epidemic or large forest fire. There are indications of poaching incidents in recent years, as well as reports that organized poacher gangs have switched attention from local Bengal tigers to the Gujarat lions. There have also been a number of drowning incidents, after lions fell into wells.
Prior to the resettlement of Maldharis, the Gir forest was heavily degraded and used by livestock, which competed with and restricted the population sizes of native ungulates. Various studies reveal tremendous habitat recovery and increases in wild ungulate populations following the resettlement of Maldharis since the 1970s.
Nearly 25 lions in the vicinity of Gir Forest were found dead in October 2018. Four of them had died because of canine distemper virus, the same virus that had also killed several lions in the Serengeti.
=== Conflicts with humans ===
Since the mid-1990s, the Asiatic lion population has increased to an extent that by 2015, about a third resided outside the protected area. Hence, conflict between local residents and wildlife also increased. Local people protect their crops from nilgai, wild boar, and other herbivores by using electrical fences that are powered with high voltage. Some consider the presence of predators a benefit, as they keep the herbivore population in check. But some also fear the lions, and killed several in retaliation for attacks on livestock.
In July 2012, a lion dragged a man from the veranda of his house and killed him about 50–60 km (31–37 miles) from Gir Forest National Park. This was the second attack by a lion in this area, six months after a 25-year-old man was attacked and killed in Dhodadar.
== Conservation ==
Panthera leo persica was included on CITES Appendix I, and is fully protected in India, where it is considered endangered.
=== Reintroduction ===
==== India ====
In the 1950s, biologists advised the Indian government to re-establish at least one wild population in the Asiatic lion's former range to ensure the population's reproductive health and to prevent it from being affected by an outbreak of an epidemic. In 1956, the Indian Board for Wildlife accepted a proposal by the Government of Uttar Pradesh to establish a new sanctuary for the envisaged reintroduction, Chandra Prabha Wildlife Sanctuary, covering 96 km2 (37 sq mi) in eastern Uttar Pradesh, where climate, terrain and vegetation is similar to the conditions in the Gir Forest. In 1957, one male and two female wild-caught Asiatic lions were set free in the sanctuary. This population comprised 11 animals in 1965, which all disappeared thereafter.
The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project to find an alternative habitat for reintroducing Asiatic lions was pursued in the early 1990s. Biologists from the Wildlife Institute of India assessed several potential translocation sites for their suitability regarding existing prey population and habitat conditions. The Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Madhya Pradesh was ranked as the most promising location, followed by Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary and Darrah National Park. Until 2000, 1,100 families from 16 villages had been resettled from the Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, and another 500 families from eight villages were expected to be resettled. With this resettlement scheme the protected area was expanded by 345 km2 (133 sq mi).
Gujarat state officials resisted the relocation, since it would make the Gir Sanctuary lose its status as the world's only home of the Asiatic lion. Gujarat raised a number of objections to the proposal, and thus the matter went before the Indian Supreme Court. In April 2013, the Indian Supreme Court ordered the Gujarat state to send some of their Gir lions to Madhya Pradesh to establish a second population there. The Gujarat state government has resisted relocation of lions to other states.
==== Iran ====
In 1977, Iran attempted to restore its lion population by transporting Gir lions to Arzhan National Park, but the project met resistance from the local population, and thus it was not implemented. However, this did not stop Iran from seeking to bring back the lion. In February 2019, Tehran Zoological Garden obtained a male Asiatic lion from Bristol Zoo in the United Kingdom, followed in June by a female from Dublin Zoo. There are hopes for them to successfully reproduce.
=== In captivity ===
Until the late 1990s, captive Asiatic lions in Indian zoos were haphazardly interbred with African lions confiscated from circuses, leading to genetic pollution in the captive Asiatic lion stock. Once discovered, this led to the complete shutdown of the European and American endangered species breeding programs for Asiatic lions, as its founder animals were captive-bred Asiatic lions originally imported from India and were ascertained to be intraspecific hybrids of African and Asian lions. In North American zoos, several Indian-African lion crosses were inadvertently bred, and researchers noted that "the fecundity, reproductive success, and spermatozoal development improved dramatically."
DNA fingerprinting studies of Asiatic lions have helped in identifying individuals with high genetic variability, which can be used for conservation breeding programs.
In 2006, the Central Zoo Authority of India stopped breeding Indian-African cross lions stating that "hybrid lions have no conservation value and it is not worth to spend resources on them". Now only pure native Asiatic lions are bred in India.
In 1972 the Sakkarbaug Zoo sold a pair of young pure-stock lions to the Fauna Preservation Society; which decided they would be accommodated at the Jersey Wildlife Trust where it was hoped to begin a captive breeding programme.
The Asiatic lion International Studbook was initiated in 1977, followed in 1983 by the North American Species Survival Plan (SSP). The North American population of captive Asiatic lions was composed of descendants of five founder lions, three of which were pure Asian and two were African or African-Asian hybrids. The lions kept in the framework of the SSP consisted of animals with high inbreeding coefficients.
In the early 1990s, three European zoos imported pure Asiatic lions from India: London Zoo obtained two pairs; the Zürich Zoologischer Garten one pair; and the Korkeasaari Zoo in Helsinki one male and two females. In 1994, the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for Asiatic lions was initiated. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) published the first European Studbook in 1999. By 2005, there were 80 Asiatic lions kept in the EEP – the only captive population outside of India. As of 2009, more than 100 Asiatic lions were kept within the EEP. The SSP had not resumed; pure-bred Asiatic lions are needed to form a new founder population for breeding in American zoos.
== In culture ==
=== South and East Asia ===
Neolithic cave paintings of lions were found in Bhimbetka rock shelters in central India, which are at least 30,000 years old.
The Sanskrit word for 'lion' is 'सिंह' siṃhaḥ, which is also a name of Shiva and signifies the Leo of the Zodiac. The Sanskrit name of Sri Lanka is Sinhala meaning 'Abode of Lions'. Singapore derives its name from the Malay words singa 'lion' and pura 'city', which in turn is from the Sanskrit 'सिंह' siṃhaḥ and पुर pur, latter also meaning 'fortified town'.
In Hindu mythology, the half man half lion avatar Narasimha is the fourth incarnation of Vishnu. Simhamukha is a lion-faced protector and dakini in Tibetan Buddhism.
In the 18th book of the Mahabharata, Bharata deprives lions of their prowess. The lion plays a prominent role in The Fables of Pilpay that were translated into Persian, Greek and Hebrew languages between the 8th and 12th centuries. The lion is the symbol of Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara in Jainism.
The lion is the third animal of the Burmese zodiac and the sixth animal of the Sinhalese zodiac.
The earliest known Chinese stone sculptures of lions date to the Han dynasty at the turn of the first millennium.
The lion dance is a traditional dance in Chinese culture that is strongly associated with Buddhism and known since at least the Han dynasty.
Cambodia has a native martial art called Bokator (Khmer: ល្បុក្កតោ, pounding a lion).
=== West Asia and Europe ===
Lions are depicted on vases dating to about 2600 BCE that were excavated near Lake Urmia in Iran.
The lion was an important symbol in Ancient Iraq and is depicted in a stone relief at Nineveh in the Mesopotamian Plain.
The lion makes repeated appearances in the Bible, most notably as having fought Samson in the Book of Judges.
Having occurred in the Arab world, particularly the Arabian Peninsula, the Asiatic lion has significance in Arab and Islamic culture. For example, Surah al-Muddaththir of the Quran criticizes people who were averse to the Islamic Prophet Muhammad's teachings, such as that the rich have an obligation to donate wealth to the poor, comparing their attitude to itself, with the response of prey to a qaswarah (Arabic: قَسْوَرَة, meaning "lion", "beast of prey", or "hunter"). Other Arabic words for 'lion' include asad (Arabic: أَسَد) and sabaʿ (Arabic: سَبَع), and they can be used as names of places, or titles of people. An Arabic toponym for the Israeli City of Beersheba (Arabic: بِئر ٱلسَّبَع) can mean "Spring of the Lion." Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hamzah ibn Abdul-Muttalib, who were loyal kinsmen of Muhammad, were given titles like Asad Allah (Arabic: أَسَد ٱلله, lit. 'Lion of God').
The lion of Babylon is a statue at the Ishtar Gate in Babylon The lion has an important association with the figure Gilgamesh, as demonstrated in his epic. The Iraqi national football team is nicknamed "Lions of Mesopotamia."
The symbol of the lion is closely tied to the Persian people. Achaemenid kings were known to carry the symbol of the lion on their thrones and garments. The name 'Shir' (also pronounced 'Sher') (Persian: شیر) is a part of the names of many places in Iran and Central Asia, like those of city of Shiraz and the Sherabad River, and had been adopted into other languages, like Hindi. The Shir-va-Khorshid (Persian: شیر و خورشید, "Lion and Sun") is one of the most prominent symbols of Iran, dating back to the Safavid dynasty, and was used on the flag of Iran until 1979.
The lion was an objective of hunting in the Caucasus, by both locals and foreigners. The locals were called 'Shirvanshakhs'.
The Nemean lion of pre-literate Greek myth is associated with the Labours of Hercules.
A Bronze Age statue of a lion from either Southern Italy or southern Spain from around 1000–1200 years BCE, the "Mari-Cha Lion", was exhibited at the Louvre Abu Dhabi.
== See also ==
Cape lion
Lions in Europe
Wildlife of Iran
Wildlife of India
In situ conservation
Ex situ conservation
Panthera leo fossilis
Panthera spelaea
Damnatio ad bestias
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Asiatic lion
The Telegraph, August 2018: Pride of India
Asiatic Lion Information Centre at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 August 2010)
Asiatic Lion Protection Society (ALPS), Gujarat, India
ARKive.org: Lion (Panthera leo)
Animal Diversity Web: Panthera leo
Asiatic lions in online video (3 videos)
Asiatic Lions Images
AAj Tak Video News Report in Hindi: Gir lions in palpur kuno century report rajesh badal.mp4 on YouTube by Rajesh Badal (2011)
DB Video Special Report on Asiatic lion in Gujarati: What Is the connection Between Gir lions and Africans lions
Skin of a Persian lioness, belonging to an Vulnerable subspecies of lions, brought to Dublin by King Edward VII in 1902 (during the reign of Shah Mozaffar ad-Din in Persia, and kept in the Natural History Museum (Ireland)).
Lion of Basrah
A lion in Iraq
Stuffed animals including Pakistan's last wild lion at Bahawalpur Zoo
Ancient Arabian account of Muhammad's descendant Musa al-Kadhim encountering a lion outside Medina in the mountainous region of the Hejaz
Description of the Arabian lion and art
4 انواع الأسود في العالم الأسد العربي الجزء (in Arabic)
الاسد العربي المنقرض عند العرب lion Arabian Extinct (in Arabic)
Asiatic lioness on a tree |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley_Griggs#:~:text=Wiley%20Lee%20Griggs%20III%20(March%2024%2C%201925%20%E2%80%93%20August%2023%2C%201996)%2C%20nicknamed%20%22Diamond%20Jim%22%2C%20was%20an%20American%20Negro%20league%20infielder%20in%20the%201940s%20and%201950s. | Wiley Griggs | Wiley Lee Griggs III (March 24, 1925 – August 23, 1996), nicknamed "Diamond Jim", was an American Negro league infielder in the 1940s and 1950s.
A native of Union Springs, Alabama, Griggs was the brother of fellow Negro leaguer Acie Griggs. Younger brother Wiley attended A. H. Parker High School, and served in the US Army during World War II. He broke into the Negro leagues in 1948 with the Birmingham Black Barons, and was a reserve infielder that year as the team reached the Negro World Series. In 1951, he was selected to represent the Houston Eagles in the East–West All-Star Game. Griggs died in Birmingham, Alabama in 1996 at age 71.
== References ==
== External links ==
Career statistics from MLB · Baseball Reference and Seamheads
Wiley Griggs biography from Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Skupski | Ken Skupski | Ken Skupski Jr. (born 9 April 1983) is a British former professional tennis player who specialised in doubles.
He reached his career-high ATP doubles ranking of world No. 44 in July 2010, and won seven titles on the ATP Tour, most notably the 2021 Mexican Open alongside younger brother Neal Skupski, with whom he regularly competed from 2013. Skupski is a three-time Grand Slam quarterfinalist, having reached this stage at the 2017 Wimbledon Championships in both men's and mixed doubles, and the 2020 Australian Open in men's doubles.
At the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, he won two medals representing England, silver in men's doubles with Ross Hutchins, and bronze in mixed doubles partnering Sarah Borwell. Skupski also represented Great Britain in the Davis Cup on two occasions in 2010.
== Early and personal life ==
Ken Skupski was born in Liverpool. His father, Ken Sr. of Polish descent, is a retired police officer, his mother Mary is a golfer.
Skupski is a big fan of Liverpool Football Club and is a keen golfer who plays as often as he can and has a handicap of six.
As youngsters, the brothers once lost a game of doubles against a pairing with special educational and emotional needs, which they claim motivated them to train harder and which they attribute to their future success.
== University tennis career ==
Skupski graduated from Louisiana State University in May 2007. NCAA Doubles finalist 2005 and Two-time Southeastern Conference Coaches Indoor Champion (only player in the history of the Southeastern Conference to win back-to-back titles). Fourth biggest winning player in the school's history with 107 wins. Six-time All-American (two Singles, one Doubles and three Academic).
== Professional career ==
=== 2004 ===
Eight years after he was crowned Wimbledon champion, Richard Krajicek took on Skupski in an exhibition match in Liverpool. Skupski tied a closely contested clash one set all, then won a Super TieBreak 10–7.
=== 2008 ===
Skupski was looking for a fellow British doubles partner who was capable of going to the top of the game. Colin Fleming had turned pro in September and Skupski thought Fleming's game style suited his. Skupski took a bit of a hit because his ranking 250 was much higher than Fleming's at around 900, and so they came to play some low-level Futures and went on a great run.
The pair came to be known as 'Flemski'.
Fleming/Skupski won three Futures in Glasgow, London, Sunderland
and the Caversham International Challenger in Jersey.
Ken Skupski finished the year there because he'd had a long year, but Fleming continued by partnering Jonny Marray in the Czech Republic and winning two Futures in Frydland Nad Ostravici, and Opava
=== 2009 ===
In June 2009, Skupski and Colin Fleming beat the world no. 1 ranked doubles pair, Mike Bryan and Bob Bryan, at the Queen's Club grass court tournament. However he was out in the first round at Wimbledon for the second year in a row in five sets having led by two sets to love, again he partnered Fleming. He did however make into the second round of the mixed doubles losing in straight sets.
In September, the Davis Cup Captain John Lloyd announced that Skupski was part of the Great Britain Davis Cup squad for the Europe/Africa Zone Group 1 relegation play-off against Poland, Skupsi was acting as cover for any injuries and helping the team prepare for Poland's world top-10 ranked doubles team, but didn't play. Great Britain lost 3–2, and were relegated to Group II of the Davis Cup.
In September 2009 he won at the Open de Moselle in France. Again partnering Fleming they won 2–6, 6–4, 10–5, against the defending champion, Arnaud Clément and Michaël Llodra. Two months later they won their second title at the St Petersburg Open, defeating another French team of Jérémy Chardy and Richard Gasquet in the final in three sets 2–6, 7–5, 10–4.
=== 2010 ===
In January 2010, Skupski competed at his first Grand Slam outside of Wimbledon at the Australian Open. Again partnering Fleming they made it into the second before losing in three sets to Michael Kohlmann and Jarkko Nieminen 6–3, 4–6, 3–6. At the French Open he repeated his feat at the Australian open by losing in at the second in three sets to fourth seeds Wesley Moodie and Dick Norman 6–7(5–7), 6–4, 6–7(4–7), again he partnered Fleming.
In June, Skupski reached the final of Eastbourne Open but lost in the final to Mariusz Fyrstenberg and Marcin Matkowski in three sets partnering Colin Fleming. Following his successful run at the Eastbourne Open he finally got a win at Wimbledon in the first round, but again lost in the second to the much more experienced and second seeds the Bryan brothers in straight sets, he was partnering Fleming. For the first time in his career he competed at all four Grand Slams in the same year, but at the US Open, Skupski and Fleming lost in the first round in straight sets.
The new Davis Cup Captain Leon Smith selected Skupski to take part in Great Britain's vital Davis Cup tie vs Turkey, at Eastbourne, in July alongside Colin Fleming, James Ward, Jamie Baker, and Alex Ward. Defeat would have meant Great Britain's relegation to Europe Zone Group III, the lowest tier of the competition. Skupski and Colin Fleming secured the 6–3, 6–4, 6–4 win that gave Britain an unassailable 3–0 lead, ending a run of five straight defeats, giving Great Britain a first Davis Cup win in three years.
In October, at the Commonwealth Games in Delhi, England's Skupski and Ross Hutchins won the Doubles Silver Medal, by losing to Australians Paul Hanley and Peter Luczak in the final.
A few days later, Skupski and Ross Hutchins were opponents in the Mixed Doubles, Skupski and Sarah Borwell beating Ross Hutchins and Anna Smith to win the bronze medal. Skupski and Borwell who had never played together ahead of the Indian event were brought together by their shared coach, Louis Cayer.
Following the Commonwealth Games, Skupski and Colin Fleming decided to end their partnership after a poor run of results. Their final tournament was St. Petersburg where they were beaten in the first round.
=== 2011 ===
In January at the Australian Open Skupski this time partnering Travis Parrott lost in the first round in straight sets. In February, Skupski partnered Robin Haase at the Marseille Open. They reached the final and won the title defeating Julien Benneteau and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 6–3, 6–7(4–7), [13–11]. This was his first title in a year and a half. At the French Open, Skupski again lost in the first round in straight sets to his old partner Fleming 4–6, 4–6, this time he was partnering Igor Zelenay. At Wimbledon again he lost in the first round in straight sets, he was partnering Robin Haase, In Mixed Doubles, he partnered Elena Baltacha where they got to the second round but lost in straight sets to fifteenth seeds Andy Ram and Meghann Shaughnessy 4–6, 4–6.
=== 2012 ===
At the Australian Open in January, Skupski partnered Xavier Malisse where they lost in the first round in straight sets. This was Skupski's fifth first round exit in a row without taking a single set. In mid June, Skupski for the second time got to the final of Aegon International partnering Jamie Delgado, but lost to fellow Brits Colin Fleming and Ross Hutchins 4–6, 3–6. This was his first final in over a year. At Wimbledon, Skupski finally broke his grand slam curse by making it into the second round for the first time in two years after winning a grilling five setter in the first round. But unfortunately for Skupski and new doubles partner Jamie Delgado they faced the heavy task of the Bryan brothers. They were unable to defeat them and they lost in straight sets 6–7(2–7), 0–6, 2–6. He also competed in the mixed doubles event partnering Melanie South. They made it into the third round but were defeated by third seeds Nenad Zimonjić and Katarina Srebotnik in three tough sets 4–6, 7–6(7–5), 7–9. A month after Wimbledon, Skupski and Delgado got into their second final of the season at the Farmers Classic. They lost in three sets to Belgium duo Ruben Bemelmans and Xavier Malisse 6–7(5–7), 6–4, [10–7]. At the US Open Skupski, with full-time partner Jamie Delgado made it to the third round before losing to Spanish sixth seeds Marcel Granollers and Marc López in straight sets 2–6, 4–6. In the second round they defeated the defending champions Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner in straight sets.
=== 2013 ===
Although initially partnering with Delgado, Skupski increasingly played during 2013 with his brother Neal. Due to Neal's lower ranking, the pair played in a number of Futures and Challenger tournaments, winning six tournaments at the Challenger level. At the Kremlin Cup they entered their first ATP level tournament, reaching the final. At Grand Slam events, Skupski competed with some of his former partners, reaching the second round once again at Wimbledon, with Xavier Malisse.
=== 2014 ===
The Skupski brothers ranking as a partnership was not high enough to guarantee entry at the French Open, so they split to give themselves a better chance of qualifying. Ken partnered New Zealander Michael Venus, a fellow Louisiana State University alumni, while Neal teamed up with American Bradley Klahn, though they all lost in the first round.
=== 2015 ===
In July, Neal Skupski was busy playing World Team tennis in the US, so Skupski partnered Divij Sharan, clinching the doubles title in the Euro 42,500 men's Challenger tennis tournament, with a 4–6, 7-6(3), 10–6 victory over fourth seeds Ilija Bozoljac of Serbia and Flavio Cipolla of Italy, in Recanati, Italy.
In September, the Skupskis won the St. Remy Challenger title in France, only playing two matches in the event due to opening round byes and a Semi-Final walkover. There were just 23 sets and three match breakers in the entire doubles event. They were the top seeds and beat the second seeds Andrej Martin and Igor Zelenay in the final, 6–4, 6–1.
=== 2017-2018: First Grand Slam doubles and mixed doubles quarterfinals, fourth ATP title ===
At the 2017 Wimbledon Championships he reached the quarterfinals as a wildcard for the first time in his career partnering with his brother Neal where they were defeated by 4th seeded pair Łukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo.
At the same tournament he also reached the mixed doubles quarterfinals partnering with Jocelyn Rae.
The Skupski brothers won their first ATP title together at the Open Sud de France.
=== 2020-2021: Second Grand Slam quarterfinal, First ATP 500 title ===
At the 2020 Australian Open, Skupski reached the quarterfinals partnering Santiago González for the first time at this Major and second overall.
In March 2021, Skupski won his sixth ATP title and first at the ATP 500 level with his brother Neal at the Mexican Open.
In June 2021, he also won the Nottingham Open on grass, this time partnering Matt Reid.
At the end of the year, he won his second ATP title of the season, the 2021 Sofia Open, partnering Jonny O'Mara.
=== 2022: Defending Nottingham Open title and retirement after Wimbledon ===
In June, at the beginning of the grass court season, partnering Jonny O'Mara, he defended his Nottingham Open title by beating Julian Cash and Henry Patten in the final after saving three championship points.
Skupski announced that Wimbledon 2022 was to be his last professional tournament. Partnering Jonny O'Mara again, he won the first round against Julio Peralta and Alejandro Tabilo. They won the second round against Marcelo Melo and Raven Klaasen. In the round of 16 they lost against 11th seeds from Germany Andreas Mies and Kevin Krawietz, which was the last match of his career. He was also scheduled to play Wimbledon mixed doubles with Heather Watson, but she pulled off before their first round match with a knee injury.
== World TeamTennis ==
Skupski has played two seasons with World TeamTennis starting in 2017 when he debuted in the league with the Orange County Breakers and was named WTT's Male Rookie of the Year. In 2019 he joined the expansion Orlando Storm for their inaugural season. It was announced that he will rejoining the Orlando Storm during the 2020 season set to begin 12 July, his second time with the team having also played in the previous season.
Skupski paired up with Tennys Sandgren in men's doubles during the season as well as Jessica Pegula in mixed doubles. Skupski earned a season high 56% of games won in men's doubles to help the Storm claim a No. 3 seed in the WTT Playoffs. The Storm would ultimately fall to the Chicago Smash in the semifinals.
== ATP career finals ==
=== Doubles: 17 (7 titles, 10 runners-up) ===
== ATP Challengers and ITF Futures finals ==
=== Singles: 2 (1–1) ===
=== Doubles: 77 (48–29) ===
== Doubles performance timeline ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ken Skupski at the Association of Tennis Professionals
Ken Skupski at the International Tennis Federation
Ken Skupski at the Davis Cup (archived) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Europe_Meeting#ASEM_Environment_Ministers'_Meetings_(ASEMEnvMM) | Asia–Europe Meeting | The Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) is an Asian–European political dialogue forum to enhance relations and various forms of cooperation between its partners.
It was officially established on 1 March 1996 at the 1st ASEM Summit (ASEM1) in Bangkok, Thailand, by the then 15 Member States of the European Union (EU) and the European Commission, the then 7 Member States of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the individual countries of China, Japan, and South Korea. A series of enlargements saw additional EU Member States join as well as India, Mongolia, Pakistan and the ASEAN Secretariat in 2008, Australia, New Zealand and Russia in 2010, Bangladesh, Norway, and Switzerland in 2012, as well as Croatia, and Kazakhstan in 2014.
The main components of the ASEM Process rest on the following 3 pillars:
Political Pillar
Economic & Financial Pillar
Social, Cultural & Educational Pillar
In general, the ASEM Process is considered by the Partners involved to be a way of deepening the relations between Asia and Europe at all levels, which is deemed necessary to achieve a more balanced political and economic world order. The process is enhanced by the biennial meetings of Heads of State and Government, alternately in Asia and Europe, and biennial meetings of Foreign Ministers as well as other Ministerial Meetings, and other political, economic, and socio-cultural events at various levels.
== Partners ==
The ASEM Partnership currently has 53 Partners: 51 countries and 2 regional organisations. The countries are Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cambodia, China, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Kingdom and Vietnam while the European Union and the ASEAN Secretariat are the regional organisations involved.
== Meetings ==
=== ASEM Summits ===
Biennial Summits are held alternating between Asia and Europe, attended by the Heads of State and Government of the respective partner countries and organisations:
ASEM13: 25–26 November 2021, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
ASEM12: 18–19 October 2018, Brussels, Belgium
ASEM11: 15–16 July 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEM10: 16–17 October 2014, Milan, Italy
ASEM9: 05–06 November 2012, Vientiane, Laos
ASEM8: 04–05 October 2010, Brussels, Belgium
ASEM7: 24–25 October 2008, Beijing, China
ASEM6: 10–11 September 2006, Helsinki, Finland
ASEM5: 08–09 October 2004, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEM4 Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEM3: 20–21 October 2000, Seoul, South Korea
ASEM2: 03–04 April 1998, London, United Kingdom
ASEM1: 01–02 March 1996, Bangkok, Thailand
=== ASEM Ministerial Meetings ===
Aside from Summits, regular Ministerial Meetings are held on foreign affairs, financial, cultural, economic, educational, labor and employment, transport, or environmental issues, attended by the relevant ministers:
==== ASEM Foreign Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFMM) ====
ASEMFMM14 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 December 2019, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFMM13: 20–21 November 2017, Naypyidaw, Myanmar
ASEMFMM12: 05–06 November 2015, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
ASEMFMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 November 2013, New Delhi, India
ASEMFMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2011, Gödöllő, Hungary
ASEMFMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMFMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 28–29 May 2007, Hamburg, Germany
ASEMFMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 May 2005, Kyoto, Japan
ASEMFMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2004, Kildare, Ireland
ASEMFMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–24 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMFMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2002, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 24–25 May 2001, Beijing, China
ASEMFMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29 March 1999, Berlin, Germany
ASEMFMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 February 1997, Singapore
==== ASEM Finance Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFinMM) ====
ASEMFinMM14: 2020, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ASEMFinMM13 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26 April 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMFinMM12 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 09–10 June 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEMFinMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 September 2014, Milan, Italy
ASEMFinMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 October 2012, Bangkok, Thailand
ASEMFinMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2010, Madrid, Spain
ASEMFinMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 16 June 2008, Jeju, South Korea
ASEMFinMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 08–09 April 2006, Vienna, Austria
ASEMFinMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 June 2005, Tianjin, China
ASEMFinMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMFinMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMFinMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 13–14 January 2001, Kobe, Japan
ASEMFinMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15–16 September 1999, Frankfurt, Germany
ASEMFinMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19 September 1997, Bangkok, Thailand
==== ASEM Culture Ministers' Meetings (ASEMCMM) ====
ASEMCMM9: 2020, Asia
ASEMCMM8: 01-02 March 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMCMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 June 2016, Gwangju, South Korea
ASEMCMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 20–21 October 2014, Rotterdam, Netherlands
ASEMCMM5: 18–19 September 2012, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
ASEMCMM4: 08–10 September 2010, Poznań, Poland
ASEMCMM3: 21–24 April 2008, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ASEMCMM2: 06–07 June 2005, Paris, France
ASEMCMM1: 03 December 2003, Beijing, China
==== ASEM Economic Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEMM) ====
ASEMEMM7: 21–22 September 2017, Seoul, South Korea
High-level Meeting: 16-17 September 2005, Rotterdam, Netherlands
ASEMEMM5: 23–24 July 2003, Dalian, China
ASEMEMM4: 18–19 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMEMM3: 10–11 September 2001, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMEMM2: 09–10 October 1999, Berlin, Germany
ASEMEMM1: 27–28 September 1997, Makuhari, Japan
==== ASEM Education Ministers' Meetings (ASEMME) ====
ASEMME9: 25-26 January 2024, Valletta, Malta
ASEMME8: 15 December 2021, Bangkok (online), Thailand
ASEMME7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 May 2019, Bucharest, Romania
ASEMME6: 21–22 November 2017, Seoul, South Korea
ASEMME5: 27–28 April 2015, Riga, Latvia
ASEMME4: 12–14 May 2013, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ASEMME3: 09–10 May 2011, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMME2: 14–15 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMME1: 05–06 May 2008, Berlin, Germany
==== ASEM Labour & Employment Ministers' Conferences (ASEMLEMC) ====
ASEMLEMC5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 03–04 December 2015, Sofia, Bulgaria
ASEMLEMC4: 24–26 October 2012, Hanoi, Vietnam
ASEMLEMC3: 12–14 December 2010, Leiden, Netherlands
ASEMLEMC2: 13–15 October 2008, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMLEMC1: 03 September 2006, Potsdam, Germany
==== ASEM Transport Ministers' Meetings (ASEMTMM) ====
ASEMTMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11-12 December 2019, Budapest, Hungary
ASEMTMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26–28 September 2017, Bali, Indonesia
ASEMTMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29–30 April 2015, Riga, Latvia
ASEMTMM2: 24–25 October 2011, Chengdu, China
ASEMTMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19–20 October 2009, Vilnius, Lithuania
==== ASEM Environment Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEnvMM) ====
ASEMEnvMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–23 May 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ASEMEnvMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–26 April 2007, Copenhagen, Denmark
ASEMEnvMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 12–13 October 2003, Lecce, Italy
ASEMEnvMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17 January 2002, Beijing, China
==== ASEM Ministerial Conference on Energy Security (ASEMESMC) ====
ASEMESMC1: 17–18 June 2009, Brussels, Belgium
== See also ==
ASEM Education Process
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework
European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean Summit
== References ==
== External links ==
ASEM InfoBoard, the official information platform of the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM)
Introduction to the Asia-Europe Meeting
ASEM in Its Tenth Year: Looking Forward, Looking Back Archived 21 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Asia-Europe People's Forum (AEPF)
Asia-Europe Labour Forum (AELF)
ASEM Education Secretariat (AES)
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework
ASEF Classroom Network (ASEF ClassNet)
Asia-Europe Museum Network (ASEMUS) Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
ASEF University Alumni Network (ASEFUAN)
Asia-Europe Institute (AEI) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukul_Dey | Mukul Dey | Mukul Chandra Dey (23 July 1895 – 1 March 1989) was one of five children of Purnashashi Devi and Kula Chandra Dey. He was a student of Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan and is considered as a pioneer of drypoint-etching in India. The entire family of Mukul Dey had artistic talents, the brother Manishi Dey was a well-known painter, and his two sisters, Annapura and Rani Chanda, were accomplished in arts and crafts as well.
Mukul Dey was married to Bina Roy, who was from Khanakul, Bengal. They had one daughter named Manjari, whom they affectionately called Bukuma. Manjari was later married to Shantanu Ukil, a leading painter of the Bengal School of Art.
== Early years ==
He was the first Indian artist to travel abroad for the purpose of studying printmaking as an art. While in Japan in 1916, Mukul Dey studied under Yokoyama Taikan and Kanzan Shimomura at Tokyo and Yokohama. At Yokohama Rabindranath Tagore and Mukul Dey lived as guests of Japanese silk-merchant Tomitaro Hara at his famous residential complex Sankeien, enjoying a rare opportunity to study classical Chinese and Nihonga style Japanese paintings. Especially the masterpieces of Sesshu Toyo.
Dey received his initial training at Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan. He then travelled to America from Japan in 1916 to learn the technique of etching under James Blanding Sloan and Bertha Jaques in Chicago, to whom Dey was introduced by American artist Roi Partridge and his wife Imogen Cunningham. Mukul Dey remained a life-member of Chicago Society of Etchers. On his return to India in 1917, Dey concentrated on creating etchings as a fine art. He also supported himself through making portrait drawings of the rich and famous, and turned these into etchings. In 1920 Dey once again travelled abroad for the purpose of study, this time learning etching and engraving under Frank Short and Muirhead Bone. He studied at both the Slade School of Fine Art and the Royal College of Art in London. At Slade School of Art Mukul Dey was a student of Professor Henry Tonks.
An exhibition of Dey's drawings and paintings were shown, including ten copies of paintings at Ajanta and 1 at the Bagh Caves, courtesy of Lady Grant, at 59 Onslow Square, London, on 4 February 1924. His work had already been shown at the Royal Academy and the New English Art Club.
According to the Polish sculptor Stanislaw Szukalski, when Mukul was in America,
he showed Szukalski his drawings, which impressed the artist. He then told Szukalski of his desire to venture into Paris, to "finish his study", despite the extreme disapproval of this decision by Mukul's mentor, Tagore. Szukalski thought of Paris as a factory for the "brainwashing of the public of every nation", into thinking Kandinski, Picasso, etc., were masters. Szukalski told Mukul, "You are already a fine artist, but with your silly anticipation of finding miraculous Culture in Europe, you will swallow as a new religion any pseudo-movement, any Ism of the misfits who abuse painting and sculpture with combs, forks and brushes stuck in their noses to give an easy semblance of individuality. Later come to Europe, with enough belief in yourself to look upon European Decadence with CONTEMPT and the ability to select really worthy examples of Art from all ages and Cultures". This argument persuaded Mukul to return to Santiniketan, to the delight of Tagore.
Mukul Dey chose an essentially Western medium to portray various sides of Indian life. Unlike artists such as Haren Das, whose woodcut printing technique was more indigenous to Indian culture, Dey concentrated on drypoint etching, a thoroughly European practice. Regardless of his adopted Western technique, Dey chose subjects such as river scenes in Bengal, traditional baul singers, the markets of Calcutta, or the life of Santhal villagers in the Birbhum district, near the Santiniketan art school. When the Tagore family of Kolkata created the Vichitra Club at their ancestral home of Jorasanko, Mukul Dey became an active member. At Vichitra Club the young and upcoming artists like Nandalal Bose, Asit Kumar Haldar, Mukul Dey and Narayan Kashinath Deval were encouraged to experiment in ever new creative mediums and art forms.
In 1925, Dey published a book on the cave paintings in Ajanta and Bagh, which he cherished and used as an inspiration. The vibrant language of the descriptions reflect his enthusiasm for the cave paintings. He later published and illustrated various other books during his career.
== Professional career ==
Dey was appointed the first Indian Principal of the Government School of Art, Calcutta, in 1928. Since Dey was committed to imposing an Indian identity on the then British-controlled art establishment, he quickly drove teachers too closely linked with Company School painting out of the institution. While at Government School of Art, Calcutta Mukul Dey was responsible for starting a women's section there. Prior to his time only men could join this institution as art students.
Gracefully drawn images of Bengali villagers executed in dry-point have become what Dey is most associated with. Some of his finer works are dry-point etchings that have been hand-coloured with watercolors, coloured pencils, or thin washes of ink. Dey is also remembered for his portraits of various Indian personalities, including members of the Tagore and Tata families, Albert Einstein, and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He also depicted lesser known personalities, such as Josephine MacLeod, the promoter of Swami Vivekananda's Ramakrishna order at Belur Math. Incidentally, it was Josephine MacLeod who first brought Okakura Kakuzo to India from Japan in 1901–1902.
Manishi Dey, the younger brother of Mukul, was a member of the Progressive Artists' Group and a prominent painter of the Bengal School of Art. In contrast to his more steady brother Mukul, Manishi travelled tirelessly throughout India.
== Legacy ==
Mukul Dey's works are found in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, the Indian Museum, Kolkata, the National Gallery of Modern Art NGMA in Mumbai, and the National Gallery of Art, New Delhi. The Mukul Dey Archives are housed at Mukul Dey's former home, named Chitralekha, at Santiniketan.
He was also the illustrator for many book projects, one of his earliest was a scholarly book Shantiniketan Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore, which he illustrated for the later Nobel Prize winner in 1916.
== Bibliography ==
Pearson, WW. with illustrations by Mukul Chandra Dey. Shantiniketan: The Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore. The Macmillan Company, 1916.
Mukul Chandra Dey. My Pilgrimages To Ajanta Bagh. Published in English by George H. Doran Co, New York, USA, 1925. [3]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Twenty Portraits. 1943 [4]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Birbhum Terracottas. 1959 [5]
Mukul Chandra Dey. Amar Kotha, ed. Visva Bharati, 1995 A posthumously published autobiography. [6]
== References ==
== External links ==
Mukul Dey Archives
Delhi Art Gallery
Online Museum of Contemporary Indian Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glipodes#:~:text=Glipodes%20is%20a%20genus%20of,Glipodes%20dietrichi%20Franciscolo%2C%201962 | Glipodes | Glipodes is a genus of tumbling flower beetles in the family Mordellidae. There are at least two described species in Glipodes, found in North, Central, and South America.
== Species ==
These two species belong to the genus Glipodes:
Glipodes sericans (Melsheimer, 1845) (North, Central, and South America)
Glipodes unistrigosa Pic, 1941 (South America)
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerie_Thomas | Valerie Thomas | Valerie L. Thomas (born February 8, 1943) is an American data scientist and inventor. She invented the illusion transmitter, for which she received a patent in 1980. She was responsible for developing the digital media formats that image processing systems used in the early years of NASA's Landsat program.
== Early life and education ==
Thomas was born in Baltimore, Maryland. She graduated from high school in 1961, during the era of integration. She attended Morgan State University, where she was one of two women majoring in physics. Thomas excelled in her mathematics and science courses at Morgan State University, graduating with a degree in physics with highest honors in 1964.
== Career ==
Thomas began working for NASA as a data analyst in 1964. She developed real-time computer data systems to support satellite operation control centers (1964–1970). She oversaw the creation of the Landsat program and her participation in the program expanded upon the works of other NASA scientists in the pursuit of being able to visualize Earth from space.
In 1974, Thomas headed a team of approximately 50 people for the Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE), a joint effort with the NASA Johnson Space Center, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. LACIE demonstrated the feasibility of using satellites to automate the process of predicting wheat yield on a worldwide basis.
She attended a science exhibition in 1976 that included an illusion of a light bulb that appeared to be lit, even though it had been removed from its socket. The illusion, which involved another light bulb and concave mirrors, inspired Thomas. In response to her curiosity, she began her researching a potential patent in 1977. This involved creating an experiment in which she observed how the position of a concave mirror would affect the real object that is reflected through it. Through her discovery and experimentation, she would invent an optical device called the illusion transmitter. On October 21, 1980, she obtained the patent for the illusion transmitter, a device NASA adopted and which was later adapted for screens on devices ranging from surgery tools to televisions. Thomas became associate chief of the Space Science Data Operations Office at NASA. Thomas's invention has been depicted in a children's fictional book, television, and in video games.
In 1985, as the NSSDC Computer Facility manager, Thomas was responsible for a major consolidation and reconfiguration of two previously independent computer facilities. She then served as the Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN) project manager from 1986 to 1990 during a period when SPAN underwent a major reconfiguration and grew from a scientific network with approximately 100 computer nodes to one directly connecting approximately 2,700 computer nodes worldwide. Thomas' team was credited with developing a computer network that connected research stations of scientists from around the world to improve scientific collaboration.
In 1990, SPAN became a major part of NASA's science networking and today's Internet. She also participated in projects related to Halley's Comet, ozone research, satellite technology, and the Voyager spacecraft.
She mentored students in the Mathematics Aerospace Research and Technology Inc. program. Thomas often spoke to groups of students from elementary school, secondary, college, and university ages, as well as adult groups. As a role model for her community, she visits schools and national meetings over the years. She has mentored students working in summer programs at Goddard Space Flight Center. She also judged at science fairs, working with organizations such as the National Technical Association (NTA) and Women in Science and Engineering (WISE).
At the end of August 1995, she retired from NASA and her positions of associate chief of the NASA Space Science Data Operations Office, manager of the NASA Automated Systems Incident Response Capability, and as chair of the Space Science Data Operations Office Education Committee.
== Retirement ==
After retiring, Thomas served as an associate at the UMBC Center for Multicore Hybrid Productivity Research. She also continued to mentor youth through the Science Mathematics Aerospace Research and Technology, Inc. and the National Technical Association. In 2018, Thomas was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, recognizing her contributions to satellite communication and remote sensing as a pioneer.
== Notable achievements ==
Thomas has received numerous awards including the Goddard Space Flight Center Award of Merit and the NASA Equal Opportunity Medal.
== See also ==
Timeline of women in science
Mary Jackson (engineer)
Dorothy Vaughan
Katherine Johnson
Claudia Alexander
Doris Cohen
Lynnae Quick
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay_Men%27s_Chorus_of_Washington,_D.C.#History | Gay Men's Chorus of Washington, D.C. | The Gay Men’s Chorus of Washington, D.C. (GMCW), is one of the oldest LGBT choral organizations in the United States. With more than 300 singing members, it is also one of the largest. The chorus's stated mission is that it "delights audiences and champions gay equality with robust artistry, fun, and surprise." In addition to singing members, GMCW has nearly 100 support volunteers, 400 subscribers, 500 donors and an annual audience of nearly 10,000. The parent organization is the Federal City Performing Arts Association, Inc., and GMCW is a member of GALA Choruses.
The chorus was established in 1981 by enthusiasts of the San Francisco Gay Men’s Chorus who attended a local performance at the Kennedy Center Concert Hall. In the time since its founding, GMCW has performed locally at the Kennedy Center, the National Theatre, the Warner Theatre, DAR Constitution Hall, the Lincoln Theatre and, most frequently, Lisner Auditorium at George Washington University. The chorus performed at President Clinton’s second inauguration in 1997. In 1998, the chorus toured three Scandinavian capitals. While there, GMCW was received by Sweden’s Princess Christina to thank members for singing in support of Noah’s Ark, a Swedish AIDS services organization.
During its 20th-anniversary season in 2000–2001, GMCW performed at Carnegie Hall and Boston’s Symphony Hall in joint concerts with the gay men’s choruses of Boston and New York City. In December 2002, GMCW performed as part of the televised 25th annual Kennedy Center Honors in tribute to Elizabeth Taylor.
The chorus has commissioned original works for men’s chorus, such as Changing Hearts in 2004 and Songs of My Family in 2007. Both works were featured on CD releases subsequent to their inaugural performances on stage.
GMCW performs three subscription concerts annually: holiday-themed (December), spring (March) and summer (June), which opens Washington’s annual week-long Capital Pride celebration. In addition, in 2007 and 2008, the chorus performed a non-subscription concert of classical fare in February, between the holiday and spring concerts. There are occasional smaller, also non-subscription productions, such as an auditioned Cabaret concert in October or November.
The chorus makes appearances at local community events, including programs for PFLAG, Whitman-Walker Clinic and the Human Rights Campaign. The chorus sponsors five small ensembles: Potomac Fever, an a cappella close-harmony group, Rock Creek Singers, a chamber choir, GenOUT, an LGBTQI supportive chorus for DC area youth, Seasons of Love, a gospel choir, and 17th Street Dance, a dance troupe. These ensembles serve as representatives of the larger chorus at community functions, and each produces an annual concert.
The records of the GMCW are cared for by the Special Collections Research Center in the Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library of the George Washington University.
== History ==
Source:
June 28, 1981: After the national tour performance of the San Francisco Gay Men’s Chorus at the Kennedy Center 10 days earlier, Marsha Pearson had distributed fliers announcing a meeting to organize a gay men’s chorus. The meeting occurred in the old Gay Community Center at 1469 Church Street in Northwest Washington with 18 men, and the GMCW was born. Jim Richardson became the new organization’s Interim Director with the first rehearsals being held at the center, and later at the First Congregational Church in downtown Washington.
Sept. 23, 1981: At the invitation of D.C. Mayor Marion Barry, GMCW’s debut performance occurred at a reception at the District Building, to mark the opening of the National Gay Task Force’s Washington office (later the NGLTF). Also that month, GMCW established its management umbrella, incorporating the Federal City Performing Arts Association (FCPAA), as a non-profit educational organization whose goal was "to provide first-rate music in performance by and for Washington’s gay and lesbian community and the community-at-large."
Dec. 12, 1981: With nearly 90 members, the chorus performed its first holiday concert, jointly with the DC Area Feminist Chorus and Different Drummers, at the First Congregational Church to a standing-room-only audience of close to 1,000.
March 17, 1982: GMCW’s debut concert – under direction of its first permanent music director, Nick Armstrong – was performed at St. Mark’s Episcopal Church on Capitol Hill. Selections were also performed by GMCW’s two smaller ensembles — the Sine Nomine Singers, a 16-member chamber group and A Few Good Men, a 20-member song-and-dance troupe.
Sept. 9, 1983: The COAST (Come Out And Sing Together) Festival not only marked the first "road trip" for the Chorus outside the Washington-Baltimore area, but also provided the experience of performing in a real concert venue – the Alice Tully Hall at the Lincoln Center. It was also the first national gay choral festival – bringing eleven groups together from around the country – established by the Gay and Lesbian Association of Choruses.
Oct. 8, 1984: GMCW performed at the National Theatre for its "Monday Night at the National" for a mostly straight audience. The Chorus concluded their concert with the gospel-style "Walk Him Up the Stairs", and received a standing ovation.
Dec. 13, 1985: GMCW presented an evening performance of its holiday concert, donating the proceeds of $5,700 to the Whitman-Walker Clinic in its fight against AIDS. (The GMCW Holiday Concert was inaugurated in 1984.)
June 21, 1986: The Chorus celebrated its 5th anniversary by returning to the place of its inspiration – the Concert Hall of the Kennedy Center. DC First Lady Effi Barry read a Mayoral proclamation declaring "Gay Men’s Chorus of Washington Day" and introduced the Chorus.
July 2, 1988: GMCW sang at the funeral of Leonard Matlovich, a decorated Vietnam veteran who was discharged from the Air Force in 1975 for declaring his homosexuality.
Oct. 15, 1989: The Chorus was allowed to participate in the AIDS Healing Service at the Washington National Cathedral under its own name after a significant struggle for recognition. GMCW was asked to participate in the 1988 service, only to have the invitation "rescinded because the Episcopal hierarchy deemed us too 'political'", according to one member. (While they did participate, it was not under the GMCW name.) Chorus leadership pursued the issue in 1989 and the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church yielded.
Jan. 19, 1997: The chorus performed an 11-number set at the Smithsonian Institution’s American History Museum on the eve of the 53rd Presidential Inaugural – the first time a gay choral group was invited to participate in such a national event.
June 28, 1997: On its 16th anniversary of formation, the Chorus was joined by the Indianapolis Men’s Chorus at the Lisner Auditorium to perform the DC premiere of "NakedMan", to which a review noted, "GMCW always produces a slick, highly professional staging."
May 28, 1998: GMCW launched it first overseas tour to Scandinavia, visiting Oslo, Stockholm and Copenhagen. In Stockholm, GMCW was received by Sweden’s Princess Christina, and in Copenhagen, they became the first gay chorus to sing in the Tivoli Gardens concert hall.
April 2, 2001: The Chorus performed at Carnegie Hall as part of their 20th anniversary season joint concerts with the New York City Gay Men’s Chorus and the Boston Gay Men’s Chorus.
June 16, 2001: The 20th-anniversary gala concert was held at the Kennedy Center Concert Hall with special guest the San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus.
Dec. 8, 2002: GMCW participated in taping the 25th Annual Kennedy Center Honors — the first nationally televised performance by the Chorus — telecast on Dec. 26, 2002, on CBS. The chorus was invited to perform in tribute to one of the honorees, Elizabeth Taylor. The audience included the President, Vice President, Cabinet secretaries, congressmen and leaders in government, business and the entertainment industry.
June 4, 2005: The Pride Concert not only included a reprise of NakedMan — with special guests the Ft. Lauderdale Gay Men’s Chorus — but also presentation of the "Capital Pride Director’s Award for Outstanding Leadership and Commitment to the GLBT Community in Washington".
June 25, 2006: Culminating its 25th anniversary season, the chorus closed with "Singing Free!" with special guest Barbara Cook at the Kennedy Center. The single performance concert weekend included an alumni reception celebration the night before, and special chorus and guest party after the concert.
January 18, 2009: The chorus performed in We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial as back-up vocals for a duet of "My Country ’Tis of Thee" with Josh Groban and Heather Headley.
October 11, 2009: The chorus performed in the pre-concert rally for the National Equality March at the West Front of the United States Capitol Building.
March 19, 2010: GMCW staged an all-male version of the musical Grease.
Dec. 4, 2010: GMCW participated in taping the 33rd Annual Kennedy Center Honors, telecast on Dec. 28, 2010, on CBS. GMCW was invited to perform in tribute to one of the honorees, Jerry Herman. The audience included the President and First Lady, Vice President, Cabinet secretaries, congressmen and leaders in government, business and the entertainment industry. The chorus performed on stage with Kelsey Grammer, Angela Lansbury, Chita Rivera, Carol Channing, Christine Ebersole, Laura Benanti (who had performed in concert with the chorus at the Kennedy Center eight and a half years earlier), Sutton Foster, Kelli O'Hara and Matthew Morrison. This was the chorus’s second appearance on the honors telecast.
June 4, 2011: GMCW’s 30th-anniversary season included a reprise of its 2004 work A Pink Nutcracker, a concert salute to the 2010 congressionally enacted end of the "Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell" policy on gays and lesbians serving in the U.S. armed forces, and a full-scale production of the Carol Hall musical The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. The season ended with a concert featuring a special guest, Tony Award winner Jennifer Holliday, and premiering Alexander’s House, a one-act work by composer Michael Shaieb telling the story of disparate parts of a gay man’s family — including his lover and friends and a young-adult son he had left behind — coming together as they cope with his death.
Oct. 24, 2011: The chorus hosted a party at the Hotel Helix in honor of the release of FCPAA Board of Directors member Paula Bresnan Gibson’s Voices From a Chorus. The book was the result of 14 months of research and work, during which time Paula interviewed 65 members and supporters of the chorus. Everyone who took the time to speak with Paula was featured and quoted in the book. For many months thereafter, Paula would go to book stores for live readings and discussions with customers. In July 2012, Paula and a panel of chorus members spoke during GALA Festival 2012 in Denver. To date, copies of the book are provided for free to all incoming members of the chorus.
June 2, 2012: The chorus’s 31st season had begun in December 2011 with a successful holiday extravaganza, Red & Greene, featuring special guest Ellen Greene. The Kids Are All Right, performed in February 2012, featured the Pittsburgh-based LGBT youth performing arts collective Dreams of Hope. In March, the Chorus performed an elaborately staged production of Richard O’Brien’s countercultural classic The Rocky Horror Show, which included audience call-outs from the film. GMCW’s small ensembles Rock Creek Singers and Potomac Fever united for the first time in many years for a single concert, Together Again, in April. The season concluded with the June 2012 performances of Heart Throbs, an energetic salute to the men of pop music. A month later, along with the small ensembles’ own appearances, the Chorus performed Alexander’s House as the first of a special series of morning "Coffee Concerts" at GALA Festival 2012 in Denver.
June 1, 2013: The Chorus’s 32nd season performances began in December 2012 with Winter Nights, which featured special guest the Virginia Bronze handbell ensemble. For the February 2013 concert, My Big Fat Gay Wedding, the Chorus hosted not just a special guest, gay folk singer and former member of Chanticleer Matt Alber, but also staged a wedding. A live-auction bid for the opportunity had been offered the year prior, during the 2012 Spring Affair fund-raiser. Dixon Charles and board member J.T. Hatfield Charles won the auction and were wed on stage by Chorus member and registered marriage officiant Patrick Nelson. In March, the Chorus performed a full-scale production of the 2007 Broadway musical Xanadu, based on the 1980 film starring Olivia Newton-John. In April, GMCW’s small ensembles Rock Creek Singers and Potomac Fever performed in the concert Side by Side. The season’s finalé included the June 2012 performances of Seven, a sexy, ebullient celebration of the seven deadly sins.
June 26, 2013: Chorus members assembled in front of the Supreme Court of the United States, at the direction of Associate Music Director Thea Kano, in reaction to the Court’s rulings eliminating key provisions of the federal Defense of Marriage Act and allowing a lower court’s ruling on California’s Proposition 8 to stand, thus allowing the law banning same-sex marriages in California to end. In front of press and hundreds of well-wishers, the Chorus performed "Make Them Hear You" (from the musical Ragtime) and "The Star-Spangled Banner". The performances were recorded on video, both by amateurs and professionals, and aired on local and national news broadcasts.
May 18, 2014: A bittersweet but significant moment occurred as the Chorus closed its 33rd season at the Kennedy Center Concert Hall with special guest Laura Benanti, who had joined the chorus 12 years earlier at the same venue. At that time, Jeffrey Buhrman was ending his second season as artistic director of the Chorus. On this day, in the performance of A Gay Man’s Guide to Broadway, he closed his 14th and final season, which had begun with a festive holiday show, Sparkle, Jingle, Joy, with guest Matt Alber, and continued with Passion, Von Trapped (a gay interpolation of The Sound of Music) and the small ensembles’ concert Forte, performed at the Mead Center for American Theater, home to Arena Stage. In A Gay Men’s Guide to Broadway, as many Chorus and audience members fought back tears, Burhman was honored by the Chorus and Benanti and given an extended standing ovation, and Washington, D.C., mayor Vincent Gray declared it "Jeffrey Burhman Day".
== Notes and references ==
== Further reading ==
Harmanci, Reyhan. A NOTE ON CHANGE: 'Why We Sing!' Documentary explores choral music's appeal and how it fosters community. San Francisco Chronicle, August 24, 2006
Hilliard, Russell E. "The San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus A Historical Perspective on the Role of a Chorus as a Social Service." Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services: Issues in Practice, Policy, and Research. The official journal of the Caucus of the LGBT Faculty & Students in Social Work. Volume: 14, October 29, 2002. Issue ISSN 1053-8720. The Haworth Press, Inc.
== External links ==
Gay Men’s Chorus of Washington’s official Web site
GALA Choruses Inc.’s official Web site
Guide to the Gay Men's Chorus of Washington, DC Records, 1980-2013, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Raymond_Perrault | C. Raymond Perrault | Charles Raymond Perrault is an artificial intelligence researcher and a Distinguished Computer Scientist at SRI International. He was a co-principal investigator of the CALO project, which is the predecessor for several AI technologies including Siri.
== Education ==
Perrault received a bachelor of science in mathematics from McGill University and a Ph.D. in computer and communication sciences from the University of Michigan in 1975.
== Career ==
Perrault was a faculty member of the University of Toronto from 1974 to 1983, rising from assistant to full professor.
He started at SRI International in 1983, and was the director of the Artificial Intelligence Center from 1987 to 2017. While at SRI, he was a co-principal investigator of the CALO project and is also a founder of the Center for the Study of Language and Information.
== Memberships and awards ==
Perrault was the co-editor in chief of the journal Artificial Intelligence from 2001 to 2010, the president and a trustee of the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence from 1992 to 2001, and was president of the Association for Computational Linguistics in 1983.
In 1990, Perrault was named a founding fellow of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence and in 2018 of American Association for Advancement of Science In July 2011, he won the Donald E. Walker Distinguished Service Award from the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence.
== References ==
== External links ==
Raymond Perrault on LinkedIn |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasser_Arafat | Yasser Arafat | Yasser Arafat (4 or 24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004), also popularly known by his kunya Abu Ammar, was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004, President of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 and President of the Palestinian Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004. Ideologically an Arab nationalist and a socialist, Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004.
Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I. While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel, he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956.
In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In the latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War.
From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories. He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit. The success of the negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, alongside Israeli prime ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. The cause of Arafat's death remains the subject of speculation. Investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved, while a Swiss team determined he was radiologically poisoned.
Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist. Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals, frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government.
== Early life ==
=== Birth and childhood ===
Arafat was born in Cairo, Egypt, on 4 or 24 August 1929. His father, Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, a distant relative of Amin al-Husseini, the former Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, was a Palestinian from Gaza City, whose mother, Yasser's paternal grandmother, was Egyptian. Arafat's father battled in the Egyptian courts for 25 years to claim family land in Egypt as part of his inheritance but was unsuccessful. He worked as a textile merchant in Cairo's religiously mixed Sakakini District. Arafat was the second-youngest of seven children and was, along with his younger brother Fathi, the only offspring born in Cairo. Jerusalem was the family home of his mother, Zahwa Abul Saud, who died from a kidney ailment in 1933, when Arafat was four years of age.
Arafat's first visit to Jerusalem came when his father, unable to raise seven children alone, sent Yasser and his brother Fathi to their mother's family in the Mughrabi Quarter of the Old City. They lived there with their uncle Salim Abul Saud for four years. In 1937, their father recalled them to be taken care of by their older sister, Inam. Arafat had a deteriorating relationship with his father; when he died in 1952, Arafat did not attend the funeral, nor did he visit his father's grave upon his return to Gaza. Arafat's sister Inam stated in an interview with Arafat's biographer, British historian Alan Hart, that Arafat was heavily beaten by his father for going to the Jewish quarter in Cairo and attending religious services. When she asked Arafat why he would not stop going, he responded by saying that he wanted to study Jewish mentality.
=== Education ===
In 1944, Arafat enrolled in the University of King Fuad I and graduated in 1950. At university, he engaged Jews in discussion and read publications by Theodor Herzl and other prominent Zionists. By 1946, he was an Arab nationalist and began procuring weapons to be smuggled into Mandatory Palestine, for use by irregulars in the Arab Higher Committee and the Army of the Holy War militias.
During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Arafat left the university and, along with other Arabs, sought to enter Palestine to join Arab forces fighting against Israeli troops and the creation of the state of Israel. During the war, Arafat allegedly acted as a go-between in arms procurement for the Mufti of Jerusalem Amin al-Husseini’s troops. However, instead of joining the ranks of the Palestinian fedayeen, Arafat fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood, although he did not join the organization. He took part in combat in the Gaza area (which was the main battleground of Egyptian forces during the conflict). In early 1949, the war was winding down in Israel's favor, and Arafat returned to Cairo due to a lack of logistical support.
After returning to the university, Arafat studied civil engineering and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) from 1952 to 1956. During his first year as president of the union, the university was renamed Cairo University after a coup was carried out by the Free Officers Movement overthrowing King Farouk I. By that time, Arafat had graduated with a bachelor's degree in civil engineering and was called to duty to fight with Egyptian forces during the Suez Crisis; however, he never actually fought. Later that year, at a conference in Prague, he donned a solid white keffiyeh–different from the fishnet-patterned one he adopted later in Kuwait, which was to become his emblem.
=== Personal life ===
In 1990, Arafat married Suha Tawil, a Palestinian Christian, when he was 61 and Suha, 27. Her mother introduced her to him in France, after which she worked as his secretary in Tunis. Prior to their marriage, Arafat adopted fifty Palestinian war orphans. During their marriage, Suha tried to leave Arafat on many occasions, but he forbade it. Suha said she regrets the marriage, and given the choice again would not repeat it. In mid-1995, Arafat's wife gave birth in a Paris hospital to a daughter, named Zahwa after Arafat's mother.
=== Name ===
Arafat's full name was Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa al-Husseini. Mohammed Abdel Rahman was his first name, Abdel Raouf was his father's name and Arafat his grandfather's. Al-Qudwa was the name of his tribe and al-Husseini was that of the clan to which the al-Qudwas belonged. The al-Husseini clan was based in Gaza and is not related to the well-known al-Husayni clan of Jerusalem, other notable family members include Amin al-Husseini.
Since Arafat was raised in Cairo, the tradition of dropping the Mohammed or Ahmad portion of one's first name was common; notable Egyptians such as Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak did so. However, Arafat dropped Abdel Rahman and Abdel Raouf from his name as well. During the early 1950s, Arafat adopted the name Yasser, and in the early years of Arafat's guerrilla career, he assumed the nom de guerre of Abu Ammar. Both names are related to Ammar ibn Yasir, one of Muhammad's early companions. Although he dropped most of his inherited names, he retained Arafat due to its significance in Islam.
== Rise of Fatah ==
=== Founding of Fatah ===
Following the Suez Crisis in 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser agreed to allow the United Nations Emergency Force to establish itself in the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip, precipitating the expulsion of all guerrilla or "fedayeen" forces there—including Arafat. Arafat originally attempted to obtain a visa to Canada and later Saudi Arabia, but was unsuccessful in both attempts. In 1957, he applied for a visa to Kuwait (at the time a British protectorate) and was approved, based on his work in civil engineering. There he encountered two Palestinian friends: Salah Khalaf ("Abu Iyad") and Khalil al-Wazir ("Abu Jihad"), both official members of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Arafat had met Abu Iyad while attending Cairo University and Abu Jihad in Gaza. Both would later become Arafat's top aides. Abu Iyad traveled with Arafat to Kuwait in late 1960; Abu Jihad, also working as a teacher, had already been living there since 1959. After settling in Kuwait, Abu Iyad helped Arafat obtain a temporary job as a schoolteacher.
As Arafat began to develop friendships with Palestinian refugees (some of whom he knew from his Cairo days), he and the others gradually founded the group that became known as Fatah. The exact date for the establishment of Fatah is unknown. In 1959, the group's existence was attested to in the pages of a Palestinian nationalist magazine, Filastununa Nida al-Hayat (Our Palestine, The Call of Life), which was written and edited by Abu Jihad. FaTaH is a reverse acronym of the Arabic name Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini which translates into "The Palestinian National Liberation Movement". "Fatah" is also a word that was used in early Islamic times to refer to "conquest."
Fatah dedicated itself to the liberation of Palestine by an armed struggle carried out by Palestinians themselves. This differed from other Palestinian political and guerrilla organizations, most of which firmly believed in a united Arab response. Arafat's organization never embraced the ideologies of the major Arab governments of the time, in contrast to other Palestinian factions, which often became satellites of nations such as Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria and others.
In accordance with his ideology, Arafat generally refused to accept donations to his organization from major Arab governments, in order to act independently of them. He did not want to alienate them, and sought their undivided support by avoiding ideological alliances. However, to establish the groundwork for Fatah's future financial support, he enlisted contributions from the many wealthy Palestinians working in Kuwait and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf, such as Qatar (where he met Mahmoud Abbas in 1961). These businessmen and oil workers contributed generously to the Fatah organization. Arafat continued this process in other Arab countries, such as Libya and Syria.
In 1962, Arafat and his closest companions migrated to Syria—a country sharing a border with Israel—which had recently seceded from its union with Egypt. Fatah had approximately three hundred members by this time, but none were fighters. In Syria, he managed to recruit members by offering them higher incomes to enable his armed attacks against Israel. Fatah's manpower was incremented further after Arafat decided to offer new recruits much higher salaries than members of the Palestine Liberation Army (PLA), the regular military force of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was created by the Arab League in 1964. On 31 December, a squad from al-Assifa, Fatah's armed wing, attempted to infiltrate Israel, but they were intercepted and detained by Lebanese security forces. Several other raids with Fatah's poorly trained and badly equipped fighters followed this incident. Some were successful, others failed in their missions. Arafat often led these incursions personally.
Arafat was detained in Syria's Mezzeh Prison when a Palestinian Syrian Army officer, Yusef Urabi, was killed. Urabi had been chairing a meeting to ease tensions between Arafat and Palestinian Liberation Front leader Ahmed Jibril, but neither Arafat nor Jibril attended, delegating representatives to attend on their behalf. Urabi was killed during or after the meeting amid disputed circumstances. On the orders of Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad, a close friend of Urabi, Arafat was subsequently arrested, found guilty by a three-man jury and sentenced to death. However, he and his colleagues were pardoned by President Salah Jadid shortly after the verdict. The incident brought Assad and Arafat to unpleasant terms, which would surface later when Assad became President of Syria.
=== Leader of the Palestinians ===
On 13 November 1966, Israel launched a major raid against the Jordanian administered West Bank town of as-Samu, in response to a Fatah-implemented roadside bomb attack which had killed three members of the Israeli security forces near the southern Green Line border. In the resulting skirmish, scores of Jordanian security forces were killed and 125 homes razed. This raid was one of several factors that led to the 1967 Six-Day War.
The Six-Day war began when Israel launched air strikes against Egypt's air force on 5 June 1967. The war ended in an Arab defeat and Israel's occupation of several Arab territories, including the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Although Nasser and his Arab allies had been defeated, Arafat and Fatah could claim a victory, in that the majority of Palestinians, who had up to that time tended to align and sympathize with individual Arab governments, now began to agree that a 'Palestinian' solution to their dilemma was indispensable. Many primarily Palestinian political parties, including George Habash's Arab Nationalist Movement, Hajj Amin al-Husseini's Arab Higher Committee, the Islamic Liberation Front and several Syrian-backed groups, virtually crumbled after their sponsor governments' defeat. Barely a week after the defeat, Arafat crossed the Jordan River in disguise and entered the West Bank, where he set up recruitment centers in Hebron, the Jerusalem area and Nablus, and began attracting both fighters and financiers for his cause.
At the same time, Nasser contacted Arafat through the former's adviser Mohammed Heikal and Arafat was declared by Nasser to be the "leader of the Palestinians." In December 1967 Ahmad Shukeiri resigned his post as PLO Chairman. Yahya Hammuda took his place and invited Arafat to join the organization. Fatah was allocated 33 of 105 seats of the PLO Executive Committee while 57 seats were left for several other guerrilla factions.
=== Battle of Karameh ===
Throughout 1968, Fatah and other Palestinian armed groups were the target of a major Israeli army operation in the Jordanian village of Karameh, where the Fatah headquarters—as well as a mid-sized Palestinian refugee camp—were located. The town's name is the Arabic word for 'dignity', which elevated its symbolism in the eyes of the Arab people, especially after the collective Arab defeat in 1967. The operation was in response to attacks, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias, within the Israeli-occupied West Bank. According to Said Aburish, the government of Jordan and a number of Fatah commandos informed Arafat that large-scale Israeli military preparations for an attack on the town were underway, prompting fedayeen groups, such as George Habash's newly formed Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Nayef Hawatmeh's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), to withdraw their forces from the town. Though advised by a sympathetic Jordanian Army divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to the nearby hills, Arafat refused, stating, "We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee." Aburish writes that it was on Arafat's orders that Fatah remained, and that the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued.
In response to persistent PLO raids against Israeli civilian targets, Israel attacked the town of Karameh, Jordan, the site of a major PLO camp. The goal of the invasion was to destroy Karameh camp and capture Yasser Arafat in reprisal for the attacks by the PLO against Israeli civilians, which culminated in an Israeli school bus hitting a mine in the Negev, killing two children. However, plans for the two operations were prepared in 1967, one year before the bus attack. The size of the Israeli forces entering Karameh made the Jordanians assume that Israel was also planning to occupy the eastern bank of the Jordan River, including the Balqa Governorate, to create a situation similar to the Golan Heights, which Israel had captured just 10 months prior, to be used a bargaining chip. Israel assumed that the Jordanian Army would ignore the invasion, but the latter fought alongside the Palestinians, opening heavy fire that inflicted losses upon the Israeli forces. This engagement marked the first known deployment of suicide bombers by Palestinian forces. The Israelis were repelled at the end of a day's battle, having destroyed most of the Karameh camp and taken around 141 PLO prisoners. Both sides declared victory. On a tactical level, the battle went in Israel's favor and the destruction of the Karameh camp was achieved. However, the relatively high casualties were a considerable surprise for the Israel Defense Forces and was stunning to the Israelis. Although the Palestinians were not victorious on their own, King Hussein let the Palestinians take credit. Some have alleged that Arafat himself was on the battlefield, but the details of his involvement are unclear. However, his allies–as well as Israeli intelligence–confirm that he urged his men throughout the battle to hold their ground and continue fighting. The battle was covered in detail by Time, and Arafat's face appeared on the cover of the 13 December 1968 issue, bringing his image to the world for the first time. Amid the post-war environment, the profiles of Arafat and Fatah were raised by this important turning point, and he came to be regarded as a national hero who dared to confront Israel. With mass applause from the Arab world, financial donations increased significantly, and Fatah's weaponry and equipment improved. The group's numbers swelled as many young Arabs, including thousands of non-Palestinians, joined the ranks of Fatah.
When the Palestinian National Council (PNC) convened in Cairo on 3 February 1969, Yahya Hammuda stepped down from his chairmanship of the PLO. Arafat was elected chairman on 4 February. He became Commander-in-Chief of the Palestinian Revolutionary Forces two years later, and in 1973, became the head of the PLO's political department.
== Confrontation with Jordan ==
In the late 1960s, tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly; heavily armed Palestinian elements had created a virtual "state within a state" in Jordan, eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country. After their proclaimed victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan. They set up roadblocks, publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces, molested women and levied illegal taxes—all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored. King Hussein considered this a growing threat to his kingdom's sovereignty and security, and attempted to disarm the militias. However, in order to avoid a military confrontation with opposition forces, Hussein dismissed several of his anti-PLO cabinet officials, including some of his own family members, and invited Arafat to become Deputy Prime Minister of Jordan. Arafat refused, citing his belief in the need for a Palestinian state with Palestinian leadership.
Despite Hussein's intervention, militant actions in Jordan continued. On 15 September 1970, the PFLP (part of the PLO) hijacked four planes and landed three of them at Dawson's Field, located 30 miles (48 km) east of Amman. After the foreign national hostages were taken off the planes and moved away from them, three of the planes were blown up in front of international press, which took photos of the explosion. This tarnished Arafat's image in many western nations, including the United States, who held him responsible for controlling Palestinian factions that belonged to the PLO. Arafat, bowing to pressure from Arab governments, publicly condemned the hijackings and suspended the PFLP from any guerrilla actions for a few weeks. He had taken the same action after the PFLP attacked Athens Airport. The Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory, and the next day, King Hussein declared martial law. On the same day, Arafat became supreme commander of the PLA.
As the conflict raged, other Arab governments attempted to negotiate a peaceful resolution. As part of this effort, Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September. Arafat's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders. Other heads of state took sides against Hussein, among them Muammar Gaddafi, who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal. A ceasefire was agreed upon between the two sides, but Nasser died of a massive heart attack hours after the summit, and the conflict resumed shortly afterward.
By 25 September, the Jordanian Army achieved dominance, and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a ceasefire in Amman. The Jordanian Army inflicted heavy casualties on the Palestinians—including civilians—who suffered approximately 3,500 fatalities. After repeated violations of the ceasefire from both the PLO and the Jordanian Army, Arafat called for King Hussein to be toppled. Responding to the threat, in June 1971, Hussein ordered his forces to oust all remaining Palestinian fighters in northern Jordan, which they accomplished. Arafat and a number of his forces, including two high-ranking commanders, Abu Iyad and Abu Jihad, were forced into the northern corner of Jordan. They relocated near the town of Jerash, near the border with Syria. With the help of Munib Masri, a pro-Palestinian Jordanian cabinet member, and Fahd al-Khomeimi, the Saudi ambassador to Jordan, Arafat managed to enter Syria with nearly two thousand of his fighters. However, due to the hostility of relations between Arafat and Syrian President Hafez al-Assad (who had since ousted President Salah Jadid), the Palestinian fighters crossed the border into Lebanon to join PLO forces in that country, where they set up their new headquarters.
== Headquarters in Lebanon ==
=== Official recognition ===
Because of Lebanon's weak central government, the PLO was able to operate virtually as an independent state. During this time in the 1970s, numerous leftist PLO groups took up arms against Israel, carrying out attacks against civilians as well as military targets within Israel and outside of it.
Two major incidents occurred in 1972. The Fatah subgroup Black September Organization hijacked Sabena Flight 572 en route to Vienna and forced it to land at the Ben Gurion International Airport in Israel. The PFLP and the Japanese Red Army carried out a shooting rampage at the same airport, killing twenty-four civilians. Israel later claimed that the assassination of PFLP spokesman Ghassan Kanafani was a response to the PFLP's involvement in masterminding the latter attack. Two days later, various PLO factions retaliated by bombing a bus station, killing eleven civilians.
At the Munich Olympic Games, Black September kidnapped and killed eleven Israeli athletes. A number of sources, including Mohammed Oudeh (Abu Daoud), one of the masterminds of the Munich massacre, and Benny Morris, a prominent Israeli historian, have stated that Black September was an armed branch of Fatah used for paramilitary operations. According to Abu Daoud's 1999 book, "Arafat was briefed on plans for the Munich hostage-taking." The killings were internationally condemned. In 1973–74, Arafat closed Black September down, ordering the PLO to withdraw from acts of violence outside Israel, the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
In 1974, the PNC approved the Ten Point Program (drawn up by Arafat and his advisers), and proposed a compromise with the Israelis. It called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of "liberated" Palestinian territory, which refers to areas captured by Arab forces in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War (present-day West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip). This caused discontent among several of the PLO factions; the PFLP, DFLP and other parties formed a breakaway organization, the Rejectionist Front.
Israel and the US have alleged also that Arafat was involved in the 1973 Khartoum diplomatic assassinations, in which five diplomats and five others were killed. A 1973 United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded "The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat." Arafat denied any involvement in the operation and insisted it was carried out independently by the Black September Organization. Israel claimed that Arafat was in ultimate control over these organizations and therefore had not abandoned terrorism.
In addition, some circles within the US State Department viewed Arafat as an able diplomat and negotiator who could get support from many Arab governments at once. An example of that, we find in March 1973 that Arafat tried to arrange for a meeting between the President of Iraq and the Emir of Kuwait in order to resolve their disputes.
Also in 1974, the PLO was declared the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and admitted to full membership of the Arab League at the Rabat Summit. Arafat became the first representative of a non-governmental organization to address a plenary session of the UN General Assembly. In his United Nations address, Arafat condemned Zionism, but said:
Today I have come bearing an olive branch in one hand and a freedom fighter's rifle in another. Do not let the green branch fall from my hand.
He wore a holster throughout his speech, although it did not contain a gun. His speech increased international sympathy for the Palestinian cause.
Following recognition, Arafat established relationships with a variety of world leaders, including Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin. Arafat was Amin's best man at his wedding in Uganda in 1975.
=== Fatah involvement in Lebanese Civil War ===
Although hesitant at first to take sides in the conflict, Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War. Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub-groups such as the PFLP, DFLP and the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLF), Arafat aligned the PLO with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement (LNM). The LNM was led by Kamal Jumblatt, who had a friendly relationship with Arafat and other PLO leaders. Although originally aligned with Fatah, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad feared a loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides. He sent his army, along with the Syrian-backed Palestinian factions of as-Sa'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside right-wing Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM. The primary components of the Christian front were the Phalangists loyal to Bachir Gemayel and the Tigers Militia led by Dany Chamoun, a son of former President Camille Chamoun.
In February 1975, a pro-Palestinian Lebanese MP, Maarouf Saad, was shot and killed, reportedly by the Lebanese Army. His death from his wounds, the following month, and the massacre in April of 27 Palestinians and Lebanese travelling on a bus from Sabra and Shatila to the Tel al-Zaatar refugee camp by Phalangist forces precipitated the Lebanese Civil War. Arafat was reluctant to respond with force, but many other Fatah and PLO members felt otherwise. For example, the DFLP carried out several attacks against the Lebanese Army. In 1976, an alliance of Christian militias with the backing of the Lebanese and Syrian armies besieged Tel al-Zaatar camp in east Beirut. The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour, a Phalangist stronghold where they massacred 684 people and wounded many more. The Tel al-Zaatar camp fell to the Christians after a six-month siege in which thousands of Palestinians, mostly civilians, were killed. Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort.
PLO cross-border raids against Israel grew during the late 1970s. One of the most severe—known as the Coastal Road massacre—occurred on 11 March 1978. A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv-Yafo. There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles, killing thirty-seven civilians. In response, the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later, with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to the Litani River. The IDF achieved this goal, and Arafat withdrew PLO forces north into Beirut.
After Israel withdrew from Lebanon, cross-border hostilities between PLO forces and Israel continued, though from August 1981 to May 1982, the PLO adopted an official policy of refraining from responding to provocations. On 6 June 1982, Israel launched an invasion of Lebanon to expel the PLO from southern Lebanon. Beirut was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF; Arafat declared the city to be the "Hanoi and Stalingrad of the Israeli army." The Civil War's first phase ended and Arafat—who was commanding Fatah forces at Tel al-Zaatar—narrowly escaped with assistance from Saudi and Kuwaiti diplomats. Towards the end of the siege, the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and the PLO—guarded by a multinational force of eight hundred US Marines supported by the United States Navy—to exile in Tunis.
During the war, Arafat took measures to protect the Lebanese Jewish community. He ordered the PLO fighters to guard the Maghen Abraham Synagogue of Beirut and deliver food to affected Jewish families. After Arafat left Lebanon, the synagogue's protection went in hands of Phalangists.
Arafat returned to Lebanon a year after his eviction from Beirut, this time establishing himself in the northern Lebanese city of Tripoli. This time Arafat was expelled by a fellow Palestinian working under Hafez al-Assad. Arafat did not return to Lebanon after his second expulsion, though many Fatah fighters did.
== Headquarters in Tunisia ==
Arafat and Fatah's center for operations was based in Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, until 1993. In 1985 Arafat narrowly survived an Israeli assassination attempt when Israeli Air Force F-15s bombed his Tunis headquarters as part of Operation Wooden Leg, leaving 73 people dead; Arafat had gone out jogging that morning. The following year Arafat had his operational headquarters in Baghdad for some time.
=== First Intifada ===
During the 1980s, Arafat received financial assistance from Libya, Iraq and Saudi Arabia, which allowed him to reconstruct the badly damaged PLO. This was particularly useful during the First Intifada in December 1987, which began as an uprising of Palestinians against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The word Intifada in Arabic is literally translated as "tremor"; however, it is generally defined as an uprising or revolt.
The first stage of the Intifada began following an incident at the Erez checkpoint where four Palestinian residents of the Jabalya refugee camp were killed in a traffic accident involving an Israeli driver. Rumors spread that the deaths were a deliberate act of revenge for an Israeli shopper who was stabbed to death by a Palestinian in Gaza four days earlier. Mass rioting broke out, and within weeks, partly upon consistent requests by Abu Jihad, Arafat attempted to direct the uprising, which lasted until 1992–93. Abu Jihad had previously been assigned the responsibility of the Palestinian territories within the PLO command and, according to biographer Said Aburish, had "impressive knowledge of local conditions" in the Israeli-occupied territories. On 16 April 1988, as the Intifada was raging, Abu Jihad was assassinated in his Tunis household by an Israeli hit squad. Arafat had considered Abu Jihad as a PLO counterweight to local Palestinian leadership in the territories, and led a funeral procession for him in Damascus.
The most common tactic used by Palestinians during the Intifada was throwing stones, molotov cocktails, and burning tires. The local leadership in some West Bank towns commenced non-violent protests against Israeli occupation by engaging in tax resistance and other boycotts. Israel responded by confiscating large sums of money in house-to-house raids. As the Intifada came to a close, new armed Palestinian groups—in particular Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ)—began targeting Israeli civilians with the new tactic of suicide bombings, and internal fighting amongst the Palestinians increased dramatically.
=== Change in direction ===
In August 1970, Arafat declared: "Our basic aim is to liberate the land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River. We are not concerned with what took place in June 1967 or in eliminating the consequences of the June war. The Palestinian revolution's basic concern is the uprooting of the Zionist entity from our land and liberating it." However, in early 1976, at a meeting with US Senator Adlai Stevenson III, Arafat suggested that if Israel withdrew a "few kilometers" from parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and transferred responsibility to the UN, Arafat could give "something to show his people before he could acknowledge Israel's right to exist".
On 15 November 1988, the PLO proclaimed the independent State of Palestine. Though he had frequently been accused of and associated with terrorism, in speeches on 13 and 14 December Arafat repudiated 'terrorism in all its forms, including state terrorism'. He accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and Israel's right "to exist in peace and security" and Arafat's statements were greeted with approval by the US administration, which had long insisted on these statements as a necessary starting point for official discussions between the US and the PLO. These remarks from Arafat indicated a shift away from one of the PLO's primary aims—the destruction of Israel (as entailed in the Palestinian National Covenant)–and toward the establishment of two separate entities: an Israeli state within the 1949 armistice lines, and an Arab state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. On 2 April 1989, Arafat was elected by the Central Council of the Palestine National Council, the governing body of the PLO, to be the president of the proclaimed State of Palestine.
Prior to the Gulf War in 1990–91, when the Intifada's intensity began to wear down, Arafat supported Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait and opposed the US-led coalition attack on Iraq. He made this decision without the consent of other leading members of Fatah and the PLO. Arafat's top aide Abu Iyad vowed to stay neutral and opposed an alliance with Saddam; on 17 January 1991, Abu Iyad was assassinated by the Abu Nidal Organization. Arafat's decision also severed relations with Egypt and many of the oil-producing Arab states that supported the US-led coalition. Many in the US also used Arafat's position as a reason to disregard his claims to being a partner for peace. After the end of hostilities, many Arab states that backed the coalition cut off funds to the PLO and began providing financial support for the organization's rival Hamas and other Islamist groups. Arafat narrowly escaped death again on 7 April 1992, when an Air Bissau aircraft he was a passenger on crash-landed in the Libyan Desert during a sandstorm. Two pilots and an engineer were killed; Arafat was bruised and shaken.
== Palestinian Authority and peace negotiations ==
=== Oslo Accords ===
In the early 1990s, Arafat and leading Fatah officials engaged the Israeli government in a series of secret talks and negotiations that led to the 1993 Oslo Accords. The agreement called for the implementation of Palestinian self-rule in portions of the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period, along with an immediate halt to and gradual removal of Israeli settlements in those areas. The accords called for a Palestinian police force to be formed from local recruits and Palestinians abroad, to patrol areas of self-rule. Authority over the various fields of rule, including education and culture, social welfare, direct taxation and tourism, would be transferred to the Palestinian interim government. Both parties agreed also on forming a committee that would establish cooperation and coordination dealing with specific economic sectors, including utilities, industry, trade and communication.
Prior to signing the accords, Arafat—as Chairman of the PLO and its official representative—signed two letters renouncing violence and officially recognizing Israel. In return, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, on behalf of Israel, officially recognized the PLO. The following year, Arafat and Rabin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, along with Shimon Peres. The Palestinian reaction was mixed. The Rejectionist Front of the PLO allied itself with Islamists in a common opposition against the agreements. It was rejected also by Palestinian refugees in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan as well as by many Palestinian intellectuals and the local leadership of the Palestinian territories. However, the inhabitants of the territories generally accepted the agreements and Arafat's promise for peace and economic well-being.
=== Establishing authority in the territories ===
In accordance with the terms of the Oslo agreement, Arafat was required to implement PLO authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. He insisted that financial support was imperative to establishing this authority and needed it to secure the acceptance of the agreements by the Palestinians living in those areas. However, Arab states of the Persian Gulf—Arafat's usual source for financial backing—still refused to provide him and the PLO with any major donations for siding with Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War. Ahmed Qurei—a key Fatah negotiator during the negotiations in Oslo—publicly announced that the PLO was bankrupt.
In 1994, Arafat moved to Gaza City, which was controlled by the Palestinian National Authority (PNA)—the provisional entity created by the Oslo Accords. Arafat became the President and Prime Minister of the PNA, the Commander of the PLA and the Speaker of the PLC. In July, after the PNA was declared the official government of the Palestinians, the Basic Laws of the Palestinian National Authority was published, in three different versions by the PLO. Arafat proceeded with creating a structure for the PNA. He established an executive committee or cabinet composed of twenty members. Arafat also replaced and assigned mayors and city councils for major cities such as Gaza and Nablus. He began subordinating non-governmental organizations that worked in education, health, and social affairs under his authority by replacing their elected leaders and directors with PNA officials loyal to him. He then appointed himself chairman of the Palestinian financial organization that was created by the World Bank to control most aid money towards helping the new Palestinian entity.
Arafat appointed Moshe Hirsch as the Minister of Jewish Affairs in 1995. Arafat established a Palestinian police force, named the Preventive Security Service (PSS), that became active on 13 May 1994. It was mainly composed of PLA soldiers and foreign Palestinian volunteers. Arafat assigned Mohammed Dahlan and Jibril Rajoub to head the PSS. Amnesty International accused Arafat and the PNA leadership of failing to adequately investigate abuses by the PSS (including torture and unlawful killings) against political opponents and dissidents as well as the arrests of human rights activists.
Throughout November and December 1995, Arafat toured dozens of Palestinian cities and towns that were evacuated by Israeli forces including Jenin, Ramallah, al-Bireh, Nablus, Qalqilyah and Tulkarm, declaring them "liberated". The PNA also gained control of the West Bank's postal service during this period. On 20 January 1996, Arafat was elected president of the PNA, with an overwhelming 88.2 percent majority (the other candidate was charity organizer Samiha Khalil). However, because Hamas, the DFLP and other popular opposition movements chose to boycott the presidential elections, the choices were limited. Arafat's landslide victory guaranteed Fatah 51 of the 88 seats in the PLC. After Arafat was elected to the post of President of the PNA, he was often referred to as the Ra'is, (literally president in Arabic), although he spoke of himself as "the general".
In 1997, the PLC accused the executive branch of the PNA of financial mismanagement causing the resignation of four members of Arafat's cabinet. Arafat refused to resign his post.
=== Other peace agreements ===
In mid-1996, Benjamin Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister of Israel. Palestinian-Israeli relations grew even more hostile as a result of continued conflict. Despite the Israel-PLO accord, Netanyahu opposed the idea of Palestinian statehood. In 1998, US President Bill Clinton persuaded the two leaders to meet. The resulting Wye River Memorandum detailed the steps to be taken by the Israeli government and PNA to complete the peace process.
Arafat continued negotiations with Netanyahu's successor, Ehud Barak, at the Camp David 2000 Summit in July 2000. Due partly to his own politics (Barak was from the leftist Labor Party, whereas Netanyahu was from the rightist Likud Party) and partly due to insistence for compromise by President Clinton, Barak offered Arafat a Palestinian state in 73 percent of the West Bank and all of the Gaza Strip. The Palestinian percentage of sovereignty would extend to 90 percent over a ten- to twenty-five-year period. Also included in the offer was the return of a small number of refugees and compensation for those not allowed to return. Palestinians would also have "custodianship" over Al-Aqsa, sovereignty on all Islamic and Christian holy sites, and three of Jerusalem's four Old City quarters. Arafat rejected Barak's offer and refused to make an immediate counter-offer. He told President Clinton that, "the Arab leader who would surrender Jerusalem is not born yet."
After the September 2000 outbreak of the Second Intifada, negotiations continued at the Taba summit in January 2001; this time, Ehud Barak pulled out of the talks to campaign in the Israeli elections. In October and December 2001, suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups increased and Israeli counter strikes intensified. Following the election of Ariel Sharon in February, the peace process took a steep downfall. Palestinian elections scheduled for January 2002 were postponed—the stated reason was an inability to campaign due to the emergency conditions imposed by the Intifada, as well as IDF incursions and restrictions on freedom of movement in the Palestinian territories. In the same month, Sharon ordered Arafat to be confined to his Mukata'a headquarters in Ramallah, following an attack in the Israeli city of Hadera; US President George W. Bush supported Sharon's action, claiming that Arafat was "an obstacle to the peace."
== Political survival ==
Arafat's long personal and political survival was taken by most Western commentators as a sign of his mastery of asymmetric warfare and his skill as a tactician, given the extremely dangerous nature of politics of the Middle East and the frequency of assassinations. Some commentators believe his survival was largely due to Israel's fear that he could become a martyr for the Palestinian cause if he were assassinated or even arrested by Israel. Others believe that Israel refrained from taking action against Arafat because it feared Arafat less than Hamas and the other Islamist movements gaining support over Fatah. The complex and fragile web of relations between the US, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab states contributed also to Arafat's longevity as the leader of the Palestinians.
Israel attempted to assassinate Arafat on a number of occasions, but has never used its own agents, preferring instead to "turn" Palestinians close to the intended target, usually using blackmail. According to Alan Hart, the Mossad's specialty is poison. According to Abu Iyad, two attempts were made on Arafat's life by the Israeli Mossad and the Military Directorate in 1970. In 1976, Abu Sa'ed, a Palestinian agent working for the Mossad, was enlisted in a plot to put poison pellets that looked like grains of rice in Arafat's food. Abu Iyad explains that Abu Sa'ed confessed after he received the order to go ahead, explaining that he was unable to go through with the plot because, "He was first of all a Palestinian and his conscience wouldn't let him do it." Arafat claimed in a 1988 interview with Time that because of his fear of assassination by the Israelis, he never slept in the same place two nights in a row.
=== Relations with Hamas and other militant groups ===
Arafat's ability to adapt to new tactical and political situations was perhaps tested by the rise of the Hamas and PIJ organizations, Islamist groups espousing rejectionist policies with Israel. These groups often bombed non-military targets, such as malls and movie theaters, to increase the psychological damage and civilian casualties. In the 1990s, these groups seemed to threaten Arafat's capacity to hold together a unified nationalist organization with a goal of statehood.
An attack carried out by Hamas militants in March 2002 killed 29 Israeli civilians celebrating Passover, including many senior citizens. In response, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield, a major military offensive into major West Bank cities. Mahmoud al-Zahar, a Hamas leader in Gaza, stated in September 2010 that Arafat had instructed Hamas to launch what he termed "military operations" against Israel in 2000 when Arafat felt that negotiations with Israel would not succeed.
Some Israeli government officials opined in 2002 that the armed Fatah sub-group al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades commenced attacks towards Israel in order to compete with Hamas. On 6 May 2002, the Israeli government released a report, based in part on documents, allegedly captured during the Israeli raid of Arafat's Ramallah headquarters, which allegedly included copies of papers signed by Arafat authorizing funding for al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades' activities. The report implicated Arafat in the "planning and execution of terror attacks".
=== Attempts to marginalize ===
Persistent attempts by the Israeli government to identify another Palestinian leader to represent the Palestinian people failed. Arafat was enjoying the support of groups that, given his own history, would normally have been quite wary of dealing with or supporting him. Marwan Barghouti (a leader of al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades) emerged as a possible replacement during the Second Intifada, but Israel had him arrested for allegedly being involved in the killing of twenty-six civilians, and he was sentenced to five life terms.
Arafat was finally allowed to leave his compound on 2 May 2002 after intense negotiations led to a settlement: six PFLP militants, including the organization's secretary-general Ahmad Sa'adat, wanted by Israel, who had been holed up with Arafat in his compound, would be transferred to international custody in Jericho. After the wanted men were handed over the siege was lifted. With that, and a promise that he would issue a call to the Palestinians to halt attacks on Israelis, Arafat was released. He issued such a call on 8 May. On 19 September 2002, the IDF largely demolished the compound with armored bulldozers in order to isolate Arafat. In March 2003, Arafat ceded his post as Prime Minister to Mahmoud Abbas amid pressures by the US.
The Israeli security Cabinet on 11 September 2003 decided that "Israel will act to remove this obstacle [Arafat] in the manner, at the time, and in the ways that will be decided on separately". Israeli Cabinet members and officials hinted on Arafat's death, the Israeli military had begun making preparations for Arafat's possible expulsion in the near future, and many feared for his life. Israeli peace activists of Gush Shalom, Knesset members and others went into the Presidential Compound prepared to serve as a human shield. The compound remained under siege until Arafat's transfer to a French hospital, shortly before his death.
In 2004, President Bush dismissed Arafat as a negotiating partner, saying he had "failed as a leader", and accused him of undercutting Abbas when he was prime minister (Abbas resigned the same year he was given the position). Arafat had a mixed relationship with the leaders of other Arab nations. His support from Arab leaders tended to increase whenever he was pressured by Israel; for example, when Israel declared in 2003 it had made the decision, in principle, to remove him from the Israeli-controlled West Bank. In an interview with the Arabic news network Al Jazeera, Arafat responded to Ariel Sharon's suggestion that he be exiled from the Palestinian territories permanently, by stating, "Is it his [Sharon's] homeland or ours? We were planted here before the Prophet Abraham came, but it looks like they [Israelis] don't understand history or geography."
== Financial dealings ==
Under the Oslo Peace Accords, Israel undertook to deposit the VAT tax receipts on goods purchased by Palestinians into the Palestinian treasury. Until 2000, these monies were transferred directly to Arafat's personal accounts at Bank Leumi, in Tel Aviv.
In August 2002, the Israeli Military Intelligence Chief alleged that Arafat's personal wealth was in the range of US$1.3 billion. In 2003 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) conducted an audit of the PNA and stated that Arafat had diverted $900 million in public funds to a special bank account controlled by himself and the PNA Chief Economic Financial adviser. However, the IMF did not claim that there were any improprieties, and it specifically stated that most of the funds had been used to invest in Palestinian assets, both internally and abroad.
However, in 2003, a team of American accountants—hired by Arafat's own finance ministry—began examining Arafat's finances. In its conclusions, the team claimed that part of the Palestinian leader's wealth was in a secret portfolio worth close to $1 billion, with investments in companies like a Coca-Cola bottling plant in Ramallah, a Tunisian cell phone company and venture capital funds in the U.S. and the Cayman Islands. The head of the investigation stated that "although the money for the portfolio came from public funds like Palestinian taxes, virtually none of it was used for the Palestinian people; it was all controlled by Arafat. And none of these dealings were made public." An investigation conducted by the General Accounting Office reported that Arafat and the PLO held over $10 billion in assets even at the time when he was publicly claiming bankruptcy.
Although Arafat lived a modest lifestyle, Dennis Ross, former Middle East negotiator for Presidents George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton, stated that Arafat's "walking-around money" financed a vast patronage system known as neopatrimonialism. According to Salam Fayyad—a former World Bank official whom Arafat appointed Finance Minister of the PNA in 2002—Arafat's commodity monopolies could accurately be seen as gouging his own people, "especially in Gaza which is poorer, which is something that is totally unacceptable and immoral." Fayyad claims that Arafat used $20 million from public funds to pay the leadership of the PNA security forces (the Preventive Security Service) alone.
Fuad Shubaki, former financial aide to Arafat, told the Israeli security service Shin Bet that Arafat used several million dollars of aid money to buy weapons and support militant groups. During Israel's Operation Defensive Shield, the Israel army recovered counterfeit money and documents from Arafat's Ramallah headquarters. The documents showed that, in 2001, Arafat personally approved payments to Tanzim militants. The Palestinians claimed that the counterfeit money was confiscated from criminal elements.
== Illness and death ==
=== Unsuccessful Israeli assassination attempts ===
The Israeli government tried for decades to assassinate Arafat, including attempting to intercept and shoot down private aircraft and commercial airliners on which he was believed to be traveling. The assassination was initially assigned to Caesarea, the Mossad unit in charge of Israel's numerous targeted killings. Shooting down a commercial airliner in international airspace over very deep water was thought to be preferable to make recovery of the wreckage, and hence investigation, more difficult. Following Israel's 1982 invasion of Lebanon, Israeli minister of defense Ariel Sharon created a special task force code named "Salt Fish" headed by special operations experts Meir Dagan and Rafi Eitan to track Arafat's movements in Lebanon to kill him because Sharon saw Arafat as a "Jew murderer" and an important symbol, symbols being as important as body counts in a war against a terrorist organization. The Salt Fish task force orchestrated the bombing of buildings where Arafat and senior PLO leaders were believed to be staying. Later renamed "Operation Goldfish", Israeli operatives followed Israeli journalist Uri Avnery to a meeting with Arafat in an additional unsuccessful attempt to kill him. In 2001, Sharon as prime minister is believed to have made a commitment to cease attempts to assassinate Arafat. However, following Israel's successful assassination in March 2004 of Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, a founder of the Hamas movement, Sharon stated in April 2004 that "this commitment of mine no longer exists."
=== Failing health ===
The first reports of Arafat's failing health by his doctors for what his spokesman said was influenza came on 25 October 2004, after he vomited during a staff meeting. His condition deteriorated in the following days. Following visits by other doctors, including teams from Tunisia, Jordan, and Egypt—and agreement by Israel to allow him to travel—Arafat was flown from Ramallah to Jordan by a Jordanian military helicopter and from there to France on a French military plane. He was admitted to the Percy military hospital in Clamart, a suburb of Paris. On 3 November, he had lapsed into a gradually deepening coma.
Arafat was pronounced dead at 03:30 UTC on 11 November 2004 at the age of 75 of what French doctors called a massive hemorrhagic cerebrovascular accident (hemorrhagic stroke). Initially, Arafat's medical records were withheld by senior Palestinian officials, and Arafat's wife refused an autopsy believing that it went against Muslim practices. French doctors also said that Arafat suffered from a blood condition known as disseminated intravascular coagulation, although it is inconclusive what brought about the condition. When Arafat's death was announced, the Palestinian people went into a state of mourning, with Qur'anic mourning prayers emitted from mosque loudspeakers throughout the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, and tires burned in the streets. The Palestinian Authority and refugee camps in Lebanon declared 40 days of mourning.
=== Funeral ===
On 11 November 2004, a French Army guard of honour held a brief ceremony for Arafat, with his coffin draped in a Palestinian flag. A military band played the French and Palestinian national anthems, and a Chopin funeral march. French President Jacques Chirac stood alone beside Arafat's coffin for about ten minutes in a last show of respect for Arafat, whom he hailed as "a man of courage". The next day, Arafat's body was flown from Paris aboard a French Air Force transport plane to Cairo, Egypt, for a brief military funeral there, attended by several heads of states, prime ministers and foreign ministers. Egypt's top Muslim cleric Sayed Tantawi led mourning prayers preceding the funeral procession.
Israel refused Arafat's wish to be buried near the Masjid Al-Aqsa or anywhere in Jerusalem, citing security concerns. Israel also feared that his burial would strengthen Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem. Following the Cairo procession, Arafat was "temporarily" buried within the Mukataa in Ramallah; tens of thousands of Palestinians attended the ceremony. Arafat was buried in a stone, rather than wooden, coffin, and Palestinian spokesman Saeb Erekat said that Arafat would be reburied in East Jerusalem following the establishment of a Palestinian state. After Sheikh Taissir Tamimi discovered that Arafat was buried improperly and in a coffin—which is not in accordance with Islamic law—Arafat was reburied on the morning of 13 November at around 3:00 am. On 10 November 2007, prior to the third anniversary of Arafat's death, President Mahmoud Abbas unveiled a mausoleum for Arafat near his tomb in commemoration of him.
=== Theories about the cause of death ===
Numerous theories have circulated regarding Arafat's death, with the most prominent being poisoning (possibly by polonium) and AIDS-related illnesses, as well as liver disease or a platelet disorder.
In September 2005, an Israeli AIDS expert claimed that Arafat bore all the symptoms of AIDS based on obtained medical records. But others, including Patrice Mangin of the University of Lausanne and The New York Times, disagreed with this claim, insisting that Arafat's record indicated that it was highly unlikely that the cause of his death was AIDS. Arafat's personal doctor Ashraf al-Kurdi and aide Bassam Abu Sharif maintained that Arafat was poisoned, possibly by thallium. A senior Israeli physician concluded that Arafat died from food poisoning. Both Israeli and Palestinian officials have denied claims that Arafat was poisoned. Palestinian foreign minister Nabil Shaath ruled out poisoning after talks with Arafat's French doctors.
On 4 July 2012, Al Jazeera published the results of a nine-month investigation, which found that rumors Arafat had died of cancer, cirrhosis, or AIDS were not true, because he was in good health until he fell ill suddenly on 12 October 2004 – but revealed that tests carried out by Swiss experts found traces of polonium in quantities much higher than could occur naturally on Arafat's personal belongings. On 12 October 2013, the British medical journal The Lancet published a peer-reviewed article by the Swiss experts about the analysis of the 38 samples of Arafat's clothes and belongings and 37 reference samples which were known to be polonium-free, suggesting that Arafat could have died of polonium poisoning.
On 27 November 2012, three teams of international investigators, a French, a Swiss, and a Russian team, collected samples from Arafat's body and the surrounding soil in the mausoleum in Ramallah, to carry out an investigation independently from each other.
On 6 November 2013, Al Jazeera reported that the Swiss forensic team had found levels of polonium in Arafat's ribs and pelvis 18 to 36 times the average, even though by this point in time the amount had diminished by a factor of 2 million. François Bochud, the head of the Swiss team, said that the poisoning hypothesis by polonium is "reasonably supported", while forensic scientist Dave Barclay, retained by Al Jazeera, stated, "In my opinion, it is absolutely certain that the cause of his illness was polonium poisoning. ... What we have got is the smoking gun – the thing that caused his illness and was given to him with malice." Derek Hill, a professor in radiological science at University College London who was not involved in the investigation, said "I would say it's clearly not overwhelming proof, and there is a risk of contamination (of the samples), but it is a pretty strong signal. ... It seems likely what they're doing is putting a very cautious interpretation of strong data."
But on 26 December 2013, a team of Russian scientists released a report saying they had found no trace of radioactive poisoning—a finding that came after the French report found traces of polonium. Vladimir Uiba, the head of the Federal Medical and Biological Agency, said that Arafat died of natural causes and the agency had no plans to conduct further tests. Unlike the Swiss report, the French and Russian reports were not made public at the time. The Swiss experts read the French and Russian reports and argued that the radiologic data measured by the other teams supported their conclusions of a probable death by polonium poisoning. In March 2015, a French prosecutor closed a 2012 French inquiry, stating that French experts maintained that the polonium and lead traces found were of an environmental nature. Palestinian official Wasel Abu Yousef said of the 2013 report, "The French report is politicized and is contrary to all the evidence which confirms that the president was killed by poisoning", and "This report is an attempt to cover up what happened in Percy hospital."
== Legacy ==
Places named in his honor include:
Martyr Yasser Arafat Governmental Hospital
Yasser Arafat Cup
Yasser Arafat International Airport
== See also ==
Politics of Palestine
List of international trips made by Yasser Arafat
List of Fatah members
Arafat's Johannesburg Address
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Aburish, Said K. (1998). Arafat: From Defender to Dictator. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58234-049-4.
Gowers, Andrew; Tony Walker (2005). Arafat: The Biography. Virgin Books. ISBN 978-1-85227-924-0.
Hart, Alan (1989). Arafat, a political biography. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-32711-6.
Karsh, Efraim (2003). Arafat's War: The Man and His Battle for Israeli Conquest. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1758-8.
Livingstone, Neil (1990). Inside the PLO. Reader's Digest Association. ISBN 978-0-7090-4548-9.
Rubin, Barry M.; Judith Colp Rubin (2003). Yasir Arafat: A Political Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516689-7.
Rubenstein, Danny; Leon, Dan (1995). The Mystery of Arafat. Steerforth Press. ISBN 978-1-883642-10-5.
Sela, Avraham (2002). "Arafat, Yasser". In Avraham, Sela (ed.). The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East (Rev. and updated ed.). New York: Continuum. pp. 166–171. ISBN 9780826414137. OCLC 48706504.
Wallach, Janet; John Wallach (1990). Arafat: In the Eyes of the Beholder. Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart. ISBN 978-0-8184-0533-4. OCLC 21950960.
== External links ==
Yasser Arafat on Nobelprize.org
Yasser Arafat (1929–2004) at PASSIA
"A Life in Retrospect: Yasser Arafat", Time
Appearances on C-SPAN
Yasser Arafat at IMDb
Yasser Arafat collected news and commentary at The Jerusalem Post
Yasser Arafat collected news and commentary at The New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanele_Muholi | Zanele Muholi | Zanele Muholi (born 1972) is a South African artist and visual activist working in photography, video, and installation. Muholi's work focuses on race, gender and sexuality with a body of work that dates back to the early 2000s, documenting and celebrating the lives of South Africa's Black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex communities. Muholi is non-binary and uses they/them pronouns, explaining that "I'm just human".
Muholi has described themselves as a visual activist as opposed to an artist. They are dedicated to increasing the visibility of black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex people. They researched and documented the stories of hate crimes against the LGBTQI community in order to bring forth the realities of "corrective rape," assault, and HIV/AIDS, to public attention.
Muholi was shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in 2015. They received an Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography in 2016, a Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2016, and an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 2018.
Muholi had a retrospective exhibition on at Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris from 1 February to 25 May 2023. Their work was also shown that year at Mudec-Museo delle Culture in Milan, from 31 March through 30 July 2023, showcasing 60 self-portraits in black and white chosen especially for Mudec.
== Early life and education ==
Zanele Muholi was born and raised in Umlazi, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Their father was Ashwell Tanji Banda Muholi and their mother was Bester Muholi. They are the youngest of eight children. Muholi's father died shortly after their birth, and their mother was a domestic worker who had to leave her children to work for a white family during apartheid in South Africa. Muholi was raised by an extended family.
Muholi completed an Advanced Photography course at the Market Photo Workshop in Newtown, Johannesburg in 2003, and held their first solo exhibition at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. In 2009 they were awarded their Master of Fine Arts degree in Documentary Media from Ryerson University in Toronto. Their thesis mapped the visual history of black lesbian identity and politics in post-Apartheid South Africa.
On 28 October 2013, they were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.They were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.
== Photography ==
Muholi's photography has been compared to the way W.E.B. DuBois subverted the typical representations of African Americans. Both Muholi and Du Bois have created an archive of photos, working to dismantle dominant, pre-existing perceptions of the subjects they chose to photograph. Muholi views their work as collaborative, referring to the individuals they photograph as "participants" rather than as subjects. With the term "participants" Muholi allows their participants to collaborate on poses instead of Muholi placing them in positions. Seeking to empower their subjects, Muholi often invites participants to speak at events and exhibitions, adding the participant's voice to the conversation. Through their artistic approach they hope to document the journey of the African queer community as a record for future generations. They try to capture the moment without negativity or focusing on the prevalent violence, portraying the LGBTQI community as individuals and as a whole to encourage unity. Thus, their work can be considered documentative, recording the overall community LGBTI of South Africa and their challenges, and at times, more specifically the struggle of black lesbians. Before 1994, black lesbian voices were excluded from the making of a formal queer movement. Muholi's efforts of creating a more positive visualization of LGBTI Africans combats the homophobic-motivated violence that is prevalent in South Africa today, especially in the case of black lesbians. While black women's bodies appear frequently throughout sexualized pop-culture, black lesbians are viewed (through the lens of the patriarchy and heteronormativity) as undesirable. This negative view of homosexuals in Africa lead to violence, such as murder and rape, and rejection from their families. Muholi's Zukiswa (2010), shows an African lesbian woman making eye contact with the viewer, displaying an unwavering gaze of confidence, self-awareness, and determination. This example encourages awareness, acceptance, and positivity with the queer community as well as South Africa.
Although Muholi became known as a photographer who engaged with the then-invisible lives of black lesbians in South Africa, they began to recognize this idea of "gender within gender." In 2003, and their sense of community definitively began to include trans people. Muholi was employed as a photographer and reporter for Behind the Mask, an online magazine on LGBTI issues in Africa.
Muholi first received global attention from the art world in 2012 at Documenta, a world-famous exhibition of modern and contemporary art in (Germany), for a series of portraits of lesbians and transgender participants titled: Faces and Phases. The photos were also exhibited at Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture (2004) ===
Muholi launched their visual activism through their first solo exhibition entitled Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture, at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. This exhibition featured photographs of survivors of rape and hate crimes as well as an image of a rape and an assault case number. The artist explicitly captures the images as to not reveal the person's gender. The viewer may only have access to an above the knee, and hip shot with hands over the genital region. In contrast to their later exhibitions, the people in these images remain anonymous. Although homosexuality is technically protected legally under the South African government, many individuals do not exercise their legal rights publicly in fear of violent backlash. There is also a reluctance to report cases of hate crimes since officials will often ridicule the victim and nothing will be accomplished. This is a systematic use of violence and oppression. In Only Half the Picture series, the artist was able to give LGBT people a voice without ousting their anonymity. Their work is mostly about bringing visibility of queer people in the black community.
=== Faces and Phases (2006–ongoing) ===
In 2006, Muholi began their Faces and Phases project, a series of around three hundred portraits of lesbians, shot in front of plain or patterned backgrounds. The project began in 2006 when Muholi photographed activist and friend Busi Sigasa. Sigasa is a survivor of corrective rape and contracted HIV from the attack. Muholi's concern for their participant's safety dictated that all pictured individuals be of age and fully out. Faces and Phases mocks the "art-in-service-to-science" narrative engrained in colonial images. 18th century botany imagery shows various plants plucked from their natural environment therefore erasing any social or cultural context. This practice emphasizes Western discovery of an object without acknowledging its longstanding existence. According to Susan Kart at Grove Art Online, this project "documents victims of sexual assault and hate crimes, the wedding images share moments of victory, acceptance, and joy for LGBTI families." In Faces and Phases, Muholi utilizes this history and compares it to the representation of LGBTI in South Africa. Black queer individuals have increased dramatically in national representation but this is still an erasure of important context. These individuals are represented in the same way as the botanical prints. There is increased visibility for Western consumption but no attention is paid to the suffering and systematic oppression these individuals face in post-apartheid South Africa. Muholi challenges this in their series by providing names, dates, locations, and representing the participants within a public sphere.
In June 2014, Muholi was back at their alma mater, showing Faces and Phases at the Ryerson Image Centre as part of WorldPride. In the same month they showed at the Singapore International Arts Festival's O.P.E.N. where they also spoke on legacies of violence.
=== Innovative Women (2009) ===
In 2009, the Innovative Women exhibition was shown in South Africa in the cities of Durban and Cape Town. It was curated by painter Bongi Bhengu and features their work as well as 9 other artists including Muholi and photographer Nandipha Mntambo. In August 2009, the Minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana walked out of the exhibition due to Muholi's photography, calling it immoral, offensive and going against nation-building. In their response Muholi said "It's paralysing. I expected people to think before they act, and to ask questions. I wanted to create dialogue."
=== Trans(figures) (2010–2011) ===
Their Trans(figures) (2010–2011) project embraces lesbian and trans life. The portraits are taken in urban and rural settings in South Africa and internationally.
=== Of Love & Loss (2014) ===
Muholi's 2014 exhibition, Of Love & Loss, focused on the violence and hate crimes experienced by members of the LGBTQIA communities in South Africa. Juxtaposing images of weddings and funerals, the show included photographs, video works and installation elements. An element of autobiography featured images of Muholi and their partner. This exhibition furthermore exemplifies why Muholi calls themself a visual activist rather than an artist and it shows their battle scars. They bring these harsh issues into light with such powerful contrast, as a way to show resistance. Muholi calls this as just one of their many responsibilities, and these harsh and cruel realities cannot be ignored.
=== Brave Beauties (2014) ===
A series focusing on capturing the portraits of trans women, Brave Beauties was shot outside the studio and on location throughout South Africa. This "mobile studio" was a further expression of Muholi's celebration of LGBTQIA visibility as equal citizens of their country, an embrace of artistic freedom and a gesture of rejecting the limitations that studios can present. While on show at the Stevenson Gallery in Cape Town, an "activist wall" encouraged the participants to write directly on the gallery walls about their experiences, stories and vision. A gesture of destabilization, the activist wall was another expression of Muholi's desire to empower the participants in their work.
=== Isibonelo/Evidence (2015) ===
In 2015, Muholi presented 87 works in their solo Isibonelo/Evidence at the Brooklyn Museum. The meaning of the show's title, in which "Isibonelo" roughly translates from Zulu to "evidence," referred to its contents, which were split into three main sections separated on three walls. The first featured a decade-long chronology of hate crimes in South Africa, and faced the second, which was covered in handwritten messages from members of the LGBTQIA communities. The third and final wall consisted of portraits, including one of Muholi themself.
=== Somnyama Ngonyama ("Hail the Dark Lioness") (2012–present) ===
In 2014 Muholi began working on 365 self portraits for the series Somnyama Ngonyama. The portraits are alter egos, often with a Zulu name.That Muholi turned the camera towards themselves in this series is a departure from their previous work. Muholi explains, “I needed it to be my own portraiture. I didn't want to expose another person to this pain. I was also thinking about how acts of violence are intimately connected to our faces. Remember that when a person is violated, it frequently starts with the face: it’s the face that disturbs the perpetrator, which then leads to something else. Hence the face is the focal point in the series: facing myself and facing the viewer, the camera, directly.”
For most of the pieces in the collection Muholi exaggerated the darkness of their skin tone to reclaim their blackness from its performance by "privileged others." This, academic and critic Nomusa Makhubu explains, is in reference to the appropriation of blackness in minstrel performance. Of this series, the writer and cultural historian Maurice Berger has this to say: "The self-portraits function on various levels and pay homage to the history of black women in Africa and beyond, the dark lionesses of the book’s title. They reimagine black identity in ways that are largely personal but inevitably political. And they challenge the stereotypes and oppressive standards of beauty that often ignore people of color."
This series had a debut exhibition at Yancey Richardson Gallery in New York in 2015. It was shown in London in 2017 and in Times Square in New York City as digital billboards during the city's autumn 2017 Performa Biennial festival. Previews in Muholi's New York gallery were sold out. The photos were published in a 2018 book published by Aperture. In 2019 Muholi won the Photography Book award from the Kraszna-Krausz Foundation for Somnyama Ngonyama. Hail, the Dark Lioness.
== Activism ==
In 2002, Muholi co-founded the Forum for the Empowerment of Women (FEW), a black lesbian organization dedicated to providing a safe space for women to meet and organize.
=== Inkanyiso (2009) ===
In 2006 Zanele Muholi conceptualized a platform that promoted Queer Activism = Queer media. With the intention of a flexible and unique source of information for art advocacy. In 2009, Muholi founded Inkanyiso ("illuminate" in Zulu), a non-profit organisation concerned with queer visual activism. In 2009, Muholi registered the non-profit organization with Department of Social Services (NPO 073–402). It is involved with visual arts and media advocacy for and on behalf of the LGBTI community. The organization's vision statement is "Produce. Educate. Disseminate."
=== Women's Mobile Museum (2018) ===
In 2018, Muholi collaborated with photographer Lindeka Qampi, and the Philadelphia Photo Arts Center (PPAC), to create and mentor a cohort of women artists in Philadelphia. Called the Women's Mobile Museum, the collaborative project culminated in a special exhibition at the PPAC featuring works by the participating artists. According to art critic Megan Voeller: "For nearly nine months, they underwent a professional boot camp at PPAC, starting with technical workshops in digital camerawork, lighting and Photoshop and progressing to assembling and promoting an exhibition."
=== Somnyama Ngonyama (2021) ===
In 2021, Muholi produced a colouring book of their exhibition Somnyama Ngonyama to engage South-African children who are categorised as youth until the age of 35, as a result of the apartheid. Workshops teaching photography and painting were organised in parallel to provide the opportunity of an art education to underprivileged regions. The matter is of personal concern to the artist as someone who grew up under similar circumstances faced with conditions that they are still trying to 'break through' today. 'My activism now focuses on education and building arts infrastructure in places that are rural or still considered peripheral,' Muholi tells Ocula Magazine.
== Documentaries ==
In 2010, Muholi co-directed their documentary Difficult Love, which was commissioned by SABC. Difficult Love provides a look into Muholi's life and the lives, loves and struggles of other black lesbians in South Africa. In the documentary Muholi presents the stories and people that inspired them to create their images. It has shown in South Africa, USA, Spain, Sweden, UK, Amsterdam, Paris (Festival Cinefable) and Italy. In 2013, Muholi co-directed a documentary called We Live in Fear, released by Human Rights Watch.
== Attacks and robberies ==
On 20 April 2012, Muholi's flat in Vredehoek was robbed, with over twenty primary and back-up external hard drives containing five years' worth of photos and video being stolen with their laptop. Photos contained therein include records of the funerals of Black South African lesbians murdered in hate crimes. Nothing else was stolen, raising suspicions that Muholi's recordings of Black lesbian life was targeted. Muholi was overseas at the time of the robbery. This effectively erased the previous five years of Muholi's work. A few weeks later they said, "I'm still traumatized by the burglary" and, "It's hard to fall asleep in this place, which is now a crime scene, as I dealt with many crime scenes before."
In July 2017, a collaborator of Muholi's, Sibahle Nkumbi, was pushed down a staircase in Amsterdam by their Airbnb host while visiting the Netherlands to cover the opening of Muholi's exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum. Nkumbi was hospitalised, sustaining a concussion and substantial bruising. Video footage of the confrontation subsequently went viral, and the host was charged with attempted manslaughter.
== Publication ==
Zanele Muholi: Only Half The Picture. Cape Town: Michael Stevenson, 2006. ISBN 0-620361468.
Faces and Phases. Munich; Berlin; London; New York: Prestel, 2010. ISBN 978-3-7913-4495-9.
Zanele Muholi. African Women Photographers #1. Granada, Spain: Casa África/La Fábrica, 2011. ISBN 978-8-4150-3466-7.
Faces + Phases 2006–14. Göttingen, Germany: Steidl, 2014. ISBN 978-3-86930-807-4.
Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness. Renée Mussai (author), Zanele Muholi (photographer), et al., New York: Aperture, 2018, ISBN 978-1597114240.
== Exhibitions ==
=== Solo exhibitions ===
2004: Visual Sexuality, as part of Urban Life (Market Photo Workshop exhibition), Johannesburg Art Gallery, Johannesburg, South Africa
2006: Vienna Kunsthalle project space, Vienna: Slide Show
2014: Faces and Phases, Massimadi Festival, Montreal, Canada
2015: Zanele Muholi: Vukani/Rise, Open Eye Gallery, Liverpool, England
2015: Somnyama Ngonyama, Yancey Richardson, New York, NY, USA
2017: Zanele Muholi, Stedelijk, Amsterdam
2017: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Autograph ABP, London
2017: Zanele Muholi Homecoming: Durban Art Gallery, Durban, South Africa
2018: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Spelman College Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA, USA
2019: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Colby College Museum of Art, Maine, USA
2019: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Seattle Art Museum, WA, USA
2020/21: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London (delayed opening) – their biggest solo exhibition to date
2022: Being Muholi: Portraits as Resistance, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, MA
2022: Zanele Muholi, National Gallery of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
2023: Maison européenne de la photographie, Paris
2023: Muholi: A Visual Activist, Museo delle culture (Milano), Milan, Italy
2023: Zanele Muholi, Kunstmuseum Luzern, Luzern, Switzerland
2024: Zanele Muholi: Eye Me, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA
2024: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London
=== Group exhibitions ===
2011: Figures & Fictions: Contemporary South African Photography, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England
2016: Systematically Personae at the FotoFocus Biennal, National Underground Railroad Freedom Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
2017: Art/Afrique, Louis Vuitton Foundation, Paris, France
2018: Half the Picture: A Feminist Look at the Collection, Brooklyn Museum, New York, NY, USA
2018: Legacy of the Cool: A Tribute to Barkley L. Hendricks, MassArt Art Museum (MAAM), Boston, MA, USA
2019: Yithi Laba. A group exhibition by Lindeka Qampi, Neo Ntsoma, Zanele Muholi, Ruth Seopedi Motau and Berni Searle at Market Photo Workshop, Johannesburg, South Africa
2019: 58th Venice Biennale curated by Ralph Rugoff
2020: Radical Revisionists: Contemporary African Artists Confronting Past and Present, Moody Center for the Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Through an African Lens: Sub-Saharan Photography from the Museum's Collection, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Crossing Views, Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France
2020: African Cosmologies: Fotofest Biennial 2020, Houston, Texas, USA
2020: Sydney Biennale 2020, Sydney Australia
2021: Afro-Atlantic Histories, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2021: Interior Infinite, The Polygon Gallery, Vancouver, Canada
2021: THIS IS NOT AFRICA – UNLEARN WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark; Red Clay, Ghana
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, LACMA, Los Angeles, California, USA
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., USA
2022: Fire Figure Fantasy: Selections from ICA Miami’s Collection, ICA Miami, Miami, FL, USA
2022: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2022: The Work of Love, the Queer of Labor, Pratt Manhattan Gallery, New York, NY, USA
2022: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Black Venus, Fotografiska, New York, NY
2023: Museu de l’art Prohibit, Barcelona, Spain
2023: La Cinquième Saison (The Fifth Season), Jardin des Tuileries, Paris, France
2023: Love & Anarchy, Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham, NC
2023: Imagining Black Diasporas: 21st Century Art and Poetics, LACMA, Los Angeles, CA
2023: Africa Fashion, Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA
2023: Black Venus: Reclaiming Black Women in Visual Culture, Somerset House, London, UK
2023: Youth vs. Crisis: A Generation in Search of a Future, Kunsthalle Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2023: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2023: Coyote Park: I Love You Like Mirrors Do, Leslie-Lohman Museum of Art, New York, NY
2023: Trace – Formations of Likeness: Photography and Video from The Walther Collection, Haus der Kunst, Munich, Germany
2023: Lente Africana; fotografia subsahariana de la colleción del Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2023: Museo de Arte Miguel Urrutia, Bogotá, Colombia
2023: Nudes – Art from the Tate, LWL Museum for Art and Culture, Münster, Germany
2023: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
2023: Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2023: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2023: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
2023: Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2023: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain
2024: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2024: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2024: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2024: Turning the Page, Pier 24 Photography, San Francisco, CA
2024: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain; CaixaForum Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CaixaForum Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain; CaixaForum Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
=== Curated exhibitions ===
2016: Co-curated a show at Rencontres d'Arles photography festival, Arles, France
== Awards ==
2005: Tollman Award for the Visual Arts
2006: BHP Billiton/Wits University Visual Arts Fellowship
2009: Thami Mnyele Residency in Amsterdam
2009: Ida Ely Rubin Artist-in-Residence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
2009: Fondation Blachère award at African Photography Encounters (Rencontres Africaines de la Photographie, Biennale Africaine de la photographie) in Bamako, Mali
2009: Fanny Ann Eddy accolade from IRN-Africa for their outstanding contributions to the study of sexuality in Africa
2012: Civitella Ranieri Fellowship by the Civitella Ranieri Foundation, Italy
2013: Freedom of Expression award by Index on Censorship
2013: Glamour Magazine named them Campaigner of the Year
2013: Winner of the Fine Prize for the 2013 Carnegie International
2013: Prince Claus Award
2013: Feather Award (South Africa's LGBTI Awards)
2015: Shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize for Faces and Phases 2006–2014
2015: Light Work Artist-in-Residence Program, Syracuse, NY, USA
2016: Infinity Award for Documentary and Photojournalism from the International Center of Photography, New York, NY, USA
2016: Africa's Out! Courage + Creativity Award
2016: Outstanding International Alumni Award from Ryerson University
2017: Mbokodo Award (Visual Art) for South African Women in the Arts
2017: Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knighthood of the Order Arts and Letters)
2018: Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bath, England
2019: Rees Visionary Award, Amref Health Africa, New York, USA
2019: Lucie Humanitarian Award
2019 Kraszna-Krausz Foundation Best Photography Book Award
== Collections ==
Muholi's work is held in the following public collections:
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL (7 prints)
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (3 prints as of October 2018)
Museum of Modern Art, New York (6 prints as of March 2019)
Williams College Museum of Art, Williamstown, MA (1 featured print as of March 2019)
North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, NC
Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, NC (2 prints as of March 2019)
Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH
Tate Modern, London (15 pieces)
Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN (3 prints as of August 2020)
National Museum of Women in the Arts
== References ==
== External links ==
"My year as a dark lioness – in pictures " – a gallery of photographs in The Guardian
"Zanele Muholi: Mobile Studio" from Art21
Zanele Muholi at Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town, South Africa
Zanele Muholi at Yancey Richardson Gallery, New York, New York, USA
Zanele Muholi at La MEP, Paris, France |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazal_Ilahi_Chaudhry | Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry | Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry (1 January 1904 – 2 June 1982) was a Pakistani barrister, politician and statesman who served as the fifth president of Pakistan from 1973 until his resignation in 1978, due to Zia-ul-Haq's martial law following the 1977 coup d'état which overthrew Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's government. He was the first legislatively-elected president in the country's history, serving as a constitutional figurehead.
Born in Kharian, Punjab, Chaudhry received his higher education at the Aligarh Muslim University and the University of the Punjab. He established his law firm in Lahore and further practised civil law. Entering early district-level administration in 1930, he was elected to the Gujrat District Board, unopposed. In 1942, he joined the All-India Muslim League and was elected the party president within the Punjab Muslim League for Gujrat District. He became active in the Pakistan Movement and took part in the 1946 Indian provincial elections in Punjab.
Following Pakistan's independence, Chaudhry was appointed the parliamentary secretary and later the education and health minister within the central cabinet in 1951. He was elected to the West Punjab Assembly from Gujrat District in the 1951 provincial election; and represented Pakistan in the United Nations in 1952. Being elected to the West Pakistan Assembly in 1956, Chaudhry served as its speaker until the 1958 coup d'état when the legislature was suspended. He joined the Convention Muslim League and was elected in the 1965 election to the National Assembly, serving as the legislature's deputy speaker until 1969 when Yahya Khan declared martial law and suspended the 1962 constitution. Chaudhry joined the Pakistan Peoples Party and contested the 1970 election, being elected once again to the National Assembly and later getting elected as its speaker in 1972.
Under the 1973 constitution, Chaudhry contested the 1973 presidential election as a candidate of the Peoples Party against the opposition coalition's contestant Khan Amirzadah Khan of the National Awami Party (Wali); which he won with an absolute electoral college majority. He was sworn in as the president on 14 August 1973, becoming the first ethnic Punjabi to hold the office. He succeeded Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as president, who was sworn in as the prime minister. He served as a figurehead as the presidency, under the newly-promulgated constitution, had become a ceremonial position with executive authority being vested in the prime minister's position. With the success of the 1977 coup d'état, the Bhutto-led federal government, alongside all provincial governments, was overthrown by Zia-ul-Haq, who assumed the position of chief martial law administrator; but Chaudhry continued his presidency with no influence over governmental, military and national affairs. Due to contentious relations with the Zia-led military government, he resigned from the presidency in September 1978, which was then assumed by Zia-ul-Haq.
Establishing himself from district-level administration to national politics and international diplomacy, Chaudhry remained a well-respected politician and legislator throughout his political career; and played his constitutionally nominal role as president. He died in June 1982 in Lahore at the age of 78.
== Early life and education ==
Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was born on 1 January 1904 into an influential Punjabi family of Muslim Gujjars in the village of Marala in the Kharian Tehsil of Gujrat District, Punjab.
After receiving his early education from Kharian, Chaudhry joined the prestigious Aligarh Muslim University in 1920 and moved to the United Provinces, receiving his LLB in civil law in 1924. Thereafter, Chaudhry returned to Punjab, settling in the capital Lahore, and attended the University of the Punjab's post-graduate school in law and political science. In 1925, Chaudhry obtained his MA in political science in 1925, and the advanced LLM in Law and Justice, in 1927.
After completing his education, Chaudhry established his law firm in Lahore, advocating for civil liberties, and went back to Gujrat, and started practising civil law.
== Political career ==
=== Early years (1942–1956) ===
In 1930, Chaudhry started taking interest in politics and participated in the 1930 Indian general election for the Gujrat District Board and was elected unopposed. He joined the Muslim League in 1942. In 1945, he was elected from Gujrat as the President of Muslim League. He took part in the 1946 Indian provincial elections on Muslim League's ticket and played an important role in propagating the ideas of the Muslim League among the people of his area. Upon the independence of Pakistan, he was given the post of Parliamentary Secretary, and was included in Liaquat Ali Khan's cabinet, serving as the education and health minister.
He further joined Pakistan permanent representative's delegation to the United Nations in 1951. In 1951, he contested the elections of the Punjab Legislative Assembly on the Muslim League ticket and was elected as a member of the Punjab Assembly. In 1952, he represented Pakistan in the United Nations.
=== Parliamentary roles (1956–1972) ===
In the 1956 elections, he was elected as member of the West Pakistan Assembly. Chaudhry served as the first Speaker of the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly from 20 May 1956 to 7 October 1958. In 1962, when Ayub Khan announced the elections, he was selected as the Deputy Opposition Leader of the House on the basis of his experience and knowledge about parliamentary proceedings. Chaudhry joined the Convention Muslim League, and after the 1965 presidential election, he was elected as the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly, a role he served in till 1969.
He was elected as member of the National Assembly in 1970 on the ticket of the Pakistan Peoples Party, and was later elected as the Speaker of the National Assembly in 1972. He ended up joining the Pakistan Peoples Party.
== Presidency ==
He contested the Presidential Elections of 1973 against Khan Amirzadah Khan of NAP and all opposition parties, and was elected president in 1973 (receiving 139 votes against Khan's 45), when the head of the PPP, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was made prime minister. He was the first ethnic Punjabi president of the country.
Chaudhry was largely a figurehead, and was the first Pakistani President with less power than the Prime Minister. This was due to the new constitution of 1973 that gave more powers to the Prime Minister. Previously, the President had been the chief executive of Pakistan and had the power to appoint Prime Minister. After Operation Fair Play - a codename of the operation to remove Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from power - Chaudhry continued his presidency but had no influence in the government operations or the military and national affairs.
=== Resignation ===
After contentious relations with the military, Chaudhry decided to resign from his post despite the urging of the Chief of Army Staff and Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff. On 16 September 1978, Chaudhry handed the charge of the presidency to ruling military general Zia-ul-Haq who succeeded him as the sixth president, in addition to being the Chief Martial Law Administrator and the Chief of Army Staff.
== Death ==
Chaudhry died of a heart ailment on 2 June 1982 at the age of 78 in Lahore, Punjab.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Chronicles Of Pakistan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorne_Warneke#:~:text=After%20graduating%20high%20school%2C%20Warneke,same%20university%2C%20graduating%20in%201967. | Lorne Warneke | Lorne Baird Warneke (November 16, 1942 – August 28, 2020) was an Alberta-based psychiatrist and advocate for 2SLGBTQ+ people in Canada. He founded the first Canadian gender identity clinic at Grey Nuns Community Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta.
== Life ==
Warneke was born in Alberta, Canada on November 16, 1942 to John and Ester Warneke. The family moved to Leedale, a hamlet in central Alberta, and settled on a farm there for the duration of Warneke's childhood. Warneke had one sibling, his sister, Diane Lorna Warneke.
After graduating high school, Warneke attended the University of Alberta and obtained a Bachelor of Science, majoring in Zoology in 1963. He then attended medical school at the same university, graduating in 1967. Warneke was introduced to psychiatry in his final two years of medical school.
Although he grew up knowing he was gay, Warneke did not come out until he was in his 40's. Warneke went on to marry John Chan. The two remained partners for 24 years until Warneke's death in 2020.
== Career ==
Warneke began his career as a psychiatrist at the Grey Nuns Community Hospital, a Catholic hospital in Edmonton, Alberta. He went on to become a Clinical Professor at the University of Alberta in the Department of Psychiatry.
Warneke specialized in working with patients who had Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). His interest in OCD began while spending an extra year training at Maudsley Hospital, a psychiatric hospital in London, England. After returning to Canada, Warneke treated many patients with severe OCD and continued to use his expertise of OCD for the duration of his career, writing literature reviews, case studies, book reviews, and letters to the editor on the topic.
=== 2SLGBTQ+ activism ===
Throughout his career, Warneke focused on working with and advocating for 2SLGBTQ+, especially transgender, patients. In 1984, Alberta Health Services agreed to cover sex reassignment surgery for three patients after lobbying by Warneke and others. Later, in 1996, Warneke founded a gender identity clinic at Gray Nuns Community Hospital. The gender clinic was the first of its kind in Canada. Due to the hospital's policies and pervasive attitudes at the time, Warneke was unable to advertise the existence of the gender clinic and he faced hostility from many within the organization. Additionally, Warneke trained Psychiatry Residents while a Clinical Professor at the University of Alberta, ensuring future generations of psychiatrists were aware of the nuances of providing gender-affirming care to transgender patients.
Warneke and Dr. Ian T. Kroll, a psychiatrist based in Calgary who also advocated for 2SLGBTQ+ rights, chastised the Alberta government for neglecting to enshrine gay rights in legislation in a 1995 article. Around the same time, Warneke gave testimony as an expert witness for Vriend v Alberta, a landmark legal case for 2SLGBTQ+ rights in Canada.
For the second National Trans Awareness Week in May 2005, Warneke delivered a presentation on trans issues to attendees of the associated film festival and symposium.
In 2009, the Alberta government made the decision to stop covering sex reassignment surgery as a cost-saving measure for the province. Warneke lobbied against this decision but this caught the ire of the Covenant Health Board, the governing body of Catholic health institutions in Alberta like the Grey Nuns Hospital where Warneke worked. The Board attempted to prevent him from seeing transgender patients as helping them change their bodies went against the Catholic values of the Board. In spite of administrative disapproval, Warneke continued to see transgender patients. A "phase-out program" for sex reassignment surgery was announced in 2010 as a transitional measure but the procedure was fully relisted as a provincially funded healthcare service in 2012.
== Retirement and legacy ==
After a career spanning 50 years, Warneke retired in 2017. John Chan, Warneke's husband, noted how difficult the decision to retire was for the psychiatrist as "he really struggled leaving behind all the people who still needed his help." Soon after retiring, the University of Alberta presented Warneke with the Distinguished Alumni Award. Although Warneke spent much of his retirement enjoying his hobbies, he never stopped advocating for the 2SLGBTQ+ community, contributing various letters and op-eds about topics like conversion therapy to the Edmonton Journal.
On August 28, 2020, Warneke died after complications related to a fall in his home. In honour of Warneke's life and career, John Chan donated a money to memorialize a bench at the Grey Nuns Hospital. The bench was dedicated on October 5, 2022. In July 2023, Chan established the Dr. Lorne Baird Warneke LGBTQ2S+ Resident Endowment to financially support residents in the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Alberta "dedicated to continuing Warneke's legacy of care and advocacy".
== Bibliography ==
Warneke, Lorne B. (1978). Human sexuality and sexual dysfunction. Edmonton, Alberta. OCLC Number 15840747
Warneke, Lorne B, Otto, William, Gill, David M. (1980). Notes in clinical psychiatry. Edmonton, Alberta. OCLC Number 15893520
Warneke, Lorne B, Otto, William, Gill, David M, Knowles, Alan. (1984). Clinical notes in psychiatry (2nd ed.). Edmonton, Alberta. OCLC Number 70463772
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Parkman | Stefan Parkman | Stefan Parkman (born 22 June 1952, in Uppsala) is a Swedish conductor. He is a professor at Uppsala University, where he holds the Eric Ericson chair of choral conducting.
From 2002 to 2005, Parkman was the head conductor of the Swedish Radio Choir, and he has also been the conductor of the Danish Radio Choir and the Boys' Choir of Uppsala Cathedral. Since 1983, he has been the leader of Uppsala Akademiska Kammarkör.
Parkman was awarded the Danish Order of the Dannebrog in 1997. In 1998, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Paulus | Friedrich Paulus | Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Paulus (23 September 1890 – 1 February 1957) was a German Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) during World War II who is best known for his surrender of the German 6th Army during the Battle of Stalingrad (July 1942 to February 1943). The battle ended in disaster for the Wehrmacht when Soviet forces encircled the Germans within the city, leading to the ultimate death or capture of most of the 265,000-strong 6th Army, their Axis allies, and collaborators.
Paulus fought in World War I and saw action in France and the Balkans. He was considered a promising officer; by the time World War II broke out, he had been promoted to major general. Paulus took part in the invasions of Poland and the Low Countries, after which he was named deputy chief of the German Army General Staff. In that capacity, Paulus helped plan the invasion of the Soviet Union.
In 1942, Paulus was given command of the 6th Army. He led the drive to Stalingrad but was cut off and surrounded in the subsequent Soviet counter-offensive. Adolf Hitler prohibited attempts to break out or capitulate, and the German defense was gradually worn down. Paulus surrendered in Stalingrad on 31 January 1943, the same day on which he was informed of his promotion to field marshal by Hitler. Hitler expected Paulus to take his own life, repeating to his staff that there was no precedent of a German field marshal being captured alive.
While in Soviet captivity during the war, Paulus became a vocal critic of the Nazi regime and joined the Soviet-sponsored National Committee for a Free Germany. In 1953, Paulus moved to East Germany, where he worked in military history research. He lived out the rest of his life in Dresden.
== Early life ==
Paulus was born in Guxhagen and grew up in Kassel, Hesse-Nassau, the son of a treasurer. He tried, unsuccessfully, to secure a cadetship in the Imperial German Navy and briefly studied law at Marburg University.
Many English-language sources and publications from the 1940s to the present day give Paulus's family name the prefix "von". For example: Mark Arnold-Forster's The World At War, companion volume to the documentary of the same name, Stein and Day, 1973, pp. 139–142; other examples are Allen and Muratoff's The Russian Campaigns of 1941–1943, published in 1944 and Peter Margaritis (2019). This is incorrect, as Paulus's family was never part of the nobility and Antony Beevor refers to his "comparatively humble birth" .
== World War I ==
After leaving university without a degree, Paulus joined the 111th Infantry Regiment as an officer cadet in February 1910. On 4 July 1912, he married the Romanian aristocrat Constance Elena Rosetti-Solescu, a descendant of the Rosetti family and sister of a colleague who served in the same regiment. They had a daughter, Olga (1914–2003), who married Achim von Kutzschenbach (1904-1944), a member of the German nobility. In addition, they had twin sons Friedrich and Ernst Alexander (born 1918).
When World War I began, Paulus's regiment was part of the thrust into France, and he saw action in the Vosges and around Arras in the autumn of 1914. After a leave of absence due to illness, he joined the Alpenkorps as a staff officer, serving in France, Romania and Serbia. By the end of the war, he was a captain.
== Interwar period ==
After the armistice ending Germany's involvement in World War I, Paulus was a brigade adjutant with the Freikorps. He was chosen as one of only 4,000 officers to serve in the Reichswehr, the defensive army that the Treaty of Versailles had limited to 100,000 men. He was assigned to the 13th Infantry Regiment as a company commander at Stuttgart. He served in various staff positions for over a decade (1921–33). In the 1920s, as part of the military cooperation between the Weimar Republic and the Soviet Union to evade the restrictions of Versailles, Paulus presented guest lectures in Moscow.
Later, Paulus briefly commanded a motorized battalion (1934–35). In October 1935, he was made chief of staff at Panzer Troop Command. This was a new formation under the direction of Oswald Lutz, which directed the training and development of the Panzerwaffe ("armored forces") of the German army.
== World War II ==
In February 1938, Paulus was appointed Chef des Generalstabes to General Heinz Guderian's new XVI Army Corps, which replaced Lutz's command. Guderian described him as "brilliantly clever, conscientious, hard working, original and talented"; but Guderian had severe doubts about Paulus's decisiveness and toughness, and his lack of command experience. Paulus remained in that post until May 1939, when he was promoted to major general and became chief of staff for the German Tenth Army, with which he saw service in the invasion of Poland. The unit was renamed the Sixth Army and engaged in the spring offensives of 1940 through the Netherlands and Belgium. Paulus was promoted to lieutenant general in August 1940. The following month he was named deputy chief of the German General Staff (Oberquartiermeister I). In that role he helped draft the plans for the invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa.
=== Eastern Front and Stalingrad ===
In November 1941, after the German Sixth Army's commander, Field Marshal Walter von Reichenau, Paulus's patron, became commander of the entire Army Group South, Paulus, who had never commanded a larger unit than a battalion, was promoted to General der Panzertruppe and appointed commander of the Sixth Army. However, Paulus took over his new command only on 20 January, six days after the sudden death of Reichenau, leaving him on his own and without the support of his more experienced sponsor.
Paulus led the drive on Stalingrad that summer. His troops fought Soviet forces defending Stalingrad for over three months in increasingly brutal urban warfare. In November 1942, when the Soviet Red Army launched a massive counter-offensive, Operation Uranus, Paulus found himself surrounded by an entire Soviet army group. Paulus did not request to evacuate the city when the counter-offensive began.
Paulus followed Adolf Hitler's orders to hold his positions in Stalingrad under all circumstances, despite the fact that he was completely surrounded by strong Soviet forces. Operation Winter Storm, a relief effort by Army Group Don under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, was launched in December. Following von Manstein's orders, Paulus prepared to break out of Stalingrad. In the meantime, he kept his army in fixed defensive positions. Manstein told Paulus that the relief would need assistance from the Sixth Army, but the order to initiate the breakout never came. Paulus remained firm in obeying the orders he had been given. Manstein's forces were unable to reach Stalingrad on their own and their efforts were eventually halted due to Soviet offensives elsewhere on the front.
Kurt Zeitzler, the newly appointed chief of the Army General Staff, eventually got Hitler to allow Paulus to break out—provided he continue to hold Stalingrad, an impossible task.
For the next two months, Paulus and his men fought on. However, the lack of food and ammunition, the equipment losses, and the deteriorating physical condition of the German troops gradually wore down the German defense. With the new year, Hitler promoted Paulus to colonel general.
About resisting capitulation, according to Adam, Paulus stated: What would become of the war if our army in the Caucasus were also surrounded? That danger is real. But as long as we keep on fighting, the Red Army has to remain here. They need these forces for a big offensive against Army Group 'A' in the Caucasus and along the still-unstable front from Voronesh to the Black Sea. We must hold them here to the last so that the eastern front can be stabilized. Only if that happens is there a chance of the war going well for Germany.
==== Crisis ====
On 7 January 1943, General Konstantin Rokossovsky, commander of the Red Army on the Don Front, called a cease-fire and offered Paulus' men generous surrender terms: normal rations, medical treatment for the ill and wounded, permission to retain their badges, decorations, uniforms and personal effects. As part of his communication, Rokossovsky advised Paulus that he was in an impossible situation. Paulus requested permission from Hitler to surrender. Even though it was obvious the Sixth Army was in an untenable position, the German Army High Command rejected Paulus's request, stating, "Capitulation out of the question. Every day that the army holds out longer helps the whole front and draws away the Russian divisions from it."
After a Soviet offensive overran the last emergency airstrip in Stalingrad on 25 January, the Soviet command again offered Paulus a chance to surrender. Paulus radioed Hitler once again for permission. Telling Hitler that collapse was "inevitable," Paulus stressed that his men were without ammunition or food, and he was no longer able to command them. He also said that 18,000 men were wounded and were in immediate need of medical attention. Once again, Hitler rejected Paulus's request out of hand, and ordered him to hold Stalingrad to the death. On 30 January, Paulus informed Hitler that his men were only hours from collapse. Hitler responded by showering a raft of field promotions by radio on Paulus' officers to build up their spirits and bolster their will to hold their ground. Most significantly, he promoted Paulus to field marshal. In deciding to promote him, Hitler noted that there was no known record of a Prussian or German field marshal ever having surrendered. The implication was clear: Paulus was to commit suicide. Hitler implied that if Paulus allowed himself to be taken alive, he would shame Germany's military history.
==== Capitulation ====
Paulus and his staff surrendered on the morning of 31 January 1943. The events of that day were recorded by Colonel Wilhelm Adam, one of Paulus' aides and an adjutant in the XXIII Army Corps, in his personal diary:
January 31, 1943 – 7.00 a.m. It was still dark but day was dawning almost imperceptibly. Paulus was asleep. It was some time before I could break out of the maze of thoughts and strange dreams that depressed me so greatly. But I don't think I remained in this state for very long. I was going to get up quietly when someone knocked at the door. Paulus awoke and sat up. It was the HQ commander. He handed the colonel general a piece of paper and said: 'Congratulations. The rank of field marshal has been conferred upon you. The dispatch came early this morning—it was the last one.'
'One can't help feeling it's an invitation to suicide. However I'm not going to do them such a favour.' said Paulus after reading the dispatch. Schmidt continued: 'At the same time I have to inform you that the Russians are at the door.' with these words he opened the door and a Soviet general and his interpreter entered the room. The general announced that we were his prisoners. I placed my revolver on the table.
'Prepare yourself for departure. We shall be back for you at 9.00. You will go in your personal car.' said the Soviet general through his interpreter. Then they left the room. I had the official seal with me. I prepared for my last official duty. I recorded Paulus's new rank in his military document, stamped it with the seal then threw the seal into the glowing fire.
The main entrance to the cellar was closed and guarded by the Soviet soldiers. An officer, the head of the guards, allowed me and the driver to go out and get the car ready. Climbing out of the cellar, I stood dumbfounded. Soviet and German soldiers, who just a few hours earlier had been shooting at one another, now stood quietly together in the yard. They were all armed, some with weapons in their hands, some with them over their shoulders.
My God, what a contrast between the two sides! The German soldiers, ragged and in light coats, looked like ghosts with hollow, unshaven cheeks. The Red Army fighters looked fresh and wore warm winter uniforms. Involuntarily I remembered the chain of unfortunate events which had prevented me from sleeping for so many nights. The appearance of the Red Army soldiers seemed symbolic. At 9.00 sharp the HQ commander of the 6th Army arrived to take the commander of the vanquished German 6th Army and its staff towards the rear. The march towards the Volga had ended.
On 2 February 1943, the remainder of the Sixth Army capitulated. Upon finding out about Paulus's "surrender", Hitler flew into a rage and vowed never to appoint another field marshal again. In fact, he went on to appoint another seven field marshals during the last two years of the war. Speaking about the surrender of Paulus, Hitler told his staff:
In peacetime Germany, about 18,000 or 20,000 people a year chose to commit suicide, even without being in such a position. Here is a man who sees 50,000 or 60,000 of his soldiers die defending themselves bravely to the end. How can he surrender himself to the Bolshevists?!
Paulus, a Roman Catholic, was opposed to suicide. During his captivity, according to General Max Pfeffer, Paulus said, "I have no intention of shooting myself for this Bohemian corporal." Paulus also forbade his soldiers from standing on top of their trenches in order to be shot by the enemy.
Shortly before surrendering, Paulus sent his wedding ring back to his wife on the last plane departing his position. He had not seen her since 1942 and would not see her again, as she died in 1949 while he was still in captivity.
== After Stalingrad and post-war era ==
At first, Paulus refused to collaborate with the Soviets. However, after the attempted assassination of Hitler on 20 July 1944, he became a vocal critic of the Nazi regime, joining the Soviet-sponsored National Committee for a Free Germany which appealed to Germans to surrender. In response, Germany put his wife as well as his daughter Olga von Kutzschenbach into Sippenhaft. He later acted as a witness for the prosecution at the Nuremberg Trials. He was allowed to move to the German Democratic Republic in 1953, two years before the repatriation of the remaining German POWs.
During the Nuremberg Trials, Paulus was asked about the Stalingrad prisoners by a journalist. He told the journalist to tell the wives and mothers that their husbands and sons were well. However, of the 91,000 German prisoners taken at Stalingrad, half had died on the march to Siberian prison camps, and nearly as many died in captivity; only about 6,000 survived and returned home.
After his return to the German Democratic Republic in 1953, Paulus gave a talk in Berlin on 2 July 1954 in the presence of Western journalists, titled "On the vital issues of our nation". In it, he paid respect to the memory of General Heinz Guderian, who had died a little over a month previously, and criticized the political leaderships of the German Empire and Nazi Germany for causing the defeats of the German Army in both world wars:
I have in mind in particular General Guderian, who died prematurely, and with whom I was particularly close, as chief of staff for the organization of the armored troops, and we were carrying out a task together. Maybe since the last time we met—more than 10 years ago—our views on specific issues differed, but I know in general, through his writings, with what sense of responsibility, how restlessly he refused to align himself with the Federal Chancellor's European Defence Community policy. He was, in any case, a defender of a united and sovereign Germany.
Everyone knows that our nation used to have great military experts, known all over the world, such as Clausewitz, Moltke the Elder, Schlieffen. Certainly, in their time they assessed the political–military situation of Germany with perseverance and sobriety, developed principles and positions for the strategy and tactics of a general nature, which were valid for the special situation in which Germany would be in a state of war. There are still many people today who wonder how Germany, which no doubt possessed a highly trained army, could be defeated in two wars. The question cannot be answered in military terms. The governments responsible for this have both put their armed forces in front of insoluble problems. Even the best army is doomed to fail when it is required to perform impossible tasks, that is, when it is ordered to campaign against the national existence of other peoples.
He also criticized United States foreign policy as aggressive and called for a reconciliation between the Germans and the French:
American policy today calls itself "power politics". For us Germans, this is particularly indicative. We have been punished for pursuing the policy of violent and lightning strikes that is now being cultivated, and we know what it has cost us. We Germans have seen that in the 20th century, such "power politics" that a strong and rich country seeks to pursue at the expense of other countries is doomed to failure. This policy can have no prospect of success unless it manages to stifle the national will of other peoples, to crush their independence. But it is a misconception and dangerous idea that the age of nations is over simply because a power, the United States, relies on this position so that it can bend over and dominate other nations at the lowest cost to it.
Establishing good neighborly relations with the countries that surround us from east and west is crucial for our national existence. I have in mind, first of all, France. The time has come for the old enmity that we have inherited and the many disputes to be buried once and for all. These two peoples must put aside all conflicts between them, all the more so because German-French relations are the link in the dangerous chain held by the Americans to turn one European people against the other and use them as a vehicle for their own policy.
Finally, he supported former German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's appeal for a betterment of relations between West Germany and the Eastern Bloc, agreed with Brüning's criticism of West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's overtly pro-American policy, and expressed his hope for a German reunification:
Chancellor Brüning took a clear stand against Chancellor Adenauer's rigid orientation to the West, and practically against the EDC and the Bonn conventions. Like many West German economists and politicians, he was in favor of taking advantage of the slightest opportunity to negotiate with the East. Thus, another prominent and experienced German politician stressed that a final implementation of the EDC agreement would be dangerous for the German nation. No sensible person can understand why Dr. Adenauer, under American influence, strongly opposes exploiting the opportunities for the resumption of economic and cultural relations with the peoples of the East.
As a former military man and commander of a large sector, taking into account the current situation and based on my experiences, I have come to the conclusion that we must definitely take the path that, in any form, leads to the development and consolidation of relations between East and West. Only we Germans can decide the future of Germany.
When I say that we Germans must focus above all on the unity and independence of Germany, on the affirmation of the vital national rights of our nation, I realize that in this way we are best serving the cause of peace, of international détente and reconciliation between peoples. We want good relations between the German people and other peoples who respect our national rights. This is the precondition for collective security in Europe and at the same time for a happy future for our own nation. With a reunited Germany having good relations with the two great powers, not only can peace not be disrupted in Europe, but the basis for the development of general prosperity is laid.
From 1953 to 1956, Paulus lived in Dresden, East Germany, where he worked as the civilian chief of the East German Military History Research Institute. In late 1956, he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and became progressively weaker. He died a few months later, in Dresden, on 1 February 1957, aged 66. As part of his last will and testament, his body was transported to Baden-Baden, West Germany, to be buried at the Hauptfriedhof (main cemetery) next to his wife.
== Awards and decorations ==
Iron Cross of 1914, 1st and 2nd class
Military Merit Order, 4th class with Swords (Bavaria)
Knight's Cross Second Class of the Order of the Zähringer Lion with swords
Military Merit Cross, 1st and 2nd class (Mecklenburg-Schwerin)
Cross for Merit in War (Saxe-Meiningen)
Military Merit Cross, 3rd class with War Decoration (Austria-Hungary)
The Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918, with Swords
Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939)
1st Class (21 September 1939)
2nd Class (27 September 1939)
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight's Cross on 26 August 1942 as General der Panzertruppe and Commander-in-chief of the 6. Armee
178th Oak Leaves on 15 January 1943 as Generaloberst and Commander-in-chief of the 6. Armee
Order of the Cross of Liberty, 1st class with Oak Leaves and Swords (Finland)
Order of Michael the Brave, 1st class (Romania)
Military Order of the Iron Trefoil, First Class with Oak Leaves, (Independent State of Croatia)
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Newspaper clippings about Friedrich Paulus in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemonade_(album) | Lemonade (album) | Lemonade is the sixth studio album by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé. It was surprise-released on April 23, 2016, by Parkwood Entertainment and Columbia Records, as a visual album together with a film of the same name. Beyoncé conceived Lemonade as a concept album that explores the historical Black female experience in the United States, allegorized as a personal journey through marital betrayal and healing, and structured as a song cycle based on the Kübler-Ross model. Categorized by critics as an eclectic, genre-blending album with avant-garde and art pop elements, it explores a variety of genres including R&B, rock, country, soul, blues, hip-hop, jazz, reggae, pop, gospel, and funk. It features guest vocals from Jack White, the Weeknd, James Blake and Kendrick Lamar.
Lemonade was hailed as an instant classic upon release and has since been named one of the greatest albums of all time. Critics commended the experimental post-genre production and nuanced vocal performance, with particular praise for the political subject matter reflecting Beyoncé's personal life. It was music critics' top album of 2016 according to the BBC, was named the greatest album of the 2010s decade by publications such as the Associated Press, and topped Rolling Stone's Greatest Albums of the 21st Century list. One of the most Grammy-nominated albums in history, Lemonade won Best Urban Contemporary Album and Best Music Video at the 59th Grammy Awards. It also won a Peabody Award in Entertainment at the 76th Annual Peabody Awards and received four nominations at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards.
Lemonade topped the charts in various countries worldwide, including the US Billboard 200, where it earned 653,000 with additional album-equivalent units, including 485,000 pure sales. It has since been certified four-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album was supported by five singles: "Formation", which was a top-ten hit on the US Billboard Hot 100, "Sorry", "Hold Up", "Freedom", and "All Night". Four days after the release, Beyoncé embarked on the Formation World Tour, the first all-stadium tour by a female artist.
Lemonade is considered a cultural phenomenon, sparking widespread discourse on its personal revelations and socio-political commentary. It had a significant impact on the entertainment industry, inspiring other musicians and visual artists, and ignited trends across music, fashion and pop culture. It has also been the subject of extensive analysis in academic journals, college courses, books, and museum exhibitions. It was the best-selling album worldwide of 2016, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), with 2.5 million copies sold.
== Background ==
Beyoncé's career took a transformative turn with the release of her fifth studio album, eponymously titled Beyoncé (2013). The album received widespread commercial and critical success, and its innovative surprise-release and visual format influenced how music is released in the digital age. This marked a significant shift in her public image, elevating her from a leading pop star to an auteur who defied industry conventions.
The following year, her personal life became a subject of public scrutiny after rumors spread of her husband Jay-Z's infidelity. This was fuelled by a widely publicized incident at the 2014 Met Gala, where leaked elevator footage showed Beyoncé's sister Solange physically attacking Jay-Z. The family released a joint statement assuaging concerns, and while divorce rumours continued throughout Beyoncé and Jay-Z's joint On The Run Tour (2014), the couple presented a unified front.
On February 6, 2016, Beyoncé released the song "Formation" as a free download via music streaming service Tidal, accompanied by an unlisted music video on YouTube. The track, which blended trap and bounce, saw Beyoncé celebrate her culture, identity, and success as a black woman from the Southern United States. The song and video were met with widespread acclaim, with critics praising the release as a personal and political ode to black Southern heritage. Beyoncé performed the song a day after its release as part of a guest appearance during the Super Bowl 50 halftime show. A commercial aired after the performance announcing the Formation World Tour, with pre-sales opening two days later. While the performance received rave reviews from fans and critics, it was met with backlash, boycotts, and protests from some conservative figures and law enforcement organizations over perceived anti-police, anti-American, and anti-white racist messages.
In an interview with Elle, published on April 4, 2016, Beyoncé was asked what she wanted to accomplish with the next phase of her career. She shared her desire to produce work that promoted healing and transformation, saying:"I hope I can create art that helps people heal. Art that makes people feel proud of their struggle. Everyone experiences pain, but sometimes you need to be uncomfortable to transform. Pain is not pretty, but I wasn't able to hold my daughter in my arms until I experienced the pain of childbirth!"
== Recording and production ==
Lemonade was recorded between June 2014 and July 2015 across 11 studios in the United States. Beyoncé had the idea to write each song corresponding to a specific emotion that would form the chapters of the album and film, and posted mood boards around the studio representing each chapter to provide direction to her collaborators. Beyoncé and her collaborators also played music in the studio to inspire each other. The album was written in stages, with Beyoncé retreating to her home to work on the recordings with recording and mixing engineer Stuart White, as well as to take care of her daughter. The process began at the Record Plant in Los Angeles, which the team used for a month. They then took a break, and later went to Paris for 45 days. The team stayed in a hotel and set up two studios in two different hotel rooms, one for Beyoncé and one for Jay-Z. Jay-Z recounted how he and Beyoncé recorded music both separately and together, describing it as "using our art almost like a therapy session" after his infidelity. The music that Beyoncé recorded separately was what became Lemonade and was released first.
Lemonade was produced through Beyoncé's synthesis of the work of many collaborators, including both popular and lesser-known artists. Beyoncé oversaw all aspects of the writing and production process; co-writers MNEK and Jonny Coffer noted that she had a clear vision for how the songs should sound, consistently offering direction and suggestions to guide the creative process. The songs were developed in a piecemeal fashion, with Beyoncé combining material that she had written herself with elements from other writers. Collaborator MeLo-X described Beyoncé's production style as highly distinctive, saying: "She has a way of creating that I've never seen before as an artist. She produces, alters and arranges tracks in ways I wouldn't think of."
== Themes ==
As a multimedia audiovisual artwork, Lemonade relates the emotional journey of Beyoncé after Jay-Z's infidelity in a generational and racial context through its music, lyrics, visuals and poetry. The Lemonade album is a song cycle (referencing the classical compositional genre defined in German Lieder by Robert Schumann, Franz Schubert and Johannes Brahms) that is performed as an elaboration of the Kübler-Ross model, with the tracks (excluding "Formation") corresponding to the eleven chapters of the Lemonade film: "Intuition", "Denial", "Anger", "Apathy", "Emptiness", "Accountability", "Reformation", "Forgiveness", "Resurrection", "Hope", and "Redemption".
Melina Matsoukas, the director of the "Formation" music video, said that Beyoncé explained to her the concept behind Lemonade, stating: "She wanted to show the historical impact of slavery on black love, and what it has done to the black family, and black men and women—how we're almost socialized not to be together." Beyoncé wrote on this in a 2018 Vogue article about the "generational curses" in her family, explaining that she comes "from a lineage of broken male-female relationships, abuse of power, and mistrust", including a slave owner who married a slave. Beyoncé continues, writing "Only when I saw that clearly was I able to resolve those conflicts in my own relationship. Connecting to the past and knowing our history makes us both bruised and beautiful."
This theme is repeated throughout Lemonade, with Beyoncé's grief, trauma and struggle being connected to that of her family's ancestors. The sixth track "Daddy Lessons" acts as a turning point for the album, with Beyoncé linking Jay-Z cheating on her with her father Mathew Knowles cheating on her mother Tina. Towards the end of Lemonade, Beyoncé reveals the meaning behind the title, showing Jay-Z's grandmother Hattie White saying "I had my ups and downs, but I always find the inner strength to pull myself up. I was served lemons, but I made lemonade", and describing her own grandmother, Agnez Deréon, as an "alchemist" who "spun gold out of this hard life" with the instructions to overcome these challenges passed down through generations like a lemonade recipe.
=== Black feminism ===
Miriam Bale for Billboard called Lemonade "a revolutionary work of Black feminism" as "a movie made by a black woman, starring Black women, and for Black women", in which Beyoncé is seen gathering, uniting and leading Black women throughout the film. As well as relating the story of Beyoncé's relationship with her husband, Lemonade also chronicles the relationship between Black women and American society. This includes how the United States betrayed and continually mistreats Black women, with society needing to solve its problems in order to enable reformation and the rehabilitation of Black women. As part of reverting the societal oppression and silencing of Black women, Lemonade centralizes the experiences of Black women in a way that is not often seen in the media, and celebrates their achievements despite the adversity they face.
"Don't Hurt Yourself" contains a quote from Malcolm X in which he said "The most disrespected person in America is the Black woman. The most unprotected person in America is the Black woman. The most neglected person in America is the Black woman". The Black female public figures that Beyoncé featured in the film all have successful careers despite experiencing misogynoir and racism in the media. The film also contains clips of everyday Black women from working class communities, bringing visibility to Black women who are often ignored and undermined by society. The film envisions a space where there was never oppression of Black women, whereby Beyoncé and other Black women form a self-sufficient community in which they can heal together. Lemonade also defies and dismantles stereotypical representations of Black women as monolithic and angry Black women, instead attributing them complexity, agency, strength and vulnerability.
To create Lemonade, Beyoncé drew from the work of a wide variety of Black women who are often overlooked or forgotten. The music draws inspiration from Black female blues musicians such as Shug Avery, Bessie Smith and Sister Rosetta Tharpe, who also used their personal trauma to empower Black women, as well as samples songs originally recorded by Black women, namely Memphis Minnie and Dionne Warwick, but whose most famous recordings are by male or white artists. These musical references situate Lemonade within the broader tradition of blues women who used their art to voice Black women's emotional experiences and social realities. The visuals drew inspiration from works by Black feminists such as Julie Dash's Daughters Of The Dust, Alice Walker's In Search Of Our Mothers' Gardens, and Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye. Other influences for Lemonade include literary work by Black women focusing on themes including African-American folklore (such as Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God) and Afrofuturism (such as Octavia Butler's Kindred). Beyoncé specifically moves away from her typical music roots to develop a more communal spotlight on artistic hoodoo with other Black female creatives.
=== African-American culture ===
Beyoncé also uses Lemonade as a form of recognition, commemoration and celebration of the culture and history of Black people in the Deep South and in the United States as a whole. The film contains allusions to slavery, such as the House of Slaves' Door of No Return in Senegal and the dungeons of Elmina Castle in Ghana, where slaves were taken before being shipped to the Americas. In "Love Drought", Beyoncé walks with her dancers into the sea, alluding to the Igbo Landing of 1803, where Igbo slaves took control of their slave ship, and rather than submit to slavery, marched into the sea while singing in Igbo, drowning themselves. Beyoncé appears wearing a tignon, in reference to Louisiana's tignon laws implemented in 1786 that limited African-American women's dress in order to maintain the state's racist social hierarchies. The film also contains references to African religion and spirituality, such as Yoruba ori body paint in "Sorry", allusions to the loa Erzulie Red-Eyes in "Don't Hurt Yourself", and Beyoncé's initiation into the Santería religion and embodiment of the Yoruba orisha Oshun in "Hold Up". Allusions to New Orleans culture include "Queen of Creole cuisine" Leah Chase, the Edna Karr Marching Band, jazz funerals, Mardi Gras Indians and the Superdome.
Beyoncé is seen with other Black women on plantations in Lemonade. In the "Formation" video, the walls of the plantation houses are covered with French Renaissance-style portraits of Black subjects; director Melina Matsoukas states that "films about slavery traditionally feature white people in these roles of power and position. I wanted to turn those images on their head." Towards the end of Lemonade, Beyoncé and several Black women are on a plantation, with Chris Kelly for Fact writing "Instead of an antebellum memory, these scenes portray a dream: the fantasy of an all-Black, matriarchal utopia when women dress up, prepare meals, take photographs and perform shows, not for a master but for themselves." Throughout the film, Beyoncé can be seen in Fort Macomb, a Confederate States Army stronghold that was taken over by one of the first all-Black Union Army units – the 1st Louisiana Native Guard – and eventually destroyed by Hurricane Katrina. On the central track "Daddy Lessons", Beyoncé is seen standing in a hideaway in the fort, alluding to the Underground Railroad. However, on the closer "All Night", Beyoncé is seen above ground, walking on top of the ruins of the fort in an antebellum-style dress made in West African material, possibly inspired by artist Yinka Shonibare who is known for reappropriating "European import — the cloth — to remake symbols of European cultural dominance in the spirit of Africa".
On "Don't Hurt Yourself", Beyoncé samples Led Zeppelin's "When the Levee Breaks". However, the classic rock song was originally written by black Delta blues artists Kansas Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie, with the song referring to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 which displaced hundreds of thousands of African Americans. With the sample, Beyoncé reappropriates the song that was written by Black people about black history. In general, Beyoncé also reappropriates genres that were influenced by African Americans that are now seen as predominantly white genres on Lemonade, such as rock in "Don't Hurt Yourself" and country in "Daddy Lessons".
== Music and lyrics ==
Lemonade is an eclectic genre-blending album that explores many musical styles. Vox's Alissa Wilkinson described it as an R&B-rock-country-soul album, with its other genres including blues, hip-hop, jazz, reggae, pop, gospel, and funk. The Nation's Erin Vanderhoof characterized the album as avant-garde, while Pitchfork's Marc Hogan called it an art pop album. Kariann Goldschmitt, music lecturer at the University of Cambridge, described the album's experimentation with musical styles as a "recuperative historiography" of African-American contributions to diverse genres of music.
Lemonade features musicians Jack White, Kendrick Lamar, and bassist Marcus Miller, and sampling from folk music collectors John Lomax, Sr. and his son Alan Lomax on "Freedom". Beyoncé and her team reference the musical memories of all those periods, including a brass band, stomping blues rock, ultraslow avant-R&B, preaching, a prison song (both collected by John and Alan Lomax), and the sound of the 1960s fuzz-tone guitar psychedelia (sampling the Puerto Rican band Kaleidoscope). The Washington Post called the album a "surprisingly furious song cycle about infidelity and revenge". The Chicago Tribune described it as not just a mere grab for popular music dominance, rather it is a retrospective that allows the listener to explore Beyoncé's personal circumstances, with musical tones from the southern United States, a harkening back towards her formative years spent in Texas. AllMusic wrote that Beyoncé "delights in her Blackness, femininity, and Southern origin with supreme wordplay." On the album, Isaac Hayes and Andy Williams are among the sampled artists. PopMatters noticed how the album was nuanced in its theme of anger and betrayal with vast swathes of the album bathed in political context; however, it is still a pop album at its essence with darker and praiseworthy tones.
== Title and artwork ==
There are two suggested inspirations for the title. The song "Freedom" includes at its end an audio recording of Hattie White, grandmother of Beyoncé's husband Jay-Z's, telling a crowd at her ninetieth birthday party in December 2015: "I had my ups and downs, but I always find the inner strength to pull myself up. I was served lemons, but I made lemonade", referencing the proverb "when life gives you lemons, make lemonade" that encourages turning sourness and difficulty to something positive. Beyoncé also draws a connection to her own grandmother, Agnez Deréon, using her lemonade recipe that was passed down through the generations as a metaphor for the mechanisms for healing passed through generations.
The cover artwork for Lemonade is from the music video shot for "Don't Hurt Yourself" and features Beyoncé wearing cornrows and a fur coat, leaning against a Chevrolet Suburban and covering her face with her arm. The cover image has also been notes for its stark, minimalist style, which reflects the album's raw emotional themes. In 2023, Joe Lynch of Billboard ranked it the 99th best album cover of all time.
== Release and promotion ==
Lemonade was first made available for online streaming via Tidal on April 23, 2016, through Parkwood Entertainment and Columbia Records, and for digital download the following day. It was released for CD and DVD on May 6, 2016. A limited edition box set titled How to Make Lemonade was made available for pre-order on August 18, 2017, containing a six-hundred-page coffee table book, featuring a set of pictures and behind-the-scenes content showcasing the making of the album, and a double vinyl LP of Lemonade. Standalone vinyl was released on September 15, 2017. Lemonade was initially only available to stream on Tidal, but was added to other streaming platforms on April 23, 2019, exactly three years after its release. The version made available on other streaming services contains the original audio part of Lemonade as well as the original demo of "Sorry" as a bonus.
Beyoncé had a goal to perform the entire Lemonade album live. Beyoncé performed "Formation" at the Super Bowl 50 halftime show as part of her guest appearance at the event, with critics lauding the performance and stating that she stole the show from headliners Coldplay. The political symbolism in the performance also inspired many thinkpieces and discussions on their history and significance.
Beyoncé performed "Freedom" with Kendrick Lamar as the surprise opening number at the 2016 BET Awards on June 27. The performance began with an audio clip of Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech. The performance was met with acclaim by critics. At the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards on August 28, Beyoncé performed a sixteen-minute medley of "Pray You Catch Me", "Hold Up", "Sorry", "Don't Hurt Yourself", and "Formation", and included interludes of the poetry as heard in the Lemonade film. Critics noted that Beyoncé used political symbolism during "Pray You Catch Me", which included angel-like dancers in historical black hairstyles (such as Bantu knots, braids and dreadlocks) successively falling to the ground as though shot, alluding to police brutality, and a black man in a black hoodie catching, uplifting and pushing Beyoncé forward, alluding to Trayvon Martin, who was killed when wearing a black hoodie.
On October 19, Beyoncé performed "6 Inch" and "All Night" at the TIDAL X benefit concert at Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York City. On November 2, Beyoncé performed "Daddy Lessons" with the Dixie Chicks at the 50th Annual Country Music Association Awards (2016). The performance (which was the first featuring the Dixie Chicks in a decade after being blacklisted for their criticism of George W Bush in 2003) was widely praised by critics, but was met with criticism and racism by conservative country fans; this sparked conversations about the identity of country music and black people's place in it. Subsequently, a remix of "Daddy Lessons" featuring the Dixie Chicks was released. At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards on February 12, 2017, Beyoncé performed "Love Drought" and "Sandcastles". Themed around motherhood, the five-months pregnant Beyoncé's performance is recognised by commentators to evoke various female deities and Renaissance European Christian art (such as Tintoretto's Last Supper, Simone Martini's Maestà and depictions of the Virgin of Guadalupe) and various non-European allusions such as Fulani facepainting, Ethiopian icons, Byzantine jewelry and Latin American Baroque painting.
To promote Lemonade, Beyoncé embarked on the Formation World Tour which visited countries in North America and Europe from April to October 2016. The stage featured the Es Devlin-designed 'Monolith', a revolving seven-storey-tall box made with video screen walls that could shoot out fire and fireworks and split open, and which revolved during the show to represent a new chapter in line with the Lemonade film.
The Formation World Tour was met with rave reviews from critics, such as Kat Bein for Rolling Stone who described the show as "a prime example of entertainment and a vision of an artist at her apex" and "a visual feast as well as an emotional tour de force, packed with fireworks, confetti, rearranging stage designs and aerial dancers". The Formation World Tour won Tour of the Year at the 2016 American Music Awards, was included in Rolling Stone's 50 Greatest Concerts of the Last 50 Years list in 2017, and was named the best tour of the decade (2010s) by Consequence of Sound in 2019.
The Formation World Tour was ranked at number one and number two on Pollstar's 2016 mid-year Top 100 Tours chart both in North America and worldwide respectively, with a total mid-year worldwide gross of $137.3 million from the first twenty-five shows (including $126.3 million from the first North American leg of the tour). In total, the tour grossed $256 million from forty-nine sold-out shows according to Billboard box score, and ranked at number two on Pollstar's 2016 Year-End Tours chart.
=== Accompanying film ===
Lemonade was accompanied by the release of a sixty-five-minute film of the same title, produced by Good Company and Jonathan Lia, which premiered on HBO on April 23, 2016, logging 787,000 viewers. It is divided into eleven chapters, titled "Intuition", "Denial", "Anger", "Apathy", "Emptiness", "Accountability", "Reformation", "Forgiveness", "Resurrection", "Hope", and "Redemption".
The film uses poetry and prose written by British-Somali poet Warsan Shire; the poems adapted were "The Unbearable Weight of Staying", "Dear Moon", "How to Wear Your Mother's Lipstick", "Nail Technician as Palm Reader", and "For Women Who Are Difficult to Love".
The film's cast features Ibeyi, Laolu Senbanjo, Amandla Stenberg, Quvenzhané Wallis, Chloe x Halle, Zendaya and Serena Williams. In "Forward", the mothers of Trayvon Martin (Sybrina Fulton), Michael Brown (Lesley McFadden), and Eric Garner (Gwen Carr) are featured holding pictures of their deceased sons. Jay-Z and Beyoncé's daughter Blue Ivy appears in home video footage at one point, as does Jay-Z's grandmother Hattie White, and Beyoncé's mother Tina Knowles, who is shown with her second husband Richard Lawson on their wedding day in 2015. The film also samples work by Malcolm X, specifically an excerpt from his speech "Who Taught You to Hate Yourself", which is featured on the track "Don't Hurt Yourself".
The Lemonade film appeared on a number of critics' lists. Pitchfork listed Lemonade at number one on their list of best music videos of 2016.
It was also included on Sight & Sound's best films of 2016 list at number twenty-six. David Ehrlich, a film critic for IndieWire, placed Lemonade at number twenty-three on his Best Films of 2016 list. Jen Yamato from The Daily Beast ranked it at number nine on her list of the Top 10 Best Films of 2016. In June 2016, Matthew Fulks sued Beyoncé, Sony Music, Columbia Records and Parkwood Entertainment for allegedly lifting nine visual elements of his short film Palinoia for the trailer for Lemonade. The lawsuit was subsequently dismissed by New York federal judge Jed S. Rakoff, siding with the defendant.
=== Singles ===
Lemonade consisted of five singles, three of which would become major hits. All twelve songs charted on the US Billboard Hot 100. "Formation" was released as the first single exclusively on Tidal on February 6, 2016, along with its accompanying music video. The song was part of the set Beyoncé performed the following day at the Super Bowl 50 halftime show. "Formation" peaked at number ten on the US Billboard Hot 100. The music video for the song was uploaded onto Vevo in December 2016.
"Sorry" was released as the second single and serviced to rhythmic adult contemporary radio in the United States on May 3, 2016, and its music video was uploaded onto Vevo on June 22, 2016. The single debuted and peaked at number eleven on the US Billboard Hot 100.
"Hold Up" was the third single and was first released to contemporary hit radio stations in Germany and the United Kingdom on May 12, 2016, and was later serviced to radio in the United States on August 16, 2016. It debuted and peaked at number thirteen on the US Billboard Hot 100. The music video for "Hold Up" was uploaded onto Vevo on September 4, 2016.
The fourth and fifth singles released were "Freedom" and "All Night", respectively. Both became moderate hits with the former (released September 2016) peaking at US number thirty-five, and the latter (released December 2016) peaking at US number thirty-eight.
== Critical reception ==
Lemonade received widespread acclaim upon release, with many describing it an instant classic, a masterpiece, and Beyoncé's magnum opus. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received a weighted average score of 92, based on 33 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
In Spin, Greg Tate calls Lemonade "a triumph of marketing and musicality, spectacle and song, vision and collaboration, Borg-like assimilation, and — as of 2013 — the element of surprise". Lauding both the film and album, Tate writes "Visually, literarily, choreographically, cinematically, this full accessing of her Southern bona fides shows up in the HBO project as ritual evidence that Bey's spent her downtime delving into the avant-garde mysticism of black-feminist poetry, novel writing, dance, gallery art, and film... The album, however, is out to sonorously suck you into its gully gravitational orbit the old fashioned way, placing the burden of conjuration on its steamy witches' brew of beats, melodies, and heavy-hearted-to-merry-pranksterish vocal seductions. In her mastery of carnal and esoteric mysteries, Queen Bey raises the spirits, sizzles the flesh, and rallies her troops." AllMusic writer Andy Kellman called Lemonade "culturally seismic" through its "layers of meaning and references, and experienced en masse through its televised premiere", adding that "the cathartic and wounded moments here resonate in a manner matched by few, if any, of Beyoncé's contemporaries."
In a five-star review for Rolling Stone, Rob Sheffield calls Lemonade "a welcome reminder that giants still walk among us", describing it as an "album of emotional discord and marital meltdown... from the most respected and creative artist in the pop game". Sheffield writes "Lemonade is her most emotionally extreme music, but also her most sonically adventurous... Yet the most astounding sound is always Bey's voice", which is described as "her wildest, rawest vocals ever". Sheffield also compares Lemonade to Aretha Franklin's Spirit in the Dark and Nina Simone's Silk and Soul in the way that the album "reach[es] out historically, connecting her personal pain to the trauma of American blackness". Ray Rahman for Entertainment Weekly agrees, writing that Lemonade is "a raw and intensely personal plunge into the heart of marital darkness" as well as "a feminist blueprint, a tribute to women, African-Americans, and, especially, African-American women". Rahman further praises the diversity of the album: "[Beyoncé] can do rock, blues, country, avant-garde, whatever. Lemonade stands as Bey's most diverse album to date. Sinister strip-club-in-the-future R&B... sits right next to a slab of Texas twang. Led Zeppelin and Soulja Boy become bedfellows."
Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that the album "feels like a success" and that Beyoncé sounded "genuinely imperious". Petridis praises the musical arc of the album, commenting on how the music "slowly works itself up into a righteous frenzy of anger, shifting from the becalmed misery of opener "Pray You Catch Me" via the sparse simmer of "Hold Up"... before finally boiling over on the fantastic "Don't Hurt Yourself": a ferocious, distorted vocal as commanding as anything she's recorded". The Daily Telegraph writer Jonathan Bernstein felt it was her strongest work to date and "proves there's a thin line between love and hate." Nekesa Moody and Mohamad Soliman from The Washington Post called the album a "deeply personal, yet ... a bold social and political statement as well". Writing for The New York Times, Jon Pareles praised Beyoncé's vocals and her courage to talk about subjects that affect so many people, and noted that "the album is not beholden to radio formats or presold by a single". Greg Kot from the Chicago Tribune felt that "artistic advances" seem "slight" in context towards the record's "more personal, raw and relatable" aspects, where it came out as a "clearly conceived" piece of music, meaning it had a "unifying vision" for what may have lent itself to being "a prettily packaged hodgepodge".
Reviewing the album in The Independent, Everett True wrote that it "is fiery, insurgent, fiercely proud, sprawling and sharply focused in its dissatisfaction", with Beyoncé "pick[ing] up the mantles of both" Prince and Nina Simone. Writing for Slate, Carl Wilson describes Lemonade as "a spectacle to rival Thriller" and "a beautiful and often disturbing kaleidoscope of poetry, feminism, racial politics, history, mythology, emotional upheaval, family, and romance that can be watched again and again and will be for years to come". Kitty Empire of The Observer writes that "female endurance and pragmatism are celebrated with warmth, anger and wit on this astounding visual album" and that "it's unlikely there will be many more albums this year that will unite high art and low in the same way as Beyoncé's jaw-slackening latest". Jillian Mapes of Pitchfork wrote that "The increasingly signature cadence, patois, and all-around attitude on Lemonade speaks to her status as the hip-hop pop star—but this being Bey, she doesn't stop there... Lemonade proves Beyoncé to also be a new kind of post-genre pop star". In The A.V. Club, Annie Zaleski wrote that it was "yet another seismic step forward for Beyoncé as a musician" that "pushes pop music into smarter, deeper places".
Shahzaib Hussain, writing for Clash, stated: "Lemonade is Beyoncé at her most benevolent, and her most unadulterated. Treating her blackness not as an affliction but a celebratory beacon, Lemonade is a long overdue, cathartic retribution." Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the album "is her most lyrically and thematically coherent effort to date". Maura Johnston of Time wrote that its tracks were "fresh yet instantly familiar" with an "over-the-top but intimate" sound. Jamie Milton of DIY wrote that "there's so much more than an enthralling story to draw out of this all-slaying work", where "Beyoncé can count herself as a risk-taker breaking new ground, up there with the bravest." Exclaim!'s Erin Lowers wrote that "If you've ever been handed lemons, you need Lemonade", calling it "an album in which millions will find their own struggles reflected back to them, as therapeutic as it is utterly dazzling". Britt Julious of Consequence of Sound describes how "With nods to Voudou and Southern Black gothic storytelling, Lemonade, the visual album, wove chapters of emotional grief into a piece of art about the black woman... Separated from the visual, the album itself acts as dexterously as the film, exposing the rawest elements of Beyoncé's personal life while framing it against the universal — the machinations of internal paranoia, the all-consuming well of fury and anger, and the bottomless depths of sadness." Julious continues by praising the song cycle nature of the album: "Taken as a whole, we hear the threads of this from song to song on the record. If Lemonade is a record about dismantling the cycles of abuse, ripping open the secrets we keep hidden (especially within the closely guarded black community), and finding healing, purpose, and even greatness in the process, then it is personified in the arcs of each track... The songs stand as joined entities, two dichotomous halves of the grief process". PopMatters writer Evan Sawdey felt few albums could ever be considered "as bold, complex, or resolute as Lemonade," and the BBC's Mark Savage, describing Lemonade as "an album with a complex narrative arc... that demands to be heard in one sitting", noted that Beyoncé had become an albums artist with a range extending beyond that of radio play.
== Accolades ==
At the end of 2016, Lemonade appeared on a number of critics' lists ranking the year's top albums. According to the BBC, it was the critics' top album of 2016. According to Metacritic, it was the album that was listed at number one by the most publications (37 publications), including Rolling Stone, Billboard, Entertainment Weekly, The Guardian, Digital Spy, The Independent, The Associated Press, The New York Times (Jon Pareles list), Los Angeles Times (Mikael Wood list), Pop Matters, Pretty Much Amazing, Idolator, Stereogum, Complex, Consequence of Sound, Wired, and US Weekly.
Lemonade was named the best album of the decade (2010s) by Consequence of Sound, The Associated Press and Spex. Lemonade was also named the best music video of the decade by The Daily Beast, as well as one of the best movies of the 2010s by Vox. Publications who included Lemonade in their top-five albums of the decade including Rolling Stone The Independent, New York Post, Billboard, Paste, The A.V. Club, WXPN The Key, Refinery29, Tampa Bay Times, Insider, The Young Folks, Genius, Variety, Uproxx, Noisey, The Independent, and The Wild Honey Pie.
In January 2025, Lemonade was named by Rolling Stone as the greatest album of the 21st century. Consequence of Sound named Lemonade the second best album of the last 15 years (2007–2022). BBC Radio 4's named Lemonade the eighth greatest risk in 21st century art, with the judges saying that Beyoncé "resisted the commercial pressure not to be political in order to stand up for what she believed in and let audiences into her personal life as never before". The Guardian listed it at number 25 on their ranking of the 100 best albums of the 21st century.
In 2020, Parade named Lemonade the best music video of all time. In 2017, the album was ranked at number 6 on NPR's list of the 150 Greatest Albums Made By Women. The Daily Telegraph named Lemonade the eighth greatest album of all time in 2025, with Neil McCormick describing it as a "bold, shapeshifting masterpiece channelling personal turmoil into visionary genre-hopping pop". On their list of the top 100 albums of the publication's existence, The Quietus named the project at number 9. Apple Music ranked Lemonade at number 10 on their list of the 100 Best Albums ever created. Consequence of Sound named Lemonade the 18th greatest album of all time in 2022. Lemonade is the 29th best album of all time by Metacritic score. On Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list, Lemonade was placed at number 32, citing the album's exploration of "the betrayals of American blackness" and "all of the country's music traditions". Paste listed the album at number 55 on their list of the 300 Greatest Albums of All Time.
=== Awards ===
Lemonade was nominated for four Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Variety Special and Outstanding Directing for a Variety Special. The album received eleven nominations at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards. They included Breakthrough Long Form Video for Lemonade, Video of the Year, Best Pop Video, Best Direction, Best Editing, and Best Cinematography for "Formation", Best Female Video and Best Art Direction for "Hold Up", and Best Choreography for "Sorry" and "Formation". Beyoncé went on to win eight of her nominations, including Video of the Year and Breakthrough Long Form Video.
At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards, Lemonade received three nominations: Album of the Year, Best Urban Contemporary Album and Best Music Film. "Formation" received three as well: Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Music Video. "Hold Up" was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance, "Don't Hurt Yourself" for Best Rock Performance and "Freedom" for Best Rap/Sung Performance. Beyoncé went on to win two awards, Best Urban Contemporary Album and Best Music Video for "Formation".
Lemonade won a Peabody Award in Entertainment, along with the following description by the board of jurors:Adroitly bringing together stories about betrayal, renewal, and hope, Lemonade draws from the prolific literary, musical, cinematic, and aesthetic sensibilities of black cultural producers to create a rich tapestry of poetic innovation. Defying genre and convention, Lemonade immerses viewers in the sublime worlds of black women, family, and community where we experience poignant and compelling stories about the lives of women of color and the bonds of friendship seldom seen or heard in American popular culture. This innovative and stunningly beautiful masterpiece challenges us to readjust our visual and sonic antennae and invites a reckoning with taken for granted ideas about who we are. For the audacity of its reach and the fierceness of its vision in challenging our cultural imagination about the intimacies and complexities of women of color, we recognize Lemonade as a Peabody Award winner.
—The George Foster Peabody Awards Board of Jurors
== Commercial performance ==
In the United States, Lemonade debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, with 653,000 album-equivalent units, out of which 485,000 were pure album sales. This made the highest opening-week sales for a female act of the year. Subsequently, she broke the record she previously tied with DMX, by becoming the first artist in the chart's history to have their first six studio albums debut at number one. In the same week, Beyoncé became the first female artist to chart twelve or more songs on the US Billboard Hot 100 at the same time, with every song on the album debuting on the chart.
The album slipped from number one to number two in its second week, selling 321,000 album-equivalent units, out of which 196,000 were pure album sales. It remained at number two in its third week selling 201,000 album-equivalent units, out of which 153,000 were pure album sales. Lemonade was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in June 2016. According to Nielsen's 2016 year-end report, it had sold 1,554,000 copies and 2,187,000 album-equivalent units in the United States. Following its April 23, 2019, release on all streaming services, Lemonade returned to the top ten on the Billboard 200 at number nine, while its only added song, the original demo of "Sorry", debuted at number nineteen on the US R&B Songs. On May 20, 2019, the album was certified double platinum for shipments of two million copies, and triple platinum on June 13, 2019, for shipments of three million copies. In Canada, the album debuted at number one with sales of 33,000 copies. By the end of 2016, the album had sold 138,000 album-equivalent units in Canada, out of which 101,000 were pure album sales.
The album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart selling 73,000 copies in its first week of release, with 10,000 equivalent sales (14% of the total sales) accounting for streaming, marking the largest ever for a number-one album since the chart began including streaming. The album marked the singer's third number-one album on the chart and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on September 9, 2016, for shipments of 300,000 copies. All of the album's tracks also debuted within the top hundred of the UK Singles Chart. As in the US, 2020 is the first year since release that the album has not appeared on the UK Chart.
In Australia, Lemonade sold 20,490 digital copies in its first week, debuting atop the Australian Albums Chart and becoming Beyoncé's second consecutive number-one album in the country. It received a double platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) in 2023, for sales of 140,000 equivalent units.
Lemonade also peaked atop the charts in numerous European and Oceanic countries including Ireland and Belgium, where it spent five and seven weeks at the summit, respectively, Croatia, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Scotland and Sweden. In Brazil, it debuted at number one and received a platinum certification from Pro-Música Brasil.
== Legacy ==
=== Music industry ===
==== Album format ====
Lemonade has been credited with reviving the concept of an album in an era dominated by singles and streaming, and popularizing releasing albums with accompanying films. Jamieson Cox for The Verge called Lemonade "the endpoint of a slow shift toward cohesive, self-centered pop albums", writing that "it's setting a new standard for pop storytelling at the highest possible scale". Megan Carpentier of The Guardian wrote that Lemonade has "almost revived the album format" as "an immersive, densely textured large-scale work" that can only be listened to in its entirety. Myf Warhurst on Double J's "Lunch With Myf" explained that Beyoncé "changed [the album] to a narrative with an arc and a story and you have to listen to the entire thing to get the concept".
==== Music films ====
The New York Times' Katherine Schulten agreed, asking "How do you talk about the ongoing evolution of the music video and the autobiographical album without holding up Lemonade as an exemplar of both forms?" Joe Coscarelli of The New York Times describes how "some brand-name acts are following Beyoncé's blueprint with high-concept mini-movies that can add artistic heft to projects," with Frank Ocean's Endless and Drake's Please Forgive Me cited as examples of artists' projects inspired by Lemonade. Other projects said to have followed the precedent that Lemonade set include Lonely Island's The Unauthorized Bash Brothers Experience, Thom Yorke's Anima, Sturgill Simpson's Sound & Fury, and Kid Cudi's Entergalactic, which were all albums released with complementary film projects.
==== Genre ====
Beyoncé's use of various genres on Lemonade has been credited with setting the precedent for music to transcend genre, with NPR writing that the album "leads us to this moment where post-genre becomes a thing". The use of various genres has also been credited with kickstarting the reclamation of certain genres by black people. "Daddy Lessons" has been credited as starting a trend of "pop stars toying with American West and Southern aesthetics," as well as setting the precedent for "The Yeehaw Agenda", the trend of reclaiming black cowboy culture through music and fashion. "Don't Hurt Yourself" has been credited with the reclaiming of rock by black women, with Brittany Spanos for Rolling Stone writing that "the re-imagination of what rock can be and who can sing it by Beyoncé and her superstar peers is giving the genre a second life – and may be what can save it."
==== Contemporaries ====
Several musicians were inspired by Lemonade. American rapper Snoop Dogg named his fourteenth studio album Coolaid (2016) after Lemonade. American singer Sabrina Carpenter credited Lemonade with inspiring her to not limit herself, explaining that the album "really transcended every genre" which made her "feel like I didn't have to just stay in a box from there on out". American rapper Cardi B was inspired by Lemonade for Am I the Drama? (2025), which she said is "going to have my Lemonade moments". American singer Fergie said that she was inspired by Lemonade to create a visual counterpart for her album Double Dutchess (2017). British girl group Little Mix cited Lemonade as an inspiration for their album Glory Days (2016). Naming Lemonade one of her favorite albums ever, English singer-songwriter Ellie Rowsell of Wolf Alice said that it helped her to "put in more thought to what makes a good album flow". American singer The-Dream wrote a response to Lemonade titled "Lemon Lean" in his EP Love You to Death, saying that the album changed the way people think about their relationships. American singer-songwriter Victoria Monét cited Lemonade as an inspiration for her work. American comedian Lahna Turner released a visual album entitled Limeade in homage to Lemonade. American singer Matt Palmer was inspired by Lemonade to create his visual EP Get Lost. American musician Todrick Hall's second studio album Straight Outta Oz was made as a visual album due to Lemonade. British singer-songwriter Arrow Benjamin was also inspired by Lemonade for his 2016 EP W.A.R. (We All Rise), saying: "Every piece on this project was created from a visual, so that's why I was extremely inspired when I saw Lemonade."
Ann Powers for NPR opined that Fiona Apple was influenced by Lemonade when implementing black musical traditions on her 2020 album Fetch the Bolt Cutters, while Jenna Wortham for The New York Times drew a parallel between both albums as "blueprints for how to take in all that emotion and kind of how to push it back out in a way that's cathartic and constructive". Dan Weiss of Billboard wrote that Shania Twain's Now "couldn't have existed without" Lemonade, as an album that "completely changed the course of breakup album history" in which the artist is "someone at their full creative peak pushing herself into new niches, dominating new musical territories". Kadeen Griffiths from Bustle states that Lemonade, as an album that deals with issues related to black women, "paved the way" for Alicia Keys' Here and Solange's A Seat at the Table. Danielle Koku for The Guardian stated that Lemonade aided the return of African mysticism to pop music, writing: "By taking African mysticism to the world stage, Beyoncé stripped it of its ancient pagan labels." Many critics have noted that Jay-Z's thirteenth studio album 4:44 (2017) is a response to Lemonade, with Jay-Z referencing lines from Lemonade, such as the "You better call Becky with the good hair" line on Beyoncé's "Sorry", with Jay-Z retorting: "Let me alone, Becky" in "Family Feud".
At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards (2017), Adele dedicated her Album of the Year award to Beyoncé and said: "The artist of my life is Beyoncé... the Lemonade album, is just so monumental." In a 2021 interview with Vogue, Adele claimed that Beyoncé should have won the said award instead of her. After the show, she went into Beyoncé's dressing room and "said to her, like, the way that the Grammys works, and the people who control it at the very, very top—they don't know what a visual album is. They don't want to support the way that she's moving things forward with her releases and the things that she's talking about." She revealed that the award she received in the mail was broken and that she wedged a lemon into the broken part, and went on to claim that, "[f]or [her] friends who are women of color, [Lemonade] was such a huge acknowledgment for them, of the sort of undermined grief that they go through." American musician Stevie Wonder called Lemonade "a great work, a great art piece". U2's Bono included "Freedom" in his "60 Songs That Saved My Life" project to celebrate his 60th birthday, writing: "In my 60 years, I was served many platters but rarely one like the Queen Bey's album Lemonade."
=== Popular culture ===
==== Art and literature ====
Lemonade has inspired artists in media other than music, including art, literature, film, television, and theatre. Misha Green, creator of the 2020 television series Lovecraft Country, described how Lemonade inspired the direction and flow of the show's score, saying: "What Beyoncé did on Lemonade, with bringing in the poems and taking us on this collage of a journey, that wasn't just music and visuals. [It was] also words and using those words as a score." Bill Condon, director of the film Beauty and the Beast (2017) says the visuals behind Lemonade inspired him for the movie: "You look at Beyoncé's brilliant movie Lemonade, this genre is taking on so many different forms... I do think that this very old-school break-out-into-song traditional musical is something that people understand again and really want.".
The Royal National Theatre's 2018 production of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra featured a costume inspired by Lemonade, with costume designer Evie Gurney describing how she wanted to draw a parallel between Cleopatra and Beyoncé, as the latter is "a woman in the public eye who was subject to a lot of scrutiny [and] actually created a platform for herself to take back the narrative of her own story, and it was an extraordinary act of power." The character of Catherine of Aragon in the West End and Broadway musical Six was inspired by "Lemonade-era Beyoncé". Ellie Kendrick's 2018 play Hole at the Royal Court was described by its directors as "a stage version of Beyoncé's Lemonade album", as an artwork about feminism and historical oppression of women that consists of song, dance and spoken word.
Fashion stylist Salvador Camarena paid homage to Lemonade by designing a room dedicated to the album during Modernism Week, saying "That album is such a visually stunning album. There are so many iconic looks from the video, I kind of wanted to implement that world into that room." The young adult anthology A Phoenix First Must Burn edited by Patrice Caldwell, which explores "the Black experience through fantasy, science fiction, and magic", has the aim of "evoking Beyoncé's Lemonade for a teen audience". A 2017 video game titled "Lemonade Rage" was created in homage to Lemonade and the "Hold Up" music video. The cover of Marvel's 2017 America comic book paid homage to the "Formation" music video, with its illustrator saying "America is a comic that is all about representation, feminism and fighting for what's right... I could think of no better parallel than Beyoncé."
Marie Claire named lemonade drop as one of the most influential pop culture moments of the 2010s.
==== Trends ====
Sales for Warsan Shire's chapbook "Teaching My Mother How to Give Birth" increased by 700 to 800% after her poetry was included in the Lemonade film. Beyoncé's mention of Red Lobster in "Formation" increased sales at the restaurant chain by 33%, which made employees rename popular menu items after Beyoncé and call the effect the "Beyoncé Bounce". Designers of the costumes that Beyoncé wore in the Lemonade film spoke with Complex about the impact that this had on their careers; for example, Natalia Fedner, who designed Beyoncé's dress for "Hold Up", stated that because of the dress's inclusion in Lemonade, "I was on 'Entertainment Tonight' being hailed as a 'designer to watch'." The inclusion of imagery from the 1991 film Daughters of the Dust in the visuals for Lemonade helped bring the film back to theatres, with director Julie Dash stating that Lemonade "just took me places that I had not been seeing in a long, long time. It just re-confirmed a lot of things that I know to be true about visual style and visual metaphors. And the use of visual metaphors in creating, redefining, and re-framing a Creole culture within this new world."
The popular "Lemonade braids" hairstyle worn by black women is named after a hairstyle that Beyoncé wore in Lemonade. Georgia Murray for Refinery29 sourced the 2020 fashion trend of wearing yellow to Lemonade, writing that Beyoncé's yellow dress in "Hold Up" "kickstarted an obsession with yellow that we're still seeing the effects of today". The use of the lemon and bee emojis increased due to the release of Lemonade, with a Twitter spokesperson telling Time: "Before Lemonade, the lemon emoji had no meaning. Since the launch of Lemonade, the emoji has taken on a meaning of its own". The MTV Video Music Award for Breakthrough Long Form Video, which Beyoncé ultimately won at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards, was reintroduced after 25 years due to the Lemonade film.
==== Parodies and homages ====
Lemonade was parodied and was paid homage to in various media. In an episode of Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt titled "Kimmy's Roommate Lemonades!", character Titus Andromedon parodied the videos for "Hold Up", "Sorry" and "All Night" after he suspects his boyfriend of infidelity, coining the term "Lemonading". This episode was subsequently nominated for two Emmy Awards: Outstanding Original Music And Lyrics for the "Hold Up" parody "Hell No", and Outstanding Supporting Actor In A Comedy Series for Tituss Burgess. The "Hold Up" music video was also paid homage to in The Simpsons, Making a Scene with James Franco, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, and The Daily Show.
SNL produced two sketches on Lemonade: one entitled "The Day Beyoncé Turned Black" after Beyoncé released the "unapologetically black" "Formation", and the other entitled "Melanianade" which parodied the "Sorry" music video featuring impersonations of Donald Trump's female family members and aides. In a Late Night with Seth Meyers sketch titled "Beyoncé Lemonade Late Night Aftermath", females staffers empowered by Lemonade paid homage to the visuals, costumes, songs and poetry featured in the film. The Late Late Show with James Corden produced a parody entitled "Lemonjames: A Visual Monologue", where James Corden gave his monologue by recreating parts of the Lemonade film such as the "Pray You Catch Me", "Don't Hurt Yourself" and "6 Inch" music videos. Actress Goldie Hawn and comedian Amy Schumer produced a parody of "Formation". The Season 2 premiere of Crazy Ex-Girlfriend featured a musical number that was an homage to Lemonade, including parodies of "Formation" and "Pray You Catch Me".
For Beyoncé's 36th birthday, various black female public figures recreated a costume that Beyoncé wore in the "Formation" music video, including Michelle Obama and Serena Williams. The first episode of British comedian James Acaster's 2020 podcast titled Perfect Sounds (in which Acaster discusses why 2016 was the greatest year in music with various comedians) featured Romesh Ranganathan and focused on "the genius of Lemonade".
=== Intellectual response ===
Lemonade has also received notable attention from scholars and authors outside the music industry. In partnership with the Zora Neale Hurston Festival of the Arts and Humanities, a talk at Seminole State College "discussed how Beyoncé embodies the conjure woman in her iconic audiovisual work Lemonade as a contemporary revision of Zora Neale Hurston's groundbreaking study of conjure and its place in Black women's spirit work." Museum of Design Atlanta (MODA) announced "The Lemonade Project", a twelve-month series of conversations centered around the visual album. The series will explore the themes of race, gender and class addressed by the album.
Kinitra Brooks and Kameelah Martin produced "The Lemonade Reader", described as "an educational tool to support and guide discussions of the visual album at postgraduate and undergraduate levels, [which] critiques Lemonade's multiple Afrodiasporic influences, visual aesthetics, narrative arc of grief and healing, and ethnomusicological reach." University of Texas at Austin professor Omise'eke Tinsley wrote a book entitled Beyoncé in Formation: Remixing Black Feminism that was released in 2018, which "analyzes Beyoncé's visual album, Lemonade, in relation to the sexuality and gender of Black women". University of Albany professor Janell Hobson produced a lesson plan based on her class on Lemonade, saying "Beyoncé's Lemonade stimulates class discussions and assignments as a highly visible pop project striving to create deeper conversations on the meanings of Blackness, womanhood, and feminism." Dissect Podcast have since dedicated their sixth season to "Beyoncé's masterwork Lemonade." The host, Cole Cuchna and cohost Titi Shodiya, "make leaps of interpretative wonder, fusing insights, music theory, instrumentation, and lyric interpretation with social analysis to empower fans to build deeper connections with Beyoncé's artistry."
==== Race and identity ====
In a 2020 New York Times article titled "The African-American Art Shaping the 21st Century", which contained 35 prominent black artists talking about the work that inspires them most, American actress Kerry Washington relayed about Lemonade as a game changer "visually, musically, but also sociopolitically, and anthropologically. The release of "Formation" and the consequent performance at the Super Bowl 50 halftime show caused both conversation and controversy due to its "unapologetic Blackness". Many articles and think pieces were produced discussing the importance and meaning of the song and performance, such as the BBC, who produced an article entitled "Beyoncé's Super Bowl performance: Why was it so significant?", and TheWrap, who produced an article entitled "Why Beyoncé's 'Formation' Matters So Much: A Perfectly Choreographed Political Debut Before 112 Million." Lemonade as a whole also inspired many think pieces, particularly written by black women, that analyze the messages and significance of the album, such as Miriam Bale for Billboard who named Lemonade "a revolutionary work of black feminism".
Megan Carpentier of The Guardian named the album "a pop culture phenomenon" and wrote: "It is not an exaggeration to say that there is no other living musical artist who could ignite such a broad and unavoidable conversation just by releasing a new album – even a visual one." Writing in the same publication, Syreeta McFadden noted that the "Formation" video depicts archetypal southern Black women "in ways that we haven't seen frequently represented in popular art or culture". Melissa Harris-Perry of Time magazine said that "Beyoncé publicly embraced explicitly feminist Blackness at a politically risky moment." Candace McDuffie of Glamour said with Lemonade, the poignant magnum opus about the dynamic beauty of Black womanhood, Beyoncé became the cultural zeitgeist and reinforced the idea that anything she does causes pandemonium on a global scale.
==== Academic study ====
Since its release, the album has spawned a large syllabus of literature and academic studies. The University of Texas at San Antonio offered a class in the Fall of 2016 based on the album. The course, titled "Black Women, Beyoncé and Popular Culture", explored how the visual album "is a meditation on contemporary Black womanhood," before advancing and diving into the "theoretical, historical, and literary frameworks of Black feminism," according to the syllabus.
The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga hosted a "Lemonade Week" in April 2017, which featured discussions on feminism, theatrical performances, celebrations of African-American women writers and poets, and choreography tutorials. Harvard University hosted "The Lemon Drop": a discussion that explored the nuances of Lemonade. University of Arkansas offered a course that analysed the influence of Black feminism on Beyoncé and Lemonade. University of Pennsylvania ran two courses that explored politics, race and gender through the study of Lemonade.
Michigan State University hosted a discussion on Lemonade as part of their series for "exchanging ideas and exploring the lived experiences of underrepresented and marginalized communities".
Chatham University based a writing class on Lemonade, where "students get to examine how they fit into the power systems around them". Valdosta State University offered a course on Lemonade, "unpacking the many themes found in "Lemonade", including Black identity, feminism, marital infidelity, sisterhood, and faith." The College of Charleston hosted a discussion by Black feminist scholars, exploring "Beyoncé's use of southern landscape, Black women, music, and African-based spirituality". University of North Georgia offered a class entitled "Okay, Ladies, Now Let's Get in Formation: Intersectional Feminism in Beyoncé's Lemonade" that explored the music, lyrics and visuals of Lemonade.
== Track listing ==
Notes
^[a] Visual edition was released on CD/DVD, digital download and Tidal. CD/DVD edition does not include "Sorry" (original demo). Tidal edition additionally includes "Formation" (choreography version) video.
^[b] signifies a co-producer.
^[c] signifies an additional producer.
^[d] signifies an additional director.
=== Sample credits ===
"Hold Up"
contains elements of "Can't Get Used to Losing You", performed by Andy Williams, written by Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman
embodies portions of "Turn My Swag On", performed by Soulja Boy, written by DeAndre Way, Antonio Randolph and Kelvin McConnell
contains elements of "Maps", performed by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, written by Brian Chase, Karen Orzolek and Nick Zinner.
"Don't Hurt Yourself"
features samples from "When the Levee Breaks", performed by Led Zeppelin, written by James Page, Robert Plant, John Paul Jones and John Bonham.
"6 Inch"
embodies portions of "My Girls", performed by Animal Collective, written by Dave Portner, Noah Lennox and Brian Weitz
contains samples from "Walk On By", performed by Isaac Hayes, written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David.
"Freedom"
contains a sample of "Let Me Try", performed by Kaleidoscope, written by Frank Tirado
contains a sample of "Collection Speech/Unidentified Lining Hymn", performed by Reverend R.C. Crenshaw, recorded by Alan Lomax
contains a sample of "Stewball", performed by Prisoner "22" at Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman, recorded by Alan Lomax and John Lomax, Sr.
"All Night"
contains elements of "SpottieOttieDopaliscious", performed by OutKast, written by André Benjamin, Antwan Patton and Patrick Brown.
"Sorry (original demo)"
interpolates "Young, Wild & Free", as performed by Snoop Dogg and Wiz Khalifa featuring Bruno Mars.
Lemonade
contains a sample of "The Court of the Crimson King", performed by King Crimson, written by Ian McDonald and Peter Sinfield.
== Personnel ==
Credits from the album's liner notes, Beyoncé's official website, and Spotify
Musicians
Technical
== Charts ==
== Certifications and sales ==
== Release history ==
== See also ==
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2016
List of Billboard number-one R&B/hip-hop albums of 2016
List of number-one albums of 2016 (Australia)
List of number-one albums of 2016 (Belgium)
List of number-one albums of 2016 (Canada)
List of number-one albums of the 2010s (Czech Republic)
List of number-one albums of 2016 (Ireland)
List of number-one albums in Norway
List of number-one albums of 2016 (Portugal)
List of number-one singles and albums in Sweden
List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2010s
List of UK R&B Albums Chart number ones of 2016
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Lemonade at Discogs (list of releases)
Beyoncé's 'Lemonade' and Information Resources, a Resource Guide from the Maryland Institute College of Art
Soundtrack of Beyoncé: Lemonade at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Barker | Bob Barker | Robert William Barker (December 12, 1923 – August 26, 2023) was an American media personality, game show host, and animal rights advocate. He hosted CBS's The Price Is Right, the longest-running game show in North American television history, from 1972 to 2007. Barker also hosted Truth or Consequences from 1956 to 1975.
Born in Darrington, Washington, in modest circumstances, Barker spent most of his youth on the Rosebud Indian Reservation and was a citizen of the Rosebud Sioux Tribe. Barker joined the United States Navy Reserve during World War II. He worked part-time in radio while attending college. In 1950, Barker moved to California to pursue a broadcasting career. He was given his own radio show, The Bob Barker Show, which ran for six years. Barker began his game show career in 1956, hosting Truth or Consequences.
Barker began hosting The Price Is Right in 1972. He became an advocate for animal rights and of animal rights activism, supporting groups such as the United Activists for Animal Rights, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, and the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. In 2007, Barker retired from hosting The Price Is Right after celebrating his 50-year career on television. Regarded as a pop culture icon, Barker continued to make occasional appearances for several years into his retirement until 2015.
== Early life ==
Robert William Barker was born on December 12, 1923, in Darrington, Washington, and spent most of his youth on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in Mission, South Dakota. The U.S. Indian Census Rolls, 1885–1940, list Barker as a citizen of the Rosebud Sioux Tribe, which the tribe publicly confirmed. His mother, Matilda ("Tillie") Valandra (née Matilda Kent Tarleton), was a schoolteacher; his father, Byron John Barker, was the foreman on the electrical high line through the state of Washington. As Barker's father was one-quarter Sioux, and his mother non-Native, Barker was one-eighth Sioux. Barker attended the grade school on the Rosebud Reservation where his mother was a teacher. Barker once said, "I've always bragged about being part Indian, because they are a people to be proud of. And the Sioux were the greatest warriors of them all."
Barker met his future wife, Dorothy Jo Gideon, at an Ella Fitzgerald concert while he was attending high school in Missouri; they began dating when he was 15. Barker attended Drury College (now Drury University) in Springfield, Missouri, on a basketball athletic scholarship. He was a member of the Epsilon Beta chapter of Sigma Nu fraternity at Drury. Barker joined the United States Navy Reserve in 1943 during World War II to train as a fighter pilot but did not serve in combat. On January 12, 1945, while on leave from the military, Barker married Dorothy Jo. After the war, he returned to Drury to finish his education, graduating summa cum laude with a degree in economics.
== Career ==
=== Broadcasting ===
While attending college in Drury, Barker worked his first media job at KTTS-FM Radio in Springfield. He and his wife left Springfield and moved to Lake Worth Beach, Florida, and Barker was news editor and announcer at nearby WWPG 1340 AM in Palm Beach (now WPBR in Lantana). In 1950, he moved to California to advance his broadcasting career. Barker was given his own radio show, The Bob Barker Show, which ran for the next six years from Burbank. He was hosting an audience-participation radio show on KNX (AM) in Los Angeles when game show producer Ralph Edwards, who was looking for a new host to replace Jack Bailey on the daytime-television version of his long-running show, Truth or Consequences, happened to be listening and liked Barker's voice and style.
=== Game shows ===
==== Truth or Consequences (1956–1975) ====
Barker started hosting Truth or Consequences on December 31, 1956, and continued with the program until 1975.
==== The Price Is Right (1972–2007) ====
In early 1972, Mark Goodson and Bill Todman began shopping a modernized revival of The Price Is Right, with Dennis James as host. NBC bought the syndicated nighttime version of the Show first with James at the helm. CBS expressed interest in the series. Due to a contractual obligation and the fact that James was already viewed as the "NBC" Host, CBS wanted Bob Barker as the daytime host. After some initial resistance, Barker instead offered to host another upcoming CBS game show, Jack Barry's The Joker's Wild (which had difficulty finding a host and was scheduled to debut the same day as Price) to allow James to host Price, but CBS rejected this proposal. In December 1974, James stepped in to host the daytime The Price Is Right for a week when Barker was ill. James was the only person to substitute on the daytime version of the show while Barker was hosting. In 1977, James' contract was not renewed, and Barker took over as host of the nighttime edition of The Price Is Right until its cancellation in 1980.
On September 4, 1972, Barker began hosting the CBS revival of The Price Is Right.
On October 15, 1987, Barker did what other MCs almost never did then: he stopped using hair dye and let his hair go gray, its natural color by that time.
On October 31, 2006, Barker announced that he would retire from The Price Is Right in June 2007. Barker taped his final episode on June 6, 2007, with the show airing twice on June 15; once in Daytime and once on Primetime. On October 15, 2007, Drew Carey took over hosting duties on the show.
After his retirement, Barker made three return appearances to The Price is Right. He first appeared on the episode that aired on April 16, 2009, to promote his new autobiography, Priceless Memories. Barker appeared in the Showcase round at the end of the show. Barker made another guest appearance on the show to celebrate his 90th birthday, which aired on December 12, 2013. Barker announced a contestant for the first time ever on the show, along with one showcase. Barker's last appearance was a surprise appearance on April 1, 2015, for an April Fools' Day switch where he took Carey's place at the show's intro. Barker hosted the first bid and pricing game of that day before handing the hosting duties back to Carey; Barker later appeared during the showcase.
=== Film and other TV appearances ===
In addition to the game shows for which he became famous, Barker also hosted the annual/biennial Pillsbury Bake-Off (the bake-off occurred every two years starting in 1976). In 1978, he was the first host to have a male category champ. For several years during the 1970s and 1980s, he also co-hosted CBS's coverage of the Rose Parade from Pasadena, California. On September 7, 2009, Barker was a special guest host for WWE Raw (called "The Price is Raw") in Rosemont, Illinois. Aired during a period when nearly every episode of the weekly wrestling show featured a celebrity guest host, with mixed results, Barker's appearance has been ranked the best of nearly 80 hosts. Barker also agreed to be a rotating guest co-host on The Huckabee Show, a daily TV talk show hosted by Mike Huckabee. Barker first appeared on the show on July 29, 2010.
Barker's fame from his television hosting roles also saw him become a popular guest on other shows, including as a semi-regular panelist on the game shows Tattletales (1975–1976, with wife Dorothy Jo) and Match Game (1973–1980). Barker sat in Richard Dawson's former place during the first week after Dawson permanently left Match Game. Barker also made appearances on various talk shows such as: Dinah!, Larry King Live, The Arsenio Hall Show, Crook & Chase, Donny & Marie, The Rosie O'Donnell Show, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Wayne Brady Show, the Late Show with David Letterman, and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson.
Barker often appeared in fiction as himself, usually in a cameo appearance, in shows including The Nanny, The Bold and the Beautiful Futurama, and How I Met Your Mother. In 1996, Barker played himself in the Adam Sandler comedy Happy Gilmore. In one scene, Barker beats up Gilmore after an altercation arising from their teaming up in a Pro-Am Golf Tournament. According to Sandler, the original choice for that scene was Ed McMahon, but Sandler said that McMahon was not fond of the script and they got Barker because of Chuck Norris training Barker in the martial arts. In 2007, during a CBS prime-time special commemorating Barker's career, the fight scene from Happy Gilmore was shown, after which Sandler made a surprise appearance on stage to read a poem paying tribute to Barker. In 2015, during Comedy Central's "Night of Too Many Stars" benefit show to battle autism, Barker and Sandler reunited for a video featuring the two of them in a follow-up fight at the hospital, which ends with both of them dying and going to heaven.
However, Barker did play characters apart from himself in Bonanza, as a character named Mort in the 1960 episode "Denver McKee", and as a small business owner named Bob Barnacle in "Sanctuary!", an episode of the Nickelodeon animated series SpongeBob SquarePants.
About one year after his retirement from The Price Is Right, Barker appeared in a public service announcement promoting the transition to digital television in the United States. The advertisement was produced under the first proposed date of February 16, 2009, for the transition. He later appeared in a commercial for State Farm Insurance's "Magic Jingle" campaign, where he made "a new car!" appear for a woman whose previous car was totaled by a giant concrete cylinder. In another TV advertisement, Barker endorsed David Jolly, a candidate for the Republican Party nomination for the 2014 Florida's 13th congressional district special election. Jolly won the nomination and ultimately won the seat.
Barker was honored after his death with an hour-long TV special celebrating his life. It aired on August 31, 2023.
== Personal life ==
Barker was married to Dorothy Jo Gideon from 1945 until her death from lung cancer at age 57 in 1981.
From 1983 until his death, Barker was in a long-term relationship with Nancy Burnet, a self-described "radical" animal rights activist nearly 20 years younger than Barker. By mutual decision, Barker and Burnet were never married and lived in separate residences throughout their relationship. Barker had no children with either woman, stating that he had seen friends who had poor relationships with their children and felt like he was too busy to properly raise a child; as of 2007, Barker stated that he had no regrets about his decision.
From the late 2000s onward, Burnet described the relationship as a platonic friendship, even as Barker had become more interested in remarrying; she recalled a 2011 incident where Barker drafted a prenuptial agreement for Burnet's lawyer to review and revise as she felt fit, which she refused. Burnet managed Barker's health and diet in retirement.
=== Animal rights ===
Barker was a vegetarian. In 1982, Barker began ending The Price Is Right episodes with the phrase: "This is Bob Barker reminding you to help control the pet population – have your pets spayed or neutered." Though Barker had already been dabbling in animal rights before meeting Burnet, his efforts became more aggressive during his relationship with her.
In 1987, Barker requested the removal of fur prizes for the Miss USA pageant and stepped down as host when the producers refused. In 1989, Barker and United Activists for Animal Rights publicly accused several media projects and the American Humane Association of animal mistreatment and condoning animal mistreatment, a tactic which resulted in a $10 million suit against him and the UAAR for libel, slander, and invasion of privacy. The suit was finally settled by the insurer in 1994.
Barker founded DJ&T Foundation in 1994, named after his late wife and mother, which has contributed millions of dollars to animal-neutering programs and funded animal rescue and park facilities all over the United States. In 2004, Barker donated $1 million (equivalent to $1.7 million in 2024) to Columbia Law School to support the study of animal rights.
In 2009, Barker wrote a letter about three businesses in Cherokee, North Carolina, asking them to close their bear exhibits. He threatened to not attend the 2009 Game Show Awards, where Barker was to receive a lifetime achievement award, because Betty White would be attending. Although Barker had previously worked with White, he was feuding with her over the treatment of an elephant at the Los Angeles Zoo. White instead did not attend and pre-recorded her comments that she was scheduled to make about another awardee, Mark Goodson. That same year, Barker donated $1 million (equivalent to $1.4 million in 2021) to the University of Virginia Law School to support the study of animal rights. He made similar donations to Harvard Law School, Stanford Law School, Georgetown University Law Center, Duke University School of Law, Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law, and University of California, Los Angeles.
In 2010, the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society announced that it had purchased and outfitted a ship to interdict Japanese whaling operations in the Southern Ocean using $5 million (equivalent to $7.2 million in 2024) provided by Barker. The ship was then named the MY Bob Barker, and its existence was first revealed when it helped discover the location of the Japanese whaling fleet.
Barker participated in several PETA public service announcements over the years, including one that claimed that vegan diets prevent Alzheimer's disease. In 2010, he donated $2.5 million (equivalent to $3.6 million in 2024) toward the purchase of office space for the organization in Los Angeles. The Bob Barker Building opened in 2012.
=== Lawsuits ===
In the late 1980s, Barker accused the American Humane Society and the United Activists for Animal Rights of condoning animal cruelty on the set of Project X and in several other media projects on the basis of allowing a cattle prod and a gun on set, and a rumored beating of a chimpanzee on set. American Humane responded by suing Barker for $10 million, citing libel, slander and invasion of privacy. American Humane claimed that there had been a two-year "vendetta" against them behind the accusations. In a series of public advertisements along with the lawsuit, American Humane responded to Barker's claims that his allegations were made based on insufficient and misleading information. The suit was eventually settled by Barker's insurance company, which paid American Humane $300,000.
In 1994, former model Dian Parkinson filed a lawsuit against Barker alleging sexual harassment following a three-year affair while working on The Price Is Right. Parkinson, who alleged that she was extorted by threats of firing, later dropped her lawsuit, claiming the stress from the ordeal was damaging her health.
In 1995, model Holly Hallstrom left The Price Is Right and later filed suit against Barker, alleging that the reason she was fired was not so much because of her 14-pound (6.4 kg) medication-mediated weight gain (as documented) but because, to Barker's displeasure, she refused to give false information to the media regarding Parkinson's suit, as she alleges Barker had requested she do. Barker countersued for slander, but Hallstrom prevailed, receiving a settlement in 2005.
In October 2007, Deborah Curling, a CBS employee assigned to The Price Is Right, filed a lawsuit against CBS, Bob Barker, and The Price Is Right producers, claiming that she was forced to quit her job after testifying against Barker in a wrongful-termination lawsuit brought by a previous show producer. Curling claimed that she was demoted to an "intolerable work environment" backstage, which caused her to leave the job. Curling, who is black, also alleged that the show's producers, including Barker, created a hostile work environment in which black employees and contestants were discriminated against. A few months later, Barker was removed from the lawsuit, and in September 2009, the lawsuit was dismissed. Curling's attorney stated that he planned to appeal the dismissal of the lawsuit. In January 2012, the California Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal.
=== Health and death ===
On September 16, 1999, Barker was in Washington, D.C., to testify before Congress regarding proposed legislation that would ban captive elephants from traveling shows, such as circuses. While preparing for the presentation, Barker experienced what he called clumsiness in his right hand. Barker was admitted to George Washington University Hospital and diagnosed with a partially blocked left carotid artery. He underwent carotid endarterectomy to remove the blockage. The procedure went well enough that Barker was able to return to work within the month.
Three years later, Barker had two additional health crises after taping the 30th-season finale of The Price is Right. While lying in the sun on May 30, 2002, he experienced a stroke and was hospitalized; six weeks later, on July 11, Barker underwent prostate surgery. Both hospitalizations occurred at George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C. and both surgeries were successful.
Barker had several mild bouts with skin cancer, a result of his frequent tanning. Barker consulted a dermatologist regularly to make sure any cancers were caught and removed before they spread; they did not pose a threat to his life. During a televised interview, Barker told viewers, "I urge anyone who has spent some time in the sun, whether you're doing it now or not, go to a dermatologist once a year."
On October 20, 2015, two police officers passing Barker's Los Angeles-area home saw him trip and fall on a sidewalk. They called an ambulance which took him to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, where Barker received stitches for an injured forehead and was released; he also hurt his left knee.
Barker slipped and hit his head at home on June 19, 2017. His maid drove him to the emergency room, where Barker was checked and released. His representative said it was not as serious as his earlier fall. In October and November 2018, Barker was rushed to the hospital for severe back pain. Barker suffered another fall in January 2019, but he was not hospitalized.
Barker's last public interview was with People in August 2021, in which he discussed The Price Is Right's upcoming 50th season on air.
As of 2022, Burnet stated that, other than some non-prescription supplements such as collagen and a meal replacement drink to replenish nutrients not found naturally in Barker's vegetarian diet, he took only one prescription medication for hypothyroidism.
On August 26, 2023, Barker died at his home in Los Angeles at the age of 99 following several years with Alzheimer's disease, a condition that Burnet and Barker's publicity team had kept hidden from the public. Hypertension, hyperlipidemia and hypothyroidism were listed as secondary causes of death. Barker was interred alongside his wife at Forest Lawn Memorial Park – Hollywood Hills.
== Awards and honors ==
=== Daytime Emmy Awards ===
Overall 19-time winner:
14-time winner of Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show Host, as host of The Price Is Right
4-time winner of Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show, as executive producer of The Price Is Right
Lifetime Achievement Award, presented at the 1999 Daytime Emmy Awards
=== WWE ===
2009 Slammy Award for Best Guest Host.
=== Media ===
Bob Barker Studio at CBS Television City named in his honor.
Time magazine's Greatest Game Show Host of All-Time
GSN Lifetime Achievement Award
=== Halls of Fame ===
Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
Television Hall of Fame (class of 2004).
NAB Broadcasting Hall of Fame (class of 2008).
== Autobiography ==
Barker's autobiography, Priceless Memories, written with former Los Angeles Times book review editor Digby Diehl, was published on April 6, 2009.
== See also ==
List of animal rights advocates
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Bob Barker at IMDb
Bob Barker at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television
Bob Barker discography at Discogs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Furtick#:~:text=In%202007%2C%20he%20made%20headlines,spend%20it%20kindly%20on%20others. | Steven Furtick | Larry Stevens Furtick Jr. (born February 19, 1980), known professionally as Steven Furtick, is an American pastor, author, singer, and composer of Elevation Worship. He is the founder and general overseer of Elevation Church, based in Charlotte, North Carolina.
== Early life and education ==
Furtick was born and raised in Moncks Corner, South Carolina, and attended Berkeley High School. At the age of 16, after reading the book Fresh Wind, Fresh Fire by Jim Cymbala, he felt called to pastor a church in a major city. He studied at North Greenville University in communication and earned a Bachelor of Arts, then he studied at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary and earned a Master of Divinity.
== Ministry ==
In 2004, Furtick served as worship leader at Christ Covenant Church in Shelby, North Carolina, a Baptist Church. In 2006, he moved to Charlotte, North Carolina and founded Elevation Church with seven families and his own. The church had their first service on February 5, 2006.
In 2007, he helped found the music group Elevation Worship as a songwriter and since has been nominated for GMA Dove and Grammy Awards, winning a Grammy for their album, Old Church Basement.
In 2007, he made headlines when his church gave $40,000 to members in envelopes with $5, $20, and even $1,000, telling them to spend it kindly on others.
Furtick speaks at events all over the world including the 2011 Global Leadership Summit hosted by Bill Hybels, the C3 Conference 2012 hosted by Ed Young Jr., the Hillsong Conference 2012 hosted by Brian Houston, and the Presence Conference in 2012 and 2013 hosted by Phil Pringle. Furtick also participated in The Elephant Room 1 and The Elephant Room 2 hosted by James MacDonald. Furtick was named to Oprah's SuperSoul100 list of visionaries and influential leaders in 2016.
In 2012, in response to a need of mentorship for 1,000 students in area schools, Furtick launched an outreach program at Elevation Church called the M1 Initiative. Furtick said, "We have always said we want to be a blessing to our city and support our leaders with a volunteer force they can count on." More than 1,600 members responded and committed to mentoring a child for the 2012–2013 school year.
Furtick has committed to donating 12 percent of Elevation Church's giving to support outreach efforts nationally and globally.
== Public life and media ==
Furtick is a New York Times best selling author. He has also participated in various philanthropic campaigns, donating clothes and furniture to families in need.
In 2013, Furtick declined to answer questions regarding his salary, his tax-free housing allowance, how much he makes from books and speaking fees, and how the church is governed. Elevation has stated that Furtick is generous to the church with the money he receives from writing books—that he arranges for the church to purchase his books directly from the publisher, allowing Elevation to receive the author's discount and keep the money from sales. They have also reported that the publisher pays the church to produce marketing materials to promote Furtick's books. Elevation has confirmed that Furtick's salary is set by a Board of Overseers composed of other megachurch pastors, who vote on his salary based on a compensation study conducted by an outside firm, and that Furtick does not vote on his own salary.
On October 2, 2020, Trinity Broadcasting Network began airing programming from Furtick, replacing the Kenneth Copeland ministries program "Believer's Voice of Victory".
== Bibliography ==
Furtick, Steven (2010). Sun Stand Still: What Happens When You Dare to Ask God for the Impossible. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1-60142-322-1.
Furtick, Steven (2012). Greater: Dream Bigger. Start Smaller. Ignite God's Vision for Your Life. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1-60142-325-2.
Furtick, Steven (2014). Crash The Chatterbox: Hearing God's Voice Above All Others. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1-60142-456-3.
Furtick, Steven (2016). (Un)Qualified: How God Uses Broken People to Do Big Things. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1601424594.
Furtick, Steven (2017). Seven-Mile Miracle: Journey Into the Presence of God Through the Last Words of Jesus. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-160142-922-3.
Furtick, Steven (2024). Do the New You: 6 Mindsets to Become Who You Were Created to Be. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-154600-682-4.
== Awards and nominations ==
=== GMA Dove Awards ===
=== Grammy Awards ===
== References ==
== External links ==
StevenFurtick.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari_Lloyd-Williams | Mari Lloyd-Williams | Mari Lloyd-Williams is a Welsh medical consultant who specialises in palliative care. She taught at the University of Liverpool for more than two decades before moving to Liverpool John Moores University in 2022.
== Biography ==
Mari Lloyd-Williams was born to Margaret Winter Davies and county councillor Lloyd Williams. She was educated at Leicester Medical School. In 2000, she became a Consultant and Honorary Senior Lecturer for the University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust and LOROS Hospice after completing her palliative medicine training with them. In 2002, she moved to the University of Liverpool, where she became a Senior Lecturer and was later granted a personal chair at the School of Population, Community and Behavioural Sciences in 2003. In 2022, she moved to Liverpool John Moores University and became Professor of Palliative and Supportive Care. She also holds an honorary consultant position in palliative medicine with the Marie Curie Hospice, Liverpool and the Liverpool clinical commissioning group.
As an academic, Lloyd-Williams specialises in palliative care. Among her work in palliative care includes the leadership of a project involving more than a hundred elderly people in a rural village. With the support of The Prince's Countryside Fund, she was granted a Churchill Fellowship in 2019 for the purposes of traveling to the Faroe Islands and Ireland to "[develop] volunteer-led palliative care facilities in rural communities". She told the Denbighshire Free Press that she would use the Fellowship funds for a visit to Giljagarður, an elderly community in the Faroese town of Leirvík.
She was elected Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales in 2011. She is also a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and a Fellow of the Royal College of General Practitioners.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Murdoch_(philanthropist) | Elisabeth Murdoch (philanthropist) | Dame Elisabeth Joy Murdoch, Lady Murdoch (née Greene; 8 February 1909 – 5 December 2012), also known as Elisabeth, Lady Murdoch, was an Australian philanthropist and matriarch of the Murdoch family. She was the wife of Australian newspaper publisher Sir Keith Murdoch and the mother of international media proprietor Rupert Murdoch. She was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1963 for her charity work in Australia and overseas.
== Family ==
Murdoch was born in Melbourne on 8 February 1909. She was the youngest of three daughters born to Marie Grace de Lancey (née Forth) and Rupert Greene. Her grandfather, William Henry Greene, was an Irish railway engineer (later one of the three Commissioners of Victorian Railways) who emigrated to Australia and married Fanny, the fourth of the 10 daughters of George Govett. Her mother's ancestors were Scottish and English; one of her maternal great-grandfathers, Frederick Forth, was a lieutenant governor in the West Indies. Elisabeth was educated at St Catherine's School in Toorak, and at Clyde School in Woodend. She married Keith Murdoch, 23 years her senior, in 1928 and inherited the bulk of his fortune when he died in 1952. Apart from Rupert, her other children are Janet Calvert-Jones AO (born 1939), Anne Kantor AO (1937–2022) and Helen Handbury AO (1929–2004). At the time of her death, she had 77 living descendants.
== Philanthropy ==
Murdoch devoted her life to philanthropy. Before her marriage she worked as a volunteer for the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. She joined the management committee of the Royal Children's Hospital in 1933, serving as its president from 1954 to 1965. She was earmarked to succeed to the presidency by her predecessor Ella Latham and oversaw the hospital's move from its Carlton facilities to a new purpose-built campus in Parkville. A 2003 article in the Melbourne newspaper The Age said: "Few can rival Dame Elisabeth's enormous contribution. Her interests are so many they need to be alphabetically catalogued: academia, the arts, children, flora and fauna, heritage, medical research, social welfare. Many of Melbourne and Australia's most cherished institutions, from the Royal Children's Hospital to the Australian Ballet and the Botanic Gardens, have benefited from her involvement. But Murdoch also devoted herself to less popular causes: prisoners, children in care, those battling mental illness and substance abuse."
Murdoch was a Life Governor of the Royal Women's Hospital. She was the patron of the Murdoch Children's Research Institute and of the Australian American Association (Victoria), founded by her husband. She was a patron and founding member of disability organisation EW Tipping Foundation and a founding member of the Deafness Foundation of Victoria. The first woman on the council of trustees of the National Gallery of Victoria, Murdoch was a founding member of the Victorian Tapestry Workshop. She was a member of the Patrons Council of the Epilepsy Foundation of Victoria. Her garden, "Cruden Farm", at Langwarrin, is one of Australia's finest examples of landscape gardening and is regularly open to the public. It was originally designed by Edna Walling.
== Distinctions ==
=== Orders and medals ===
For her service as president of the Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Murdoch was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire, Civil Division (CBE) in the 1961 Birthday Honours list. For her role in building a new children's hospital in Melbourne, she was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, Civil Division (DBE) in the 1963 New Year Honours list. In June 1989, she was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia, Civil Division (AC) for services to the community also receiving the Centenary Medal in 2001 for her philanthropic services to the Australian arts community.
=== Honours ===
Murdoch was an honorary fellow of the Australian Institute of Landscape Architects and helped to establish the Elisabeth Murdoch Chair of Landscape Architecture and the Australian Garden History Society. In 1983, she was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Laws by the University of Melbourne in acknowledgement of her contributions to research, the arts and philanthropy. Trinity College, Melbourne, installed her as a fellow in 2000. That year a portrait of Murdoch for the National Portrait Gallery in Canberra was the first portrait commissioned of the Victorian Tapestry Workshop. The image was composed by painter Christopher Pyett, adapted on computer by Normana Wight and woven by Merrill Dumbrell. In 2001 Murdoch was inducted onto the Victorian Honour Roll of Women. In the same year, Treloars gave her name to a new rose introduction. Following extensive donations to the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne, a Tasmanian species of Boronia (B. elisabethiae) was named after her. She was also awarded by the French government for funding an exhibition of works by the French sculptor Auguste Rodin in Melbourne in 2002. In 2003, Murdoch was admitted into life membership of Philanthropy Australia, and awarded the key to the City of Melbourne in an official ceremony at the Melbourne Town Hall. In 2004, a high school, Langwarrin Secondary College, was renamed Elisabeth Murdoch College to honour her work in the local community. Murdoch's charity work earned her the Victorian of the Year award in 2005 at age 96. In 2009, the main performance venue of the Melbourne Recital Centre was named in her honour. and in the same year she was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities. In 2010, Geelong Grammar School completed a new girls' boarding house named in her honour.
In January 2007, aged 97 years and 11 months, Murdoch surpassed Dame Alice Chisholm as Australia's longest-lived dame.
== Patronage ==
Murdoch was a patron of the Australian Family Association.
== Death ==
On 5 December 2012, Murdoch died in her sleep at Cruden Farm, Langwarrin, Victoria, at the age of 103.
== References ==
== External links ==
Elisabeth Joy Murdoch at The Australian Women's Register (archive)
Enough Rope interview in June 2008
Tapestry portrait of Dame Elisabeth Murdoch at the National Portrait Gallery
Cruden Farm website Archived 13 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Elisabeth Murdoch at The Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in Twentieth-Century Australia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith#Death | Bessie Smith | Bessie Smith (April 15, 1892 – September 26, 1937) was an American blues singer widely renowned during the Jazz Age. Nicknamed the "Empress of the Blues" and formerly Queen of the Blues, she was the most popular female blues singer of the 1930s. Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989, she is often regarded as one of the greatest singers of her era and was a major influence on fellow blues singers, as well as jazz vocalists.
Born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, Smith was young when her parents died, and she and her six siblings survived by performing on street corners. She began touring and performed in a group that included Ma Rainey, and then went out on her own. Her successful recording career with Columbia Records began in 1923, but her performing career was cut short by a car crash that killed her at the age of 45.
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
The 1900 census indicates that her family reported that Bessie Smith was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in July 1892. The 1910 census gives her age as 16, and a birth date of April 15, 1894, which appears on subsequent documents and was observed as her birthday by the Smith family. The 1870 and 1880 censuses report several older siblings or half-siblings.
Smith was the daughter of Laura and William Smith, a laborer and part-time Baptist preacher (he was listed in the 1870 census as a "minister of the gospel", in Moulton, Lawrence County, Alabama). He died while his daughter was too young to remember him. By the time Bessie was nine, her mother and a brother had also died and her older sister Viola took charge of caring for her siblings. As a consequence, Bessie was unable to gain an education.
Due to her parents' death and her poverty, Bessie experienced a "wretched childhood." To earn money for their impoverished household, Bessie and her brother Andrew busked on the streets of Chattanooga. She sang and danced as he played the guitar. They often performed on "street corners for pennies," and their habitual location was in front of the White Elephant Saloon at Thirteenth and Elm streets, in the heart of the city's African-American community.
In 1904, her oldest brother Clarence left home and joined a small traveling troupe owned by Moses Stokes. "If Bessie had been old enough, she would have gone with him," said Clarence's widow, Maud. "That's why he left without telling her, but Clarence told me she was ready, even then. Of course, she was only a child."
In 1912, Clarence returned to Chattanooga with the Stokes troupe and arranged an audition for his sister with the troupe managers, Lonnie and Cora Fisher. Bessie was hired as a dancer rather than a vocalist since the company already included popular singer Ma Rainey. Contemporary accounts indicate that, while Ma Rainey did not teach Smith to sing, she likely helped her develop a stage presence. Smith eventually moved on to performing in chorus lines, making the "81" Theatre in Atlanta her home base. She also performed in shows on the black-owned Theater Owners Booking Association (T.O.B.A.) circuit and would become one of its major attractions.
=== Career ===
Bessie Smith began forming her own act around 1913, at Atlanta's "81" Theater. By 1920, she had established a reputation in the South and along the East Coast. At the time, sales of over 100,000 copies of "Crazy Blues", recorded for Okeh Records by the singer Mamie Smith (no relation), pointed to a new market. The recording industry had not directed its product to black people, but the success of the record led to a search for female blues singers.
Hoping to capitalize on this new market, Smith began her recording career in 1923. She was signed to Columbia Records in 1923 by Frank Walker, a talent agent who had seen her perform years earlier. Her first recording session for Columbia was on February 15, 1923; it was engineered by Dan Hornsby who was recording and discovering many southern music talents of that era. For most of 1923, her records were issued on Columbia's regular A-series. When the company established a "race records" series, Smith's "Cemetery Blues" (September 26, 1923) was the first issued. Both sides of her first record, "Downhearted Blues" backed with "Gulf Coast Blues", were hits (an earlier recording of "Downhearted Blues" by its co-writer Alberta Hunter had previously been released by Paramount Records).
As her popularity increased, Smith became a headliner on the Theatre Owners Booking Association (T.O.B.A.) circuit and rose to become its top attraction in the 1920s. Working a heavy theater schedule during the winter and performing in tent shows the rest of the year, Smith became the highest-paid black entertainer of her day and began traveling in her own 72-foot-long railroad car. Columbia's publicity department nicknamed her "Queen of the Blues", but the national press soon upgraded her title to "Empress of the Blues". Smith's music stressed independence, fearlessness, and sexual freedom, implicitly arguing that working-class women did not have to alter their behavior to be worthy of respect.
Despite her success, neither she nor her music was accepted in all circles. She once auditioned for Black Swan Records (W. E. B. Du Bois was on its board of directors) and was dismissed because she was considered too rough as she supposedly stopped singing to spit. The businessmen involved with Black Swan Records were surprised when she became the most successful diva because her style was rougher and coarser than Mamie Smith. Even her admirers—white and black—considered her a "rough" woman (i.e., working class or even "low class").
Smith had a strong contralto voice, which recorded well from her first session, which was conducted when recordings were made acoustically. The advent of electrical recording made the power of her voice even more evident. Her first electrical recording was "Cake Walking Babies [From Home]", recorded on May 5, 1925. Smith also benefited from the new technology of radio broadcasting, even on stations in the segregated South. For example, after giving a concert to a white-only audience at a theater in Memphis, Tennessee, in October 1923, she performed a late-night concert on station WMC, which was well received by the radio audience. Musicians and composers like Danny Barker and Tommy Dorsey compared her presence and delivery to a preacher because of her ability to enrapture and move her audience.
She made 160 recordings for Columbia, often accompanied by the finest musicians of the day, notably Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, Fletcher Henderson, James P. Johnson, Joe Smith, and Charlie Green. A number of Smith's recordings—such as "Alexander's Ragtime Band" in 1927—quickly became among the best-selling records of their release years.
==== Broadway ====
Smith's career was cut short by the Great Depression, which nearly put the recording industry out of business, and the advent of sound in film, which spelled the end of vaudeville. She never stopped performing, however. The days of elaborate vaudeville shows were over, but Smith continued touring and occasionally sang in clubs. In 1929, she appeared in a Broadway musical, Pansy. The play was a flop; top critics said she was its only asset.
==== Film ====
In November 1929, Smith made her only film appearance, starring in a two-reeler, St. Louis Blues, based on composer W. C. Handy's song of the same name. In the film, directed by Dudley Murphy and shot in Astoria, Queens, she sings the title song accompanied by members of Fletcher Henderson's orchestra, the Hall Johnson Choir, the pianist James P. Johnson and a string section, a musical environment radically different from that of any of her recordings.
==== Swing era ====
In 1933, John Henry Hammond, who also mentored Billie Holiday, asked Smith to record four sides for Okeh (which had been acquired by Columbia Records in 1925). He claimed to have found her in semi-obscurity, "working as a hostess in a speakeasy on Ridge Avenue in Philadelphia." Smith worked at Art's Cafe on Ridge Avenue, but not as a hostess and not until the summer of 1936. In 1933, when she made the Okeh sides, she was still touring. Hammond was known for his selective memory and gratuitous embellishments.
Smith was paid a non-royalty fee of $37.50 for each selection on these Okeh sides, which were her last recordings. Made on November 24, 1933, they serve as a hint of the transformation she made in her performances as she shifted her blues artistry into something that fit the swing era. The relatively modern accompaniment is notable. The band included such swing era musicians as the trombonist Jack Teagarden, the trumpeter Frankie Newton, the tenor saxophonist Chu Berry, the pianist Buck Washington, the guitarist Bobby Johnson, and the bassist Billy Taylor. Benny Goodman, who happened to be recording with Ethel Waters in the adjoining studio, dropped by and is barely audible on one selection. Hammond was not entirely pleased with the results, preferring to have Smith revisit her old blues sound. "Take Me for a Buggy Ride" and "Gimme a Pigfoot", both written by Wesley Wilson, were among her most popular recordings.
=== Death ===
On September 26, 1937, Smith was critically injured in a car crash on U.S. Route 61 between Memphis, Tennessee, and Clarksdale, Mississippi. Her lover, Richard Morgan, was driving, and misjudged the speed of a slow-moving truck ahead of him. Skid marks at the scene suggested that Morgan tried to avoid the truck by driving around its left side, but he hit the rear of the truck side-on at high speed. The tailgate of the truck sheared off the wooden roof of Smith's old Packard vehicle. Smith, who was in the passenger seat, probably with her right arm or elbow out the window, took the full brunt of the impact. Morgan escaped without injuries.
The first person on the scene was a Memphis surgeon, Dr. Hugh Smith (no relation). In the early 1970s, Hugh Smith gave a detailed account of his experience to Bessie's biographer Chris Albertson. This is the most reliable eyewitness testimony about the events surrounding her death. Arriving at the scene, Dr. Smith examined Smith, who was lying in the middle of the road with obviously severe injuries. He estimated she had lost about a half pint (240 mL) of blood, and immediately noted a major traumatic injury: her right arm was almost completely severed at the elbow.
Dr. Smith stated that this injury alone did not cause her death. Though the light was poor, he observed only minor head injuries. He attributed her death to extensive and severe crush injuries to the entire right side of her body, consistent with a sideswipe collision. Henry Broughton, a fishing partner of Dr. Smith's, helped him move Smith to the shoulder of the road. Dr. Smith dressed her arm injury with a clean handkerchief and asked Broughton to go to a house about 500 feet (150 m) off the road to call an ambulance. By the time Broughton returned, about 25 minutes later, Smith was in shock.
Time passed with no sign of the ambulance, so Dr. Smith suggested that they take her into Clarksdale in his car. He and Broughton had almost finished clearing the back seat when they heard the sound of a car approaching at high speed. Dr. Smith flashed his lights in warning, but the oncoming car failed to slow and plowed into his car at full speed. It sent his car careening into Smith's overturned Packard, completely wrecking it. The oncoming car ricocheted off Hugh Smith's car into the ditch on the right, barely missing Broughton and Bessie Smith.
The young couple in the speeding car did not sustain life-threatening injuries. Two ambulances then arrived from Clarksdale—one from the black hospital, summoned by Broughton, the second from the white hospital, acting on a report from the truck driver, who had not seen the crash victims. Smith was taken to the G. T. Thomas Afro-American Hospital in Clarksdale, where her right arm was amputated. She died that morning without regaining consciousness.
After her death, an often repeated, but now discredited story emerged that she died because a whites-only hospital in Clarksdale refused to admit her. The jazz writer and producer John Hammond gave this account in an article in the November 1937 issue of DownBeat magazine. The circumstances of Smith's death and the rumor reported by Hammond formed the basis for Edward Albee's 1959 one-act play The Death of Bessie Smith. "The Bessie Smith ambulance would not have gone to a white hospital; you can forget that", Hugh Smith told Albertson. "Down in the Deep South Cotton Belt, no ambulance driver, or white driver, would even have thought of putting a colored person off in a hospital for white folks."
Smith's funeral was held in Philadelphia a little over a week later, on October 4, 1937. Initially, her body was laid out at Upshur's funeral home. As word of her death spread through Philadelphia's black community, her body had to be moved to the O. V. Catto Elks Lodge to accommodate the estimated 10,000 mourners who filed past her coffin on Sunday, October 3. Contemporary newspapers reported that her funeral was attended by about seven thousand people. Far fewer mourners attended the burial at Mount Lawn Cemetery, in nearby Sharon Hill. Jack Gee thwarted all efforts to purchase a stone for his estranged wife, once or twice pocketing money raised for that purpose.
==== Unmarked grave ====
Smith's grave remained unmarked until a tombstone was erected on August 7, 1970, paid for by the singer Janis Joplin and Juanita Green, who as a child had done housework for Smith. Dory Previn wrote a song about Joplin and the tombstone, "Stone for Bessie Smith", for her album Mythical Kings and Iguanas. The Afro-American Hospital (now the Riverside Hotel) was the site of the dedication of the fourth historical marker on the Mississippi Blues Trail.
== Personal life ==
In 1923, Smith was living in Philadelphia when she met Jack Gee, a security guard, whom she married on June 7, 1923, just as her first record was being released. During the marriage, Smith became the highest-paid Black entertainer of the day, heading her own shows, which sometimes featured as many as 40 troupers, and touring in her own custom-built railroad car.
In the 1920s and 30s African Americans had limited options in terms of hotels and other spaces to gather. To meet this need, establishments were created by and for African Americans called Buffet Flats, which featured expensive food, free-flowing booze, and sex shows (see also, Prostitution in Harlem Renaissance). Smith frequented Buffet Flats after concerts with friends, including drag queens and gay men who viewed it as a safe haven. Her friends reported that a lot of people would pay top dollar to see the sex shows at the buffet, and it has been reported that she would engage in sexual activities with both men and women, including her longtime friend and lover Ruby Walker, both before and during her relationship with Jack Gee.
Her marriage to Gee was stormy, with infidelity on both sides, including Smith's numerous female lovers. Gee was impressed by the money Smith made during her career, but never adjusted to show business life, or to her bisexuality. He would leave periodically, and Smith would use this as an opportunity to have affairs, including with her musical director Fred Longshaw. When Gee found out about this, he physically assaulted Smith, but she got back up quickly and started beating him. When she found out about one of her husband's affairs, she proceeded to get Gee's gun, and shot at him. In 1929, when she learned of his affair with another singer, Gertrude Saunders, Smith ended the relationship, although neither of them sought a divorce.
Smith later entered a common-law marriage with an old friend, Richard Morgan, who was Lionel Hampton's uncle. She stayed with him until her death.
== Musical themes ==
Songs like "Jail House Blues", "Work House Blues", "Prison Blues", "Sing Sing Prison Blues" and "Send Me to the 'Lectric Chair" dealt critically with social issues of the day such as chain gangs, the convict lease system and capital punishment. "Poor Man's Blues" and "Washwoman's Blues" are considered by scholars to be an early form of African-American protest music.
What becomes evident after listening to her music and studying her lyrics is that Smith emphasized and channeled a subculture within the African-American working class. Additionally, she incorporated commentary on social issues like poverty, intra-racial conflict, and female sexuality into her lyrics. Her lyrical sincerity and public behavior were not widely accepted as appropriate expressions for African-American women; therefore, her work was often written off as distasteful or unseemly, rather than as an accurate representation of the African-American experience.
Smith's work challenged elitist norms by encouraging working-class women to embrace their right to drink, party, and satisfy their sexual needs as a means of coping with stress and dissatisfaction in their daily lives. Smith advocated for a wider vision of African-American womanhood beyond domesticity, piety, and conformity; she sought empowerment and happiness through independence, sassiness, and sexual freedom. Although Smith was a voice for many minority groups and one of the most gifted blues performers of her time, the themes in her music were precocious, which led to many believing that her work was undeserving of serious recognition.
Smith's lyrics are often speculated to have portrayed her sexuality. In "Prove it On Me", performed by Ma Rainey, Rainey famously sang, "Went out last night with a crowd of my friends. They must've been women, 'cause I don't like no mens.. they say I do it, ain't nobody caught me. Sure got to prove it on me." African American queer theorists and activists have often looked to Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith as "gender-bending" role models of the early 20th-century blues era.
== Awards and honors ==
=== Grammy Hall of Fame ===
Three recordings by Smith were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, an award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance".
=== National Recording Registry ===
In 2002, Smith's recording of "Downhearted Blues" was included in the National Recording Registry by the National Recording Preservation Board of the Library of Congress. The board annually selects recordings that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
"Downhearted Blues" was also included in the list of Songs of the Century by the Recording Industry of America and the National Endowment for the Arts in 2001, and in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 songs that shaped rock 'n' roll.
=== Inductions ===
=== U.S. postage stamp ===
The U.S. Postal Service issued a 29-cent commemorative postage stamp honoring Smith in 1994.
=== Other ===
In 2019 Time created 89 new covers to celebrate women of the year starting from 1920; it chose Smith for 1923.
In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Smith at No. 33 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
== In pop culture ==
The 1948 short story "Blue Melody", by J. D. Salinger, and the 1959 play The Death of Bessie Smith, by Edward Albee, are based on Smith's life and death, but poetic license was taken by both authors; for instance, Albee's play distorts the circumstances of her medical treatment, or lack of it, before her death, attributing it to racist medical practitioners. The circumstances related by both Salinger and Albee were widely circulated until being debunked at a later date by Smith's biographer.
Dinah Washington and LaVern Baker released tribute albums to Smith in 1958. Released on Exodus Records in 1965, Hoyt Axton Sings Bessie Smith is another collection of Smith's songs performed by folk singer Hoyt Axton.
The song "Bessie Smith" by The Band first appeared on The Basement Tapes in 1975, but probably dates from 1970 to 1971, although musician Artie Traum recalls bumping into Rick Danko, the co-writer of the song, at Woodstock in 1969, who sang a verse of "Going Down The Road to See Bessie" on the spot.
Her song "See If I'll Care" was sampled by Indian Summer throughout their self-titled EP, released in 1993. The release was received well by critics, noting how the sample helped contrast the post-hardcore and emo styles of the rest of the release. When their discography was reissued in 2019 to acclaim, Smith and the song also saw a boost in popularity.
She was the subject of a 1997 biography by Jackie Kay, reissued in February 2021 and featuring as Book of the Week on BBC Radio 4, read in an abridged version by the author.
In the 2015 HBO film Bessie, Queen Latifah portrays Smith, focusing on the struggle and transition of Smith's life and sexuality. The film was well received critically and garnered four Primetime Emmy Awards, winning Outstanding Television Movie.
In the medical show New Amsterdam, season 2 episode 16, the character Reynolds says Bessie Smith's accident, and the myth she was first taken to a white hospital and denied care, was what inspired him and his treatment plans. The show did get the fact that she had an unmarked grave corrected and mentioned her legacy in the world of blues.
Each June, the Bessie Smith Cultural Center in Chattanooga sponsors the Bessie Smith Strut as part of the city's Riverbend Festival.
== Digital remastering ==
Technical faults in the majority of her original gramophone recordings (especially variations in recording speed, which raised or lowered the apparent pitch of her voice) misrepresented the "light and shade" of her phrasing, interpretation and delivery. They altered the apparent key of her performances (sometimes raised or lowered by as much as a semitone). The "center hole" in some of the master recordings had not been in the true middle of the master disc, so that there were wide variations in tone, pitch, key and phrasing, as commercially released records revolved around the spindle.
Given those historic limitations, the 70 LP complete recordings and even more the digitally remastered versions of her work deliver noticeable improvements in the sound quality. Some critics believe that the American Columbia Records compact disc releases are somewhat inferior to subsequent transfers made by the late John R. T. Davies for Frog Records.
== Discography ==
Throughout her entire music career (1923-1933), Bessie Smith recorded 156 tracks for Columbia Records and 4 for the subsidiary OKeh. This makes it quite easy to acquire her complete musical works, which were first released in the 1970s across the following five double albums: The World's Greatest Blues Singer (1970), Any Woman's Blues (1970), Empty Bed Blues (1971), The Empress (1971), Nobody's Blues But Mine (1972). Those recording were later reissued in LPs and CDs in the 1990s under The Complete Recordings (Vol. 1-5) title LPs and CDs
1923-24 – The Complete Recording Vol. 1 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1991)
1925-25 – The Complete Recording Vol. 2 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1991)
1925-28 – The Complete Recording Vol. 3 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1992)
1928-31 – The Complete Recording Vol. 4 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1993)
1932-33 – The Complete Recording Vol. 5 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1996)
1923-33 – The Complete Recording Vols. 1-8 (8xCD) (Frog, 2001)
First editions in 10 and 122" Lps
Bessie Smith Album (Columbia, 1938) 6 shellac 10" Lp 78 rpm albums
Empress of the Blues (Columbia, 1940) shellac 10" Lp 78 rpm album
Empress of the Blues, Vol. II (Columbia, 1947) shellac 10" Lp 78 rpm album
The Bessie Smith Story, in 4 Volumes (Columbia, 1951) 12" Lp 33 rpm albums
Antologies
1923-33 - The Essential Bessie Smith (2xCD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1997)
1923-33 - Empress of the Blues (Giants Of Jazz, 1985)
1923-33 - The Collection (Columbia, 1989)
1928-33 - Blue Spirit Blues (Drive, 1989)
=== 78 RPM singles — Columbia Records ===
=== 78 RPM Singles — Okeh Records ===
=== Hit records ===
There was no official national record chart in the US until 1936. National positions have been formulated post facto by music historian Joel Whitburn.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Albertson, Chris (1991). Bessie Smith: The Complete Recordings, Volumes 1–5 (Liner notes). Sony Music Entertainment.
Albertson, Chris (2003). Bessie. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09902-9.
Barnet, Andrea (2004). All-Night Party: The Women of Bohemian Greenwich Village and Harlem, 1913–1930. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Algonquin Books. ISBN 978-1-56512-381-6.
Brooks, Edward (1982). The Bessie Smith Companion: A Critical and Detailed Appreciation of the Recordings. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-76202-1.
Davis, Angela (1998). Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude 'Ma' Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-679-45005-X.
Eberhardt, Clifford (January 1, 1994). Out of Chattanooga: The Bessie Smith Story. Chattanooga: Ebco. ASIN B0006PDFAQ.
Feinstein, Elaine (1985). Bessie Smith. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-80642-0.
Grimes, Sara (2000). Backwaterblues: In Search of Bessie Smith. Amherst, Massachusetts: Rose Island. ISBN 0-9707089-0-4.
Kay, Jackie (1997). Bessie Smith. New York: Absolute. ISBN 1-899791-55-8.. Reprinted 2021, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0571362929
Manera, Alexandria (2003). Bessie Smith. Chicago: Raintree. ISBN 0-7398-6875-6.
Martin, Florence (1994). Bessie Smith. Paris: Éditions du Limon. ISBN 2-907224-31-X.
Oliver, Paul (1959). Bessie Smith. London: Cassell.
Palmer, Tony (1976). All You Need is Love: The Story of Popular Music. New York: Grossman Publishers, Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-11448-0.
Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz, Its Roots and Musical Development. Vol. 1 (Paperback ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504043-0.
Scott, Michelle R. (2008). Blues Empress in Black Chattanooga: Bessie Smith and the Emerging Urban South. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07545-2.
Welding, Pete; Byron, Tony, eds. (1991). Bluesland: Portraits of Twelve Major American Blues Masters. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-93375-1.
== External links ==
Interview with Bessie Smith biographer Chris Albertson
Bessie Smith discography at Discogs
Bessie Smith recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton-M_No.4 | Foton-M No.4 | Foton-M No.4 is a Russian microgravity and bioscience research spacecraft launched in July 2014 as part of the Foton programme. It is the fourth spacecraft in the Foton-M series, and the first to use the 34KSM configuration incorporating the equipment module from a Yantar satellite in place of that of a Zenit on earlier missions.
Foton-M No.4 was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 18 July 2014, atop a Soyuz-2-1a carrier rocket. The launch was completed successfully, with the satellite separating from its rocket and beginning data transmission to its controllers. However, after four orbits, it ceased responding to commands issued to it from the ground. As a consequence of this, the spacecraft did not perform an orbit-raising maneuver that had been scheduled to occur shortly after orbital insertion. Satellite control was regained on 26 July by which time some of the microgravity experiments had already begun. On 1 August the head of Roskosmos, Oleg Ostapenko, was quoted as saying that the satellite will fly its entire two-month mission as originally planned, despite the cancellation of the orbit-boosting maneuver. However, all of the experiments completed by 27 August, and the Russian space agency decided to return the spacecraft to Earth on 1 September, two weeks earlier than the original 15 September target landing date.
Aboard the spacecraft are specimens for research on the biological effects of zero gravity and cosmic radiation. The specimens include geckos, silkworm eggs, dried seeds, fruit flies, and mushrooms. The geckos are part of biology experiments by Russia's Institute of Medico-Biological Problems on the effects of weightlessness on mating. Initial reports after the payload's return indicate that all five of the geckos launched in the experiment had died. Investigation is underway to determine the cause of death. However, the fruit flies did survive the trip and were able to breed and develop successfully.
Another experiment aboard the spacecraft is designed to measure the effects of microgravity on semiconductor crystal growth, with the ultimate goal of producing higher-quality crystals for use in electronics.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Villarruel | Victoria Villarruel | Victoria Eugenia Villarruel (born 13 April 1975) is an Argentine politician, lawyer, writer, and activist who has served as Vice President of Argentina since 2023. Described as a conservative politician, she is the founder of the civil association Centro de Estudios Legales sobre el Terrorismo y sus Víctimas (transl. Center for Legal Studies on Terrorism and its Victims), which she has chaired since its inception. She was a member of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies from 2021 to 2023. Villarruel belongs to the La Libertad Avanza political coalition. She has been accused of Argentine state terrorism denial by several media outlets and human rights organisations. Villarruel denies such accusations, maintaining that she does not support the "National Reorganization Process".
== Early life and education ==
Villarruel was born on 13 April 1975. Her grandfather was a historian employed by the Argentine Navy; according to her, he survived four guerrilla bombings. Her father was a high-ranking Argentine Army member. In 2008, she took a course in Inter-Agency Coordination and Combating Terrorism at the William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies, a U.S. Department of Defense institution based at the National Defense University in Washington, D.C.
== Activism ==
In the early 2000s, Villarruel hosted a radio show called Proyecto Verdad. She started her political activism with Karina Mujica's group, Memoria Completa, according to statements by Pedro Rafael Mercado, a retired Major Colonel and husband of Cecilia Pando.
Villarruel was also part of the Association of Relatives and Friends of Political Prisoners of Argentina (AFyAPPA), of which Pando was president. She protested in front of the Comodoro Py courts together with Pando to demand the release of those convicted of crimes against humanity during the National Reorganization Process. According to Mercado, between 2001 and 2003, she was part of the meetings that would later give rise to Jóvenes por la Verdad, a group of which he was a member, dedicated to organizing visits to Jorge Rafael Videla while he was under house arrest, and which was also in charge of collecting letters for ESMA repressor Ricardo Cavallo while he was imprisoned in Spain, and Villarruel personally arranged for Mercado and his son to meet Videla.
In 2003, she founded the Center for Legal Studies on Terrorism and its Victims (CELTYV), which some human rights organizations in the country repudiated. On 21 December 2005, she participated in the first march of the Association of Relatives and Friends of Political Prisoners of Argentina (AFyAPPA), which criticized Cristina Fernández de Kirchner for calling "those who saved us from subversive terrorism criminals". AFyAPPA is an association that considers military and security forces personnel prosecuted by the civilian justice system for their participation in state terrorism during the last military dictatorship to be political prisoners and calls for their release.
In 2011, Villarruel spoke at the Oslo Freedom Forum, where she disputed the 'official history' of Argentina. She argued that terrorism occurred not only during Argentina's Dirty War under military rule but also between 1973 and 1976 under a democratic government. Villarruel's point of view was that organized terrorism also occurred between 1973 and 1976, when it had a democratic government. She postulated that the two major Argentine guerrilla groups of that era, the People's Revolutionary Army and Montoneros, had links with the Castro regime in Cuba and with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), with at least one of the groups training Islamists in the Middle East and supplying the PLO with weapons that were used in deadly attacks on Israel. Villarruel said that this history was later covered up by the Kirchner government, that the terrorists of the 1970s went on to enjoy the Kirchners' protection, and that many of those former terrorists held positions of responsibility in the Argentine establishment, citing civil servants or journalists. In her talk, Villarruel also accused the Kirchner government of acting in complicity with Iran.
Villarruel’s 2014 book, Los otros muertos, has been criticized for errors, like listing 84 unknown victims from before the formation of the groups she identifies as terrorists and failing to differentiate between civilian deaths and military casualties. According to Villarruel, the majority of their crimes had in fact been committed during the three years of democracy immediately prior to the 1976 military coup. Because of her criticism of the terrorists and of their rehabilitation, she has been accused of defending the Dirty War.
== Political career ==
In 2020, Villarruel signed the Madrid Charter, a document drafted by the conservative Spanish party Vox that describes hemispheric leftist organizations, such as the São Paulo Forum and the Puebla Group, as enemies of Ibero-America and accuses them of engaging in "a criminal project under the umbrella of the Cuban regime" that "seeks to destabilize liberal democracies and the state of law". In the 2021 Argentine legislative election, Villarruel was elected to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies, a position she maintained until 2023; she was an independent politician until she joined in 2022 the conservative Democratic Party. She was also the running mate of Javier Milei in the 2023 Argentine general election as part of the La Libertad Avanza coalition, and was elected vice president of Argentina.
During their presidential campaign, observers pointed to several differences between Villarruel and Milei. Villarruel supports civil unions but not same-sex marriage in Argentina, and disagrees with Milei on questions like organ trade legalization, on the grounds that the human body should not be treated as goods; their differences of views have been explained as philosophical issues due to Milei's economist background. They also held different views on the National Reorganization Process. While Milei publicly expressed that he is not a defender of it, Villarruel is the daughter of a military officer and has been accused by some of historical revisionism in her accounts of the period. Despite this, she had a significant influence on Milei during the campaign.
During a September 2023 debate, Villarruel was accused by Agustín Rossi, the vice-presidential candidate from the Union for the Homeland, of "infiltrating democracy", while the leftist vice-presidential candidate Nicolás del Caño from the Workers' Left Front asked Villarruel about her meetings with Videla and what they talked about, referencing the Etchecolatz case. In late August 2023, it was made public that Villarruel's name and mobile phone number were written down in handwriting by Miguel Etchecolatz, who was convicted of kidnapping and murder in the Night of the Pencils, in the diary where he was preparing the defence of his trial in 2006 for crimes against humanity. Referencing one of the military dictatorship's most infamous members, a former marine officer also known as "the Angel of Death", Rossi told Villarruel: "I think that, deep down, you vindicate the dictatorship. I've never heard you criticize the torture, the rapes, or the stealing of babies. You remind me of Astiz, you know how he infiltrated the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo organization?" In response to Rossi's claims that she does not believe in democracy, Villarruel said: "Not only do I believe in democracy, but I have also been calling for democracy to recognize the civilian victims of terrorism that were attacked by the armed organizations you are implicitly defending."
In a November 2023 debate between the vice-presidential candidates, Villarruel disputed the higher estimate of 30,000 killed or disappeared during the 1974-1983 Argentine Dirty War, and defended the role played in the illegal repression by Juan Daniel Amelong, an Argentine Army lieutenant colonel who has accumulated five convictions for crimes against humanity committed in Rosario, Santa Fe. Her statements attracted criticism not only from the human rights secretary Horacio Pietragalla Corti and Nobel Peace Prize winner Adolfo Pérez Esquivel but also from leaders of the centrist Juntos por el Cambio coalition, the Radical Civic Union deputy Mario Negri, and Pablo Avelluto, who criticized Patricia Bullrich for having praised Villarruel's performance in the debate.
== Vice-presidency ==
As Vice President, Villarruel has opposed plans by Javier Milei to deploy the Argentine military to intervene in domestic security operations, particularly in the context of increasing drug-related violence in Rosario, saying that "The role of the armed forces is not to fight civilians." Villarruel also opposed the Milei government's agreement with the United Kingdom over the Falkland Islands, describing it as "contrary to the interests of our nation". Following a complaint by the French Football Federation after racist chants by Argentinian football players against French player Kylian Mbappé, Villarruel stated, "No colonialist country is going to intimidate us because of a stadium chant nor for speaking truths that they do not want to admit."
Villaruel also found herself in conflict with Milei's fiscal austerity measures. In July 2025, after proposals opposed by Milei to increase pensions and disability allowances passed in the Senate, which is also headed by the Villaruel as vice president, Milei called her "stupid" and "a traitor" on social media. In response, Villaruel told him to "grow up".
== Political positions ==
Politically, Villlarruel has been described as a conservative and a right-wing nationalist. On social issues, she opposes abortion and euthanasia. While she is favorable to civil unions for same-sex couples, she opposes same-sex marriage. Villarruel's views on social issues are heavily influenced by her traditional Catholic faith, as she attends a church from the Society of Saint Pius X.
She has defended the National Reorganization Process, which, along with some of her views on the military junta period, have garnered criticism. Her questioning and downplaying of the death toll and human rights abuses of the Dirty War have drawn accusations of Argentine state terrorism denial. She has falsely claimed that guerillas were primarily responsible for the violence in Argentina in the junta period. Villaruel has criticized the journalist Miriam Lewin, a victim of the junta. Villaruel has referred to Lewin by the names "Penny" and "Polaca" which her captors used, and said that her incarceration at the Navy Petty-Officers School (ESMA) is proof she was involved in guerilla activities. Villarruel has advocated for the closure of the ESMA museum as well as other memorials commemorating the junta's victims, and has threatened to reopen criminal cases against former guerillas. Villarruel claimed that the Néstor and Cristina Kirchner administrations protected left-wing terrorists. She said: "For the past twelve years, the Kirchner governments have glorified the armed struggle of the guerrillas. In Argentina, if you don't support the guerrillas, people assume you support the dictatorship." As a result of her statements, critics accused her of trying to rewrite the history of the military dictatorship, whitewashing the junta, and red-tagging her political opponents.
== Personal life ==
Villarruel is a traditionalist Catholic, and attends the Tridentine Mass at the chapel of Our Lady Mediatrix of All Graces in Buenos Aires; the chapel is operated by the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), a traditionalist Catholic group which is not in full communion with the Holy See. According to Father Javier Olivera Ravasi, she is not a member of the SSPX, but attends such chapel because it is the only one offering the Tridentine Mass in the area, and she also attends the mass of Paul VI elsewhere in the city.
In addition to her native Spanish, Villarruel is conversational in English and Japanese.
== Electoral history ==
=== Executive ===
=== Legislative ===
== Publications ==
Los llaman... jóvenes idealistas (They Call Them... Idealist Youth), 2010.
Los otros muertos. Las víctimas civiles del terrorismo guerrillero de los 70 (The Other Dead: The Civilian Victims of Guerrilla Terrorism in the 1970s), 2014, co-written with Carlos Manfroni.
== References ==
== External links ==
CELTYV |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raissa_D%27Souza#:~:text=Early%20life%20and%20education,-When%20D'Souza&text=She%20eventually%20settled%20on%20university,Mehran%20Kardar%20and%20Norman%20Margolus. | Raissa D'Souza | Raissa M. D'Souza is the Associate Dean of Research for the College of Engineering and a Professor of Computer Science and Mechanical Engineering at the University of California, Davis as well as an External Professor and member of the Science Board at the Santa Fe Institute. She was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2016, Fellow of the Network Science Society in 2019, and Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2024. D'Souza works on theory and complex systems.
== Early life and education ==
When D'Souza was younger she faced the personal choice of going to college or moving to Paris to become a fashion designer. She eventually settled on university and studied physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. She earned her doctoral degree in theoretical physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1999, where she worked with Mehran Kardar and Norman Margolus. After graduation, she worked in both the fundamental mathematics group at Bell Labs and the Theory group at Microsoft Research. She held a visiting research position at the École Normale Supérior and the California Institute of Technology.
== Research and career ==
D'Souza was appointed as an Assistant Professor to the University of California, Davis in 2005, promoted to Associate Professor in 2008, and to Full Professor in 2013. She works on the mathematics of networks and the dynamics of how processes unfold on networks. These networks could be in technological, biological or social systems. She has studied the interaction between nodes, and how these can lead to self-organizing behaviour. She demonstrated that there exists a percolation threshold, where at a certain point a small number of additional connections can result in a considerable fraction of the network becoming connected. The percolation transition can be applied to a variety of real-world systems, from nanotubes to epileptic seizures or social networks. Large-scale connectivity and synchronisation can be crucial to the structure and function of complex networks. She demonstrated that sparse connections between separate networks helps to suppress cascading failures. She has also studied cascading behaviours in general, including power-grid failures, crashes in financial markets and spreads of political movements.
In 2014 D'Souza was awarded a United States Department of Defense Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative Award to investigate the prediction and control of interdependent networks for the period 2014–2019.
=== Academic service ===
She is an External Professor at both the Santa Fe Institute and the Complexity Science Hub Vienna. She was a Kavli Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences several times and previously served on the World Economic Forum Global Agenda Council of Complex Systems. She was made an inaugural member of the Global Young Academy in 2010. In 2015, D'Souza was appointed the 2nd President of the Network Science Society, and served in this role until 2018.
In 2019, she was awarded the Network Science Society's inaugural Euler Award "for her influential contribution to the discovery and study of explosive percolation and the insights it provided to explosive synchronization and network optimization".
D'Souza serves on the Scientific Advisory Board of Quanta Magazine. She was made lead editor of the American Physical Society journal Physical Review Research in 2019. Since Aug 2020, she is a member of the Board of Reviewing Editors at Science.
=== Awards and honours ===
Her awards and honours include;
2015 Elected President of the Network Science Society
2016 Elected Fellow of the American Physical Society
2017 University of California, Davis Outstanding Mid-Career Faculty Research Award
2018 ACM Test-of-Time award (for lasting influence of paper from 2008)
2019 Network Science Society Euler Award
2019 Elected Fellow of the Network Science Society
2022 Outstanding Service Award of the Network Science Society
2024 Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
=== Publications ===
Her publications include;
D'Souza, Raissa M.; Gómez-Gardeñes, Jesus; Nagler, Jan; Arenas, Alex (2019). "(2019) Explosive phenomena in complex networks". Advances in Physics. 68 (3): 123–223. arXiv:1907.09957. Bibcode:2019AdPhy..68..123D. doi:10.1080/00018732.2019.1650450. S2CID 198179863.
Achlioptas, D.; d'Souza, R. M.; Spencer, J. (2009). "(2009) Explosive percolation in random networks". Science. 323 (5920): 1453–1455. Bibcode:2009Sci...323.1453A. doi:10.1126/science.1167782. PMID 19286548. S2CID 54565131.
"(2012) Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109: E680 – E689. 2012.
Bird, Christian; Pattison, David; d'Souza, Raissa; Filkov, Vladimir; Devanbu, Premkumar (2008). "Latent social structure in open source projects". Proceedings of the 16th ACM SIGSOFT International Symposium on Foundations of software engineering. Sigsoft '08/Fse-16. pp. 24–35. doi:10.1145/1453101.1453107. ISBN 9781595939951. S2CID 5839120. Winner 2018 ACM Test-of-Time award.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration | Cellular respiration | Cellular respiration is the process of oxidizing biological fuels using an inorganic electron acceptor, such as oxygen, to drive production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which stores chemical energy in a biologically accessible form. Cellular respiration may be described as a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells to transfer chemical energy from nutrients to ATP, with the flow of electrons to an electron acceptor, and then release waste products.
If the electron acceptor is oxygen, the process is more specifically known as aerobic cellular respiration. If the electron acceptor is a molecule other than oxygen, this is anaerobic cellular respiration – not to be confused with fermentation, which is also an anaerobic process, but it is not respiration, as no external electron acceptor is involved.
The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, producing ATP. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it is an unusual one because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions.
Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent is molecular oxygen (O2). The chemical energy stored in ATP (the bond of its third phosphate group to the rest of the molecule can be broken, allowing more stable products to form, thereby releasing energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion, or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.
== Aerobic respiration ==
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, aerobic respiration is the preferred method of pyruvate production in glycolysis, and requires pyruvate be transported by the mitochondria in order to be oxidized by the citric acid cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, and the energy transferred is used to make bonds between ADP and a third phosphate group to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2.
The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction is exothermic (exergonic) and can occur spontaneously.
The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen and protons (hydrogen ions) as the "terminal electron acceptors". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. The energy released is used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidized glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.
Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules of ATP per 1 molecule of glucose). However, some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using inorganic molecules other than oxygen as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
Although plants are net consumers of carbon dioxide and producers of oxygen via photosynthesis, plant respiration accounts for about half of the CO2 generated annually by terrestrial ecosystems.
=== Glycolysis ===
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting", and occurs regardless of oxygen's presence or absence. The process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, but two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to four ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are also produced during the pay-off phase. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:
Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H+ + 2 H2O + energy
Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-biphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.
=== Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate ===
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO2 is formed.
=== Citric acid cycle ===
The citric acid cycle is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two low-energy waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.
The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate and, finally, oxaloacetate.
The net gain from one cycle is 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 as hydrogen (proton plus electron) carrying compounds and 1 high-energy GTP, which may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.
=== Oxidative phosphorylation ===
In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.
== Efficiency of ATP production ==
The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.
Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.
Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO−4; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.
The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.
The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously, this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules. In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons. Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.
According to some newer sources, the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose , because:
ATP : NADH+H+ and ATP : FADH2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.
ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H+. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH− or symport with H+) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H+ / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H+.
The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4).
So the final stoichiometry is
1 NADH+H+ : 10 H+ : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H+ : 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2 : 6 H+ : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH2 : 1.5 ATP
ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is
1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial NAD+
So finally we have, per molecule of glucose
Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation
2 NADH+H+ from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)
2 NADH+H+ from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP
Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose
These figures may still require further tweaking as new structural details become available. The above value of 3 H+ / ATP for the synthase assumes that the synthase translocates 9 protons, and produces 3 ATP, per rotation. The number of protons depends on the number of c subunits in the Fo c-ring, and it is now known that this is 10 in yeast Fo and 8 for vertebrates. Including one H+ for the transport reactions, this means that synthesis of one ATP requires 1 + 10/3 = 4.33 protons in yeast and 1 + 8/3 = 3.67 in vertebrates. This would imply that in human mitochondria the 10 protons from oxidizing NADH would produce 2.72 ATP (instead of 2.5) and the 6 protons from oxidizing succinate or ubiquinol would produce 1.64 ATP (instead of 1.5). This is consistent with experimental results within the margin of error described in a recent review.
The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.
== Fermentation ==
Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.
Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. Glycolytic ATP, however, is produced more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.
== Anaerobic respiration ==
Anaerobic respiration is used by microorganisms, either bacteria or archaea, in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate (SO2−4), nitrate (NO−3), or sulfur (S) is used. Such organisms could be found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean, in digestive tracts, as well as in anoxic soils or sediment in wetland ecosystems.
In July 2019, a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfur-breathing organisms which live 7900 feet (2400 meters) below the surface. These organisms are also remarkable because they consume minerals such as pyrite as their food source.
== See also ==
Maintenance respiration: maintenance as a functional component of cellular respiration
Microphysiometry
Pasteur point
Respirometry: research tool to explore cellular respiration
Tetrazolium chloride: cellular respiration indicator
Complex 1: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductes
== References ==
== External links ==
A detailed description of respiration vs. fermentation
Kimball's online resource for cellular respiration
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation at Clermont College |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93European_Union_Agreement_on_Passenger_Name_Records | United States–European Union Agreement on Passenger Name Records | The Agreement between the United States of America and the European Union on the use and transfer of Passenger Name Records to the United States Department of Homeland Security is an international agreement between the United States of America and the European Union that was signed on 14 December 2011 for the purpose of providing passenger name records (PNR) from air carriers operating passenger flights to the United States Department of Homeland Security to "ensure security and to protect the life and safety of the public" (Article 1).
== Historical development ==
Access and transfer of passenger name records (PNRs) fall under the purview of European Data Protection Law. Under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 1980 Privacy Guidelines, and the 1995 European Union Directive on data protection, PNRs may only be transferred to countries with comparable data protection laws. Also, law enforcement authorities are permitted to access the passenger data only on a case-by-case basis, and where there exists a particular suspicion.
In the aftermath of the 11 September 2001 attacks, the US government determined that PNRs (both archived and real-time) were invaluable tools for investigating and thwarting terrorist attacks. Accordingly, the US government has sought the collection, transfer and retention of PNRs by the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Bureau of Customs and Border Protection.
In May 2004, the US government negotiated the 2004 Passenger Name Record Data Transfer agreement (aka. US-EU PNR agreement) – a safe harbor PNR transfer agreement with the European Commission. Specifically, the European Commission deemed that the level of protection afforded to such PNR transfers would satisfy the standard of "adequacy" required by the 1995 EU Data Directive, as long as the data would be transferred and used solely for the purposes for which it was collected. These purposes being limited to "preventing and combating: terrorism and related crimes; other serious crimes, including organized crime, that are trans-national in nature; and flight from warrants or custody for those crimes." The US-EU-PNR agreement required European airlines to supply PNR data to US authorities within 15 minutes of a plane taking off. While this agreement was invalidated by the European Court of Justice on 30 May 2006 due to lack of legal authority, the European Council worked to substantively resurrect the agreement before the court-mandated deadline of 30 September 2006.
In July 2007, a new, controversial, PNR agreement between the US and the EU was undersigned. A short time afterward, the Bush administration gave exemption for the Department of Homeland Security, for the Arrival and Departure System (ADIS) and for the Automated Target System from the 1974 Privacy Act, raising concerns from Statewatch about the protection of EU citizens' data.
In February 2008, Jonathan Faull, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR. The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding with the Czech Republic in exchange for a visa waiver scheme, without consulting in advance with Brussels. The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of data protection in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US Privacy Act of 1974. Data privacy in the EU is regulated by the Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of personal data, and the US Safe Harbor arrangement made to converge with European norms is still being controversial for alleged lack of protection. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece.
On 28 November 2011, a new agreement on the transfer and use of PNR data between the EU and US DHS was authored. The full text is available online.
In April 2012, the agreement was approved and adopted by the European Parliament. The agreement provides protections for PNR data, however critics express concerns that there is insufficient recourse should the data be misused. The parliament's approval of the agreement was warmly welcome by the Justice and Home Affairs Council of Ministers.
== Criticism ==
On 6 January 2011, the Article 29 Working Party responded to a request for its opinion:
Since the agreement would have implications for millions of European citizens, for the Working Party, there should be no doubt as to the transparency of the discussions on the draft agreement and of the approval procedures within the relevant institutions of the European Union. It regrets that this view does not seem to be shared by all relevant stakeholders. As a general assessment, the Working Party notes (modest) improvements in the draft agreement, but does not see its serious concerns removed.
...
When assessing any new PNR agreement between the European Union and any third country, it remains important to reflect upon one fundamental concern implied in all these agreements. By concluding them, the legislators oblige carriers and computer reservation systems to make PNR data of all their passengers – nearly all of them being innocent and unsuspected citizens – available to foreign law enforcement agencies. This, in itself, remains quite an unusual phenomenon and requires very careful consideration. If acceptable at all, it requires not only a legal base, which the agreement is meant to be, but also irrefutable proof that the agreement is necessary and proportionate and that safeguards are sufficiently elaborated, all in the meaning of and in full compliance with the EU Charter on Fundamental Rights.
Reports by the Legal Service of the European Commission as well as two professors funded by The Greens–European Free Alliance critiqued the agreement because of perceived reductions of privacy rights.
== See also ==
Advanced Passenger Information System
Passenger name record
== External links ==
Agreement between the United States of America and the European Union on the use and transfer of passenger name records to the United States Department of Homeland Security
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_R%C3%AAve_(Picasso)#:~:text=On%2026%20March%202013%2C%20the,most%20expensive%20paintings%20ever%20sold. | Le Rêve (Picasso) | Le Rêve (English: The Dream) is a 1932 oil on canvas painting (130 × 97 cm) by Pablo Picasso, then 50 years old, portraying his 22-year-old mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter. It is said to have been painted in one afternoon, on 24 January 1932. It belongs to Picasso's period of distorted depictions, with its oversimplified outlines and contrasted colors resembling early cubism. The erotic content of the painting has been noted repeatedly, with critics pointing out that Picasso painted an erect penis, presumably symbolizing his own, in the upturned face of his model. On 26 March 2013, the painting was sold in a private sale for $155 million, making it one of the most expensive paintings ever sold.
== Provenance ==
Le Rêve was purchased for $7,000 in 1941 by Victor and Sally Ganz of New York City. This purchase began their 50-year collection of works by just five artists: Picasso, Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg, Frank Stella, and Eva Hesse. After the Ganzes died (Victor in 1987 and Sally in 1997), their collection, including Le Rêve, was sold at Christie's auction house on November 11, 1997, as a means of settling their inheritance tax bill. Le Rêve sold for an unexpectedly high $48.4 million, at the time the fourth most expensive painting sold (tenth when taking inflation into account). The entire collection set a record for the sale of a private collection, bringing $206.5 million. The total amount paid by the Ganzes over their lifetime of collecting these pieces was around $2 million.
The buyer who purchased Le Rêve at Christie's in 1997 appears to have been the Austrian-born investment fund manager Wolfgang Flöttl, who also briefly held Van Gogh's Portrait of Dr. Gachet in possession in the late 1990s. In 2001, under financial pressure, he sold Le Rêve to casino magnate Steve Wynn for an undisclosed sum, estimated to be about $60 million.
== Wynn incident ==
In 2006, the painting was the centerpiece of Wynn's collection and he had considered naming his Wynn Las Vegas resort after it. During a period of anti-French sentiment in the United States in response to France's opposition to the United States' proposed invasion of Iraq, Wynn decided it was inadvisable to give the resort a French name. In October 2006, Wynn told a group of his friends (including the screenwriter Nora Ephron and her husband Nick Pileggi, the broadcaster Barbara Walters, the art dealer Serge Sorokko and his wife, the model Tatiana Sorokko and the lawyer David Boies and his wife, Mary) that he had agreed the day before to sell Le Rêve for $139 million to Steve Cohen. At the time, this price would have made Le Rêve the most expensive piece of art ever. While Wynn was showing the painting to his friends, apparently about to reveal the now still officially undisclosed previous owner (see above), he put his right elbow through the canvas, puncturing the left forearm of the figure and creating a six-inch tear.
Ephron offered as an explanation that Wynn uses wild gestures while speaking and has retinitis pigmentosa, which affects his peripheral vision. Later, Wynn said that he took the event as a sign to not sell the painting.
After a $90,000 repair, the painting was re-valued at $85 million. Wynn filed a claim to recover the $54 million perceived loss from his Lloyd's of London insurers, an amount which would have covered most of the initial cost of buying the painting. When the insurers balked, Wynn sued them in January 2007.
The case was eventually settled out of court in March 2007. Cohen bought the painting from Wynn in 2013 for $155 million (ca. $134 million in 2006 dollars). Ignoring inflation, the price was estimated to be the highest ever paid for an artwork by a U.S. collector until Kenneth C. Griffin's ~$300 million purchase of Willem de Kooning's Interchange in September 2015.
== See also ==
List of most expensive paintings
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capel,_Western_Australia#:~:text=Forrest-,Capel,-is%20a%20town | Capel, Western Australia | Capel is a town in the South West region of Western Australia, located 212 kilometres (132 mi) south of Perth and midway between Bunbury and Busselton. The town is located on the Capel River and is approximately 19 metres (62 ft) above sea level.
== History ==
The Capel area was originally inhabited by the Wardandi Noongar people.
Colonists visited the region early in the history of colonial Western Australia. The Capel River was visited by Frederick Ludlow in 1834, but it was not given an English name until the Bussell family settled in the area soon afterwards. The name honours Capel Carter Brockman (1839–1924), daughter of John Bussell (1803–1875), herself named after a Miss Capel Carter, a cousin of the Bussells in England with whom Bussell family members corresponded. In the 1830s a number of settlers followed the Bussells into the area, and both James Stirling and John Hutt, (the first two Governors of Western Australia) took up land in the region.
Plans to establish a townsite in the area were first mooted in 1844, but the site was not surveyed until the 1870s and lots were not sold until 1897. Initially the town was named Coolingnup, which is the Noongar name for the place; the name was changed to Capel in 1899.
== Climate ==
The climate is hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), at a certain distance from the headquarters, Forrest Beach has the warm-summer version as in Busselton or southern California (Csb), delimiting the northern limit of the second climatic zone on the Australian coast.
Capel has hot dry summers and cool wet winters. Daily temperatures range from 13 °C to 40 °C in summer, and from 5 °C to 27 °C in winter. Average annual rainfall is about 830 mm.
== Demographics ==
The population of the town was 91 (44 males and 47 females) in 1898. According to the 2016 census figures, the population of the Town of Capel was 2,509, and the population of the Shire of Capel was 17,123.
== Economy ==
Historically, Capel is a farming area; traditional agricultural pursuits include dairy and beef. In recent times, Capel has become popular for hobby farms, and a number of innovative agricultural pursuits have been introduced, including alpacas, viticulture, aquaculture and growing of blue gums. There is also some mining of mineral sands in the Shire, and tourism is increasingly important to the Shire's economy.
Westralian Sands was established in 1954 but commenced operations in 1959 when it started mining and processing the Yoganup deposit just north of the town. Another company, RGC, operated a mine to the south of the town. In 1998 both companies merged to form Iluka Resources which continues to operate ilmenite mines around the area and produce synthetic rutile at the processing facility to the north of the town along the Bussell Highway.
== References ==
== External links ==
Capel portal
South West portal |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Desert_Research_Station | Mars Desert Research Station | The Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) is the largest and longest-running Mars surface research facility and is one of two simulated Mars analog habitats owned and operated by the Mars Society.
The MDRS station was built in the early 2000s near Hanksville, Utah, in the western United States. It is crewed by small teams who conduct scientific research.
The MDRS campus includes a two-story habitat with a greenhouse, a solar and a robotic observatory, an engineering pod and a science building.
== Background ==
The MDRS station is situated on the San Rafael Swell of Southern Utah, 11.63 kilometres (7.23 mi) by road northwest of Hanksville, Utah. It is the second such analogue research station to be built by the Mars Society, following the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station or FMARS on Devon Island in Canada's high Arctic.
The Mars Society launched the Mars Analog Research Station Project with the stated goal of developing knowledge needed to prepare for the human exploration of Mars. The project's goals are to develop field tactics based on environmental constraints (i.e., being required to work in spacesuits), test habitat design features and tools, and assess crew selection protocols. Although much warmer than Mars, the desert location was selected because of its Mars-like terrain and appearance.
The MDRS aims to realistically simulate Mars living conditions. During mission periods, crew members must wear an analogue space suit simulator when completing tasks outside their living quarters, which is a metal building with an airlock. Analogue space suit simulators include a helmet, jumpsuit, boots, gaiters, gloves, an air supply pack, water pack, and a radio. Hand-held radios mounted on the suits' helmets with externally mounted push-to-talk northeast switches are used to communicate with the habitat and with fellow Mars surface explorers on the same extra-vehicular activity.
Destinations for extra-vehicular activities can be chosen from an established way-point database, and attained either on foot, or by all-terrain vehicle.
MDRS is owned and operated by the Mars Society, which selects the crews and handles most of the administrative tasks. The Mars Society is an international, non-profit organization that works with governments to promote Mars exploration through various projects such as M.A.R.S., the Mars Analogue Pressurized Rover Competition, and the ARCHIMEDES Mars balloon mission.
The MDRS hosts a training program funded by NASA which hosts teachers to participate in projects meant to simulate the living environment on the moon or Mars. In this program, participants conduct field research and live onsite for several weeks.
== Research ==
Each crew establishes different scientific goals they hope to accomplish during their time at MDRS. The majority of biological research involves extremophiles. Bacteria and algae isolated from the surrounding desert are common subjects of study. These microorganisms have been studied for their DNA, their diversity, and the environments in which they thrive. For example, in a study for methanogens, researchers studied soil and vapor samples from five different desert environments in Utah, Idaho, and California in the United States, Canada, and Chile. Of these, five soil samples and three vapor samples from the vicinity of the MDRS were found to have signs of viable methanogens.
Crews often study endoliths found in rocks at the MDRS. These species of bacteria are capable of living inside rocks and obtaining the energy they need by photosynthesizing the light that penetrates the rocks. These extreme organisms are a popular subject of research at MDRS for both geologists and biologists.
Other experiments include a study of the effect of extra-vehicular activity on the heart rates and blood pressures of crew members, a human-factors study that examines the correlation between cognitive ability and mood, and a study on how much a space suit inhibits dexterity in comparison to regular street clothes.
== Crews ==
MDRS crews traditionally consist of six people who volunteer for one of the two-week shifts or crew rotations available during the northern hemisphere's winter months. The field season ends in the northern spring due to the desert heat. Crews pay their own transportation expenses to and from the designated assembly place from where they are transported to and from MDRS. As volunteers, the crews are not paid for their participation in a crew rotation at the station. The crews usually consist of a mix of scientists, astronomers, physicists, biologists, geologists, engineers, and the occasional journalist. Each crew member is usually assigned a role, such as: commander, executive officer, health and safety officer, crew biologist, crew geologist or chief engineer.
Crew commanders are responsible for the entire crew and operations. Their responsibilities include maintaining a structured stream of information from the crew to mission support, establishing the agenda for each day (extra-vehicular activities, maintenance, cooking, cleaning, etc.), and holding morning and evening meetings with all crew members. The executive officer's duty is to act as the second in command during the mission, and to act as the commander in the event the commander is incapacitated or unavailable. The crew geologist and crew biologist work together to establish and accomplish the scientific goals of the mission, which include developing the geology and biology goals for the mission as well as planning field extra-vehicular activities and subsequent laboratory work to achieve those goals. Both the crew geologist and crew biologist work with the remote science team (RST) during all stages of the mission. The Chief Engineer is responsible for maintaining all systems necessary for routine Habitat operations. These include the power, water, ATV and GreenHab systems.
As of February 2017, 175 crews have served rotations at MDRS over a period of sixteen years.
== The station ==
Both FMARS and MDRS originally have the same basic design: a two-level habitat module 8 m (26 ft) in diameter. The habitat's lower level has a bathroom, laboratory, two airlocks, an extravehicular activity preparation area and stores various engineering equipment; at the top, the habitat's upper level has six sleeping quarters for each crew, a common area, computing area and galley (kitchen). The loft level above the sleeping quarter is used for storage. Later on, there were drastic differences between the FMARS and MDRS, due to FMARS's more isolated location and MDRS's more continuous use, maintenance and expansion.
The MDRS is expanded from the two-level habitat (called Hab) to include a greenhouse (GreenHab), solar observatory (Musk Observatory), a science building (Science Dome), an engineering pod (RAM), and a robotic observatory. The Musk Observatory is named after Elon Musk, who donated $100,000 to the MDRS.
Except for the robotic observatory, the modules are connected via tunnels. At the habitat, the lower deck is used for science and engineering activities. Like the FMARS, it has a shower and toilet, a biology and geology laboratory, two simulated airlocks, an extravehicular activity preparation area, and storage space. The upper deck is used for social activities, dining and communications, and has seven separate crew quarters. In the loft area, a tank stores freshwater and a hatch is used for maintaining antenna and weather instruments. Water for flushing the toilet is provided by the greenhouse, and electricity is provided by batteries under the habitat.
=== Habitat ===
The analogue Mars Lander Habitat is a two-story cylinder that measures about 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter, and is a crew's combined home and place of work during a Mars surface exploration simulation. On the first floor, are two simulated airlocks, a shower and toilet, an extra-vehicular activity preparation room for storage and maintenance of the simulated space suits and their associated equipment, and a combined science lab and engineering work area. The laboratory is shared between the crew geologist and the crew biologist and includes an autoclave, analytical balance, microscope, and a stock of chemicals and reagents for conducting biochemical tests.
On the second floor are six very small private crew staterooms with bunks and a small reading desk, a common dining and entertainment area, a dedicated communications station and a galley or kitchen equipped with a gas stove, refrigerator, microwave, oven and a sink for meal preparations. Above the six crew staterooms is a Loft which contains the internal freshwater storage tank and equipment storage space. At the peak of the HAB's dome-shaped roof is an access hatch to permit maintenance access to the satellite antenna and weather monitoring instruments.
Power is supplied by 12 rechargeable 24-volt batteries located under the Hab which can provide electrical power for up to twelve hours. In addition to the batteries are two 5 kilowatts (6.7 hp) electricity generators. Power from the generators is channeled through an inverter, which sends the power either to the battery banks to recharge them or via a panel with 19 circuit breakers, to the HAB electrical distribution system.
Water is supplied to the Hab via a potable water tank located 100 feet (30 m) away in the Engineering Support Equipment Area. The tank is a plastic storage container with a 450-U.S.-gallon (1,700 L; 370 imp gal) capacity (8 days worth of water at 6 U.S. gallons (23 L; 5.0 imp gal) per person per day). Water must be manually carried or pumped via a hose from the potable water tank to the HAB's internal tank, which holds about 60 U.S. gallons (230 L; 50 imp gal). The water is then gravity fed into a pressure pump that distributes the freshwater to the rest of the HAB, including a water heater. The water used to flush toilets is greywater. This is wastewater that has run down the sink and shower drains in the HAB and then through the greywater system out of the GreenHab. Water is rationed and monitored to minimize inefficiency and waste in the system.
The Hab is also equipped with an internet connection and several webcams so that the public can view the ongoing mission.
=== GreenHab ===
The GreenHab is a greenhouse used for growing crops and plant research. The original Gary Fisher GreenHab, retrofitted in 2009 from a closed loop water recycling center to a functional greenhouse, was destroyed by fire in December 2014, and replaced in September 2015 after an Indiegogo campaign raised $12,540 to rebuild it.
Originally the rebuilt GreenHab was planned as a geodesic dome, however, once the pad and frame were in place, it could not be made wind and winter-tight, so it was completed as the new Science Dome. The new Greenhab is a 12-foot by 24 foot transparent building that is climate and light controlled. Plants grown in the GreenHab are mostly herbs, greens, radishes, tomatoes, and other vegetables.
=== Musk Mars Desert Observatory ===
The Musk Mars Desert Observatory houses a 28-centimetre (11 in) Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, donated by Celestron. The telescope is capable of being operated remotely, and is accessible to amateur and professional astronomers via the internet. The observatory's other sponsors include Le Sueur Manufacturing Inc., which provided the Astro-Pier on which the telescope is mounted; Software Bisque, which provided TheSky software; Vince Lanzetta of East Coast Observatories; Adirondack Video Astronomy; High Point Scientific; Technical Innovations; and the Lehigh Valley Amateur Astronomical Association.
The addition of the Musk Mars Desert Observatory provides research opportunities that were not available before, to the crew and local teachers and students. Students and teachers are invited to interact with the crew and to use the observatory as a learning tool.
Engineering tasks are completed in the repair and assembly module, a retrofitted Chinook helicopter fuel compartment designed for tool storage, and work spaces for engineering projects and repair of station instruments. It was moved to the campus in October 2017 and became fully operational in November 2018.
=== Other ===
North of the GreenHab is the underground septic tank and its outflow field. This area is a "No Drive – Foot Traffic Only Zone" as there is no record of where exactly the septic tank is buried. East of the GreenHab is an omnidirectional Jovian radio telescope.
MDRS is the site of the annual University Rover Challenge, the first of which was held on June 2, 2007.
The flag of Mars appears on a couple of the buildings, as does the flag of the United States.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Mars Society Desert Research Station website
About the Mars Analog Research Program Archived 2013-06-18 at the Wayback Machine
MDRS Expedition Guide: Detailed guide for MDRS crew members
MDRS article in Popular Science
Space Daily: MDRS Completes First Crew Rotation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_Thomas | Buzz Thomas | Samuel 'Buzz' Thomas (born January 28, 1969) is a politician from the U.S. state of Michigan. He was a Democratic member of the Michigan Senate, representing the 4th district beginning in 2003 and served as the Democratic Floor Leader until 2011 when he reached his two term limit. His district is completely located in the city of Detroit and includes portions of northwest, east, central, and southwest Detroit. Previously he was a member of the Michigan House of Representatives from 1997 to 2002.
== Early life ==
Thomas was born in Detroit in 1969 and is a graduate of Detroit Country Day School and the University of Pennsylvania . Before becoming an elected official he worked as a homebuilder in metro Detroit, where he was Construction Manager for Parkside Building Company and Avis Tech Park partners, managing both commercial renovations and single-family, residential construction. He also held senior positions with US Representatives from Michigan, Barbara-Rose Collins and Bob Carr (Michigan politician).
== Political career ==
In 1996, one hundred and four years after his great grand uncle, William Webb Ferguson, was the first African-American elected to the Michigan Legislature, Thomas was elected to the Michigan State House of Representatives. He represented the 10th district, located in northwest Detroit. He served in the House for six years. In 2002, he was elected by his House colleagues as the House Democratic Leader, one of the youngest members ever elected to that position and only the second African American elected as a House leader.
In 2002 he was elected to the Michigan Senate and re-elected in 2006. In 2007, his colleagues once again elected him to a leadership position, as the Senate Democratic Floor Leader. He is one of the few Michigan legislators to have held leadership positions in both the Michigan House and Senate.
== Recognition ==
Senator Thomas received many recognitions for his service, including being named one of Michigan’s five “Key Technology Leaders” by the Detroit Free Press, One Of Four Up-And-Coming Leaders by Savoy, “Most Dedicated Detroiter” and “Best Local Politician” by Real Detroit Magazine, "A Rising Star" by both The Detroit News and Hotline, and an "Under-40 Political 'Buzz' Saw" by the Michigan Front Page. He has received awards and recognition from over two dozen community groups, publications, and organizations.
== Committees ==
Buzz Thomas was the ranking Democrat on the Economic Development and Regulatory Reform Committee. He also served on the Homeland Security and Emerging Technologies Committee and on the Energy Policy Committee.
== Electoral history ==
2006 Election for the Michigan State Senate - 4th District
2002 Election for the Michigan State Senate - 4th District
2000 Election for the Michigan State House
1998 Election for the Michigan State House
1996 Election for the Michigan State House
== References ==
== External links ==
Michigan Senate - Buzz Thomas
Project Vote Smart - Senator Samuel Thomas (MI) profile
Follow the Money - Samuel Buzz Thomas III
2006 2004 2002 2000 1998 1996 campaign contributions
Michigan Senate Democratic Caucus
Michigan Liberal - SD04 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Reed_Warner | Worcester Reed Warner | Worcester Reed Warner (May 16, 1846 – June 25, 1929) was an American mechanical engineer, entrepreneur, manager, astronomer, and philanthropist. With Ambrose Swasey he cofounded the Warner & Swasey Company.
== Biography ==
=== Life and career ===
Warner was born and grew up on a farm near Cummington, Massachusetts. He met Swasey at the Exeter Machine Works where both were apprentices. In 1870, both entered the employ of Pratt & Whitney in Hartford, Connecticut.
In 1880, Warner and Swasey co-founded a business to manufacture sewing machines and lathes, but quickly turned to manufacturing telescopes, because Warner was always interested in astronomy. The firm, Warner & Swasey, was initially located in Chicago but soon moved to Cleveland. In 1880, Beloit College purchased one of its telescopes, which helped establish the company's name in the telescope-building industry, which experienced rapid growth at the time. Warner & Swasey would design and build the framework and the mounting for the 36-inch refracting telescope installed at Lick Observatory in 1888, which was the world's largest refractor telescope at the time. The company later built telescopes that were used in Canada and Argentina. The company and its founders prospered.
=== Further activities ===
Warner was a charter member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and from 1897 to 1898 he served as the 16th president of ASME. (Ambrose Swasey would later serve as the 23rd ASME president.) In 1900 the firm was incorporated as Warner & Swasey Company. Warner served as president and chairman of the board, but retired in 1911.
Both Warner and Ambrose Swasey also became trustees of the Case School of Applied Science. As both men had an interest in astronomy, they donated an entire observatory to the school. This became the Warner and Swasey Observatory. It was dedicated in 1920.
The Warner Building on Case Western Reserve University houses the Worcester Reed Warner Laboratory, named after the former university trustee. The construction of this building was partly funded by Worcester Warner.
The Warner Library in Tarrytown, New York, has served both Tarrytown and North Tarrytown (now Sleepy Hollow, New York) since 1929. It was built and gifted to the two communities by Warner and his wife, Cornelia. Constructed of Vermont limestone, the Neoclassical building was designed by Walter Dabney Blair. The library cost $250,000 (approximately $4,700,000 in today's value as of 2025) to build, and the Warners further endowed it with $50,000 (some $950,000 in today's value as of 2025) for the purchase of books.
The crater Warner on the Moon is named after Worcester Warner.
=== Later Years and Death ===
In 1911, Warner and his wife (he married Cornelia Blakemore of Philadelphia in 1890) moved to an estate named Wilholm in the Wilson Park neighborhood of Tarrytown, New York. Warner built a celestial observatory in his house, where he regularly invited guests for stargazing sessions. One of those guests was John D. Rockefeller, a neighbor and close friend. Warner was also a close friend of President Herbert Hoover, a fellow member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Warner died on a trip in Eisenach, Saxe-Weimar, Germany, four months after the Warner Library in Tarrytown was dedicated in his name. He is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.
== Worcester Reed Warner Medal ==
The Worcester Reed Warner Medal is awarded by the ASME for "outstanding contribution to the permanent literature of engineering". It was established by bequest in 1930. Some of the recipients are:
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Warner & Swasey Company (1920), The Warner & Swasey Company, 1880-1920, Cleveland, Ohio, US: Warner & Swasey Company.
Warner & Swasey Company (1930), The Warner & Swasey Company, 1880-1930, Cleveland, Ohio, US: Warner & Swasey Company. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitt_L._Moreland | Whitt L. Moreland | Private First Class Whitt Lloyd Moreland (March 7, 1930 – May 29, 1951) was a United States Marine who heroically sacrificed his life to save the lives of fellow Marines by smothering a hand grenade with his body during the UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive of the Korean War. For this action on May 29, 1951, at Kwagch’i-Dong, PFC Moreland was posthumously awarded the United States' highest military decoration — the Medal of Honor. He was the 17th Marine to be awarded the Medal of Honor during the Korean War.
== Biography ==
Born in Waco, Texas on March 7, 1930, Whitt Lloyd Moreland attended public school in Austin, and graduated from Junction High School in 1948, where he played football for two years. In September 1948, he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps for one year, serving in San Diego and Camp Pendleton, California. Upon discharge he enlisted in the Marine Corps Reserve for six years. On November 30, 1950, he was called to active duty, and received advanced training at Camp Pendleton, California.
PFC Moreland was an intelligence scout attached to the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division when he was killed in action at Kwangch'i-Dong, Korea, on May 29, 1951.
Moreland is buried at Whittington Cemetery in Mount Ida, Arkansas.
There is a monument dedicated to him in Llano, Texas along with others who served in the war.
== Awards and decorations ==
PFC Moreland's decorations include:
== Medal of Honor citation ==
The President of the United States takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR posthumously to
for service as set forth in the following CITATION:
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as an Intelligence Scout attached to Company C, First Battalion, Fifth Marines, First Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in Korea on May 29, 1951. Voluntarily accompanying a rifle platoon in a daring assault against a strongly defended enemy hill position, Private First Class Moreland delivered accurate rifle fire on the hostile emplacement and thereby aided materially in seizing the objective. After the position had been secured, he unhesitatingly led a party forward to neutralize an enemy bunker which he had observed some 400 meters beyond and, moving boldly through a fireswept area, almost reached the hostile emplacement when the enemy launched a volley of hand grenades on his group. Quick to act despite the personal danger involved, he kicked several of the grenades off the ridgeline where they exploded harmlessly and, while attempting to kick away another, slipped and fell near the deadly missile. Aware that the sputtering grenade would explode before he could regain his feet and dispose of it, he shouted a warning to his comrades, covered the missile with his body and absorbed the full blast of the explosion, but in saving his companions from possible injury or death, was mortally wounded. His heroic initiative and valiant spirit of self-sacrifice in the face of certain death reflect the highest credit upon Private First Class Moreland and the United States Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for his country.
/S/ HARRY S. TRUMAN
== Awards and Decorations ==
== See also ==
List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients
== Notes ==
== References ==
Inline
General
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
"Private First Class Whitt L. Moreland, USMCR, Who's Who in Marine Corps History, History Division, United States Marine Corps". Archived from the original on September 4, 2006. Retrieved June 25, 2006.
"PFC Whitt L. Moreland, Medal of Honor, 1951, 1/5/1, Korea, Medal of Honor citation". Archived from the original on June 22, 2006. Retrieved June 25, 2006.
Leatherwood, Art. Moreland, Whitt L., Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved 2006-06-25. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristi_Noem#:~:text=In%20March%202011%2C%20Republican%20Representative,political%20action%20committee%2C%20KRISTI%20PAC. | Kristi Noem | Kristi Lynn Arnold Noem ( NOHM; née Arnold; born November 30, 1971) is an American politician serving as the 8th United States secretary of homeland security since 2025. A member of the Republican Party, she served as the 33rd governor of South Dakota from 2019 to 2025 and represented South Dakota's at-large congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2011 to 2019.
Born in Watertown, South Dakota, Noem began her political career in the South Dakota House of Representatives, serving from 2007 to 2011. Noem was elected as the first female governor of South Dakota in 2018 with the endorsement of President Donald Trump. She gained national attention during the COVID-19 pandemic for opposing statewide mask mandates and advocating voluntary measures. Noem has conservative positions on most domestic issues, particularly gun rights, abortion, and immigration.
Noem is a farmer, rancher, and member of the Civil Air Patrol. She has published two autobiographies, Not My First Rodeo: Lessons from the Heartland (2022) and No Going Back (2024), the latter of which sparked controversy for its account of her killing a young family dog and inaccurate claims about meeting with foreign leaders. Donald Trump nominated her for Secretary of Homeland Security in his second cabinet. She was confirmed in January 2025 by a Senate vote of 59–34.
== Early life ==
Noem was born Kristi Lynn Arnold to Ron and Corinne Arnold on November 30, 1971, in Watertown, South Dakota, and raised with her siblings on the family ranch and farm in Hazel, South Dakota. She has Norwegian ancestry and is a descendant of Ephraim Wilson, who fought in the American Revolutionary War. In 1990, Noem graduated from Hamlin High School in Hayti, South Dakota, and was crowned South Dakota Snow Queen.
Noem attended Northern State University from 1990 to 1994 but did not graduate. In March 1994, her father was killed in a grain bin accident and Noem left college early to run the family farm. Her daughter, Kassidy, was born weeks later, on April 21, 1994. She added a hunting lodge and restaurant to the family property. Her siblings also moved back to help expand the businesses.
Noem subsequently took classes at the Watertown campus of Mount Marty College and at South Dakota State University, and online classes from the University of South Dakota. She obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in political science from South Dakota State University in 2012 while serving as a U.S. representative. The Washington Post dubbed her Capitol Hill's "most powerful intern" for receiving college intern credits from her position as a member of Congress.
== South Dakota House of Representatives (2007–2011) ==
In 2006, Noem won a seat as a Republican in the South Dakota House of Representatives, representing the 6th district, comprising parts of Beadle, Clark, Codington, Hamlin, and Kingsbury counties. In 2006, she won with 39% of the vote. In 2008, she was reelected with 41% of the vote.
Noem served for four years, from 2007 to 2010. She was an assistant majority leader during her second term. During her tenure, Noem was the prime sponsor of 11 bills that became law, including several property tax reforms and two bills to increase gun rights in South Dakota. In 2009, she served as vice chair of the Agriculture Land Assessment Advisory Task Force. Senator Larry Rhoden chaired the task force, and later served as her lieutenant governor. During her tenure, she joined the Civil Air Patrol as a "state legislative member". She holds the rank of lieutenant colonel.
== U.S. House of Representatives (2011–2019) ==
In 2010, Noem ran for South Dakota's at-large seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. She won the Republican primary and defeated incumbent Democrat Stephanie Herseth Sandlin in the general election. Noem was reelected three times, serving in Congress until 2019.
=== Tenure ===
The 2011 House Republican 87-member freshman class elected Noem as liaison to the House Republican leadership, making her the second woman member of the House GOP leadership. According to The Hill, her role was to push the leadership to make significant cuts to federal government spending and to help Speaker John Boehner manage the expectations of the freshman class. In March 2011, Republican Representative Pete Sessions of Texas named Noem one of the 12 regional directors for the National Republican Congressional Committee during the 2012 election campaign.
On March 8, 2011, she announced the formation of a leadership political action committee, KRISTI PAC. Former South Dakota Lieutenant Governor Steve Kirby is its treasurer. Noem was among the top freshman Republicans in PAC fundraising in the first quarter of 2011, raising $169,000 from PACs.
==== Abortion ====
Noem co-sponsored legislation that would federally ban abortion. In 2015, she co-sponsored a bill to amend the 14th Amendment to define human life and personhood as beginning at fertilization, federally banning abortion from the moment of fertilization. She also voted for a bill to ban abortion after 20 weeks of pregnancy.
==== Energy and environment ====
Noem denies the scientific consensus on climate change. In 2022 she said she believes "the science has been varied on it, and it hasn't been proven to me that what we're doing is affecting the climate."
Noem has said that the U.S. needs an "all-of-the-above energy approach" that includes renewables like wind and ethanol while still realizing the need for a "balanced energy mix" that ends American dependence on foreign oil.
Noem supported the Keystone XL Pipeline and supports offshore oil drilling. She co-sponsored three bills that she argued would reduce American dependence on foreign oil by ending the 2010 United States deepwater drilling moratorium in the Gulf of Mexico and reopening sales on oil leases in the Gulf and off the coast of Virginia. In 2011, she sponsored a measure to block Environmental Protection Agency funding for tighter air pollution standards for coarse particulates.
Noem opposed a bill introduced by South Dakota Senator Tim Johnson that would designate over 48,000 acres (190 km2) of the Buffalo Gap National Grassland as protected wilderness. She supports the designation of the land as a national grassland. She said the land is already managed as roadless areas similar to wilderness and argued that changing the land's designation to wilderness would further limit leaseholder access to the land and imperil grazing rights.
==== Foreign affairs ====
From 2013 to 2015, Noem served on the House Armed Services Committee, where she worked on the 2014 National Defense Authorization Act. Her appointment to the committee was seen as a benefit to South Dakota's Ellsworth Air Force Base. In March 2011, Noem was critical of President Barack Obama's approach to the NATO-led military intervention in the 2011 Libyan civil war, calling on him to provide more information about the U.S.'s role in the conflict, and characterizing his statements as vague and ambiguous.
==== Health care ====
Noem opposes the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and has voted to repeal it. Having unsuccessfully sought to repeal it, she sought to defund it while retaining measures such as the Indian Health Care Improvement Act, the provision allowing parents to keep their children on their health insurance plan into their 20s, and the high-risk pools. Noem wanted to add such provisions to federal law as limits on medical malpractice lawsuits and allowing patients to buy health insurance plans from other states. She supported cuts to Medicaid funding proposed by Republican Budget Committee chairman Paul Ryan. A study found that this action would reduce benefits for South Dakota Medicaid recipients by 55 percent.
==== Immigrants and refugees ====
Noem supported President Donald Trump's 2017 Executive Order 13769, that suspended the U.S. refugee program for 120 days and banned all travel to the U.S. by nationals of seven Muslim-majority countries for 90 days. She said she supported a temporary ban on accepting refugees from "terrorist-held" areas, but "did not address whether she supports other aspects of the order, which led to the detention of legal U.S. residents such as green-card holders, and people with dual citizenship as they reentered the country" in the aftermath of the order's issuance.
In 2019, Noem consented to South Dakota's participation in the U.S. Refugee Resettlement Program following a Trump executive order that allowed state and local governments to opt out.
==== In-vitro fertilization and embryonic stem-cell research ====
In August 2010, while running for Congress, Noem responded to a questionnaire from the Christian Coalition voter guide indicating that she would vote to ban embryonic stem-cell research. In 2015, she co-sponsored legislation to amend the 14th Amendment to define human life and personhood as beginning at the moment of fertilization, without exceptions for in-vitro fertilization or embryonic stem-cell research.
==== Taxes ====
In 2017, Noem was on the conference committee that negotiated the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, which she touted as giving the average South Dakota family a $1,200 tax cut.
In 2018, Noem was reported to have "pitched the idea to members of the conservative House Freedom Caucus" to attach her online sales tax bill to the government funding package as part of an omnibus. A court case under consideration in the South Dakota Supreme Court involved requiring "certain out-of-state retailers to collect its sales taxes." Noem said that South Dakota businesses (and by extension businesses nationwide) "could be forced to comply with 1,000 different tax structures nationwide without the tools necessary to do so", adding that her legislation "provides a necessary fix."
Noem has called the budget deficit one of the most important issues facing Congress. She cosponsored H. J. Res. 2, which would require that total spending for any fiscal year not exceed total receipts. She cited the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Veterans Affairs, Medicaid, high-speed rail projects, cap-and-trade technical assistance, and subsidies for the Washington Metro rapid transit system as examples of federal programs where she would like to see cuts.
In 2011, Noem indicated that she would vote to raise the federal debt ceiling, but only if "tied to budget reforms that change the way we spend our dollars and how Washington, D.C., does business. It won't just be a one-time spending cut." She ultimately voted for S. 365, The Budget Control Act of 2011, which allowed Obama to raise the debt ceiling in exchange for spending cuts to be decided by a bipartisan committee. She also said she wanted to eliminate the estate tax, lower the corporate tax rate, and simplify the tax code. She said she would not raise taxes to balance the budget.
Committee assignments
Committee on Ways and Means
Subcommittee on Human Resources
Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures
Caucus memberships
Republican Study Committee
Congressional Arts Caucus
Afterschool Caucuses
Congressional Western Caucus
== Governor of South Dakota (2019–2025) ==
=== Elections ===
==== 2018 ====
In November 2016, Noem announced she would run for governor of South Dakota in 2018 rather than seek reelection to Congress. She defeated South Dakota Attorney General Marty Jackley in the June Republican primary, 56 to 44 percent, and Democratic nominee Billie Sutton in the general election, 51 to 48 percent.
==== 2022 ====
In November 2021, Noem announced she was running for reelection as governor. State Representative Steven Haugaard, a Republican, announced he was running against Noem. In February 2022, House Democratic Minority Leader Jamie Smith announced he was seeking the Democratic nomination.
In the Republican primary in June, Noem defeated Haugaard, 76% to 24%. In the general election, she defeated Smith, 62% to 35%. Despite predictions of a competitive race, Noem flipped 17 counties that had previously voted Democratic and set a record for the most votes received by a candidate for governor in South Dakota.
=== Tenure ===
Noem was sworn in as governor on January 5, 2019, the first woman in that office in the state.
==== Abortion ====
Noem is anti-abortion. She has been lauded by the anti-abortion group Susan B. Anthony List and said she intends to maintain her 100% anti-abortion voting record.
In 2019, Noem signed bills restricting abortion, saying they would "crack down on abortion providers in South Dakota" and that a "strong and growing body of medical research provides evidence that unborn babies can feel, think, and recognize sounds in the womb. These are people, they must be given the same basic dignities as anyone else."
Following the overturning of Roe v. Wade, South Dakota became one of the first states to enact trigger laws banning abortions. Noem defended South Dakota's abortion ban, which only allows exceptions in cases in which the mother's life is in danger. When asked about the case of the 10-year-old child abuse victim who traveled from Ohio to Indiana to receive an abortion, Noem said she would not support changing the law to allow exceptions for rape victims, explaining that she did not "believe a tragic situation should be perpetuated by another tragedy".
Noem proclaimed 2024 the "Freedom for Life Year", promoting anti-abortion laws. In April 2024, she announced that she had reversed her support for a federal ban on abortion, saying she believed abortion law should be determined at the state level, and continued to support South Dakota's law banning abortion except to save the life of the pregnant patient, without exceptions for rape or incest.
==== Early childhood education ====
Noem is a vocal opponent of subsidized child care. Her administration rejected $7.5 million in federal funding for free summer meal programs for low-income residents and defeated multiple attempts to provide school lunches for eligible students. In 2023, Noem said, "I just don't think it's the government's job to pay or to raise people's children for them".
==== Access to public records ====
While running for governor in 2018, Noem made government transparency part of her platform. In her first State of the State address she pledged to "work toward building the most transparent administration South Dakota has ever seen".
Throughout her tenure, news outlets and government transparency advocates sued Noem for failing to provide the transparency she advocated. Complaints included denial of immediate access to a state-funded report about the alleged presence of critical race theory and "divisive concepts" in South Dakota schools; denial of access to pardon records; not releasing the cost of the governor's security team; whipping votes against a bill to make public records of the cost of the governor's security; and attempts to seal records on an ethics investigation involving her daughter.
==== Anti-protest legislation ====
In response to protests against the Keystone Pipeline, Noem's office collaborated with the energy company TransCanada Corporation to develop anti-protest legislation, which Noem signed into law in 2019. The law created a fund to cover the costs of policing pipeline protests. Another law was passed to raise revenue for the fund by creating civil penalties for advising, directing, or encouraging participation in rioting. The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation banned Noem from their grounds as a result. The Indigenous Environmental Network, Sierra Club, and other groups challenged the laws in suits, arguing that they violated First Amendment rights by incentivizing the state to sue protesters. In 2020, after a federal court struck down sections of the legislation as unconstitutional, Noem brought legislation to repeal sections of the previous bill and clarify the definition of "incitement to riot".
==== China ====
Noem has called China "an enemy" of the U.S. In 2022, she issued an order banning TikTok from state-owned devices, saying the "Chinese Communist Party uses information it gathers on TikTok to manipulate the American people". In 2023, she signed an order prohibiting the downloading or use of any application or visiting of any site owned by the Chinese company Tencent, including WeChat, on state-owned devices. In 2024, she signed a bill prohibiting the governments of six countries—China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Russia, and Venezuela—and entities from those countries from buying agricultural land in South Dakota.
==== Conflict of interest action to professionally benefit daughter ====
In 2020, after Noem's 26-year-old daughter, Kassidy Peters, was denied a real estate appraisal license, Noem summoned to her office Sherry Bren, a state employee who had directed South Dakota's Appraiser Certification Program for 30 years. Attendees included Peters, Noem's chief of staff Tony Venhuizen, Department of Labor Attorney Amber Mulder and Labor Secretary Marcia Hultman.
By telephone, the group was joined by the governor's general counsel, Tom Hart, and a lawyer from the state's Department of Labor and Regulation, Graham Oey. A week later, Hultman demanded Bren's resignation. Bren repeatedly, but unsuccessfully, tried to resolve the issues short of resigning, eventually filing an age discrimination complaint. She received a $200,000 settlement as part of a nondisclosure agreement to withdraw her complaint and leave her position. Noem's spokesperson characterized the allegations as an example of how Noem cut through "bureaucratic red tape".
After the Associated Press published a story about the incident, the State Senate's Government Operations and Audit Committee was delegated to investigate. In October 2021, the Committee invited Hultman and Bren to come before it to discuss the appraisal program in light of the controversy. On December 14, 2021, Bren testified before the Government Operations and Audit Committee. She said that Peters received an Agreed Disposition around March/April 2020. Around July 20, 2020, Peters received a letter and/or Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law when she failed to meet the requirements of the Agreed Disposition. Bren said that on July 26, Department of Labor attorney Amber Mulder told her to be prepared to discuss "what is the definition of a serious deficiency; what criteria do you use for denials; how many are denied each year; how many are approved; are we saying that Kassidy can take certain classes and resubmit".
Bren said she felt "very nervous" and "intimidated" when meeting with Noem and attorneys and Labor Secretary Hultman. Bren mentioned during the meeting at the mansion some appraisal classes that she thought would be helpful to Peters. Bren said that Noem was upset that she was just now hearing about the classes. Bren testified that the decision to depart from recognized upgrade procedures and offer a third opportunity would be Hultman's. Bren said this was beyond the recognized procedures and "not normal."
On November 1, 2021, the Government Accountability Board set an agenda to discuss this issue and another issue based on complaints brought by Ravnsborg. On December 15, 2021, the Government Accountability Board referred one of the two complaints to Noem for a response and sent the other back to the complainant for further information. On February 3, 2022, the Government Accountability Board referred the second complaint to Noem for a response and gave her until April 15, 2022, to answer both pending complaints.
On February 24, 2022, Republican State Representative John Mills introduced House Resolution 7004, "Addressing the Governor's unacceptable actions in matters related to the appraiser certification program", against Noem. On March 1, the resolution was debated and failed by a margin of 29 to 38 with three excused, including Noem's primary opponent Steven Haugaard and U.S. House candidate Taffy Howard.
==== Conflict with Native American tribes ====
In 2024, it was reported that all nine tribes of South Dakota banned Noem from entering any tribal lands, prohibiting her from entering almost 20% of South Dakota. Other media reported that one of the nine tribes, the Yankton Sioux, had not officially banned Noem. The Oglala Sioux banned Noem in February, followed by the Cheyenne River Sioux, the Standing Rock Sioux, and the Rosebud Sioux in April, and the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, the Crow Creek Sioux, and the Flandreau Santee Sioux in May.
The tribes took action after demanding that Noem apologize for her comments about them. In January 2024, Noem said that an "invasion is coming over the southern border" of the United States, and the "enemy is the Mexican drug cartels", which are "perpetrating violence in each of our states, even here in South Dakota ... The cartels are using our reservations to facilitate the spread of drugs throughout the Midwest." In March 2024, Noem said there were "some tribal leaders that I believe are personally benefiting from the cartels being there", but gave no evidence, and that there were people "who actually live in those situations, who call me and text me every day and say, 'Please, dear governor, please come help us in Pine Ridge. We are scared.'" She added: "they live with 80% to 90% unemployment. Their kids don't have any hope. They don't have parents who show up and help them."
Around January 2025, Noem apologized to the tribes for the misunderstanding between them, and the Flandreau Santee Sioux tribe dissolved its order banning Noem from its land. The tribe said, "the Governor has shown us that she is committed to protecting the people of South Dakota including the citizens of the nine Tribal Nations, who share mutual borders with the state", and expressed its support for her nomination as the Secretary of Homeland Security.
==== COVID-19 pandemic ====
During the COVID-19 pandemic in South Dakota, Noem was at first open to containment strategies. Over the following months, she segued to a hands-off approach. In November 2020, Noem used pandemic relief funds to promote tourism during a surge in cases in the state. She did not implement face mask mandates, raised doubts about the efficacy of mask-wearing, encouraged large gatherings without social distancing or mask-wearing, and questioned public health experts' advice.
As of December 2020, Noem was one of few governors who had not maintained statewide stay-at-home orders or face-mask mandates. Her response mirrored Trump's rhetoric and handling of COVID-19. She was rewarded for her COVID-19 response with a speech at the August 2020 Republican National Convention, which elevated her national profile. The Argus Leader called the RNC speech a "defining moment in her political career".
Early in the pandemic, Noem requested that the legislature pass a bill giving the state health secretary and county officials the power to close businesses and other entities. The House rejected the bill. On March 13, 2020, Noem ordered K-12 schools to close, and on April 6, she extended that order for the remainder of the school year. Also on April 6, Noem ordered businesses and local governments to practice social distancing and other CDC guidelines.
Early on, Noem also emphasized South Dakota's role in evaluating hydroxychloroquine, an antimalarial drug that Trump had touted as a cure for COVID-19. It was never shown to be useful in treating COVID-19 but can produce fatal cardiac arrhythmia.
In early 2020 one of the largest COVID-19 outbreaks in the U.S. occurred in South Dakota. The Smithfield Foods production plant in Sioux Falls had four deaths, with nearly 1,300 workers and their family members testing positive. Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar misinformed a group of legislators that meatpacking plants employees were unlikely to be infected at work, but that their "home and social" habits were spreading the contagion. Noem may have been the first officeholder to publicly express that view.
On April 13, 2020, of an outbreak where hundreds of workers had tested positive at a Smithfield pork plant, she told Fox News, "We believe that 99 percent of what's going on today wasn't happening inside the facility". The industry didn't explain the deaths from COVID-19 of USDA food-safety inspectors from three plants. Almost 200 inspectors contracted symptomatic COVID-19.
In the pandemic's early days, the Food Safety and Inspection Service did not provide protective equipment to its monitors, forbidding them from wearing masks in the slaughterhouses as it feared that might accentuate the risks. On April 9, 2020, the agency said its inspectors would be allowed to wear masks if the meatpacking plants' owners gave the federal employees permission to do so. Inspectors were expected to supply their own masks. A month later, after publication of the risk of spreading the virus, the USDA started giving its inspectors masks. Noem had said that the plant was in full operation as an essential food manufacturing facility. Forty-eight of Smithfield's workers were hospitalized. On April 6, 2020, Noem issued an executive order that said people "shall" follow guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; she also ordered everyone over age 65 in Minnehaha and Lincoln counties to stay home for three weeks.
Noem did not mandate social distancing or the wearing of face masks at a July 3, 2020, event at Mount Rushmore with Trump present. Health experts warned that large gatherings without social distancing or mask-wearing posed a risk to public health. Noem publicly doubted scientific recommendations on the usefulness of masks. In an opinion piece in the Rapid City Journal, she defended her views, citing analysis by the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, a group known for promoting pseudoscience. The Association of American Physicians and Surgeons had called vaccination the equivalent of "human experimentation."
COVID cases increased drastically in South Dakota after the 2020 Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, in which Noem participated. COVID-19 patients hospitalized in South Dakota on October 22, 2020, reached a record high of 355, including 75 in Intensive Care Units. South Dakota's two largest hospital systems rescheduled elective procedures to increase available space and personnel to accommodate the surge. In the absence of a statewide mask mandate, hospital systems urged people to wear masks while in the company of those outside their own households. Sioux Falls Mayor Paul TenHaken advised his constituents, "Wear a dang mask."
Sixteen weeks after Trump's 2020 executive order that provided enhanced weekly unemployment benefits of $300 as part of the U.S. federal government response to the pandemic, Noem opted out of the program, citing a low state unemployment rate. South Dakota was the only state to refuse the assistance. Its jobless rate in June was 7.2%, up from 3.1% in March, though down from 10.9% in April. Acceptance of the funding required the state to augment the benefit by $100 unless other jobless assistance allowed the match to be waived.
From 2020 to 2021, the following events took place:
Noem supported the annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally in August 2020, despite warnings from experts that it could spread COVID-19. Nearly 500,000 bikers attended the event. Public health notices were issued for saloons and other businesses in the Sturgis area. By the end of August, dozens of cases linked to attendance at the event were reported in several states.
In September 2020, amid a surge of new cases, Noem announced that she would spend $5 million of relief funding on a state tourism campaign. She used $819,000 of those funds to have the state's Department of Tourism run a 30-second Fox News commercial she had narrated during the 2020 Republican National Convention.
During September 2020, over 550 students became infected at South Dakota universities; 200 more cases were reported in K–12 schools.
In October 2020, as South Dakota reported the country's second-highest number of new COVID-19 cases per capita and hospitals began to prioritize treatment of severe COVID-19 cases over lesser ones, Noem said the higher case numbers were because of more testing, despite the positive test rate and hospitalization rate also increasing.
In February 2021, Noem signed a bill limiting civil liability for certain exposures to COVID-19. The bill exempted healthcare providers and other businesses, including those selling personal protective equipment, from lawsuits unless COVID-19 exposure resulted from gross negligence, recklessness, or willful misconduct.
Also in February 2021, Noem announced her opposition to a bill prohibiting schools and universities from requiring students to get vaccinated. In May, she signed an executive order prohibiting government facilities from requiring proof of vaccination to access services, a policy she called "un-American". In August, Noem opposed legislation proposed by Republican state legislators Jon Hansen and Scott Odenbach that would prohibit businesses from requiring vaccinations as a condition for employment.
In July 2021, Noem criticized other Republican governors for enacting mandatory measures against COVID-19 and trying to "rewrite history" about it. She argued that South Dakota had effectively combated the pandemic by, instead, testing and isolating cases. South Dakota had the 10th-highest death rate and third-highest case rate at that time.
==== Department of Corrections ====
In July 2021, Noem placed Secretary of the Department of Corrections Mike Liedholt on administrative leave, and fired South Dakota State Penitentiary Warden Darin Young and Deputy Warden Jennifer Dreiske, after receiving an anonymous note with complaints regarding pay, medical coverage and instances of sexual harassment. Liedholt later announced his retirement. Later that month, after meeting with prison employees, despite lingering COVID-19 cases, Noem ended the prison's mask mandate.
In August 2021, Noem announced that the CGL Group, a California-based company, was hired for $166,410 to comprehensively review the Department of Corrections operations. At the same time, the director of the prison work program was fired, and two other DOC employees relieved of their duties.
The prison work program director, Stephany Bawek, subsequently filed a complaint with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), alleging that she was retaliated against for reporting sexual harassment by Young. On March 14, 2022, Bawek filed a lawsuit in federal district court alleging that she was fired for reporting incidents of sexual harassment in the workplace.
==== Deployment of South Dakota National Guard to southern border (2021) ====
In June 2021, Noem announced that she was sending members of the South Dakota National Guard to Texas's border with Mexico. Tennessee billionaire Willis Johnson said he would donate the money necessary for the deployment. On September 22, 2021, the Center for Public Integrity sued the South Dakota National Guard and the U.S. Department of Defense in the federal district court in the District of Columbia to obtain documents about the deployment and the donation. The 2022 National Defense Authorization Act banned National Guard members from crossing state borders to perform duties paid for by private donors.
==== Fireworks at Mount Rushmore lawsuit (2021) ====
In 2021, Noem sued U.S. Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland, seeking to have fireworks at Mount Rushmore for Independence Day. Fireworks displays had been halted at the site in 2009 by the National Park Service due to fire risks and other reasons. Noem hired the private Washington D.C. law firm Consovoy McCarthy to bring the case, with South Dakota state taxpayer money paying for the suit. The U.S. District Court dismissed the suit, with Judge Roberto Lange finding that four of the five reasons given by the NPS and Secretary Haaland were valid. On July 13, Noem filed an appeal with the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals.
On March 14, 2022, the National Park Service again denied Noem's application for a permit to have fireworks at Mount Rushmore for the 4th of July, citing opposition from Native American groups and the possibility of wildfires.
==== Governor's mansion spending ====
In May 2019, Noem proposed to build a fence around the governor's mansion, estimated to cost approximately $400,000, but retracted the proposal. In 2020, the 2019 project was revived; a senior Noem advisor told the media that the decision was based on the recommendations of Noem's security team. In late November 2021, it was reported that Noem spent $68,000 of taxpayer dollars on imported rugs from India, chandeliers and a sauna for the mansion.
==== Guns ====
In 2019, Noem signed a bill into law abolishing South Dakota's permit requirement to carry a concealed handgun. In 2022, she sought to build a gun range in Meade County with government funds, but the legislature rejected it.
At a 2023 NRA forum in Indiana, Noem said that her two-year-old granddaughter had a shotgun, a rifle, and a "little pony named Sparkles".
==== LGBTQ rights ====
Noem opposes same-sex marriage. In 2015, she said she disagreed with Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court's ruling that same-sex marriage bans are unconstitutional.
On March 8, 2021, Noem announced on Twitter that she would sign into law H.B. 1217, the Women's Fairness in Sports Bill, which bans transgender athletes from playing on or against women's school and college sports teams. Some critics of the bill said they were worried it might turn away business and cost the state money. On March 19, Noem issued a style and form veto to H.B. 1217 that substantially altered the bill, not just correcting grammar and spelling mistakes. She defended her position on Tucker Carlson Tonight.
On March 29, the South Dakota House rejected Noem's veto, 67–2. The bill was returned to Noem for reconsideration, and she vetoed it again. The House failed to override her veto, by a vote of 45–24. 47 votes were needed to override. Many conservative commentators criticized Noem for vetoing the bill.
In December 2021, Noem and her office signaled their support for a bill called "An Act to Protect Fairness in women's sports." The bill would require young athletes to join teams that align with their sex assigned at birth.
In 2021, Noem signed a religious refusal bill into law. The legislation amended the state RFRA to allow business owners to cite religious beliefs as a basis to deny products or services to people based on sexual orientation or gender identity. The legislation, S.B. 124, was criticized by civil rights groups who said it would enable discrimination against LGBTQ+ people, women, and members of minority faiths. This bill was the first major state RFRA law signed into law in six years, and resembles the 2015 bill signed into law by Indiana Governor Mike Pence.
==== "Meth. We're on It" campaign ====
On November 18, 2019, Noem released a meth awareness campaign named "Meth. We're on It". The campaign was widely mocked and Noem was criticized for spending $449,000 of public funds while hiring an out-of-state advertising agency from Minnesota to lead the project. She defended the campaign as successful in raising awareness.
==== Opposition to cannabis legalization ====
In 2020, Noem opposed two ballot measures to legalize cannabis for medical use and recreational use in South Dakota, saying, "The fact is, I've never met someone who got smarter from smoking pot. It's not good for our kids. And it's not going to improve our communities." After both measures passed, she and two police officers filed a lawsuit seeking a court decision against the measure legalizing recreational use, Amendment A.
On February 8, 2021, circuit court judge Christina Klinger struck down the amendment as unconstitutional. After the ruling, she also sought to delay the implementation of the medical marijuana initiative for a year. Ultimately, her efforts failed and medical marijuana became legal on July 1, 2021.
Noem has opposed the cultivation of industrial hemp, vetoing a bill that passed the South Dakota House and Senate in 2019 to legalize hemp cultivation. She said, "There is no question in my mind that normalizing hemp, like legalizing medical marijuana, is part of a larger strategy to undermine enforcement of the drug laws and make legalized marijuana inevitable."
==== RV park in Custer State Park proposal ====
In 2022, Noem sought to locate a government-paid RV park in Custer State Park. The proposal was met with significant opposition to include government competing with private business and disturbing the pristine nature of the park. The House Agricultural and Natural Resources deferred the bill to the 41st day, effectively killing it, by a vote of 9–3.
==== School prayer bill ====
In 2022, Noem sought to have prayer put back in school after mentioning it in a speech in Iowa. On January 21, 2022, the "prayer bill", HB 1015, was defeated in the House Education Committee by a vote of 9–6. An aide to Noem admitted to the committee that no schools were consulted about the proposal.
==== Staff ====
On November 19, 2021, Noem named her fifth chief of staff, Mark Miller, to replace outgoing chief of staff Aaron Scheibe. Scheibe served as chief of staff from May 1 to November 19, 2021. Tony Venhuizen preceded Scheibe from March 2, 2020, to April 23, 2021. Josh Shields preceded Venhuizen from October 1, 2019, to January 1, 2020. Herb Jones was Noem's first chief of staff, and served from January 5 to October 1, 2019.
==== Trade ====
In February 2019, she said that the Trump administration's trade wars with China and the European Union had devastated South Dakota's economy, particularly the agricultural sector, "by far" the state's largest industry.
==== Supplemental income from political donations ====
In 2023, while serving as South Dakota's governor, Noem funneled $80,000 in fees from a nonprofit, American Resolve Policy Fund, into her personal company. She failed to disclose this payment in her federal ethics filings upon joining DHS, which ethics experts say violates disclosure rules.
== Secretary of Homeland Security (2025–present) ==
=== Nomination and confirmation ===
On November 12, 2024, President-elect Trump selected Noem to serve as Secretary of Homeland Security in his second term. The Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs held a confirmation hearing for her on January 17, 2025. The committee advanced her nomination in a 13–2 vote on January 20. On January 25, the Senate confirmed Noem by a vote of 59–34, with seven Democrats voting to confirm.
=== Tenure ===
After resigning as governor of South Dakota, Noem was sworn in on January 25, 2025, by Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas as Secretary of Homeland Security, with Louisiana Governor Jeff Landry holding the Bible.
In the early morning of January 28, Noem joined multiple federal law enforcement agencies, including ICE, to lead a raid on illegal immigrants in New York City. Her department posted a video of the raid on X that showed an apparent arrest.
After the 2025 Potomac River mid-air collision, Noem deployed U.S. Coast Guard resources for search and rescue efforts.
One of Noem's first acts in office was to rescind an 18-month extension of temporary protected status for about 600,000 Venezuelans who had fled Nicolás Maduro's authoritarian regime. In March, she revoked legal protections for 532,000 people from Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Venezuela who had settled in the U.S. since 2022.
In February, CNN host Dana Bash interviewed Noem about the new administration's policies and the Department of Homeland Security, including the use of Guantanamo Bay to detain migrants, which Noem said would be temporary. Noem also told Bash that she was comfortable with the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) having access to sensitive data, saying that it was identifying waste, fraud, and abuse. She added, "information he [Elon Musk] has is looking at programs, not focusing on personal data and information."
In April, The Washington Post reported that Noem and acting Social Security Administration commissioner Leland Dudek had instructed the Social Security Administration to falsely list over 6,000 living immigrants in its database of dead people.
On the evening of April 20, Noem's purse was stolen from a D.C. burger restaurant. The purse contained important items, like her government access badge, apartment keys, $2,000–3,000 in cash, her passport, and blank checks. The incident raised various concerns, including about her Secret Service detail presence.
The Trump administration has claimed that around 140,000 people had been deported as of April 2025, though some estimates put the number at roughly half that.
During a May 20 Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee hearing on the Department of Homeland Security's budget for fiscal year 2026, Noem incorrectly defined habeas corpus as "a constitutional right that the president has to be able to remove people from this country" in response to a question from Senator Maggie Hassan. In actuality, habeas corpus is the constitutional right for a detainee to request that a court review the lawfulness of their detention, which would require the government to justify the detention. After being corrected on the definition, Noem said that the American president "has the authority under the Constitution to" choose to suspend habeas corpus. In fact, the constitutional clause on the suspension of habeas corpus, which reads "Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it", is in Article One of the United States Constitution on the powers of Congress, not Article Two of the United States Constitution on the powers of the executive branch.
On May 22, Noem attempted to revoke the Student and Exchange Visitor Program certification for Harvard University (see Education policy of the second Donald Trump administration).
During a news conference in Los Angeles on June 12, Noem failed to recognize the senior U.S. Senator from California, Alex Padilla, who was present at the news conference. When Padilla attempted to ask Noem a question, he was forcibly removed from the room, pushed to the ground, and handcuffed by FBI and Secret Service agents.
In June 2025, ProPublica reported that Noem failed to disclose past income from a dark money group in her federal ethics filings upon joining DHS, which ethics experts say violates disclosure rules. ProPublica announced in November 2025 that a firm tied to Noem had received $200 million in DHS ad contracts during the government shutdown. The firm, Strategy Group has multiple ties with Noem and her political career.
In August 2025, Noem announced that 1.6 million unauthorized immigrants had left the United States since January of that year.
== Electoral history ==
== Presidential politics ==
=== 2020 presidential election ===
In 2020, the Trump-Pence ticket carried South Dakota, receiving 261,043 votes to 150,471 for the Biden-Harris ticket. Noem was initially designated to be one of Trump's three presidential electors for South Dakota, but later withdrew.
Noem has claimed that the 2020 presidential election, in which Biden defeated Trump, was marred by widespread voter fraud; no evidence supports this claim. On December 8, 2020, Noem tacitly acknowledged the outcome of the election when she referred to a "Biden administration" during her annual state budget address, but even after Biden was inaugurated in January, she still refused to accept that the election was "free and fair".
After the U.S. Capitol was attacked by a pro-Trump mob on January 6, 2021, disrupting the counting of the electoral votes formalizing Biden's victory, Noem spoke out against the violence, saying: "We are all entitled to peacefully protest. Violence is not a part of that." One day after calling for peace and reconciliation in the aftermath of the assault on the Capitol, Noem called the two newly elected Democratic senators from Georgia, Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock, "communists" in an op-ed for The Federalist, prompting criticism from South Dakota Democrats.
=== 2024 presidential election ===
Noem endorsed Trump in the 2024 Republican Party presidential primaries in September 2023, at a rally hosted for him in Rapid City, South Dakota. Trump invited her to appear with him at a March 2024 rally in Vandalia, Ohio.
During Trump's 2024 presidential campaign, commentators suggested that Noem was a potential running mate for Trump. In September 2023, when asked on Newsmax if she would agree to serve as Trump's running mate, Noem responded that she would "in a heartbeat". At the February 2024 CPAC conference, Noem tied with Vivek Ramaswamy as attendees' top choice for Trump's running mate, with each receiving 15% of the vote in a straw poll. Also that month, Trump acknowledged that Noem was one of the names on his shortlist to be his running mate. In March 2024, CNN reported that Noem was one of four people Trump had shown increased interest in selecting as his running mate.
In April 2024, insiders said that her odds of being selected as Trump's running mate had waned due to her stance on abortion and the revelation in her book No Going Back that she shot and killed her pet dog and a goat. It was noted that "additions, subtractions and the emergence of dark-horse candidates remain possible", but on June 5, NBC News reported that Noem was no longer on Trump's shortlist of running mates.
== Personal life ==
She married Bryon Noem in 1992, in Watertown, South Dakota. They have three children. In 2011, when Noem moved to Washington to take her congressional office, her family continued to live on a ranch near Castlewood, South Dakota.
Noem is a Protestant. As of 2018, her family attended a Foursquare Church in Watertown, South Dakota. She is a grandmother.
In September 2021, conservative media outlet American Greatness reported that Noem was having an extramarital affair with political operative Corey Lewandowski. Noem called the report a "disgusting lie", saying, "these old, tired attacks on conservative women are based on a falsehood that we can't achieve anything without a man's help." In September 2023, the New York Post and the Daily Mail published similar reports about Noem and Lewandowski, which Noem's spokesman denied. In September 2025, New York reported that the romantic relationship between Noem and Lewandowski is ongoing, and that Lewandowski plays a significant role in running the Department of Homeland Security, acting as Noem's "de facto chief of staff".
In March 2024, Noem shared a video in which she identified herself as the South Dakota governor and promoted a cosmetic dentist business that she said helped her after she lost her front teeth in a biking accident years before: "I love my new family at Smile Texas!" Noem has since become one of the most prominent examples of so-called "Mar-a-Lago face", a cosmetic surgery trend among conservative women, and what has been called Republican makeup.
In August 2024, Noem and her sister, Cindy Grantham, were inducted into the Daughters of the American Revolution by State Regent Katherine Tarrell at the South Dakota State Fair.
=== No Going Back ===
In April 2024, pre-release excerpts of Noem's second autobiography, No Going Back, received broad criticism and condemnation. In a chapter titled "Bad Day to Be a Goat", Noem recounts that she brought her family's 14-month-old female wirehaired pointer, Cricket, along for a pheasant hunt with guests at her family's hunting lodge. Expecting Cricket to emulate the older, trained, dogs on the hunt, Noem instead felt that Cricket ruined the hunt by "chasing all those birds and having the time of her life". After the dog killed several chickens on the same day, Noem decided Cricket was "dangerous" and "untrainable", and shot the dog dead in a gravel pit. Noem then killed her family's male goat, which she said was "disgusting, musky, rancid".
Noem initially responded that "tough decisions like this happen all the time on a farm", and subsequently said the incident occurred 20 years ago, and that "the fake news ... put the worst spin" on the story, as Cricket was a "working dog" that "came to us from a family who had found her way too aggressive ... a responsible owner does what they need to do". The story led to bipartisan criticism of Noem and doubt about the likelihood of her selection as Trump's vice presidential running mate intensified. A fundraising dinner for Noem in Colorado scheduled for May 4 was canceled after the group and the hotel hosting the event received death threats.
Later in the memoir, Noem wrote of imagining herself becoming president in 2025, taking over from Biden, and that the first thing she would do would be to "make sure Joe Biden's dog was nowhere on the grounds ('Commander, say hello to Cricket for me')", in an apparent suggestion that Commander be killed. Months earlier, Commander had been moved out of the White House after having bitten Secret Service agents and others on over a dozen occasions. In an interview, Noem said that Biden was "accountable" and called for Biden to "make a decision" on "what to do" about Commander.
Noem also wrote “I remember when I met with North Korean dictator Kim Jong Un. I'm sure he underestimated me, having no clue about my experience staring down little tyrants (I'd been a children's pastor, after all). Dealing with foreign leaders takes resolve, preparation, and determination.” Her spokesperson said the claim was an error and would be expunged from the book's future editions. Separately, Noem claimed in the book that she was once "slated to meet with French president Emmanuel Macron", but called off the meeting because he made a "very pro-Hamas and anti-Israel comment to the press"; the French government responded that it had neither invited Noem nor had any record of a scheduled meeting with her.
The Washington Post's literary critic Ron Charles wrote that the "description of Cricket's Last Stand is the one time in this howlingly dull book that Noem demonstrates any sense of setting, character, plot and emotional honesty. Otherwise, it's mostly a hodgepodge of worn chestnuts and conservative maxims".
=== Health ===
On June 17, 2025, Noem was hospitalized for an unspecified allergic reaction. She was released that night.
== Autobiographies ==
Noem, Kristi (2022). Not My First Rodeo. New York: Twelve. ISBN 978-1538707050.
Noem, Kristi (2024). No Going Back. Nashville: Center Street. ISBN 978-1546008163.
== See also ==
List of female governors in the United States
Women in conservatism in the United States
Women in the United States House of Representatives
== References ==
== External links ==
Official site of the Governor of South Dakota
Kristi Noem for Governor
Appearances on C-SPAN
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Financial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission
Legislation sponsored at the Library of Congress
Profile at Vote Smart |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby-throated_bulbul | Ruby-throated bulbul | The ruby-throated bulbul (Rubigula dispar), or yellow bulbul, is a member of the bulbul family of passerine birds. It was formerly considered conspecific with other Rubigula bulbuls, such as the flame-throated bulbul. It is found on Sumatra, Java, and Bali.
== Taxonomy and systematics ==
The ruby-throated bulbul was originally described in the genus Turdus and later moved to genus Pycnonotus. Pycnonotus was found to be polyphyletic in recent molecular phylogenetic studies and five bulbul species, including the ruby-throated bulbul, moved to Rubigula. Until 2008, the ruby-throated bulbul was considered as conspecific with the black-capped, black-crested, flame-throated and Bornean bulbuls, but these are all now treated as distinct.
There are two subspecies:
Rubigula dispar dispar. Iris yellow. Java, Bali.
Rubigula dispar matamerah. Iris red. Sumatra.
== Description ==
It is 17–20 cm long, virtually crestless, has a black head with a deep red throat, greenish-yellow back and wings, yellow underparts, and a greenish-black tail. The bill and legs are black.
== Distribution and habitat ==
This is a bird of forest and dense scrub.
== Behaviour and ecology ==
It builds its nest in a bush, with a typical clutch size of two to four eggs. The ruby-throated bulbul feeds on fruit and insects.
== References ==
Rasmussen, P.C., and J.C. Anderton. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2: Attributes and Status. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions, Washington D.C. and Barcelona |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Kreisky#Life_and_political_career | Bruno Kreisky | Bruno Kreisky (German: [ˈbʁuːno ˈkʁaɪ̯ski]; 22 January 1911 – 29 July 1990) was an Austrian social democratic politician who served as foreign minister from 1959 to 1966 and as chancellor from 1970 to 1983. Aged 72, he was the oldest chancellor after World War II.
Kreisky's 13-year tenure was the longest of any chancellor in republican Austria and, as an influential political figure in Western European social democracy, he worked closely with like-minded leaders Willy Brandt of West Germany and Olof Palme of Sweden in the Socialist International.
== Life and political career ==
Kreisky was born in Margareten, a district of Vienna, to a non-observant Jewish family. His parents were Max (Markus) Kreisky (1876, Klattau – 1944) and Irene Kreisky née Felix (1884, Třebíč – 1969). His father worked as a textile manufacturer. Shocked by the level of poverty and violence in Austria during the 1920s, he joined the youth wing of the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1925 at age 15. In 1927, he joined the Young Socialist Workers against the wishes of his parents. In 1929, he began studying law at the University of Vienna at the advice of Otto Bauer, who urged him to study law rather than medicine, as he had originally planned. He remained politically active during this period. In 1931, he left the Jewish religious community, becoming agnostic. In 1934, when the Socialist Party was banned by the Dollfuss dictatorship, he became active in underground political work. He was arrested in January 1935 and convicted of high treason, but was released in June 1936. In March 1938, the Austrian state was incorporated into Germany through the Anschluss, and in September, Kreisky escaped the Nazi persecution of Austrian Jews and the coming Holocaust by emigrating to Sweden, where he remained until 1945. On 23 April 1942, he married Vera Fürth (30 December 1916 – 5 December 1988) and had one son and one daughter.
He returned to Austria in May 1946, but he was soon back in Stockholm, assigned to the Austrian legation. In 1951, he returned to Vienna, where Federal President Theodor Körner appointed him Assistant Chief of Staff and political adviser. In 1953, he was appointed Undersecretary in the Foreign Affairs Department of the Austrian Chancellery, and in this position he took part in negotiating the 1955 Austrian State Treaty, which ended the four-power occupation of Austria and restored Austria's independence and neutrality.
Kreisky was elected to the Austrian parliament, the Nationalrat, as a Socialist during the 1956 election. He was elected to the Party Executive along with Bruno Pittermann, Felix Slavik, and Franz Olah, and thus became a member of the central leadership body of the party. After the 1959 election, he became foreign minister in the coalition cabinet of Chancellor Julius Raab (ÖVP), a post he continued to hold under Raab's successors Alfons Gorbach (1961–1964) and Josef Klaus (1964–1966). He played a leading role in setting up the European Free Trade Association, helped solve the South Tyrol question with Italy, and proposed a "Marshall Plan" for the countries of the Third World.
In 1966, the ÖVP under Klaus won an absolute majority in the Nationalrat. Klaus had enough parliamentary support to govern alone; indeed, during the campaign, he had called for an end to the grand coalition that had governed Austria since 1945. Memories of the hyperpartisanship that characterised the First Republic were still strong, so he approached Kreisky with new coalition terms. While Kreisky and the other Socialist leadership supported retaining the coalition, the rank and file balked at the proposed terms, and talks broke down. Kreisky resigned from the cabinet, and the ÖVP formed the first one-party government of the Second Republic. The Socialists retained some power and were informally consulted on all major decisions. In February 1967, Kreisky was elected chairman of the Socialist Party. At the March 1970 elections, the Socialists won 81 seats, two short of a majority. Kreisky became the first Socialist Chancellor since 1920, heading the first purely left-wing government in modern Austrian history. He was also Austria's first Jewish chancellor. Kreisky's government was tolerated by the then national-liberal Freedom Party in return for electoral reforms that expanded the Nationalrat and increased the proportionality of votes. Following the passage of these reforms, he called fresh elections in October 1971. Although the reforms were intended to benefit smaller parties, the Socialists won a strong majority government with 93 seats. They also won half the popular vote, something no Austrian party had ever achieved in a free election. Kreisky was reelected in 1975 and 1979 elections, each time winning comfortable majorities in the Nationalrat.
Kreisky turned 70 in 1981, and by this time the voters had become increasingly uncomfortable with what they saw as his complacency and preoccupation with international issues. At the 1983 election, the Socialists lost their absolute majority in the Nationalrat. Kreisky declined to form a minority government and resigned, nominating Fred Sinowatz, his Minister of Education, as his successor. His health was declining, and in 1984, he had an emergency kidney transplant. During his final years, he occasionally made bitter remarks directed at his party, which had made him their honorary chairman. He died in Vienna in July 1990.
== Political views and programs ==
In office, Kreisky and his close ally, Justice Minister Christian Broda, pursued a policy of liberal reform in a country which had a tradition of conservative Roman Catholicism. He reformed Austria's family law and its prisons, and he decriminalized abortion and homosexuality. Nevertheless, he sought to bridge the gap between the Catholic Church and the Austrian Socialist movement and found a willing collaborator in the then Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna, Franz König. Kreisky promised to reduce the mandatory military service from nine to six months. After his election, military service was reduced to eight months (if performed in one stretch, or six months plus eight weeks if broken into two segments).
During Kreisky's premiership, a wide range of progressive reforms was carried out. Amongst other reforms, employee benefits were expanded, the workweek was cut to 40 hours, and legislation providing for equality for women was passed. Kreisky's government established language rights for the country's Slovene and Croatian minorities. Following the 1974 oil shock, Kreisky committed Austria to developing nuclear power to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, although this policy was eventually abandoned after a referendum held in 1978. A moderate reform of the penal code was carried out, discrimination against illegitimate children was eliminated, marriage grants were introduced, a mother-child pass (a prenatal/post-natal care and infant health program) was established, a major reform of the penal code was carried out, and sex equality legislation was passed. In addition, four weeks of annual vacation were introduced, the office of ombudsman was established, the law of parentage was reordered, consumer protection legislation was passed, and social security coverage of the self-employed was introduced. In 1979, restrictions on redundancy and the dismissal of employees were made.
Widows' pensions were indexed in 1970, and in 1972, free medical checks for healthy people were made available, while optional health insurance for students was introduced. Periods of study, illness, and unemployment were allowed pensionable status, and in 1974 family and birth benefits were indexed. The 1973 Special Subsidies Act introduced subsidies for those made redundant as a result of structural changes. The Wage Continuation Act of 1974 introduced wage continuation for workers in private enterprises in cases of sickness. In 1976, accident insurance was extended to work-related activities. The Night-shift/Heavy Manual Work Act of 1981 introduced preventive healthcare and a special early retirement pension for heavy manual workers.
Full sick pay was extended to blue-collar unions in 1974, and family benefits were expanded to include full school transport (1971), a marriage payment (1972), payment for school books (1974), and a birth payment (1976). In 1978, due to a change from tax allowances to direct payments for children, family benefits increased significantly. Between 1973 and 1980, expenditure on health and education rose on average by 13.7% and by 12.9% per annum, respectively. In education, pupil/teacher ratios fell sharply and a new university law was passed in 1975 in order to make higher education more democratic. The educational sector was significantly expanded under Kreisky, greatly increasing the numbers of Austrians receiving a university education.
The 1972 Crime Victims Act established the principles of compensation for health damages caused (directly or indirectly) by crimes punishable by more than 6 months' imprisonment. The 1974 Town Renovation Act dealt with the renovation of residential town areas, while the 1975 Housing Property Act established the property rights of house- and flat-owners. In 1975, housing supplements were extended to cover the costs of housing improvements. In 1974, the work prohibition periods before and after work birth were extended up to 8 weeks, and in 1976, the regulations were extended to adoptive mothers. A 1981 law adapted pension schemes to changes in the families' load equalisation scheme, and introduced a widowers' pension equivalent to the widows' pension. In 1976, accident insurance for pupils and students was introduced, while an act passed that same year enabled people to undertake the care of close relatives who were ill. Under the Bankruptcy Wage Continuation Act of 1979, claims against bankrupt firms were paid from a special fund. In 1982, a maternity allowance payable for 16 weeks was introduced for self-employed women.
Although the 1955 State Treaty prevented Austria from joining the European Union, he supported European integration.
Kreisky questioned Zionism as a solution to the problems faced by the Jewish people, claiming that Jews were not an ethnic group or race, but rather a religious group. He even equated claims of the existence of the Jewish people as a distinctive nationality to Nazi claims of a Jewish race, and suggested that such ideas raised questions about Jewish dual loyalty. Kreisky referred to Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin as a terrorist, and had a stormy relationship with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, especially during the 1973 hostage taking. He once said that he was "the only politician in Europe Golda Meir can't blackmail." He cultivated friendly relations with Arab leaders such as Anwar Sadat and Muammar Gaddafi, and in 1980, Austria established relations with the Palestine Liberation Organisation.
Kreisky was notable for his allegedly apologetic approach to former Nazi party members and contemporary far-right Austrian politicians. For example, Kreisky described far-right populist Jörg Haider as "a political talent worth watching". In 1967, neo-Nazi Austrian leader Norbert Burger declared that he had no objections to Kreisky despite his Jewish background, claiming that he was simply a "German" and neither a religious Jew nor a Zionist. Kreisky felt that he had never personally suffered as a Jew, but only as a socialist. Following his election in 1970, Kreisky wanted to demonstrate that he was indeed "Chancellor of all Austrians", and appointed four politicians with Nazi backgrounds to his cabinet. When Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal reported that these four members of Kreisky's cabinet were former Nazis, Kreisky did not remove them from the government, though one did resign. They were former SS-Untersturmführer Hans Öllinger, who took part in flamethrower commandos, "fire brigades" that killed survivors after storming villages; Otto Rösch was a teacher at the NPEA/Napola Traiskirchen, an elite NSDAP school for the training of future National Socialist leaders; and
Erwin Frühbauer and Josef Moser, Nazi Party members. Kreisky responded that everybody had the right to make political mistakes in their youth. This incident marked the beginning of a bitter conflict, which did not end until Kreisky died. At a party conference, his secretary Leopold Gratz claimed that Wiesenthal was operating a "secret police and surveillance centre" and was in no way allowed to defame democratically elected politicians. Kreisky later on said that Wiesenthal "makes a living telling the world that Austria is anti-Semitic. What else can he do?"; he went on to call Wiesenthal a former Gestapo agent, based on Czechoslovak intelligence papers which turned out to be fakes, and wanted a parliamentary investigation of Wiesenthal's Jewish Documentary Center in Vienna. He claimed that Wiesenthal was employing mafia methods.
In 1986, Wiesenthal filed a libel lawsuit (although Kreisky had the power to declare immunity if he so chose), and when Kreisky later accused Wiesenthal of being an agent of the Gestapo, working with the Judenrat in Lvov, these accusations were incorporated into the lawsuit as well.Three years later the court found Kreisky guilty of defamation and sentenced him to pay a [suspended] substantial fine. of 270,000 schillings for defamation. The suit was decided in Wiesenthal's favour in 1989, but after Kreisky's death nine months later, his heirs refused to pay. Wiesenthal later commented: "Kreisky lost, and instead of paying the fine, he died." When the relevant archives were later opened for research, no evidence was found that Wiesenthal had been a collaborator. In 1975, Kreisky proposed that his Social Democratic Party should form a coalition with the Freedom Party, headed by Friedrich Peter. SS-Obersturmführer Friedrich Peter served in the 1st SS Infantry Brigade was attached to Einsatzgruppe C. Postwar Chairman of the Freedom Party [died 25 September 2005]; Kreisky supported Peter and said that Wiesenthal was a "crypto-racist" who himself was responsible for antisemitism in Austria.
In 1976, the Bruno Kreisky Foundation for Outstanding Achievements in the Area of Human Rights was founded to mark Kreisky's 65th birthday. Every two years, the Bruno Kreisky Human Rights Prize is awarded to an international figure who has advanced the cause of human rights.
Later in his life, Kreisky tried to help some Soviet dissidents. In particular, in 1983, he sent a letter to the Soviet premier Yuri Andropov demanding the release of dissident Yuri Orlov, but Andropov left Kreisky's letter unanswered.
== Legacy ==
Today, Kreisky's chancellorship is the subject of both controversy and nostalgia. Many of his former supporters see in Kreisky the last socialist of the old school and look back admiringly at an era when the standard of living was noticeably rising, when the welfare state was in full swing and when, by means of a state-funded programme promoting equality of opportunity, working class children were encouraged to stay on at school and eventually receive higher education. All this resulted in a decade of prosperity and optimism about the future.
Conservatives criticise Kreisky's policy of deficit spending, expressed in his famous comment during the 1979 election campaign that he preferred that the state run up high debts rather than see people become unemployed. They hold Kreisky responsible for Austria's subsequent economic difficulties.
Despite this criticism, Kreisky did much to transform Austria during his time in office, with considerable improvements in working conditions, a dramatic rise in the average standard of living, and a significant expansion of the welfare state, and arguably remains the most successful socialist Chancellor of Austria.
== See also ==
Chancellor of Austria for a complete list of Federal Chancellors since the founding of the Republic in 1918
Kreisky-Peter-Wiesenthal affair
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bischof, Günter, and Anton Pelinka, eds. The Kreisky Era in Austria (Transaction Publishers, 1994).
Kreisky, Bruno, et al. The Struggle for a Democratic Austria: Bruno Kreisky on Peace and Social Justice (Berghahn Books, 2000).
Secher, H. Pierre. Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria: A Political Biography (Dorrance Publ., 1993).
Vivekanandan, Bhagavathi. Global Visions of Olof Palme, Bruno Kreisky and Willy Brandt: International Peace and Security, Co-operation, and Development (Springer, 2016).
Wilsford, David, ed. Political Leaders of Contemporary Western Europe: A Biographical Dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 259–65
== External links ==
The Bruno Kreisky Foundation
Kreisky's dicta(in German)
The Kreisky Years
100 Years Bruno Kreisky For the 100'th Birthday of Bruno Kreisky – Overview about his political work |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opoku_Ware_II | Opoku Ware II | Otumfuo Opoku Ware II (born Jacob Matthew Poku; 30 November 1919 – 26 February 1999) was the 15th Asantehene. He succeeded his uncle Osei Tutu Agyeman Prempeh II on 27 July 1970. He ruled for 29 years until his death in February 1999. He was succeeded by Otumfuo Nana Osei Tutu II.
== Early life and education ==
The future monarch was born under the name Jacob Matthew Poku in Kumasi the capital of Ashanti, then the Ashanti Protectorate, in 1919 into the Ashanti royal family. At the time, Prempeh I was Asantehene, as the Ashanti Emperor-King is called, before being succeeded by his nephew Prempeh II in 1931. Prempeh II in turn was Opoku Ware II's uncle, making the boy one of several candidates to succeed him, as to be decided by the Queen-mother, or Nana Asantehemaa. After attending Anglican school, Poku went to Adisadel College in Cape Coast. After working in the public sector for a while, in the 1950s, he moved to the United Kingdom to study law at the Middle Temple and was admitted to the bar in 1962.
== Career ==
Then, he worked as a building inspector and later for the Public Works department from 1937 to 1943. After that, he was trained as a surveyor and worked on the Kumasi Traditional Council Hall and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology.
Returning to the Gold Coast now Ghana after being called to the bar in 1962, he worked in the capital Accra first and then set up a firm in Kumasi. Through his success as a lawyer, Poku was able attain a great respect in Ashanti politics. Following the coup that overthrew Ghana's first president, Kwame Nkrumah in 1966, the National Liberation Council military government appointed Poku to their executive board as Commissioner for Communications (equivalent to Minister for Communications) in 1968.
== Reign ==
In 1970, he was named ambassador to Italy, but shortly thereafter his uncle, the King of the Ashanti, Prempeh II, died. Due to his legal and political successes, he was chosen to succeed his uncle and enthroned as the Asantehene. As King, Opoku Ware II maintained a good relationship with Ghana's President Ignatius Acheampong, and later Jerry Rawlings.
He focused on trying to implement the traditional justice of the Ashanti ethnic group, rather than becoming involved in national politics. Much like his predecessors, he rarely appeared in public and usually had a spokesman represent him. When he did appear, he was as tradition demands covered in gold and wore an intricately woven kente cloth.
In 1985 the stool Nkosuostool (Development stool) was created by Asantehene, Otumfuo Opoku Ware II, as a catalyst for development in Kumasi and beyond. Since then the trend of bestowing the title of Nkosuohene or Hemaa on notable people in Ghana has gained prominence.
In August 1995 he marked his silver jubilee celebration representing 25 years of his reign as Otumfuo Asantehene.
== Personal life and death ==
In 1945, he married another member of the royal family, Victoria. In 1996, Opoku Ware II's wife Victoria died. On 26 February 1999, the King himself died. He was given a state and Ashanti cultural funeral spanning four days of ceremonies blending both African and Christian traditions and buried on 25 March 1999 after a month of mourning at the Royal Mausoleum. He was succeeded on 26 April by Otumfuo Nana Osei Tutu II after a period of mourning. He was survived by his three children Oheneba/Prince Adusei Opoku Ware, Gifty (1950-2018) and Ambassador Princess Leslie Poku.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump_jet#:~:text=Second%2Dgeneration%20Harriers,-Main%20articles%3A%20McDonnell&text=During%20August%201981%2C%20the%20program,re%2Dentry%20into%20the%20program. | Harrier jump jet | The Harrier, informally referred to as the Harrier jump jet, is a family of jet-powered attack aircraft capable of vertical/short takeoff and landing operations (V/STOL). Named after the bird of prey, it was originally developed by British manufacturer Hawker Siddeley in the 1960s. The Harrier emerged as the only truly successful V/STOL design of the many attempted during that era. It was conceived to operate from improvised bases, such as car parks or forest clearings, without requiring large and vulnerable air bases. Later, the design was adapted for use from aircraft carriers.
There are two generations and four main variants of the Harrier family, developed by both UK and US manufacturers:
The Hawker Siddeley Harrier is the first generation-version and is also known as the AV-8A or AV-8C Harrier; it was used by multiple air forces, including the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The Sea Harrier is a naval strike/air defence fighter derived from the Hawker Siddeley Harrier; it was operated by both the Royal Navy and the Indian Navy. During the 1980s, a second generation Harrier emerged, manufactured in the United States as the AV-8B and in Britain as the British Aerospace Harrier II respectively. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of the first generation Harriers had been withdrawn, many operators having chosen to procure the second generation as a replacement. In the long term, several operators have announced their intention to supplement or replace their Harrier fleets with the STOVL variant of the F-35 Lightning II, designated as the F-35B.
== Development ==
=== Background ===
Throughout the 1950s, particularly in the years following the Korean War, a number of aircraft companies in both Europe and America separately decided to investigate the prospective capabilities and viability of vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, which would eliminate the requirement for vulnerable runways by taking off and landing vertically as opposed to the conventional horizontal approach. In addition to military applications, the prospect of applying such technology to commercial airliners was also viewed with considerable interest by the mid-1950s, thus the value of developing viable vertical take-off systems was judged to be substantial. However, during this era, few companies envisioned that a VTOL aircraft could also be compatible with the characteristics of high performance military aircraft.
During 1957, following an approach by the British aero engine manufacturer Bristol Engine Company, who were designing an innovative vectored thrust engine, British aviation conglomerate Hawker Aircraft developed their design for an aeroplane that could meet an existing NATO specification calling for a "Light Tactical Support Fighter". Bristol's projected vectored thrust engine, which received the name Pegasus, harnessed rotatable "cold" jets which were positioned on either side of the compressor along with a "hot" jet which was directed via a conventional central tailpipe; this concept had originated from Michel Wibault, a French aviation consultant. Throughout much of the early development work, there was no financial support for the project from HM Treasury; however, support for the engine development portion of the effort was sourced via NATO's Mutual Weapon Development Program (MWDP).
Senior project engineer Ralph Hooper at Hawker promptly set about establishing an initial layout for a theoretical aircraft to take advantage of the Pegasus engine, using data provided by Bristol. During March 1959, the newly merged Hawker Siddeley decided to privately fund a pair of prototypes of the design, which had received the internal company designation of P.1127, to demonstrate the design's capabilities. During the 1960s, the P.1127 attracted the attention of the RAF; this would eventually result in the development and issuing of Requirement ASR 384, which sought a V/STOL aircraft for ground attack operations. During late 1965, the RAF placed an order for six pre-production P.1127 (RAF) aircraft.
=== Requirements and emergence ===
Around the same time as the RAF's interest in the concept, NATO proceeded to develop their own specification, NBMR-3, which called for a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft; specific requirements included the expectation for the performance of such an aircraft to be equivalent to the conventional McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter. Specifications called for a supersonic V/STOL strike fighter with a combat radius of 460 kilometres (250 nmi), a cruise speed of Mach 0.92, and a dash speed of Mach 1.5. During the early 1960s, Hawker commenced work upon developing a supersonic version of the P.1127, designated the P.1150, culminating in the abortive Hawker P.1154. NBMR.3 also attracted ten other contenders, among which was P.1154's principal competitor, the Dassault Mirage IIIV. The P.1154 was ultimately selected to meet NBMR-3; however, this did not lead to orders being placed.
On 6 December 1961, prior to the design being submitted to NATO, it was decided that the P.1154 would be developed with the requirements for use by both the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy (RN). Following the cancellation of the NBMR-3 requirement, HSA focused all its attention on the British joint requirement. Accordingly, development of the type continued for some time; however, by October 1963, the Ministry of Aviation was concerned with the project's progress, and noted that the effort to combine a strike aircraft and a fighter in a single aircraft, and trying to fit that same airframe to both of the services, was "unsound". On 2 February 1965, work on the P.1154 was cancelled by the new British government on grounds of cost at the point of prototype construction.
Irrespective of work on the P.1154 programme, development had continued on the subsonic P.1127 evaluation aircraft. A total of nine aircraft, known as the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel, was ordered and manufactured for testing. During 1964, the first of these had commenced flight operations; the Kestrel was assessed by the multinational "Tri-partite Evaluation Squadron", which consisted of British, US and German pilots, to determine how VTOL aircraft could be operated; the evaluations were finalised in November 1965. During 1966, following the cancellation of the P.1154, the RAF opted to proceed with ordering a modified derivative of the P.1127/Kestrel for service, which was designated the Harrier GR.1.
=== First-generation Harriers ===
The Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.1/GR.3 and the AV-8A Harrier were the first generation of the Harrier series, the first operational close-support and reconnaissance attack aircraft with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities. These were developed directly from the Hawker P.1127 prototype and the Kestrel evaluation aircraft. On 18 April 1969, the Harrier GR.1 officially entered service with the RAF when the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft. The United States Marine Corps (USMC) also chose to procure the type, receiving 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976.
The British Aerospace Sea Harrier is a naval V/STOL jet fighter, reconnaissance and attack aircraft; it was a navalised development of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier. The first version entered service with the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm in April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS.1, and was informally known as the Shar. Sea Harriers played a high-profile role in the Falklands War of 1982, flying from the aircraft carriers HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes. Wartime experiences led to the production of an improved model in the form of the upgraded Sea Harrier FA2; this version entered operational service on 2 April 1993. The Sea Harrier was also procured by the Indian Navy, where the first Indian Sea Harriers entered squadron service during December 1983.
=== Second-generation Harriers ===
As early as 1973, Hawker Siddeley and American aviation manufacturer McDonnell Douglas were jointly working on development of a more capable version of the Harrier. Early efforts concentrated on the development of an improved Pegasus engine, designated the Pegasus 15, which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley. During August 1981, the program received a boost when British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), marking the UK's re-entry into the program. The Harrier was extensively redeveloped by McDonnell Douglas, and later joined by British Aerospace (now parts of Boeing and BAE Systems, respectively), leading to the family of second-generation V/STOL jet multi-role aircraft. The American designation for this was the AV-8B Harrier II.
On 12 December 1983, the first production AV-8B was delivered to the USMC. The AV-8B is primarily used for attack or multi-role tasks, typically operated from small aircraft carriers. The RAF also chose to procure the second generation of the British Aerospace-built (with McDonnell Douglas as subcontractor) Harrier II GR5/GR7/GR9, which entered service in the mid-1980s. This model was also operated by several other NATO countries, including Spain and Italy. In December 1989, the first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier II was declared operational. The British Harrier II was used by the RAF and later by the Royal Navy up to 2010, at which point the Harrier II and the Joint Force Harrier operational unit was disbanded as a cost-saving measure.
Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harriers of all types were delivered. While the manufacture of new Harriers concluded in 1997, the last remanufactured aircraft (Harrier II Plus configuration) was delivered in December 2003, ending the Harrier production line.
== Operation ==
The Harrier jump jet, though capable of taking off vertically, can do so only at less than its maximum loaded weight. In most cases a short take off is needed to lift the required amount of fuel and weapons needed for a training sortie/mission, using forward speed to supplement the jet lift with aerodynamic lift. A short takeoff also uses less fuel than a vertical take off. On some aircraft carriers, a ski-jump ramp is used at the bow of the carrier to help the aircraft become airborne. Landings are not usually done in a conventional manner because the range of speeds at which this is advisable is narrow due to the relatively vulnerable outrigger undercarriage. Operationally, a near-vertical landing with some forward speed is preferred; this technique is called shipborne rolling vertical landing (SRVL). Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles to some angle other than rearwards during normal flight (to a maximum of 8-degree forward of vertical, i.e. 98 deg.) is called vectoring in forward flight, or "VIFFing". This is a dog-fighting tactic, allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates. Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier, a technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s. This technique was much discussed in the media before the Falklands War in 1982, but ultimately not used by British pilots in that conflict. However, the ability to rotate the nozzles slightly forwards did allow the aircraft to fly slowly backwards in the hover, which was widely used in British and American airshows.
The wind direction is critical during VTOL manoeuvres because unless it enters the intake from straight ahead it will push the nose sideways as it turns to enter the intake (known as intake momentum drag). If not corrected immediately, the aircraft will roll out of control. The pilot has a wind vane in front of the windscreen to help keep pointing into the wind. The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind. The swivelling nozzles are pointed vertically downwards (thrust vector 90°) and the throttle is pushed to its maximum stop, at which point the aircraft leaves the ground. The throttle is adjusted until hovering is achieved at the desired altitude. The short-takeoff procedure involves proceeding with a normal takeoff and then rotating the nozzles partially downwards (a thrust vector less than 90°) at a speed below the normal takeoff speed; usually this is done at about 65 knots (120 km/h). For a shorter takeoff run the thrust vector is greater for more jet lift. The reaction control system uses thrusters at the aircraft extremities, nose, tail and wingtips. Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control the aircraft's pitch, roll and yaw before it is going fast enough for the elevators, rudder and ailerons to become effective.
The Harrier has been described by pilots as "unforgiving" to fly. The aircraft is capable of forward flight (where it behaves like a fixed-wing aircraft above its stall speed) and VTOL (where the conventional lift and control surfaces are ineffective) along with STOL. Accelerating and decelerating transitions between hovering and conventional flight required considerable skill and concentration on the part of the pilot, especially in crosswind conditions. Pilots for the combined UK/US/Germany trials on the Kestrel were first given several hours of helicopter tuition. Royal Air Force pilots destined for Harrier squadrons were usually selected from those with single-seat fast-jet experience. On two occasions the Royal Air Force explored whether experienced helicopter pilots, with their ability to hover and transition to forward flight, would be a better source for Harrier squadrons. In both cases the pilots were completely out of their depth with conventional flight, navigation, orientation and weapons delivery at the high speeds of a fast jet. With the introduction of two-seat Harriers, less experienced pilots were introduced. The United States Marine Corps also started with very experienced pilots, who were mostly test pilots. In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles. Pilots were impressed that to control the aircraft's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit. For horizontal flight, the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings, the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downward.
=== Replacement ===
During 2010, it was announced that the RAF and RN would retire their remaining Harriers by 2011, and in December 2010 the RAF's Harrier GR9s made their last operational flights. In June 2011, the MoD denied press reports that the aircraft were to be sold to the US Marine Corps for spares to support their AV-8B fleet. However, at the end of November 2011, Defence Minister Peter Luff announced the sale of the final 72 Harriers to the US Marine Corps, with the aircraft to be used as sources of spare parts for the Marine Corps's airworthy fleet.
As of 6 May 2024, the STOVL variant of the F-35 Lightning II, designated the F-35B, has replaced the AV-8B Harrier II in service with the US Marine Corps. The RAF and Royal Navy introduced the F-35B in June 2018 with their first F-35 unit, 617 Squadron.
As of March 2021, Italian Navy AV-8Bs had been replaced by F-35Bs, on the Italian aircraft carrier Cavour.
In 2016, the Indian Navy retired the last of their remaining 11 Sea Harriers, which had been operating from INS Viraat in favour of the conventional Mikoyan MiG-29K.
Starting in 2007, Spain was looking to replace its Harrier IIs – with the likely option being the F-35B. However, in May 2014, the Spanish government announced that it had decided to extend the aircraft's service life to beyond 2025 due to a lack of funds for a replacement aircraft.
== Variants ==
Hawker P.1127
(1960)
Kestrel FGA.1
(1964)
Harrier GR.1/1A/3/3A
(from 1966)
Harrier T.2/2A/4/4A/8/52/60
(from 1970)
AV-8A/C/S Harrier Mk.50/53/55/Matador
TAV-8A/S Harrier Mk.54/Matador
Sea Harrier FRS.1/FRS.51/F(A).2
(from 1978)
AV-8B Harrier II/EAV-8B Matador II/AV-8B Harrier II Night Attack/AV-8B Harrier II Plus
(from 1983)
TAV-8B Harrier II/ETAV-8B Matador II/
Harrier GR.5/5A/7/7A/9/9A
(from 1985)
Harrier T.10/12
== Operators ==
India
Indian Navy (former)
Italy
Italian Navy (former)
Spain
Spanish Navy
Thailand
Royal Thai Navy (former)
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force (former)
Royal Navy (former)
United States
United States Marine Corps
== Specifications ==
An unusual feature of the Harrier family of aircraft is their use of two types of flight control to provide pitch, roll and yaw control: conventional control surfaces for wingborne flight, and a system of reaction control valves directing jets of bleed air from the high-pressure compressor of the engine out through the extremities of the nose, tail, and at the wingtips during vectored thrust–borne flight and hover modes. The two systems are fully interlinked but air is not supplied to the reaction control valves during conventional wingborne flight.
Sources: Nordeen
== See also ==
Aircraft in fiction - Harrier family
Leonard v. Pepsico, Inc.
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Related development
Hawker P.1127/Hawker Siddeley Kestrel
Hawker Siddeley P.1154
Hawker Siddeley Harrier
McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II
British Aerospace Harrier II
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Bell X-14
Hunting H.126
Rockwell XFV-12
Ryan XV-5 Vertifan
Short SC.1
Yakovlev Yak-36
Yakovlev Yak-38
Related lists
List of VTOL aircraft
List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm
List of attack aircraft
List of fighter aircraft
List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force
List of Harrier family losses
List of active United States military aircraft
List of active United Kingdom military aircraft
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
The P.1127 Analysed – a 1962 Flight International article on the Hawker P.1127
P.1127 Development – a 1963 Flight International article on the development of the Hawker P.1127
British Aerospace Sea Harrier
Sea Harrier Still Alive and Kicking (archive article)
Harrier history website Archived 2 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
Harriers lost in the Falklands
Harrier development & service, 4 part series
Photographs of Harrier G R Mk 7 deployed aboard HMS Illustrious
RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: Video of Harrier Hovering
AV-8B Plus product page at Boeing.com
AV-8B Harrier II fact sheet Archived 4 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine and AV-8B Harrier II history page at Navy.mil
McDonnell Douglas/British Aerospace AV-8B Harrier II Attack Fighter page on Aerospaceweb.org
3D view of Harrier AV-8B Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine at the National Museum of the Marines Corps site
Greg Goebel Harriers
Photos of this aircraft on Airliners.net
Defense Industry Daily: AV-8B Harrier finding Success in Iraq (30 March 2005) Archived 24 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Ice_dance#Overall | Figure skating at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Ice dance | The ice dance competition of the 2010 Winter Olympics was held at the Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The event was held on February 19 (compulsory dance), 21 (original dance), and 22 (free dance), 2010.
== Competition notes ==
The compulsory dance was held on February 19. The compulsory dance was the Tango Romantica. The original dance was held on February 21. The free dance was held on February 22, 2010.
Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir became the first ice dancers from Canada and North America to win an Olympic gold medal. They became the first former World Junior Ice dance champions to win the Olympics, and the first ice dance team to win the Olympic gold on home ice. They were also the first ice dancers to win gold on their Olympic debut since the inaugural Olympic ice dance event in 1976 and the youngest ice dance Olympic champions at 20 and 22 years of age. Isabelle Delobel competed at the Olympics with partner Olivier Schoenfelder just four-and-a-half months after giving birth.
== Results ==
=== Compulsory dance ===
=== Original dance ===
=== Free dance ===
=== Overall ===
== Judges and officials ==
Referee:
Halina Gordon-Poltorak
Technical Controller:
Katalin Alpern
Technical Specialist:
Marika Humphreys-Baranova
Assistant Technical Specialist:
Francesca Fermi
Judges (CD):
Irina Nechkina
Charles Cyr
Alla Shekhovtsova
Laimute Krauziene
Ulf Denzer
Liudmila Mikhailovskaya
Isabella Micheli
Jodi Abbott
Mayumi Kato
Judges (OD):
Liudmila Mikhailovskaya
Irina Nechkina
Laimute Krauziene
Laurent Carriere
Akos Pethes
Jodi Abbott
Hilary Selby
Albert Zaydman
Alla Shekhovtsova
Judges (FD):
Albert Zaydman
Liudmila Mikhailovskaya
Ulf Denzer
Laurent Carriere
Isabella Micheli
Mayumi Kato
Hilary Selby
Akos Pethes
Irina Nechkina
== References ==
2010 Winter Olympics at the International Skating Union
== External links ==
Vancouver 2010: Figure Skating Archived 2010-09-04 at the Wayback Machine
2010 Winter Olympics results: Ice Dance (compulsory dance), from https://web.archive.org/web/20100222080013/http://www.vancouver2010.com/ retrieved 2010-02-21.
2010 Winter Olympics results: Ice Dance (original dance), from https://web.archive.org/web/20100222080013/http://www.vancouver2010.com/ retrieved 2010-02-21.
2010 Winter Olympics results: Ice Dance (free dance), from https://web.archive.org/web/20100222080013/http://www.vancouver2010.com/ retrieved 2010-02-21. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajood_Sailani | Sajood Sailani | Sajood Sailani (born Ghulam Mohammed Wani; 1936 – 17 November 2020) was a Kashmiri playwright, painter, theater artist, cartoonist and a poet. He is primarily recognized for his radio plays written in regional languages. He produced his work in Urdu and Kashmiri languages and wrote about 150 radio plays, 27 stage dramas and 40 comedies throughout his career. In the latter years of his career, he wrote a play titled Kaej Raath, leading him to become the recipient of Sahitya Akademi Award under Kashmiri category in 1994. He also served as a member of Sahitya Akademi's advisory board from 1973 to 1977 and in 1990.
He was born as Ghulam Mohammed Wani around 1936 in Dalgate Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. He is survived by three children, including two sons Showkat Shehri (playwright and writer) and Manzoor Ahmad (psychiatrist) and a daughter.
== Biography ==
He played a prominent role in popularizing modern Kashmiri theatre during 70s and 80s when he established Wani Art Gallery. He started his career after being inspired by the All India Radio's night show Hawa Mahal programme. He later recorded nohakhwaani (tragedy of Husayn ibn Ali) at Radio Kashmir Srinagar (in modern-day AIR Srinagar). He also wrote some uncertain scripts of noha depicting battle of Karbala.
He originally started his career when he was studying in 10th class. It is believed that he never attended any college for further studies. He initially started writing short sketch comedies for the All India Radio and later worked for the Radio Kashmir Srinagar where he produced most of his literary work, including prominent dramas such as Kaej Raath (Dumb Night), Gaashe Taaruk (Guiding Star), and Ropye Rood (Money shower). His prominent dramas include Zalur (spider), Vutri binyul (catastrophe), Fundbaz (swindler) and Tentykor (Catgut) among others.
As a painter, he established Wani Art Gallery and subsequently became the recipient of an uncertain cultural award conferred by the government of Jammu and Kashmir's department Cultural Academy in 1970. He is sometimes considered as the only Kashmiri writer till this century who wrote a radio play in Bhojpuri language.
== Awards ==
== Death ==
He was suffering from chronic condition for some years and died on 17 November 2020 in Zafran Colony residence of Srinagar. He is buried in Pandrethan, cemetery of Srinagar.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostina_Livia_Pietrantoni | Agostina Livia Pietrantoni | Agostina Pietrantoni (27 March 1864 – 13 November 1894) born Livia Pietrantoni, was an Italian religious sister of the Sisters of Divine Charity. Pietrantoni worked as a nurse in the Santo Spirito hospital in Rome where she tended to ill victims in a tuberculosis ward before a patient murdered her in 1894. Her canonisation was celebrated on 18 April 1999 in Saint Peter's Square.
== Life ==
Olivia or Livia Pietrantoni was born on 27 March 1864 in Pozzaglia Sabina, about 50 kilometres north-east of Rome, as the second of eleven children to the poor farmers Francesco Pietrantoni and Caterina Costantini. She made her First Communion in 1868 and then received her Confirmation just under a decade later in 1876.
Pietrantoni started work in 1871 and she worked doing manual labour for road construction and later in 1876 left for Tivoli with other adolescent seasonal workers during the winter months for the olive harvest. She refused offers of marriage – despite her mother's insistence – and so travelled to Rome with her priest uncle Matteo in January 1886 with the aim of entering consecrated life in order to pursue her vocation. When she sent a letter of admission to their generalate in Rome, the Sisters of Divine Charity declined her request. Pietrantoni persisted in finding a place to pursue her call and a few months later was accepted into the congregation. She bade farewell to her parents and left for Rome once more where she joined the congregation in the Via Santa Maria in Cosmedin on 23 March 1886. She assumed the religious name of Agostina upon her clothing ceremony on 13 August 1887.
Sister Agostina was sent to the Santo Spirito Hospital in Rome as a nurse on 13 August 1887 and remained there until her death. While working in the tuberculosis ward she contracted the disease herself but recovered and so was sent to the ward herself in 1889 to tend to ill patients there. On one particular occasion she was attacked and beaten because she had seized a knife from a patient and it worried the other religious despite Pietrantoni's insistence that she was fine and would continue to work.
The male patient Giuseppe Romanelli began to harass her at this point; he even sent her death threats. On the evening of 12 November 1894 she was asked to take time off since the sisters worried for her; she refused. Romanelli attacked and stabbed her to death in the morning of 13 November 1894. Pietrantoni forgave her killer moments before she died of her wounds. Romanelli stabbed her in a dark corridor with three stabs to the shoulder and left arm and the jugular before a final stab in the chest. Her final words were: "Mother of mine: help me!" Professor Achille Ballori – who had once warned her about Romanelli – inspected her remains and observed that "Sister Agostina has allowed herself to be slaughtered like a lamb" and noted there were no contractions of either her nerves or heart. The funeral blocked the streets of Rome (thousands lined the streets and knelt before the casket as it passed them) and a report in the Messaggero newspaper on 16 November stated that "never a more impressive spectacle was seen in Rome". Sister Agostina's remains were moved to the generalate on 3 February 1941 and, following her canonisation, to her hometown on 14 November 2004.
== Beatification process ==
Agostina's spiritual writings were approved by theologians on 28 May 1941. The beatification process opened on 14 December 1945 under Pope Pius XII, and Pope Paul VI later attributed to her the title venerable on 19 September 1968. On 12 November 1972 he presided over her beatification.
A miracle worked by Agostina's intercession was investigated and received validation from the Congregation for the Causes of Saints on 19 March 1996. The medical board assented to this on 17 April 1997 as did a panel of theologians on 7 October 1997, and subsequently the members of the Congregation on 20 January 1998. Pope John Paul II approved this miracle on 6 April 1998 and canonised Agostina on 18 April 1999.
St Agostina was declared the patron saint for nurses in Italy on 20 May 2003 following deliberations of the Italian Episcopal Conference.
== References ==
== External links ==
Hagiography Circle
Santa Agostina
Saints SQPN
Catholic Online
Santi e Beati |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Donaldson | Simon Donaldson | Sir Simon Kirwan Donaldson (born 20 August 1957) is an English mathematician known for his work on the topology of smooth (differentiable) four-dimensional manifolds, Donaldson–Thomas theory, and his contributions to Kähler geometry. He is currently a permanent member of the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics at Stony Brook University in New York, and a Professor in Pure Mathematics at Imperial College London.
== Biography ==
Donaldson's father was an electrical engineer in the physiology department at the University of Cambridge, and his mother earned a science degree there. Donaldson gained a BA degree in mathematics from Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1979, and in 1980 began postgraduate work at Worcester College, Oxford, at first under Nigel Hitchin and later under Michael Atiyah's supervision. Still a postgraduate student, Donaldson proved in 1982 a result that would establish his fame. He published the result in a paper "Self-dual connections and the topology of smooth 4-manifolds" which appeared in 1983. In the words of Atiyah, the paper "stunned the mathematical world."
Whereas Michael Freedman classified topological four-manifolds, Donaldson's work focused on four-manifolds admitting a differentiable structure, using instantons, a particular solution to the equations of Yang–Mills gauge theory which has its origin in quantum field theory. One of Donaldson's first results gave severe restrictions on the intersection form of a smooth four-manifold. As a consequence, a large class of the topological four-manifolds do not admit any smooth structure at all. Donaldson also derived polynomial invariants from gauge theory. These were new topological invariants sensitive to the underlying smooth structure of the four-manifold. They made it possible to deduce the existence of "exotic" smooth structures—certain topological four-manifolds could carry an infinite family of different smooth structures.
After gaining his DPhil degree from Oxford University in 1983, Donaldson was appointed a Junior Research Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford. He spent the academic year 1983–84 at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and returned to Oxford as Wallis Professor of Mathematics in 1985. After spending one year visiting Stanford University, he moved to Imperial College London in 1998 as Professor of Pure Mathematics.
In 2014, he joined the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics at Stony Brook University in New York, United States.
== Awards ==
Donaldson was an invited speaker of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in 1983, and a plenary speaker at the ICM in 1986, 1998, and 2018.
In 1985, Donaldson received the Junior Whitehead Prize from the London Mathematical Society. In 1994, he was awarded the Crafoord Prize in Mathematics. In February 2006, Donaldson was awarded the King Faisal International Prize for science for his work in pure mathematical theories linked to physics, which have helped in forming an understanding of the laws of matter at a subnuclear level. In April 2008, he was awarded the Nemmers Prize in Mathematics, a mathematics prize awarded by Northwestern University.
In 2009, he was awarded the Shaw Prize in Mathematics (jointly with Clifford Taubes) for their contributions to geometry in 3 and 4 dimensions.
In 2014, he was awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Mathematics "for the new revolutionary invariants of 4-dimensional manifolds and for the study of the relation between stability in algebraic geometry and in global differential geometry, both for bundles and for Fano varieties."
In January 2019, he was awarded the Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry (jointly with Xiuxiong Chen and Song Sun). In 2020 he received the Wolf Prize in Mathematics (jointly with Yakov Eliashberg).
In 1986, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) and received a Fields Medal at the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in Berkeley. He became a Member of the Academia Europaea (MAE) in 1993. In 2010, Donaldson was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
He was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to mathematics. In 2012, he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
In March 2014, he was awarded the degree "Docteur Honoris Causa" by Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble. In January 2017, he was awarded the degree "Doctor Honoris Causa" by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain.
== Research ==
Donaldson's work is on the application of mathematical analysis (especially the analysis of elliptic partial differential equations) to problems in geometry. The problems mainly concern gauge theory, 4-manifolds, complex differential geometry and symplectic geometry. The following theorems have been mentioned:
The diagonalizability theorem (Donaldson 1983a, 1983b, 1987a): If the intersection form of a smooth, closed, simply connected 4-manifold is positive- or negative-definite then it is diagonalizable over the integers. This result is sometimes called Donaldson's theorem.
A smooth h-cobordism between simply connected 4-manifolds need not be trivial (Donaldson 1987b). This contrasts with the situation in higher dimensions.
A stable holomorphic vector bundle over a non-singular projective algebraic variety admits a Hermitian–Einstein metric (Donaldson 1987c), proven using an inductive proof and the theory of determinant bundles and Quillen metrics.
A non-singular, projective algebraic surface can be diffeomorphic to the connected sum of two oriented 4-manifolds only if one of them has negative-definite intersection form (Donaldson 1990). This was an early application of the Donaldson invariant (or instanton invariants).
Any compact symplectic manifold admits a symplectic Lefschetz pencil (Donaldson 1999).
Donaldson's recent work centers on a problem in complex differential geometry concerning a conjectural relationship between algebro-geometric "stability" conditions for smooth projective varieties and the existence of "extremal" Kähler metrics, typically those with constant scalar curvature (see for example cscK metric). Donaldson obtained results in the toric case of the problem (see for example Donaldson (2001)). He then solved the Kähler–Einstein case of the problem in 2012, in collaboration with Chen and Sun. This latest spectacular achievement involved a number of difficult and technical papers. The first of these was the paper of Donaldson & Sun (2014) on Gromov–Hausdorff limits. The summary of the existence proof for Kähler–Einstein metrics appears in Chen, Donaldson & Sun (2014). Full details of the proofs appear in Chen, Donaldson, and Sun (2015a, 2015b, 2015c).
=== Conjecture on Fano manifolds and Veblen Prize ===
In 2019, Donaldson was awarded the Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry, together with Xiuxiong Chen and Song Sun, for proving a long-standing conjecture on Fano manifolds, which states "that a Fano manifold admits a Kähler–Einstein metric if and only if it is K-stable". It had been one of the most actively investigated topics in geometry since its proposal in the 1980s by Shing-Tung Yau after he proved the Calabi conjecture. It was later generalized by Gang Tian and Donaldson. The solution by Chen, Donaldson and Sun was published in the Journal of the American Mathematical Society in 2015 as a three-article series, "Kähler–Einstein metrics on Fano manifolds, I, II and III".
== Selected publications ==
Donaldson, Simon K. (1983a). "An application of gauge theory to four-dimensional topology". J. Differential Geom. 18 (2): 279–315. doi:10.4310/jdg/1214437665. MR 0710056.
——— (1983b). "Self-dual connections and the topology of smooth 4-manifolds". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 8 (1): 81–83. doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1983-15090-5. MR 0682827.
——— (1984b). "Instantons and geometric invariant theory". Comm. Math. Phys. 93 (4): 453–460. Bibcode:1984CMaPh..93..453D. doi:10.1007/BF01212289. MR 0892034. S2CID 120209762.
——— (1987a). "The orientation of Yang-Mills moduli spaces and 4-manifold topology". J. Differential Geom. 26 (3): 397–428. doi:10.4310/jdg/1214441485. MR 0910015.
——— (1987b). "Irrationality and the h-cobordism conjecture". J. Differential Geom. 26 (1): 141–168. doi:10.4310/jdg/1214441179. MR 0892034.
——— (1987c). "Infinite determinants, stable bundles and curvature". Duke Math. J. 54 (1): 231–247. doi:10.1215/S0012-7094-87-05414-7. MR 0885784.
——— (1990). "Polynomial invariants for smooth four-manifolds". Topology. 29 (3): 257–315. doi:10.1016/0040-9383(90)90001-Z. MR 1066174.
——— (1999). "Lefschetz pencils on symplectic manifolds". J. Differential Geom. 53 (2): 205–236. doi:10.4310/jdg/1214425535. MR 1802722.
——— (2001). "Scalar curvature and projective embeddings. I". J. Differential Geom. 59 (3): 479–522. doi:10.4310/jdg/1090349449. MR 1916953.
———; Sun, Song (2014). "Gromov-Hausdorff limits of Kähler manifolds and algebraic geometry". Acta Math. 213 (1): 63–106. arXiv:1206.2609. doi:10.1007/s11511-014-0116-3. MR 3261011. S2CID 120450769.
Chen, Xiuxiong; Donaldson, Simon; Sun, Song (2014). "Kähler-Einstein metrics and stability". Int. Math. Res. Notices. 2014 (8): 2119–2125. arXiv:1210.7494. doi:10.1093/imrn/rns279. MR 3194014. S2CID 119165036.
Chen, Xiuxiong; Donaldson, Simon; Sun, Song (2015a). "Kähler-Einstein metrics on Fano manifolds I: Approximation of metrics with cone singularities". J. Amer. Math. Soc. 28 (1): 183–197. arXiv:1211.4566. doi:10.1090/S0894-0347-2014-00799-2. MR 3264766. S2CID 119641827.
Chen, Xiuxiong; Donaldson, Simon; Sun, Song (2015b). "Kähler-Einstein metrics on Fano manifolds II: Limits with cone angle less than 2π". J. Amer. Math. Soc. 28 (1): 199–234. arXiv:1212.4714. doi:10.1090/S0894-0347-2014-00800-6. MR 3264767. S2CID 119140033.
Chen, Xiuxiong; Donaldson, Simon; Sun, Song (2015c). "Kähler-Einstein metrics on Fano manifolds III: Limits as cone angle approaches 2π and completion of the main proof". J. Amer. Math. Soc. 28 (1): 235–278. arXiv:1302.0282. doi:10.1090/S0894-0347-2014-00801-8. MR 3264768. S2CID 119575364.
Books
Donaldson, S.K.; Kronheimer, P.B. (1990). The geometry of four-manifolds. Oxford Mathematical Monographs. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853553-8. MR 1079726.
Donaldson, S.K. (2002). Floer homology groups in Yang-Mills theory. Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics. Vol. 147. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80803-0.
Donaldson, Simon (2011). Riemann surfaces. Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 22. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198526391.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-960674-0. MR 2856237.
== References ==
== External links ==
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Simon Donaldson", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Simon Donaldson at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Home page at Imperial College
"Some recent developments in Kähler geometry and exceptional holonomy – Simon Donaldson – ICM2018". YouTube. 19 September 2018. (Plenary Lecture 1) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_C._Merle | Natasha C. Merle | Natasha Clarise Merle (born 1983) is an American lawyer from New York who serves as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York.
== Education ==
Merle received her Bachelor of Arts in government and Spanish, with honors, from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005 and she graduated, cum laude, with a Juris Doctor from the New York University School of Law in 2008.
== Career ==
Merle began her legal career as a law clerk for Judge Robert L. Carter of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York from 2008 to 2009. From 2009 to 2011, she was a staff attorney at the Gulf Region Advocacy Center. Merle then became an assistant federal public defender at the Office of the Federal Public Defender. She also served as a law clerk for Judge John Gleeson of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York from 2012 to 2013.
From 2013 to 2015, Merle was a litigation associate and civil rights fellow at Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson in New York City.
From 2016 to 2021, she served as assistant counsel and then senior counsel for the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund ("LDF"). From 2021 to 2023, she was the deputy director of litigation at LDF.
From 2019 to 2021, Merle was a adjunct professor of clinical law at the New York University School of Law and from 2020 to 2021, she was a lecturer in law at Columbia Law School.
=== Notable cases ===
In 2017, Merle was a member of the petitioner team in Buck v. Davis.
In 2017, Merle was lead counsel for NAACP LDF v. Trump.
=== Federal judicial service ===
On January 19, 2022, President Joe Biden nominated Merle to serve as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York. President Biden nominated Merle to a new seat created following the appointment of Roslynn R. Mauskopf as director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts. On April 27, 2022, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Judiciary Committee. During Merle's confirmation hearing, Republican senators criticized her over comments she made in 2017 in which she said that proposals for voter ID laws and a border wall were based in white supremacy. On May 26, 2022, her nomination was reported out of committee by a 12–10 vote. On January 3, 2023, her nomination was returned to the President under Rule XXXI, Paragraph 6 of the United States Senate; she was renominated later the same day. On February 2, 2023, the committee failed to report her nomination by a 10–10 vote. On February 9, 2023, her nomination was reported out of committee by an 11–10 vote. On June 21, 2023, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 51–50 vote, with Vice President Kamala Harris voting in the affirmative. Later that day, her nomination was confirmed by a 50–49 vote. Senator Joe Manchin joined all the Senate Republicans in opposing her nomination. Merle was President Biden's 100th district court judge to be confirmed. She received her judicial commission on August 11, 2023.
== See also ==
List of African-American federal judges
List of African-American jurists
Joe Biden judicial appointment controversies
== References ==
== External links ==
Natasha C. Merle at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isham_Warren_Garrott | Isham Warren Garrott | Isham Warren Garrott (c. 1816 – June 17, 1863) was a colonel in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Garrott was killed during the Vicksburg Campaign before his commission as a brigadier general was confirmed by the Confederate Senate or delivered and became effective.
== Early life ==
Garrott was born in either Anson County or Wake County, North Carolina in about 1816. He graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and then studied law. In 1840, he moved to Marion, Alabama where he practiced law. Garrott was a member of the Whig Party and a Mason. Garrott was also an incorporator of the Marion and Alabama River Transportation Company and President of the Board of Trustees of Howard College. He was elected to the Alabama House of Representatives in 1845 and 1847. Garrott served as an elector for John C. Breckinridge's failed 1860 Presidential Election campaign. Alabama Governor Andrew B. Moore sent Garrott to North Carolina as a commissioner to enlist his home state's aid in joining the secession movement.
== Civil War ==
When the Civil War began, Garrott formed the 20th Alabama Infantry Regiment, serving briefly as its lieutenant colonel) from September 16, 1861, to October 7, 1861, and thereafter as its colonel. The brigade was stationed in Mobile, Alabama during 1861 and 1862. Garrott's brigade was sent to Mississippi as part of General Edward D. Tracy's brigade. Garrott took part in the Battle of Port Gibson and the Battle of Champion's Hill. Garrott was killed by a Union sharpshooter on June 17, 1863, shortly before being promoted to brigadier general. His commission to rank from May 28, 1863, was received at headquarters after his death. Because of his death, his posthumous appointment was not confirmed by the Confederate Senate.
According to Warner's footnote, Garrott was buried under the window of a friend's {Finney} house in Vicksburg and remains never moved {letter from Garrott's wife}. What happened to Garrott was the following: A Confederate undertaker's list/map of CS burials in Vicksburg was lost-although partially found years later. This list reported a "Colonel Garnet" of the 20th Alabama-although gravesite plot unknown. Apparently, Garrott was reburied in Vicksburg's Cedar Hill/Confederate Cemetery; however due to the misspelling of his surname and incorrect rank-his Generals commission was received after his death-apparently lead to reporting that his remains were not moved from his first burial place. Thus the NPS listing for Garrott now has his correct rank/surname but no grave number. A stone cenotaph marker for him stands in Soldiers Rest Confederate Cemetery, ironically located in the Cedar Hill (Old Vicksburg City) Cemetery.
== Legacy ==
Fort Garrott near Vicksburg was named for him. The fort did not fall to the Union Army in battle because the planned final assault on Confederate positions scheduled for July 6, 1863 was avoided due to Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton's surrender of his army to Major General Ulysses S. Grant on July 4, 1863. Sons Of Confederate Veterans Camp 764 Marion, Alabama Named In His Honor.
== See also ==
List of American Civil War generals (Acting Confederate)
== Notes ==
== References ==
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1.
Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8160-1055-4.
Solonick, Justin S. Engineering Victory: The Union Siege of Vicksburg. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8093-3391-2.
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. ISBN 978-0-8071-0823-9.
Web biography
== External links ==
Short Web biography for Garrott. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz#cite_note-nap01-91 | Battle of Austerlitz | The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV FRC), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important military engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire (now Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic). Around 158,000 troops were involved, of which around 24,000 were killed or wounded.
The battle is often cited by military historians as one of Napoleon's tactical masterpieces, in the same league as other historic engagements like Hannibal's Cannae (216 BC) or Alexander the Great's Gaugamela (331 BC). The military victory of Napoleon's Grande Armée at Austerlitz brought the War of the Third Coalition to an end, with the Peace of Pressburg signed by the French and Austrians later in the month. These achievements did not establish a lasting peace on the continent. Austerlitz had driven neither Russia nor Britain, whose armies protected Sicily from a French invasion, to settle. Prussian resistance to France's growing military power in Central Europe led to the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806.
After eliminating an Austrian army during the Ulm campaign, French forces seized Vienna in November 1805. The Austrians avoided further conflict until the arrival of the Russians, who helped increase the allied numbers. Napoleon sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies, but then ordered his forces to retreat so he could feign a grave weakness to lure the Allies into thinking that they were facing a weak army, while it was in fact formidable. Napoleon gave every indication in the days preceding the engagement that the French army was in a pitiful state, even abandoning the dominant Pratzen Heights near Austerlitz. He deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and weakened his right flank, enticing the Allies to launch an assault there to roll up the French line. Napoleon's plan was based on the hope that Marshal Davout and his III Corps would arrive soon on their way from Vienna. A forced march by Davout plugged the gap left by Napoleon just in time. Davout's men stubbornly held their defensive positions under the onslaught of superior opponents. The Allied deployment against the French right weakened the Allied centre on the Pratzen Heights, which was attacked by the IV Corps of Marshal Soult. With the Allied center demolished, the French swept through both flanks and routed the Allies, which enabled the French to capture thousands of prisoners.
Remarkably, the pleiad of Russian military commanders nurtured by the great general Alexander Suvorov (1730–1800), – such were being Mikhail Kutuzov, Pyotr Bagration, Mikhail Miloradovich, Nikolay Kamensky and Peter Wittgenstein, – was decisively defeated at Austerlitz. The blame for the Allied disaster initially lies with the supreme commander Emperor Alexander I of Russia, who, together with his Austrian chief of staff Franz von Weyrother, fell into Napoleon's "trap" at Austerlitz, first accepting encounter on the battlefield chosen by the French Emperor, and then being encircled in the direction of the left Allied flank. The Allied disaster significantly shook the will of Emperor Francis to further resist Napoleon. France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately, and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after, on 26 December. Pressburg took Austria out of both the war and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and of Lunéville between the two powers. The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands in Italy and Bavaria to France, and in Germany to Napoleon's German allies. It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil. Critically, victory at Austerlitz permitted the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states intended as a buffer zone between France and the eastern powers, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The Confederation rendered the Holy Roman Empire virtually useless, so Francis dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, but remained as emperor of Austria. These achievements failed to establish a lasting peace on the continent. Prussian worries about the growing French influence in Central Europe led to the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806.
== Background ==
Europe had been in turmoil since the start of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792. In 1797, after five years of war, the French Republic subdued the First Coalition, an alliance of Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, and various Italian states. A Second Coalition, led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and the Kingdom of Naples, was formed in 1798, but by 1801, this too had been defeated, leaving the British the only opponent of the new French Consulate. In March 1802, France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens.
However, many problems persisted between the two sides, and implementing the treaty became increasingly difficult. The British government resented having to return the Cape Colony and most of the Dutch West Indies to the Batavian Republic. Napoleon was angry that the British refused to abandon the island of Malta. The tense situation only worsened when Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to restore French authority and slavery in Saint-Domingue. In May 1803, Britain declared war on France.
=== Third Coalition ===
In December 1804, an Anglo-Swedish agreement led to the creation of the Third Coalition. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity geared towards forming a new coalition against France, and by April 1805, Britain and Russia had signed an alliance. Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France and being keen on revenge, Austria joined the Coalition a few months later.
== Forces ==
=== French Imperial army ===
Before the formation of the Third Coalition, Napoleon had assembled an invasion force called the Armée d'Angleterre (Army of England) around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France. He intended to use this force, amounting to 150,000 men, to strike at England and was so confident of success that he had commemorative medals struck to celebrate the conquest of the English. Although they never invaded, Napoleon's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation. Boredom among the troops occasionally set in, but Napoleon paid many visits and conducted lavish parades to boost morale.
The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call La Grande Armée. The army was organized into seven corps, which were large field units that contained 36 to 40 cannons each and were capable of independent action until other corps could come to their aid. A single corps (adequately situated in a solid defensive position) could survive at least a day without support. In addition to these forces, Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22,000 organized into two cuirassier divisions, four mounted dragoon divisions, one division of dismounted dragoons and one of light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces. By 1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000 men, who were well equipped, well trained, and led by competent officers.
=== Russian Imperial army ===
The Russian army in 1805 had many characteristics of Ancien Régime organization. There was no permanent formation above the regimental level, and senior officers mostly belonged to aristocratic circles. The Russian infantry was considered one of the hardiest in Europe, with fine artillery crewed by experienced professional soldiers.
=== Austrian Imperial army ===
Archduke Charles, brother of the Austrian Emperor, had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat, the military-political council responsible for the armed forces. Charles was Austria's most able field commander, but he was unpopular at court and lost much influence when, against his advice, Austria decided to go to war with France. Karl Mack became the new main commander in Austria's army, instituting reforms on the eve of the war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies, rather than three battalions of six companies.
== Preliminary moves ==
In August 1805, Napoleon, Emperor of the French since December of the previous year, turned his sights from the English Channel to the Rhine to deal with the new Austrian and Russian threats. On 25 September after a feverish march in great secrecy, 200,000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km (160 mi). Mack had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm in Swabia.
Napoleon swung his forces southward in a wheeling movement that put the French at the Austrian rear while launching cavalry attacks through the Black Forest, which kept the Austrians at bay. The Ulm Maneuver was well-executed, and on 20 October, 23,000 Austrian troops surrendered at Ulm, bringing the number of Austrian prisoners of the campaign to 60,000. Although this spectacular victory was soured by the defeat of a Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar the following day, French success on land continued as Vienna fell in November. The French gained 100,000 muskets, 500 cannons, and intact bridges across the Danube.
Russian delays prevented them from saving the Austrian armies; the Russians withdrew to the northeast to await reinforcements and link up with surviving Austrian units. Tsar Alexander I appointed general Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov commander-in-chief of the combined Russo-Austrian force. On 9 September 1805, Kutuzov arrived at the battlefield, quickly contacting Francis I of Austria and his courtiers to discuss strategy and logistics. Under pressure from Kutuzov, the Austrians agreed to supply munitions and weapons promptly. Kutuzov also spotted shortcomings in the Austrian defense plan, which he called "very dogmatic". He objected to the Austrian annexation of the land recently under Napoleon's control because this would make the local people distrust the allied force.
The French followed after Kutuzov but soon found themselves in a difficult position. Prussian intentions were unknown and could be hostile; the Russian and Austrian armies had converged, and French lines of communication were extremely long, requiring strong garrisons to keep them open. Napoleon realized that to capitalize on the success at Ulm, he had to force the Allies to battle and then defeat them.
On the Russian side, Kutuzov also realized Napoleon needed to do battle, so instead of clinging to the "suicidal" Austrian defense plan, Kutuzov decided to retreat. He ordered Pyotr Bagration to contain the French at Vienna with 600 soldiers. He instructed Bagration to accept Murat's ceasefire proposal so the Allied Army could have more time to retreat. It was later discovered that the proposal was false and had been used to launch a surprise attack on Vienna. Nonetheless, Bagration held off the French assault for a time by negotiating an armistice with Murat, thereby providing Kutuzov time to position himself with the Russian rearguard near Hollabrunn.
Murat initially refrained from an attack, believing the entire Russian army stood before him. Napoleon soon realized Murat's mistakes and ordered him to pursue quickly, but the allied army had already retreated to Olmütz. According to Kutuzov's plan, the Allies would retreat further to the Carpathian region and "at Galicia, I will bury the French."
Napoleon did not stay still. The French Emperor decided to set a psychological trap to lure the Allies out. Days before any fighting, Napoleon had been giving the impression that his army was weak and desired a negotiated peace. About 53,000 French troops—including Soult, Lannes, and Murat's forces—were assigned to take Austerlitz and the Olmütz road, occupying the enemy's attention. The Allied forces, numbering about 89,000, seemed far superior and would be tempted to attack the outnumbered French army. However, the Allies did not know that Bernadotte, Mortier and Davout were already within supporting distance and could be called in by forced marches—Bernadotte from Iglau, and Mortier and Davout from Vienna—which would raise the French number to 75,000 troops.
Napoleon's lure did not stop at that. On 25 November, General Savary was sent to the Allied headquarters at Olmütz to deliver Napoleon's message, expressing his desire to avoid a battle while secretly examining the Allied forces' situation. As expected, the overture was seen as a sign of weakness. When Francis I offered an armistice on the 27th, Napoleon accepted enthusiastically. On the same day, Napoleon ordered Soult to abandon both Austerlitz and the Pratzen Heights and, while doing so, to create an impression of chaos during the retreat that would induce the enemy to occupy the Heights.
The next day (28 November), the French Emperor requested a personal interview with Alexander I. He received a visit from the Tsar's most impetuous aide, Prince Peter Dolgorukov. The meeting was another part of the trap, as Napoleon intentionally expressed anxiety and hesitation to his opponents. Dolgorukov reported an additional indication of French weakness to the Tsar.
The plan was successful. Many Allied officers, including the Tsar's aides and the Austrian Chief of Staff Franz von Weyrother, strongly supported an immediate attack and appeared to sway Tsar Alexander. Kutuzov's plan to retreat further to the Carpathian region was rejected, and the Allied forces soon fell into Napoleon's trap.
== Battle ==
The battle began with the French army outnumbered. Napoleon had some 72,000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle, with about 7,000 troops under Davout still far to the south in the direction of Vienna. The Allies had about 85,000 soldiers, seventy percent of them Russian, and 318 guns.
At first, Napoleon was not confident of victory. In a letter written to Minister of Foreign Affairs Talleyrand, Napoleon requested that Talleyrand not tell anyone about the upcoming battle because he did not want to disturb Empress Joséphine. According to Frederick C. Schneid, the French Emperor's chief worry was how he could explain to Joséphine a French defeat.
=== Battlefield ===
The battle took place about six miles (ten kilometres) southeast of the city of Brno, between that city and Austerlitz (Czech: Slavkov u Brna) in what is now the Czech Republic. The northern part of the battlefield was dominated by the 700-foot (210-metre) Santon Hill and the 880-foot (270-meter) Žuráň Hill, both overlooking the vital Olomouc/Brno road, which was on an east–west axis. To the west of these two hills was the village of Bellowitz (Bedřichovice), and between them, the Bosenitz (Roketnice) stream went south to link up with the Goldbach (Říčka) stream, the latter flowing by the villages of Kobelnitz (Kobylnice), Sokolnitz (Sokolnice), and Telnitz (Telnice).
The centrepiece of the entire area was the Pratzen (Prace) Heights, a gently sloping hill. An aide noted that Napoleon repeatedly told his marshals, "Gentlemen, examine this ground carefully, it is going to be a battlefield; you will have a part to play upon it."
=== Allied plans and dispositions ===
The Allied council met on 1 December to discuss proposals for the battle. Most Allied strategists had two fundamental ideas: contacting the enemy and securing the southern flank that held the communication line to Vienna. Although the Tsar and his immediate entourage pushed hard for a battle, Emperor Francis of Austria was more cautious, and, as mentioned, he was seconded by Kutuzov, the Commander-in-Chief of the Russians and the Allied troops. The pressure to fight from the Russian nobles and the Austrian commanders, however, was too strong, and the Allies adopted the plan of the Austrian Chief-of-Staff, Franz von Weyrother. This called for a main drive against the French right flank, which the Allies noticed was lightly guarded, and diversionary attacks against the French left. The Allies deployed most of their troops into four columns that would attack the French right. The Russian Imperial Guard was held in reserve while Russian troops under Bagration guarded the Allied right. The Russian Tsar stripped Kutuzov of his authority as Commander-in-Chief and gave it to Franz von Weyrother. In the battle, Kutuzov could (mainly) command the IV Corps of the Allied army, although he was still the nominal commander because the Tsar was afraid to take over if his favoured plan failed.
=== French plans and dispositions ===
Napoleon hoped that the Allied forces would attack, and to encourage them, he deliberately weakened his right flank. On 28 November, Napoleon met with his marshals at Imperial Headquarters, who informed him of their qualms about the forthcoming battle. He shrugged off their suggestion of retreat.
Napoleon's plan envisaged that the Allies would throw many troops to envelop his right flank to cut the French communication line from Vienna. As a result, the Allies' center and left flank would be exposed and become vulnerable. To encourage them to do so, Napoleon abandoned the strategic position on the Pratzen Heights, faking the weakness of his forces and his caution. Meanwhile, Napoleon's main force was to be concealed in a dead ground opposite the Heights. According to the plan, the French troops would attack and recapture the Pratzen Heights, then from the Heights, they would launch a decisive assault on the center of the Allied army, cripple them, and encircle them from the rear.
If the Russian force leaves the Pratzen Heights in order to go to the right side, they will certainly be defeated.
The massive thrust through the Allied centre was conducted by 16,000 troops of Soult's IV Corps. IV Corps' position was cloaked by dense mist during the early stage of the battle; in fact, how long the mist lasted was vital to Napoleon's plan: Soult's troops would become uncovered if the mist dissipated too soon, but if it lingered too long, Napoleon would be unable to determine when the Allied troops had evacuated Pratzen Heights, preventing him from timing his attack properly.
Meanwhile, to support his weak right flank, Napoleon ordered Davout's III Corps to force march from Vienna and join General Legrand's men, who held the extreme southern flank that would bear the heaviest part of the Allied attack. Davout's soldiers had 48 hours to march 110 km (68 mi). Their arrival was crucial in determining the success of the French plan. Indeed, the arrangement of Napoleon on the right flank was precarious as the French had only minimal troops garrisoning there. However, Napoleon was able to use such a risky plan because Davout—the commander of III Corps—was one of Napoleon's best marshals, because the right flank's position was protected by a complicated system of streams and lakes, and because the French had already settled upon a secondary line of retreat through Brunn. The Imperial Guard and Bernadotte's I Corps were held in reserve while the V Corps under Lannes guarded the northern sector of the battlefield, where the new communication line was located.
By 1 December 1805, the French troops had been shifted in accordance with the Allied movement southward, as Napoleon expected.
=== Battle begins ===
The battle began at about 8 a.m., with the first allied lines attacking the village of Telnitz, which the 3rd Line Regiment defended. This battlefield sector witnessed heavy fighting in this early action as several ferocious Allied charges evicted the French from the town and forced them onto the other side of the Goldbach. The first men of Davout's corps arrived at this time and threw the Allies out of Telnitz before they, too, were attacked by hussars and re-abandoned the town. Additional Allied attacks out of Telnitz were checked by French artillery.
Allied columns started pouring against the French right, but not at the desired speed, so the French successfully curbed the attacks. The Allied deployments were mistaken and poorly timed: cavalry detachments under Liechtenstein on the Allied left flank had to be placed on the right flank, and in the process, they ran into and slowed down part of the second column of infantry that was advancing towards the French right. At the time, the planners thought this slowing was disastrous, but later on, it helped the Allies. Meanwhile, the leading elements of the second column were attacking the village of Sokolnitz, which was defended by the 26th Light Regiment and the Tirailleurs, French skirmishers. Initial Allied assaults proved unsuccessful, and General Langeron ordered the bombardment of the village. This deadly barrage forced the French out, and at about the same time, the third column under the command of General Przybyszewski (Przhibyshevsky) attacked the castle of Sokolnitz. The French, however, counterattacked and regained the village, only to be thrown out again. Conflict in this area ended temporarily when Friant's division (part of III Corps) retook the village. Sokolnitz was perhaps the most contested area on the battlefield and would change hands several times as the day progressed.
While the Allied troops attacked the French right flank, Kutuzov's IV Corps stopped at the Pratzen Heights and stayed still. Just like Napoleon, Kutuzov realized the importance of Pratzen and decided to protect the position. But the young Tsar did not, so he ordered the IV Corps to withdraw from the Heights. This act quickly pushed the Allied army into its grave.
=== "One sharp blow and the war is over" ===
At about 8:45 a.m., satisfied at the weakness in the enemy center, Napoleon asked Soult how long it would take for his men to reach the Pratzen Heights, to which the Marshal replied, "Less than twenty minutes, sire." About 15 minutes later, Napoleon ordered the attack, adding, "One sharp blow and the war is over."
A dense fog helped to cloud the advance of St. Hilaire's French division, but as they ascended the slope, the legendary 'Sun of Austerlitz' ripped the mist apart and encouraged them forward. Russian soldiers and commanders on top of the heights were stunned to see so many French troops coming towards them. Allied commanders moved some of the delayed detachments of the fourth column into this bitter struggle. Over an hour of fighting destroyed much of this unit. Mikhail Kutuzov commanded the battle at the location of this column. The other men from the second column, primarily inexperienced Austrians, also participated in the struggle and swung the numbers against one of the best fighting forces in the French army, eventually forcing them to withdraw down the slopes. However, gripped by desperation, St. Hilaire's men struck hard again and bayoneted the Allies out of the heights. To the north, General Vandamme's division attacked an area called Staré Vinohrady ("Old Vineyards") and, through talented skirmishing and deadly volleys, broke several Allied battalions.
The battle had firmly turned in France's favor, but it was far from over. Napoleon ordered Bernadotte's I Corps to support Vandamme's left and moved his command center from Žuráň Hill to St. Anthony's Chapel on the Pratzen Heights. The problematic position of the Allies was confirmed by the decision to send in the Russian Imperial Guard; Grand Duke Constantine, Tsar Alexander's brother, commanded the Guard and counterattacked in Vandamme's section of the field, forcing a bloody effort and the only loss of a French standard in the battle (a battalion of the 4th Line Regiment was defeated). Sensing trouble, Napoleon ordered his own heavy Guard cavalry forward. These men pulverized their Russian counterparts, but with both sides pouring in large masses of cavalry, no victory was clear.
The Russians had a numerical advantage; however, the tide soon swung as Drouet's Division, the 2nd of Bernadotte's I Corps, deployed on the flank of the action and allowed French cavalry to seek refuge behind their lines. The horse artillery of the Guard also inflicted heavy casualties on the Russian cavalry and fusiliers. The Russians broke, and many died as they were pursued by the reinvigorated French cavalry for about a quarter of a mile. Kutuzov was severely wounded, and his son-in-law, Ferdinand von Tiesenhausen, was killed.
=== Endgame ===
I was ... under fierce and continuous canister fire ... Many soldiers, now incessantly engaged in battle from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., had no cartridges left. I could do nothing but retreat ...
Meanwhile, the northernmost part of the battlefield also witnessed heavy fighting. The Prince of Liechtenstein's heavy cavalry began to assault Kellermann's lighter cavalry forces after eventually arriving at the correct position in the field. The fighting initially went well for the French, but Kellerman's forces took cover behind General Caffarelli's infantry division once it became clear that Russian numbers were too great. Caffarelli's men halted the Russian assaults and permitted Murat to send two cuirassier divisions (one commanded by d'Hautpoul and the other one by Nansouty) into the fray to finish off the Russian cavalry for good. The ensuing mêlée was bitter and long, but the French ultimately prevailed. Lannes then led his V Corps against Bagration's men and, after hard fighting, drove the skilled Russian commander off the field. He wanted to pursue, but Murat, who was in control of this sector on the battlefield, was against the idea.
Napoleon's focus shifted towards the southern end of the battlefield, where the French and the Allies were still fighting over Sokolnitz and Telnitz. In an effective double-pronged assault, St. Hilaire's division and part of Davout's III Corps smashed through the enemy at Sokolnitz, which persuaded the commanders of the first two columns, Generals Kienmayer and Langeron, to flee as fast as they could. Buxhowden, the commander of the Allied left and the man responsible for leading the attack, was completely drunk and fled as well. Kienmayer covered his withdrawal with the O'Reilly light cavalry, who managed to defeat five of six French cavalry regiments before they had to retreat.
General panic seized the Allied army, and it abandoned the field in all possible directions. A famous, albeit disputed, episode occurred during this retreat: defeated Russian forces withdrew south towards Vienna via the frozen Satschan ponds. French artillery pounded towards the men, and the ice was broken by the bombardment. The fleeing men drowned in the cold ponds, dozens of Russian artillery pieces going down with them. Estimates of how many guns were captured differ: there may have been as few as 38 or more than 100. Sources also differ about casualties, with figures ranging between 200 and 2,000 dead. Many drowning Russians were saved by their victorious foes. However, local evidence later made public suggests that Napoleon's account of the catastrophe may have been exaggerated; on his instructions, the lakes were drained a few days after the battle, and the corpses of only two or three men, with some 150 horses, were found. On the other hand, Tsar Alexander I attested to the incident after the wars.
== Military and political results ==
Allied casualties stood at about 36,000 out of an army of 89,000, representing about 38% of their effective forces. The French were not unscathed in the battle, losing around 9,000 out of an army of 66,000, or about 13% of their forces. The Allies also lost some 180 guns and about 50 standards. As per more recent data, 186 guns (cannons) and 45 standards. The victory was met by sheer amazement and delirium in Paris, where the nation had been teetering on the brink of financial collapse just days earlier. Napoleon wrote to Josephine, "I have beaten the Austro-Russian army commanded by the two emperors. I am a little weary. ... I embrace you." Napoleon's comments in this letter led to the battle's other famous designation, "Battle of the Three Emperors". However, Napoleon was mistaken as Emperor Francis of Austria was not present on the battlefield. Tsar Alexander perhaps best summed up the harsh times for the Allies by stating, "We are babies in the hands of a giant." After hearing the news of Austerlitz, Pitt said of a map of Europe, "Roll up that map; it will not be wanted these ten years."
France and Austria signed a truce on 4 December, and the Treaty of Pressburg, 22 days later, took the latter out of the war. Austria agreed to recognize French territory captured by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lunéville (1801), cede land to Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, which were Napoleon's German allies, pay 40 million francs in war indemnities and cede Venice to the Kingdom of Italy. It was a harsh end for Austria, but certainly not a catastrophic peace. The Russian army was allowed to withdraw to its home territory, and the French ensconced themselves in Southern Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was extinguished, 1806 being seen as its final year. Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, a string of German states meant to serve as a buffer between France and Prussia. Prussia saw these and other moves as an affront to its status as the main power of Central Europe, and it went to war with France in 1806.
== Rewards ==
Napoleon's words to his troops after the battle were full of praise: Soldats! Je suis content de vous ('Soldiers! I am pleased with you').
Napoleon wrote to his victorious army on the night of Austerlitz with his customary rhetoric:
Even at this hour, before this great day shall pass and be lost in the ocean of eternity, your emperor just address you, and say how satisfied he is with the conduct of all those who had the good fortune to fight in this memorable battle. Soldiers! You are the finest warriors in the World. The recollection of this day, and of your deeds, will be eternal! Thousands of ages hereafter, as long as the events of the universe continue to be relate, will it be told that a Russian army of 76,000 men, hired by the gold of England, was annihilated by you on the plains of Olmütz.
The Emperor provided two million golden francs to the higher officers and 200 francs to each soldier, with large pensions for the widows of the fallen, also providing 6,000 francs for the widows of fallen generals. Orphaned children were adopted by Napoleon personally and were allowed to add "Napoleon" to their baptismal and family names. He could afford this, and much else besides, thanks to the return of financial confidence that swept the country as government bonds leaped from 45% to 66% of their face value on the news of victory.
This battle is one of four for which Napoleon never awarded a victory title, the others being Marengo, Jena, and Friedland.
== In popular culture ==
Artists and musicians on the side of France and her conquests expressed their sentiments in the popular and elite art of the time. Prussian music critic E. T. A. Hoffmann, in his famous review of Beethoven's 5th Symphony,
singles out for special abuse a certain Bataille des trois Empereurs, a French battle symphony by Louis Jadin celebrating Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz.
Leo Tolstoy dramatized the battle as the conclusion of Book 3 and Volume 1 of War and Peace, making it a crucial moment in the lives of both Andrei Bolkonsky, who is badly wounded, and of Nikolai Rostov.
Archibald Alison in his History of Europe (1836) offers the first recorded telling of the apocryphal story that when the Allies descended the Pratzen Heights to attack Napoleon's supposedly weak flank,
The marshals who surrounded Napoleon saw the advantage, and eagerly besought him to give the signal for action; but he restrained their ardour ... "when the enemy is making a false movement we must take good care not to interrupt him."
In subsequent accounts, this Napoleonic quote would undergo various changes until it became: "Never interrupt your enemy when he is making a mistake."
== Historical views ==
Napoleon did not succeed in defeating the Allied army as thoroughly as he wanted, but historians and enthusiasts alike recognize that the original plan provided a significant victory, comparable to other great tactical battles such as Cannae. Some historians suggest that Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with reality, and what used to be French foreign policy became a "personal Napoleonic one" after the battle. In French history, Austerlitz is acknowledged as an impressive military victory, and in the 19th century, when fascination with the First French Empire was at its height, the battle was revered by French authors such as Victor Hugo, who wrote of the "sound of heavy cannons rolling towards Austerlitz" echoing in the "depths of [his] thoughts". In the 2005 bicentennial, however, controversy erupted when neither French President Jacques Chirac nor Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin attended any functions commemorating the battle. On the other hand, some residents of France's overseas departments protested against what they viewed as the "official commemoration of Napoleon", arguing that Austerlitz should not be celebrated since they believed that Napoleon committed genocide against colonial people.
After the battle, Tsar Alexander I blamed Kutuzov, the Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Army. However, Kutuzov planned to retreat farther to the rear, where the Allied Army had a sharp advantage in logistics. Had the Allied Army retreated further, it might have been reinforced by Archduke Charles's troops from Italy, and the Prussians might have joined the Coalition against Napoleon. A French army at the end of its supply lines, in a place that had no food supplies, might have faced a very different ending from the one they achieved at the real battle of Austerlitz.
== Monuments and protection of the area ==
In the years following the battle, many memorials were set up around the affected villages to commemorate both the individual episodes of the battle and the thousands of its victims. Since 1992, the area where the Battle of Austerlitz took place has been protected by law as a landscape monument zone. Its value lies in the historical peculiarities of the place, the historical connections of settlements, landscapes, and terrain formations, and the overall landscape image. The area extends to 19 of today's municipalities:
Near Prace is the Cairn of Peace Memorial, claimed to be the first peace memorial in Europe. It was designed and built in the Art Nouveau style by Josef Fanta in 1910–1912. World War I postponed the monument's dedication until 1923. It is 26 m (85 ft) high, square, with four female statues symbolizing France, Austria, Russia, and Moravia. Within is a chapel with an ossuary. A nearby small museum commemorates the battle. Every year, the events of the Battle of Austerlitz are commemorated in a ceremony.
Other memorials located in the monument zone include, among others:
The Staré Vinohrady height near Zbýšov saw the bloody collision of the French and Russian guards. In 2005, the Monument to the Three Emperors was erected here.
Stará Pošta ("Old Post") in Kovalovice is an original building from 1785, which now serves as a hotel and restaurant. On 28 November 1805, the French cavalry general Murat set up his headquarters here. On the day of the battle, the Russian general Bagration had his headquarters here. After the battle, Napoleon slept in this house and held preliminary negotiations about an armistice. A small museum commemorates these events.
On Santon Hill in Tvarožná is a small white chapel. The hill was a mainstay of the French position and allowed the French artillery to dominate the northern portion of the battlefield. Below the hill, the yearly historical reenactments take place.
On Žuráň Hill, where Napoleon was headquartered, a granite monument depicts the battlefield positions.
Slavkov Castle, where an armistice was signed between Austria and France after the battle on 6 December 1805. There is a small historical museum and a multimedia presentation about the battle.
Several monuments to the battle can be found far beyond the battle area. A notable monument is the Pyramid of Austerlitz, built by French soldiers stationed there to commemorate the 1805 campaign near Utrecht in the Netherlands. In Paris, the 44-metre-high bronze Colonne Vendôme, a celebration of Napoleon, also stands on the Place Vendôme. The monument was initially called the Column of Austerlitz and, according to propaganda, was cast from the melted-down barrels of Allied guns from the Battle of Austerlitz. Several other sites and public buildings commemorate the encounter in Paris, such as Pont d'Austerlitz and nearby Gare d'Austerlitz. A scene from the battle is also depicted on the bas-relief of the eastern pillar of the Arc de Triomphe and Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel.
== See also ==
Gare d'Austerlitz
Military career of Napoleon
== Explanatory notes ==
== Citations ==
== General references ==
== External links ==
(In French) Austerlitz order of battle
Austerlitz
(In German) The Battle of Austerlitz 2005
(In French) Austerlitz 2005: la bataille des trois empereurs
(In French) Austerlitz Online Game (Pousse-pion éditions, 2010)
Austerlitz: The Battle of the Three Emperors (Napoleonic Miniatures Wargame Society of Toronto)
Austerlitz AKA The Battle of Austerlitz (1960) at IMDb
(In Czech) View on battle place – virtual show
Bellum.cz – "Battle of Austerlitz 2nd December 1805"
Media related to Battle of Austerlitz at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo_Viana | Marcelo Viana | Marcelo Miranda Viana da Silva (born 4 March 1962) is a Brazilian mathematician working in dynamical systems theory. He proved the Zorich–Kontsevich conjecture together with Artur Avila.
He was a Guggenheim Fellow in 1993. He received the TWAS Prize in 1998 and in 2005 he was awarded the inaugural ICTP Ramanujan Prize for his research achievements.
Viana was vice-president of the International Mathematical Union in 2011–2014, and president of the Brazilian Mathematical Society (2013–2015).
In 1998, he was a plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians, in Berlin.
Viana is director elected of the IMPA (for the period 2016–2019).
Viana is a columnist for Folha de S.Paulo.
He was the chair of the executive committee for the 2018 International Congress of Mathematicians, Rio de Janeiro.
== Biography ==
Viana was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, his parents being Portuguese. He grew up in Portugal, and his undergraduate studies were at the University of Porto. He received his Ph.D. degree from the IMPA in Rio de Janeiro, with Jacob Palis as advisor. He is now director at IMPA.
== Work ==
Viana's work concerns chaotic dynamical systems and strange attractors.
== Selected publications ==
Books:
with José Espinar: Differential Equations: A Dynamical Systems Approach to Theory and Practice (2021)
with Krerley Oliveira: Foundations of Ergodic Theory, Cambridge University Press
Research papers:
jointly with AVILA, A., "Simplicity of Lyapunov spectra: proof of the Zorich–Kontsevich conjecture". Acta Mathematica. vol. 198 (2007), no. 1, pp. 1–56.
jointly with PALIS, J., "High dimension diffeomorphisms displaying infinitely many periodic attractors". Annals of Mathematics. vol. 140 (1994), no. 1, pp. 207–250.
jointly with MORA, L., "Abundance of strange attractors". Acta Mathematica. vol. 171 (1993), no. 1, pp. 1–71.
== References ==
== External links ==
Home page of Marcelo Viana
Unión Matemática de América Latina y el Caribe – UMALCA Award in Mathematics 2000: Marcelo Viana
Marcelo Viana publications indexed by Google Scholar
Viana teaching a course on ordinary differential equations (in Portuguese)
Interview with Marcelo Viana, conducted by Maria Manuel Clementino and Jorge Picado |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milet_(singer) | Milet (singer) | Milet (ミレイ, Mirei) is a Japanese singer and songwriter. She made her major debut in 2019 with Inside You EP. The EP peaked at number 16 on the Oricon Albums Chart. After releasing five EPs, she released first studio album Eyes in 2020. The album hit number one on both Oricon and Japan's Billboard chart, certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for sales of 100,000.
== Career ==
Milet is a Tokyo-based Japanese singer-songwriter. She started her career in 2018.
On March 6, 2019, her first live show, Milet Special Show Case @Billboard-Live Tokyo, was held at Billboard Live Tokyo. In that same year, several of her songs were featured in various media. Her songs "Us" and "Again and Again" were used as the openings for Japanese TV dramas Gisou Furin and Joker x Face respectively, while her songs "Drown", and "Prover"/"Tell me" were used as the second ending for the anime adaptation of Vinland Saga and the second ending of anime series Fate/Grand Order - Absolute Demonic Front: Babylonia, respectively.
On June 3, 2020, Milet released her debut album Eyes, which hit number one on Oricon Albums Chart. She collaborated on the album with guitarist Toru of One OK Rock and Man with a Mission member Kamikaze Boy.
Starting from October 4, 2020, Milet became a DJ host for the radio series Music Freaks, streaming every Sunday from 22:00 to 24:00 (JST) on the Osaka radio station FM802 from a studio in Minami-morimachi. The radio broadcasts are stated to last one year.
Her single "Ordinary Days" was used as the ending theme for the live-action drama adaptation of Police in a Pod, which aired from July 7 to September 15, 2021.
On November 12, 2020, the song "Who I Am" premiered on YouTube and was subsequently featured as the title track of her sixth mini-album, which released on December 2, 2020. "Who I Am" and the song "The Hardest" were both respectively used as the opening and ending themes of the Japanese television drama Shichinin no Hisho.
Milet debut in the popular annual TV music show, 71st NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen, on 31 December 2020 with the song "Inside You".
On August 8, 2021, she performed at the closing ceremony of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. She covered the song "Hymne à l'amour", originally sung by Edith Piaf. On November 18, 2021, she represented Japan in the 10th Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU) TV Song Festival, performing her first big hit "Inside You" remotely. On December 31, 2021, she participated in the "NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen" for the second consecutive year, performing "Fly High."
On April 22, 2022, Milet released a teaser lyric video for a new single entitled "Walkin' in My Lane", which serves as the theme song to the live-action drama adaptation of the manga Yangotonaki Ichizoku. It was pre-released on streaming services on April 29, and was fully released on May 25, 2022, along with "Love When I Cry" and "My Dreams Are Made of Hell."
In 2025, she made her film debut in the remake of the French-Belgian film Love at Second Sight, titled My Beloved Stranger.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Extended plays ===
=== Live albums ===
=== Singles ===
==== As lead artist ====
==== As featured artist ====
==== Promotional singles ====
=== Other charted songs ===
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
== Awards ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Official website (SME Records)
Official website (Sony Music Artists)
Milet at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John_the_Baptist%27s_Church,_Leamington_Spa | St John the Baptist's Church, Leamington Spa | St John the Baptist's Church is an Anglo-Catholic parish church in Leamington Spa, England. The historic structure is Grade II* listed.
== History ==
The church of St John the Baptist was built between 1877 and 1878 to designs by the architect John Cundall of Leamington.
It was recently reroofed at a cost of £250,000 by Brown Matthews Architects.
It is a parish of the Society of St Wilfrid and St Hilda under the care of the Bishop of Oswestry.
== Organ ==
The church has a two-manual pipe organ built by Henry Jones which dates from 1878. A specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register.
=== Organists ===
1880–1888: Richard Yates Mander
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Monsters#Season_9_(2017) | River Monsters | River Monsters is a British wildlife documentary television series produced for Animal Planet by Icon Films of Bristol, United Kingdom. It is hosted by angler and biologist Jeremy Wade, who travels around the globe in search of large and dangerous fish.
River Monsters premiered on ITV in Great Britain and became one of the most-watched programmes in Animal Planet's history. It is also one of the most-viewed series on Discovery Channel in the American market.
== Overview ==
River Monsters follows the worldwide adventures of Suffolk-born British host, biologist, adventurer and extreme angler Jeremy Wade. He explores rivers and lakes to uncover the creatures behind local folklore and harrowing tales of monster fish. The show has taken viewers to
England, Scotland, Cambodia, Canada, Germany, Spain, Colombia, Bolivia, Iceland, Norway, Greenland, Argentina, Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, India, Japan, France, Russia, Suriname, Brazil, Guyana, The Solomon Islands, Indonesia, Zambia, Malaysia, Nepal, The Bahamas, The Cayman Islands, Mexico, Peru, Uganda, South Africa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nicaragua, Mongolia, Ukraine, Botswana, and the U.S. states of Alaska, Florida, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, Washington, Illinois, Oregon, and Vermont.
In the first season, Wade's weekly quest had him in search of piranha, goonch catfish (during his investigation of the Kali River goonch attacks), alligator gar, wels catfish, arapaima, piraíba, and the bull shark. All of them are potentially deadly creatures poorly understood by humans. The show also focuses on explaining the creatures' feeding habits, behaviour and conservation status. Rebroadcasts of the episodes with captions showing behind the scenes commentary from the host about the particular episode can also be seen on both Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. These episodes are going by the title River Monsters: Unhooked.
The second season of River Monsters began airing on 24 April 2010, although the first episode, titled "Demon Fish" first appeared on Discovery Channel on 28 March 2010. This season consisted of 7 episodes and took viewers to the River Congo and other distant locations. In the episode "Death Ray," Wade caught a pregnant giant freshwater stingray, the largest fish he ever landed. She later gave birth to two pups while being examined by Wade and a team of biologists. This season featured the white sturgeon, Wade's second largest catch.
The ninth season of River Monsters was announced as the final season.
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2009) ===
=== Season 2 (2010) ===
=== Season 3 (2011) ===
=== Season 4 (2012) ===
=== Season 5 (2013) ===
=== Season 6 (2014) ===
=== Season 7 (2015) ===
=== Season 8 (2016) ===
Promoted as a special season under the title River Monsters: Mysteries of the Ocean, this season sees Jeremy Wade shift his focus from freshwater to oceanic fish.
=== Season 9 (2017) ===
This season was dubbed "the final season", as it is the last season of River Monsters.
=== Season 10 (2017) ===
This season only had one episode, "Jeremy's Monster Story".
== Additional episodes: The Lost Reels ==
== Ratings ==
River Monsters had the best series premiere in Animal Planet's network history by delivering 1.3 million viewers. It was also its most watched regularly airing primetime telecast in over six years. The second episode of Animal Planet's River Monsters delivered a 39% boost in total viewers (1.866 million) compared to the series premiere. Those numbers made it the best performing regularly scheduled primetime telecast in Animal Planet's history. The first season of River Monsters made it the best performing show in Animal Planet's history with every episode averaging over 1 million households. The season finale delivered about 1.47 million households.
The second season premiere episode became the network's best season premiere ever. It drew in 1.7 million total viewers.
== See also ==
Kali River goonch attacks
Fish Warrior
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Review of River Monsters, Leicester Mercury Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
River Monsters at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_(India)#:~:text=As%20of%2031%20March%202017,%25)%20are%20in%20urban%20areas. | Ministry of Communications (India) | Ministry of Communications is a Central ministry under the Government of India responsible for telecommunications and postal service. It was carved out of Ministry of Communications and Information Technology on 19 July 2016.
It consists of two departments viz. Department of Telecommunications and the Department of Posts.
== Formation ==
Ministry of Communication and Information Technology was bifurcated into Ministry of Communications and Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.
== Department of Telecommunications ==
Also known as the Door Sanchar Vibhag, this department concerns itself with policy, licensing and coordination matters relating to telegraphs, telephones, wireless, data, facsimile and telematic services and other similar forms of communications.
It also looks into the administration of laws with respect to any of the matters specified, namely:
The Telecommunications Act, 2023 replaced the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 and Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act, 1933. The act aims to consolidate laws relating to development, expansion and operation of telecommunication services and networks.
The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997
=== Central Public Sector Undertakings ===
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
Indian Telephone Industries Limited
Bharat Broadband Network
Telecommunications Consultants India Limited
=== R&D Unit ===
Centre for Development of Telematics
=== Specialised Units ===
Wireless Planning and Coordination Wing
Telecom Engineering Center
Controller of Communication Accounts
Telecom Enforcement Resource and Monitoring (TERM) cells
In 2007, in order to distinctly address the issues of Communication Network Security at DOT (HQ) level, consequent to enhancement of FDI limit in Telecom sector from 49% to 74%, a new wing named Security was created in DOT (HQ).
=== Objectives ===
e-Government: Providing e-infrastructure for delivery of e-services
e-Industry: Promotion of electronics hardware manufacturing and IT-ITeS industry
e-Innovation / R&D: Implementation of R&D Framework - Enabling creation of Innovation/ R&D Infrastructure in emerging areas of ICT&E/Establishment of mechanism for R&D translation
e-Learning: Providing support for development of e-Skills and Knowledge network
e-Security: Securing India's cyber space
e-Inclusion: Promoting the use of ICT for more inclusive growth
Internet Governance: Enhancing India's role in Global Platforms of Internet Governance.
=== Telephone Advisory Committees ===
Telephone Advisory Committees
MTNL Website list of TAC members
National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology
National Institute of Communication Finance
National Agriculture Education Institute of Research & Resources India
=== Civil Service ===
Indian Telecommunication Service
=== Other Telecommunication Institutes ===
Telecommunication Engineering Centre
Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers
Indian Telephone Industries Limited
== Department of Posts ==
The Department of Post (DoP) which wholly the India Post operates one of the oldest and most extensive mail services in the world. As of 31 March 2017, the Indian Postal Service has 154,965 post offices, of which 139,067 (89.74%) are in rural areas and 15,898 (10.26%) are in urban areas. It has 25,585 departmental PO s and 129,380 ED BPOs. At the time of independence, there were 23,344 post offices, which were primarily in urban areas. Thus the network has registered a sevenfold growth since independence, with the focus of the expansion primarily in rural areas. On average, a post office serves an area of 21.56 sq; km and a population of 7,753 people. This is the most widely distributed post office system in the world. The large numbers are a result of a long tradition of many disparate postal systems which were unified in the Indian Union post-Independence. Owing to this far-flung reach and its presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service is also involved in other services such as small savings banking and financial services, with about 25,464 full-time and 139,040 part-time post offices. It offers a whole range of products under posts, remittance, savings, insurance, and philately. While the Director-General is the head of operations, the Secretary is an adviser to the Minister. Both responsibilities are undertaken by one officer.
The DG is assisted by the Postal Services Board with six members: The six members of the Board hold portfolios of Personnel, Operations, Technology, Postal Life Insurance, Banking, Planning respectively. Shri Ananta Narayan Nanda is the Secretary (Posts) also the Chairman of the Postal Services Board and Ms.Meera Handa is Director General (DG) Posts. Shri.Vineet Pandey(Additional Charge) Additional Director General(Coordination) (ADG), Ms. Arundhaty Ghosh, Member (Operations), Shri. Biswanath Tripathy, Member (Planning), Shri Pradipta Kumar Bisoi, Member (Personnel), Shri Udai Krishna, Member (Banking), Shri Salim Haque, Member (Technology) and Shri. Vineet Pandey, Member (PLI) & Chairman, Investment Board. The national headquarters are at Delhi and functions from Dak Bhavan located at the junction of Parliament Street and Ashoka Road.
The total revenue earned including remuneration for Savings Bank & Savings Certificate work during the year 2016-17 was ₹11,511.00 crores and the amount received from other Ministries/ Departments as Agency charges (recoveries) was ₹730.90 crores and expenditure is ₹24,211.85 crores during 2016–2017 against the previous year expenditure of ₹19,654.67 crores. The increase was mainly due to payment of increased pay & allowances consequent upon implementation of 7th pay commission recommendations, leave encashment during LTC, cost of materials, oil, diesel, revision of service tax on government buildings etc.
Lack of proper investment in infrastructure and technology is the reason for such low revenue. The present top management has already started investing in the latest technology to improve the infrastructure. Quality of service is being improved and new products are being offered to meet the competition.
The field services are managed by Postal Circles—generally conforming to each State—except for the North Eastern States, India has been divided into 22 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each Circle is further divided into Regions comprising field units, called Divisions, headed by a Postmaster General. Further divided into divisions headed by SSPOs & SPOs. further divisions are divided into Sub Divisions Headed by ASPs & IPS. Other functional units like Circle Stamp Depots, Postal Stores Depots, and Mail Motor Service may exist in the Circles and Regions.
=== Army Postal Service ===
Besides the 23 circles, there is a special Circle called the "Base Circle" to cater to the postal services of the Armed Forces of India. Army Postal Services (APS) is a unique arrangement to take care of the postal requirement of soldiers posted across the country. Department of Posts personnel is commissioned into the army to take care of APS. The Base Circle is headed by an Additional Director General, Army Postal Service, holding a Major general.
=== Indian Post Office Act, 2023 ===
The DoP is governed by the Indian Post Office Act, 2023. The act aims to consolidate and amend the law relating to Post Office in India along with expansion and modernization of its services. The Bill also replaces colonial era, Indian Post Office Act of 1898.
=== Modern Services of DoP ===
Other than the traditional postage service to keep up with the age, many new services have been introduced by the department:
e-Post - Delivery of email through postman where email service is not available
e-BillPost - Convenient way to pay bills under one roof
Postal Life insurance
International money transfers
Mutual funds
Banking
=== Civil Services ===
Indian Postal Service
Army Postal Service
Indian Post & Telecommunication Accounts and Finance Service
=== Postal Institutions ===
Rafi Ahmed Kidwai National Postal Academy (RAKNPA), Ghaziabad
== List of Ministers ==
== See also ==
Union Council of Ministers
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
List of agencies of the government of India
Indian Telecommunication Service
Indian Postal Service
Indian Post & Telecommunication Accounts and Finance Service
Post Office Act, 2023
Telecommunications Act, 2023
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taddei_Tondo#:~:text=Shortly%20after%20its%20arrival%20in,talk%20of%20all%20our%20artists. | Taddei Tondo | The Taddei Tondo or The Virgin and Child with the Infant St. John is an unfinished marble relief tondo (circular composition) of the Madonna and Child and the infant Saint John the Baptist, by the Italian Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarroti. It is in the permanent collection of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. The tondo is the only marble sculpture by Michelangelo in Great Britain. A "perfect demonstration" of his carving technique, the work delivers a "powerful emotional and narrative punch".
== Physical history ==
The tondo dates to Michelangelo's time in Florence before his move to Rome in 1505. According to the art historian, Vasari, while working on his David, Michelangelo "also at this time... blocked out but did not finish two marble tondi, one for Taddeo Taddei, today in his house, and for Bartolomeo Pitti he began another... which works were considered outstanding and marvellous".
To the lower right of the back of the relief is a ligature combining the letters L and A, probably the mark of another carver or dealer, considered most likely to be the initials of Lapo d'Antonio di Lapo, active at the Opera del Duomo and for a short period in 1506-1507, one of Michelangelo's assistants. A chisel blow on the reverse seemingly from this earlier phase resulted in a hairline crack in the face of the Virgin that may only have become apparent as carving progressed. In consideration of his motivation to continue working on the damaged marble after that was obvious, speculation exists about whether Michelangelo, known for his concern for his materials, was constrained by a shortage of ready alternatives, or, considering his success with the damaged block for David, was more accepting of flaws because he was confident in his ability to work around them. The missing segment to the bottom right may be a result of an excess of his celebrated "direct attack". At some point, however, work on the tondo ceased. Five holes in the outer rim of the tondo were intended for fixings and are variously dated.
Although unfinished, the tondo appeared in the Palazzo Taddei and is documented as still there in 1568, but by 1678, the family had moved to a new residence near San Remigio. At an unknown date the tondo was taken to Rome, where it was acquired from Jean-Baptiste Wicar by Sir George Beaumont in 1822. Initially hung at Beaumont's house in Grosvenor Square, it was bequeathed to the academy in 1830 and installed at Somerset House, before moving with the academy to the east wing of the new National Gallery building in 1836, where it remained until the academy relocated to Burlington House in 1868. Except for an exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1960, the tondo has been housed and displayed in various academy locations ever since.
The discovery of the hairline crack running through the upper half of the marble contributed to the decision in 1989 to provide a permanent home for the tondo. Subsequently the tondo was cleaned with dichloromethane swabs and clay poultices to remove residues of nineteenth-century plaster casts and their oil-based release agents, packing materials, traces of beeswax and pine resin adhesives, and other surface accretions. The tondo was left unwaxed and no other coating was applied, as the work is not "finished" and originally had not been polished (as was the David when finished). Since the opening of the Sackler Wing of Galleries in 1991, the tondo has been on free public display in an area designed for it on the top floor that was positioned for reasons of preventive conservation behind protective glass, to combat the effects of air pollution and the possibility of vandalism.
== Description ==
The tondo as a format for painting and relief sculpture was a quintessential product of the Florentine Renaissance. During the century after 1430, all the leading artists created tondi, including Filippo Lippi, Botticelli, Luca Signorelli, Piero di Cosimo, Fra Bartolomeo, Andrea del Sarto, Leonardo da Vinci (in a lost work), and Raphael. For a few years Michelangelo also experimented with the form. He executed the Doni tondo, his only panel painting documented in contemporary sources, and he also began two unfinished tondo sculptures, the Pitti and Taddei tondi, but after that he never returned to the tondo form in either medium.
This tondo depicts a seated Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus dynamically sprawled across her lap, turning and looking back over his right shoulder toward the infant Saint John the Baptist, who stands before him looking down and holding a fluttering bird. When viewing the composition, the eye of the viewer is drawn diagonally along Christ's body, back up that of his mother, follows her gaze across to John, and from his face back to Christ. John, patron saint of Florence, with his attribute of a baptismal bowl, crosses his arms, perhaps in allusion to the cross. Most likely the bird he holds is a goldfinch not a dove - Christian symbolism sees in this bird a representation of the Passion. The unfinished portion of the marble below the bird might have been intended to become a crown of thorns.
Michelangelo's execution with only a point and claw chisel, often driven hard and with great energy, is a combination of techniques that helps create a sense of "surface unity" unbroken by the use of the drill. The Christ child, almost completely in full relief is the only figure that is highly finished (except for the feet), St. John is much less finished, Mary is the least finished, and the background is only roughly executed. One critic declares a belief that these marked variations in texture help establish the relative status of the three figures while creating a sense of compositional depth all the greater for not being more conventionally "finished".
Many of Michelangelo's works are unfinished. Circumstances around each being unfinished vary. Critical opinions address some of his unfinished works as if completed, however. The nineteenth-century French sculptor and critic Eugène Guillaume declared that, what he labeled as Michelangelo's "non finito", was "one of the master's expressive devices in his quest for infinite suggestiveness".
== Influence and reception ==
The tondo was commissioned by Taddeo Taddei. He was a patron and friend of Raphael, a young contemporary to Michelangelo also working in Florence. Raphael studied and reworked the tondo in two drawings, the versi of The Storming of Perugia now at the Louvre as well as compositional studies for the Madonna del Prato now at Chatsworth House. Raphael also applied the concept of Michelangelo's twisting body of the Christ child stretching across his mother's lap in Bridgewater Madonna.
Shortly after its arrival in England, Michelangelo's tondo was sketched by Wilkie, who wrote to Beaumont "your important acquisition of the basso-relievo of Michael Angelo is still the chief talk of all our artists. It is indeed a great addition to our stock of art, and is the only work that has appeared in this northern latitude to justify the great reputation of its author". Cockerell noted in his diary how "the subject seems growing from the marble & emerging into life. It assumes by degrees its shape, features from an unformed mass, as it were you trace & watch its birth from the sculptor's mind".
Following its arrival at the Royal Academy, the tondo was sketched by Constable, who published a letter in the Athenaeum of 3 July 1830 praising the way it was lit, "showing the more finished parts to advantage, and causing those less perfect to become masses of shadow, having at a distance all the effect of a rich picture in chiaroscuro". With its differing degrees of finish the tondo is an outstanding technical study piece; plaster casts may be found at the Victoria and Albert Museum and Fitzwilliam Museum.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of works by Michelangelo
Pitti Tondo
Doni Tondo
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Taddei Tondo (Royal Academy of Arts Collections) Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Media related to Taddei Tondo at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_Bakhsh | Murad Bakhsh | Mirza Muhammad Murad Bakhsh (9 October 1624 – 14 December 1661) was a Mughal prince and the youngest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and Empress Mumtaz Mahal. He was the Subahdar of Balkh, until he was replaced by his elder brother Aurangzeb in the year 1647.
== Family ==
Muhammad Murad Bakhsh was born on 9 October 1624, at the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, as the sixth and youngest surviving son of Emperor Shah Jahan and his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Murad's siblings included his two politically powerful sisters, the princesses Jahanara Begum and Roshanara Begum, as well as the heir-apparent to his father, his eldest brother, Crown Prince Dara Shikoh and the future Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
== Personal life ==
In 1638, Murad Bakhsh, at the age of fourteen years, married the Safavid princess, Sakina Banu Begum, daughter of Shah Nawaz Khan Safavi. She was the younger sister of his elder sister-in-law, Dilras Banu Begum, who was Aurangzeb's wife.
== Governorship ==
He was appointed as the Subadar of Multan (1642), of Balkh (16 February 1646 to 9 August 1646), of Kashmir (20 August 1647 to July 1648), of Deccan (25 July 1648 to 14 September 1649), and Kabul (23 January 1650 to 1654), of Gujarat (March 1654), and Malwa.
=== Courtiers ===
Raja Aman Khan Bahadur – Died in 1661, Mewat
Darar Khan – Died 1673, Mewat
Muhammad Rustam Shaikh – Died 1648, Deccan.
Muhammad Allahauddin Shaikh – Died 1655. He was brother of Rustam Shaikh.
Miah Khan – Died 1653, Deccan.
Rajkumar Hariram Singh – 1622–1678(56), The Deputy of Murad Baksh from 1646 to 1651. He was second son of Raja Gaj Singh of Nagpur and the brother of Raja Amar Singh of Nagpur
Rajkumar Veer Singh – 1636–1680(44), Eldest son of Amar Singh of Nagpur.
== War of succession ==
On 30 November 1657, he proclaimed himself emperor at Ahmedabad, after reports that his father was ill. During the same year, he received the Ottoman ambassador Manzada Husain Agha, who arrived in the port of Surat and was on his way to meet Shah Jahan in Agra. Manzar Hussain Agha mentions his disappointment regarding the wars between Shah Jahan's sons.
Murad Bakhsh joined hands with Aurangzeb to defeat Dara Shikhoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan. In fact, it was the ferocious charge led by Murad Bakhsh and his Sowars that eventually turned the outcome of the battle in favor of Aurangzeb during the Battle of Samugarh.
On 7 July 1658, while he was in a tent with his brother Aurangzeb, he was intoxicated, secretly sent to the prison and transferred to Gwalior Fort from January 1659.
He faced a trial that sentenced him to death for having murdered former Diwan clerk named Ali Naqi, in 1661. Aurangzeb then replaced Murad Bakhsh as the Subedar of Gujarat, and placed Inayat Khan as the new Mughal commander of Surat.
== Death ==
On 14 December 1661, after spending three years in prison, he was executed at Gwalior Fort. With the last of his brothers now dead, Aurangzeb was the undisputed emperor of the Mughal Empire.
== Ancestry ==
== See also ==
Moradabad
Shah Jahan
Mughal–Safavid War (1649–1653)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany_Medical_Center_Prize | Albany Medical Center Prize | The Albany Medical Center Prize in Medicine and Biomedical Research is the United States' second highest value prize in medicine and biomedical research, awarded by the Albany Medical Center. Among prizes for medicine worldwide, the Albany Medical Center Prize is the fourth most lucrative (after the $3 million Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences, the $1.2 million Nobel Prize in Medicine and the $1 million Shaw Prize in life science and medicine).
Awarded annually, the $500,000 prize is bestowed to any physician or scientist, or group, whose work has led to significant advances in the fields of health care and scientific research with demonstrated translational benefits applied to improved patient care.
The prize is a legacy to its founder, the late Morris "Marty" Silverman. At the inaugural awards ceremony in Albany, NY in March 2001, Silverman started a tradition that will be carried on for one hundred years, the duration of the Prize. Silverman's promise was to light one candle each year to honor that year's recipient.
== Recipients ==
2025: Press Release
Jeffrey M. Friedman
2024: Press Release
Howard Y. Chang
Adrian R. Krainer
Lynne E. Maquat
2023: Press Release
Bonnie L. Bassler
Jeffrey I. Gordon
Dennis L. Kasper
2022: Press Release
C. David Allis
Michael Grunstein
2021: Press Release
Barney Graham
Katalin Karikó
Drew Weissman
2020:
Not awarded
2019: Press Release
Bert Vogelstein
Irving Weissman
2018: Press Release
James P. Allison
Carl H. June
Steven A. Rosenberg
2017: Press Release Archived 2019-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
Emmanuelle Charpentier
Jennifer Doudna
Luciano Marraffini
Francisco Juan Martínez Mojica
Feng Zhang
2016: Press Release
F. Ulrich Hartl
Arthur L. Horwich
Susan L. Lindquist
2015: Press Release
Karl Deisseroth
Xiaoliang Xie
2014: Press Release
Alexander Varshavsky
2013: Press Release
Brian J. Druker
Peter C. Nowell
Janet D. Rowley
2012: Press Release
James E. Darnell Jr
Robert G. Roeder
2011: Press Release Archived 2015-10-02 at the Wayback Machine
Elaine Fuchs
James A. Thomson
Shinya Yamanaka
2010: Press Release
David Botstein
Francis S. Collins
Eric S. Lander
2009: Press Release Archived 2015-05-31 at the Wayback Machine
Bruce A. Beutler
Charles A. Dinarello
Ralph M. Steinman
2008: Press Release
Joan A. Steitz
Elizabeth Blackburn
2007: Press Release Archived 2012-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
Robert J. Lefkowitz
Solomon H. Snyder
Ronald M. Evans
2006: Press Release
Seymour Benzer
2005: Press Release
Robert S. Langer
2004:
Stanley N. Cohen
Herbert W. Boyer
2003:
Michael S. Brown
Joseph L. Goldstein
2002:
Anthony Fauci
2001:
Arnold J. Levine
== See also ==
List of medicine awards
== References ==
"Scientists share $500,000 prize for biomedical research". Associated Press. May 2, 2008. Archived from the original on May 6, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-03.
"Women scientists at Yale, UC-San Francisco win $500K Albany Med award". The Business Review. May 2, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-03. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumelhart_Prize | Rumelhart Prize | The David E. Rumelhart Prize for Contributions to the Theoretical Foundations of Human Cognition was founded in 2001 in honor of the cognitive scientist David Rumelhart to introduce the equivalent of a Nobel Prize for cognitive science. It is awarded annually to "an individual or collaborative team making a significant contemporary contribution to the theoretical foundations of human cognition". The annual award is presented at the Cognitive Science Society meeting, where the recipient gives a lecture and receives a check for $100,000. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the next year's award winner is announced. The award is funded by the Robert J. Glushko and Pamela Samuelson Foundation.
The Rumelhart Prize committee is independent of the Cognitive Science Society. However, the society provides a large and interested audience for the awards.
== Selection Committee ==
As of 2022, the selection committee for the prize consisted of:
Richard Cooper (chair)
Dedre Gentner
Robert J. Glushko
Tania Lombrozo
Steven T. Piantadosi
Jesse Snedeker
== Recipients ==
== See also ==
List of psychology awards
List of computer science awards
List of social sciences awards
List of prizes known as the Nobel of a field
List of awards named after people
Turing Award
The Brain Prize
Jean Nicod Prize
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Org | Sea Org | The Sea Organization or Sea Org is the senior-most status of staff within the Church of Scientology network of corporations, but is not itself incorporated. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Sea Org was started as L. Ron Hubbard's private navy, and adopted naval uniforms and ranks. Today, all Scientology management organizations are exclusively staffed with Sea Org members. The Sea Org maintains strict codes for its members, beginning with a billion-year pledge of service to Scientology upon initiation. David Miscavige, the leader of Scientology, is the highest-ranking Sea Org officer with the rank of captain. The higher rank of commodore is permanently reserved for the reincarnation of the late L. Ron Hubbard, founder of Scientology. Some ex-members and scholars have described the Sea Org as a totalitarian organization marked by intensive surveillance and lack of freedom.
In a 1992 memorandum by the Church of Scientology International, the following information was provided to the Internal Revenue Service with regard to the nature of the Sea Org:
[The Sea Org] does not have an ecclesiastical organizing board or command channels chart or secular existence such as an incorporated or unincorporated association. [...] Although there is no such "organization" as the Sea Organization, the term Sea Org has a colloquial usage which implies that there is. There are general recruitment posters and literature for "The Sea Org" which implies that people will be employed by the Sea Org when in reality they will join, making the billion year commitment, at some church that is staffed by Sea Org members and become employees of that church corporation. [...] The Sea Org exists as a spiritual commitment that is factually beyond the full understanding of the [Internal Revenue] Service or any other but a trained and audited Scientologist.
== History ==
The Sea Org was established on August 12, 1967, by L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of Dianetics and Scientology, initially aboard three ships, the Avon River, the Enchanter, and HMS Royal Scotsman. Hubbard later rechristened the three vessels the Diana, the Athena, and the Apollo. The Apollo served as the flagship, or simply called "Flag", and Hubbard was referred to as Commodore.
In 1971, the Sea Org assumed responsibility for the delivery of the upper levels of its auditing and training, known as the Operating Thetan or "OT" levels. In 1981, under the aegis of the Commodore's Messenger Organization led by David Miscavige, Sea Org members dissolved the Guardian's Office (GO) and assumed full responsibility for the church's international management, later reassigning the GO's duties to the Office of Special Affairs in 1983 during the corporate restructuring of the Church.
It moved to land-based organizations in 1975, though maritime customs persist, with many members wearing naval-style uniforms and addressing both male and female officers as "sir". In 1985, the church purchased a 440-foot (130 m) motor vessel, the Freewinds, which docks in Curaçao in the southern Caribbean and is used as a religious retreat and training center, staffed entirely by Sea Org members. Sea Org members make a lifetime commitment to Scientology by signing a billion-year contract officially described as a symbolic pledge. In exchange, they are given free room and board, as well as a small weekly allowance. Sea Org members agree to strict codes of discipline, such as disavowing premarital sex, working long hours (on average at least 100 hours per week) and living in communal housing called berthing. They are allowed to marry, but must leave the Sea Org if they have or want to raise children.
== Background ==
According to Hubbard, much of the galaxy, including Earth (known as "Teegeeack"), was ruled tens of millions of years ago by the Galactic Confederacy. The confederacy was controlled by Xenu, a tyrant who was eventually overthrown by a group within the Galactic Confederacy known as the "Loyal Officers". Religious scholar Hugh Urban writes that the Sea Org is modeled after these Loyal Officers. Urban also describes the Sea Org, with the naval uniforms and ranks, as an idealized re-creation of Hubbard's own World War II military career. He says the Sea Org is reminiscent of the "Soldiers of Light" in Hubbard's science fiction story collection Ole Doc Methuselah. The publicized goal of the Sea Org is to "get ethics in on the planet".
Academic Stephen A. Kent has argued that at least part of the reason for the establishment of the Sea Org was that the Church of Scientology's practices encountered resistance from the American Food and Drug Administration and the Internal Revenue Service, as well as from the governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, and Rhodesia. Sailing on the high seas meant the church could escape their attention.
In 2000 the number of Sea Org members was listed at around 5,800. Most Sea Org members reside in church complexes in Los Angeles, Clearwater, Copenhagen, London, Saint Hill, and Sydney, with some at smaller centers or on assignment elsewhere. According to reports filed with the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission in 2022, the Church of Scientology Religious Education College Incorporated, Scientology's UK arm, claimed to have a total of 700 "volunteers" (including Sea Org) across Saint Hill, London, Manchester, Birmingham and other UK organizations.
According to scholar Susan Raine, Hubbard created the Sea Org as a "kind of space navy, melding [sci-fi] space ideas with Earthbound naval ones." Hubbard biographer Jon Atack recalled a confidential Sea Org executive directive that claimed that governments of the world were on the verge of collapse: "The Sea Org would survive and pick up the pieces."
== Structure ==
Sea Org Day is August 12, when ceremonies are held to commemorate the achievements and contributions of Sea Org members, and when rank and promotion ceremonies take place.
High Winds is the magazine of the Sea Org. The first issue was released on Sea Org Day 1980.
=== Estates Project Force ===
All new recruits are required to complete compulsory novitiate before they are allowed to join the Sea Org, which has been described as a boot camp. During this phase, known as the Estates Project Force (EPF), recruits are not considered full Sea Org members. They are required to address all members as "sir", regardless of rank, and must run everywhere instead of walking. Married couples are separated for the duration of the EPF and not allowed to have private or intimate contact with each other.
While on the EPF, recruits are assigned an intensive daily regimen divided between five hours of manual labor and five hours of study and indoctrination known as "Product Zero". Scientology courses required to complete the EPF include:
Basic Study Manual, an introductory course in Study Technology, a simplified version of the Student Hat course.
Introduction to Scientology Ethics, a basic course in Scientology ethics and justice.
Basic Sea Org Member Hat, a course on the basics of membership in the Sea Org and what is expected.
Welcome to the Sea Org, a series of taped lectures Hubbard originally gave new recruits in October 1969.
Personal Grooming Course, a course on personal hygiene.
The EPF has no definite schedule. Recruits graduate from the EPF when all required courses have been completed and upon successfully undergoing a mandatory "7A Security Check" and approval by a "Fitness Board". They may then join the Sea Org as full members.
=== Code of a Sea Org Member ===
Sea Org recruits verbally agree to an 18-point pledge as part of a swearing in ceremony. Members formally reaffirm their acceptance of this code annually on Sea Org Day, August 12, the anniversary of the day the Sea Org was founded. The Code of a Sea Org Member includes such promises as:
1. I promise to help get ethics in on this planet and the universe, which is the basic purpose of the Sea Org.
2. I promise to uphold, forward and carry out Command Intention.
5. I promise to uphold the fact that duty is the Sea Org member's true motivation, which is the highest motivation there is.
12. I promise to be competent and effective at all times and never try to explain away or justify ineffectiveness nor minimize the true power that I am.
18. I promise to make things go right and to persist until they do.
=== Billion-year commitment ===
According to Hubbard, the Sea Org's mission is "an exploration into both time and space". Sea Org members act as goodwill representatives and administrators of Scientology; all policy and administrative posts in the church's key organizations are held by Sea Org members. Sea Org are housed in communal housing called berthing, and receive a basic allowance of about $50 per week.
In accordance with Scientology beliefs, members are expected to return to the Sea Org when they are reborn; the Sea Org's motto is Revenimus ("We Come Back"). Members must therefore sign a symbolic billion-year commitment, pledging to "get ethics in on this planet and the universe". The church contends that the agreement is not a legally binding contract but merely a symbolic demonstration of the dedication members are expected to give to the organization, and that they are free to leave if they wish. After signing, members report to the Estates Project Force, the Sea Org's induction program; J. Gordon Melton writes that members may take several years between signing the commitment and attending the induction. Once induction is completed, the final decision to join is made.
Members who leave the Sea Org are issued a "freeloader's bill", retroactively billing them for any auditing or training they received. Although the bill is not legally enforceable, these Scientologists may not receive services at any Scientology organization until they pay it and perform an amends program.
=== Marriage and family ===
From the early 1970s to the start of the 21st century, Sea Org members' children were often placed in the Cadet Org. Sea Org members may marry one another but are not permitted to marry outside the organization; extramarital sex is also prohibited. Couples with children must leave the Sea Org and return to other staff positions within the church until the child is six years old; thereafter the children are raised communally and allowed to visit their parents in the Sea Org on weekends or about an hour a day. Children of members have themselves joined the Sea Org when they came of age. Several former members have said they were advised (or even forced) to have an abortion to avoid being sent to lower organizations. Scientology presents itself as opposed to abortion and actively speaks out against it in its publications.
=== Ships and land bases ===
In 1967, the Church of Scientology purchased the 1936-built ferry Royal Scotsman, which it renamed the Apollo, for use as Sea Org's flagship.
In 1975, the church sold the Sea Org's ships and moved the organization to land bases around the world, which as of 2003 operated in Clearwater, Copenhagen, London, Los Angeles, Mexico City, Saint Hill Manor in the UK, and Sydney, with smaller offices in Budapest, Johannesburg, Madrid, Milan, Moscow, and Toronto.
In 1987, the church purchased a ship, La Bohème, which it renamed Freewinds. OT VIII, the highest auditing level of Scientology available, is exclusive to the Freewinds and can only be undertaken there. The ship also hosts various courses, seminars, conventions, and events, including the annual Maiden Voyage celebration.
=== Rehabilitation Project Force ===
The Rehabilitation Project Force (RPF), established in January 1974, is an immersive disciplinary program aimed at isolating and reconditioning members through intensive ideological re-education and labor. Originally it was for Sea Org members who had fallen short of church expectations, failed security checks, or violated certain policies, but it was increasingly used as a form of punishment or a cheap labor pool for construction work. RPF groups operate within Sea Org compounds; while there are no physical locks on the doors, participants are closely watched and their movements controlled. Many ex-Sea Org members have reported grueling work and harsh treatment. On the RPF, one works eight hours of physical work six days a week, such as painting, plumbing, and upkeep of grounds. Members also spend five hours a day studying with a partner.
Former Scientologist Jon Atack argued, in A Piece of Blue Sky (1990), that treatment of Sea Org members in the RPF was a "careful imitation of techniques long-used by the military to obtain unquestioning obedience and immediate compliance to orders, or more simply to break men's spirits". One former member, Gerry Armstrong, said that during his time in the Sea Org in the 1970s he spent over two years banished to the RPF as a punishment. He wrote,
It was essentially a prison to which crew who were considered nonproducers, security risks, or just wanted to leave the Sea Org, were assigned. Hubbard's RPF policies established the conditions. RPF members were segregated and not allowed to communicate to anyone else. They had their own spaces and were not allowed in normal crew areas of the ship. They ate after normal crew had eaten, and only whatever was left over from the crew meal. Their berthing was the worst on board, in a roach-infested, filthy and unventilated cargo hold. They wore black boilersuits, even in the hottest weather. They were required to run everywhere. Discipline was harsh and bizarre, with running laps of the ship assigned for the slightest infraction like failing to address a senior with "Sir". Work was hard and the schedule rigid with seven hours' sleep time from lights out to lights on, short meal breaks, no liberties and no free time ...When one young woman ordered into the RPF took the assignment too lightly, Hubbard created the RPF's RPF and assigned her to it, an even more degrading experience, cut off even from the RPF, kept under guard, forced to clean the ship's bilges, and allowed even less sleep.
=== Uniform insignia ===
Source:
Officer ranks - Shoulder board insignia
Ratings - Sleeve insignia†
† No sleeve insignia for Able Bodied Seaman and Swamper ratings.
== Analysis ==
Several scholars, writers, and former members have compared the Sea Org to a paramilitary group. In Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography (2008), Andrew Morton called it a "fraternal paramilitary organization", and wrote that members are instructed to read The Art of War by Sun Tzu, and On War by Carl von Clausewitz. He wrote that Scientology leader David Miscavige created an elite unit within the Sea Org called the "SEALs", named after the United States Navy SEALs, who receive better lodging, sustenance, and uniforms than other Sea Org members.
Lawrence Wright wrote in The New Yorker in 2011 that the Sea Org used small children drawn from Scientology families for what he described as forced child labor. The article described extremely inhumane conditions, with children spending years in the Sea Org, sequestered from mainstream life.
== Lawsuits ==
There have been several lawsuits filed by former Sea Org members, alleging abuses which include human trafficking, coerced abortions, ongoing mental abuse, forced labor since childhood, repeated sexual assaults, and forced marriage after sexual assaults. For more information, see these cases:
Headley v. Church of Scientology International
DeCrescenzo v. Church of Scientology International
Haney v. Scientology
Baxter, Baxter, and Paris v. Scientology
Jane Doe 1 v. Scientology, David Miscavige, and Gavin Potter
== See also ==
Scientology ethics and justice § Sea Org ethics
Scientology officials
List of Scientology organizations
Zion's Camp and Fruit of Islam
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_World_Athletics_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_discus_throw | 2019 World Athletics Championships – Women's discus throw | The women's discus throw at the 2019 World Athletics Championships was held at the Khalifa International Stadium in Doha, Qatar, from 2 to 4 October 2019.
== Summary ==
In the finals, Feng Bin threw 62.48m as the first thrower in the ring. The next thrower was world leader Yaime Pérez, who promptly took the lead with a 68.10m. Three throwers later, defending champion and double Olympic champion Sandra Perković threw 66.72m to take over second place. Those three held their positions until the end of the second round, when 2015 champion Denia Caballero dropped in a 66.80m to move into silver position. In fact, the three over 66 and a half metres would be the only ones over 63.50m all day. Caballero improved her position with a 67.32m in the third then took the lead with a 68.44m in the fourth round. Her teammate Pérez answered in the fifth round with the winner 69.17 m (226 ft 11 in).
== Records ==
Before the competition records were as follows:
== Schedule ==
The event schedule, in local time (UTC+3), is as follows:
== Results ==
=== Qualification ===
Qualification: Qualifying Performance 63.00 (Q) or at least 12 best performers (q) advanced to the final.
=== Final ===
The final was started on 4 October at 21:00.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes,_Antioquia | Andes, Antioquia | Andes is a municipality and town in the Antioquia Department, Colombia. Part of the sub-region of Southwestern Antioquia, it is located on the western Colombian Andes mountain range. Andes was founded on 13 March 1852 by Pedro Antonio Restrepo Escobar. Its elevation is 1,360 metres above sea level with an average temperature of 22 °C. The distance reference from Medellín city, the capital of Antioquia Department, is 117 km and it has a total area of 402.5 km2. This town is well known for being the place where Gonzalo Arango a writer, philosopher and Antioquian journalist was born. The more significantly source of its economy is agriculture, mainly coffee cultivation.
== Climate ==
Andes has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) with consistent temperatures, cool nights, and abundant rainfall.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Olof_Trygg#: | Carl Olof Trygg | Carl Olof Trygg (December 21, 1910 – 1993), was one of the recognized masters of 20th century woodcarving, most famous for Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving.
Trygg was born in Stora Tuna, Kopparberg county, Dalarna, Sweden. He was one of three son of Carl Johan Trygg and Maria Axelina Andersson. Carl Olof worked with his father carving wooden figures of various common people in the Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving. Between C. O. Trygg, his father (Carl Johan) and two brothers (Nils, and Lars), they carved over 10,000 figures. Many of his carvings were sold to tourists for approximately US$10.00. Adjusted for inflation what cost $10.00 in 1929 would cost $108.05 in 2005.
== Migrating to Canada ==
Carl Olof, at the age of 17, immigrated to Canada with his mother Maria (43), brother Nils Johan (13) and an unknown relative, possibly his sister, Kally Maria Trygg (8) arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia on October 7, 1928. He was proceeded in immigrating by his father Carl Johan who arrived in Halifax on 3 March 1928.
The Trygg family eventually settled in Montreal, Quebec, Canada and there they continued to carve. Together they carved thousands of figures in the Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving. Between C. J. Trygg and his sons they carved over 10,000 figures. Many of his carvings were sold to tourists for approximately US$10.00. Adjusted for inflation what cost $10.00 in 1929 would cost $108.05 in 2005.
Trygg was a craftsman in tune to the tourist trade. Trygg generally carved solo figures from basswood or pine, and mounted them on a base. He had a stylized execution with clean cuts, working from a single piece of wood. A highlight of Trygg's carvings is his use of vibrant paint. He often painted his character's clothing in plaid.
== Return to Sweden ==
Carl Johan Trygg and Carl Olof Trygg eventually returned to Sweden, where they continued their careers. Carl Johan died there 1954 and Carl Olof, based on the dates on his carvings, was producing figures as late as 1987.
== Examples of carvings ==
== The legacy ==
=== Trygg family of woodcarvers ===
Carl Johan Trygg (1877–1954)
Carl Olof Trygg (1910–1993)
Nils Johan Trygg (1914 – 1951)
Lars Trygg
Trygg family woodcarvings are still sought after today as collectibles. There are over 10,000 carved figures that were manufactured by the members of the Trygg family. Prices range from $50 to $500 depending upon the age, size, and condition of the piece.
=== Identifying Trygg woodcarvings ===
Trygg woodcarvings can be identified by the signatures and dates on the bases.
Signatures commonly found are:
Trygg carved on base. — Carl Johan Trygg (Generally)
C.J. Trygg — Carl Johan Trygg
C.O. Trygg — Carl Olof Trygg
L. Trygg — Lars Trygg
N. E. Trygg — Nils Trygg
Hand Carved by Trygg — Carl Johan Trygg or Carl Olof, Lars, or Nils
Carved by Trygg Jr. — Carl Olof, Lars, or Nils
Most of the carvings are dated and include the location carved. For example, you may find a carving with "C.O. Trygg 1961 Sweden" meaning it was carved by Carl Olof Trygg in 1961 while he was living in Sweden.
== Notes ==
^ "Library and Archives Canada". Immigration Records (1925-1935). Archived from the original on January 15, 2013. Retrieved November 18, 2005.
^ Carl Olof Trygg was listed on the immigration record as Karl Olof Trygg. This is most likely due to the poor legibility of the original indexes. The signature used on woodcarvings he produced is C. O. Trygg (Carl-Olof Trygg).
== References ==
Refsal, Harley (2003). "Trygg Family: Prolific Carvers". Wood Carving Illustrated. Fall (24): 61–65.
Refsal, Harley (1992). Woodcarving in the Scandinavian Style. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., New York, New York. p. 128. ISBN 0-8069-8633-6.
"Little Shavers Wood Carving Supply". A Brief History of North American Caricature Carving. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
"Wood Carving Illustrated". Editor's World (Roger Schroeder). Archived from the original on 2003-01-24. Retrieved 24 January 2003.
"Wood Carving Illustrated". Editor's World (Roger Schroeder). Archived from the original on 2003-02-25. Retrieved 25 February 2003.
"Item: Karl Olof Trygg". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. Library and Archives Canada. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2020. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Rugby_Europe_Championship#Week_3 | 2022 Rugby Europe Championship | The 2022 Rugby Europe Championship was the sixth Rugby Europe Championship, the annual rugby union for the top European national teams outside the Six Nations Championship, and the 52nd edition of the competition (including all its previous incarnations as the FIRA Tournament, Rugby Union European Cup, FIRA Nations Cup, FIRA Trophy and European Nations Cup).
The 2022 Championship was contested by Georgia, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia and Spain.
Georgia enter the tournament as defending champions. They topped the table after winning all of their matches in the 2021 tournament, claiming their 13th title and 10th Grand Slam as a result.
As in several other sports, Russia were disqualified after Week 3 due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
This year's edition of the Rugby Europe Championship doubles as the second year of the 2023 Rugby World Cup qualifiers for the European region. The winner and runner-up of the two-year cycle automatically qualify for the tournament as Europe 1 and Europe 2 respectively while the team in third place advances to the final qualification tournament as Europe 3.
== Participants ==
== Table ==
== Fixtures ==
=== Week 1 ===
Touch judges:
George Selwood (England)
Mike Woods (England)
Television match official:
Rowan Kitt (England)
Touch judges:
Manuel Bottino (Italy)
Leonardo Masini (Italy)
Television match official:
Emanuele Tomo (Italy)
Touch judges:
Ludovic Cayre (France)
Stéphane Boyer (France)
Television match official:
Denis Grenouillet (France)
=== Week 2 ===
Touch judges:
Federico Vedovelli (Italy)
Filippo Bertelli (Italy)
Television match official:
Stefano Roscini (Italy)
Touch judges:
Cédric Marchat (France)
Stéphane Crapoix (France)
Television match official:
Patrick Pechambert (France)
Touch judges:
Oisin Quinn (Ireland)
Nigel Correll (Ireland)
Television match official:
Leo Colgan (Ireland)
=== Week 3 ===
Touch judges:
Riccardo Angelucci (Italy)
Simone Boaretto (Italy)
Television match official:
Alan Falzone (Italy)
Touch judges:
Graeme Ormiston (Scotland)
Jonny Perriam (Scotland)
Television match official:
Neil Paterson (Scotland)
Georgia awarded 4 points.
=== Week 4 ===
Netherlands awarded 4 points.
Touch judges:
Gareth Newman (Wales)
Mark Butcher (Wales)
Television match official:
Elgan Williams (Wales)
Touch judges:
David Beun (France)
Christophe Bultet (France)
Television match official:
Eric Briquet-Campin (France)
=== Week 5 ===
Touch judges: Ru Campbell (Scotland) Bob Nevins (Scotland) Television match official: Andrew Mac Menemy (Scotland)
Portugal awarded 4 points.
Touch judges: Ben Breakspear (Wales) Ian Davies (Wales) Television match official: Jon Mason (Wales)
== International broadcasters ==
== See also ==
Rugby Europe International Championships
Antim Cup
Kiseleff Cup
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naresh_Trehan | Naresh Trehan | Naresh Trehan (born 12 August 1945) is an Indian cardiovascular and cardiothoracic surgeon. After graduating from King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India, he went on to practice at New York University Medical Center, Manhattan, USA from 1971 to 1988. He returned to India and started Escorts Heart Institute and Research Centre. He serves as the chairman and managing director and chief cardiac surgeon of Medanta-The Medicity. He has served as personal surgeon to the President of India since 1991, has received numerous awards, including the Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Award and Dr. B. C. Roy Award.
== Education and career ==
In 1963 Dr. Trehan got admission in King George's Medical College in Lucknow. In November 1969 he moved to USA and became a first-year resident at the Thomas Jefferson University Hospital in Philadelphia.
Trehan was the founder, director and chief cardiovascular surgeon of Escorts Heart Institute and Research Center (EHIRC), which opened on Okhla Road, Delhi in 1988. Presently, Trehan is the Founder Chairman of Medanta - The Medicity one of the largest multi-specialty hospital at Gurgaon, Haryana established in 2009. Trehan has been president of the International Society for Minimally Invasive Cardiac Surgery.
As chairman of Global Health Private Ltd., Trehan has overseen the building of an integrated health care facility in Gurgaon, India, currently referred to as Medanta - The Medicity. Medicity is spread across 43 acres (170,000 m2) of land. Collaborating with Siemens and other financial partners, Medicity combines modern medicine with traditional medicine and holistic therapies.
== Biography ==
His mother was a gynaecologist and father was an ENT specialist, both of them practised in Lyallpur until the partition of India his family belonged to Sri Hargobindapur, Batala. He was born left-handed but due to stigma, his Hindi tutor broke his left hand to force Trehan to write with the right hand. In September 1969 he married and moved to USA in November. They have two daughters Shyel and Shonan. Shyel is a lawyer married to Pankaj Sahni, who's the CEO of Medanta. His wife, Madhu Trehan, is a journalist and writer.
== Honors ==
Padma Bhushan Award by President of India in recognition of distinguished service in the field of Cardiology Medicine in 2001.
Padma Shri Award by President of India in recognition of distinguished service in the field of Surgery in 1991.
Dr. B. C. Roy Award from the Medical Council of India in 2002.
India Today magazine ranked him #35th in India's 50 Most powerful people of 2017 list.
== References ==
== External links ==
Exclusive Interview with Doctor Naresh Trehan
Dr Naresh Trehan Profile
Dr Naresh Tehran's Awards, Education & Qualification Archived 15 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEGRI | LEGRI | The Low Energy Gamma-Ray Imager (LEGRI) was a payload for the first mission of the Spanish MINISAT platform, and active from 1997 to 2002. The objective of LEGRI was to demonstrate the viability of HgI2 detectors for space astronomy, providing imaging and spectroscopical capabilities in the 10-100 KeV range.
LEGRI was successfully launched on April 21, 1997, on a Pegasus XL rocket. The instrument was activated on May 19, 1997. It was active until February 2002.
The LEGRI system included the Detector Unit, Mask Unit, Power Supply, Digital Processing Unit, Star Sensor, and Ground Support Unit.
The LEGRI consortium included:
University of Valencia
University of Southampton
University of Birmingham
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas
Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (Ciemat)
INTA
== References ==
== External links ==
Low Energy Gamma-Ray Imager (LEGRI) on the internet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhnoor_Fort | Akhnoor Fort | Akhnoor Fort is a fort on the right bank of the Chenab River (ancient name Asikni), 28 km from Jammu City.
Construction of the fort was started by Raja Tej Singh in 1762 CE and completed by his successor Raja Dhian Singh in 1802. On 17 June 1822, Maharaja Ranjit Singh crowned Maharaja Gulab Singh at the fort's Jia Pota ghat on Chenab's riverbank.
The fort has high fortification walls with bastions at regular intervals and is crowned with battlements. There are two-storeyed watch-towers at the corners, which are crowned by battlements and merlons. The fort has two parts which are bifurcated by a wall with a gate leading to the palace on the southern side. The palace is two-storeyed, and the walls facing the courtyard have decorated arches, some of which contain mural paintings.
Access to Akhnoor Fort is obtained through both the riversides and the northern side. Formerly, a large part of the fort was in ruins; conservation work is in progress.
The fort was declared a National Monument in 1982 under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and is under the Archaeological Survey of India’s jurisdiction.
== History ==
The Akhnoor Fort has a history of over 5000 years, and was perched upon an ancient site, locally known as Manda, which has been subjected to a limited excavation, which in turn has exposed a threefold sequence of culture.
Period I is represented by Harappan red and grey pottery consisting of jars, dish-on-stand beakers and goblets, along with other objects, including copper pins, bone arrowheads, terracotta cakes and sherds with Harappan graffiti.
Period II is marked by the presence of early historic pottery.
Period III is represented by Kushana objects and impressive walls of rubble diaper masonry flanked on both sides by a 3-metre-wide street.
== See also ==
List of Monuments of National Importance in Jammu and Kashmir
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_d%27Angoul%C3%AAme | Henri d'Angoulême | Henri de Valois, duc d'Angoulême (1551 – 2 June 1586, in Aix-en-Provence), sometimes called "Henri, bâtard de Valois" or "Henri de France", was a Légitimé de France, cleric, and military commander during the Wars of Religion.
== Biography ==
Henri was born the bastard son of Henri II of France and his mistress Janet Stewart, Lady Fleming, an illegitimate daughter of James IV of Scotland. Being the most highly favored natural son of the King, he was legitimized and made Duke of Angoulême. Henri would later serve as Abbot of La Chaise-Dieu, Grand Prior of France of the Sovereign Order of Malta and Admiral of the Levantine Sea, further ruling as Governor of Provence from 1579 until his death in 1586.
In 1570, Henri was chosen, by the supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots, as a potential leader of a French military force to aid them in their civil war against the supporters James VI of Scotland. They thought that Henri's Scottish and French royal ancestry would gain him respect in Scotland and England. Although the Queen's supporters put the idea to John Lesley, Queen Mary's ambassador in France, French soldiers and Henri were not sent to Scotland.
Henri de Valois, Duke d'Angoulême took a major role in the two extended military battle against Huguenot strongholds during the height of the French Wars of Religion, engaging in the massive Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573), organized by the Duke of Anjou, future king Henry III of France, and leading the five-year Siege of Ménerbes (1573–1578), fought at a citadel in the Luberon foothills cherished by Pope Pius V.
While serving as Governor of Provence, his secretary was the poet François de Malherbe. Henri wrote many sonnets, one of which was set to music by Fabrice Caietain.
== Death ==
In 1586, Henri was killed at Aix-en-Provence in a duel with Philip Altoviti, who also was mortally wounded in the fight.
== Ancestry ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Brooks, Jeanice (2000). Courtly song in late sixteenth-century France. The University of Chicago Press.
Cameron, Annie, ed. (1931). Warrender Papers. Vol. 1. T. and A. Constable Ltd.
Joseph, George; Green, Maria (2004). Rubin, David Lee (ed.). La Poésie Française du Premier 17e siècle: Textes et Contextes: "François Malherbe" (in French). Rookwood Press, Inc.
Kelly, Blanche M. (1913). "Francois Malherbe". In Herbermann, Charles George; Pace, Edward Aloysius (eds.). The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. The Encyclopedia Press, Inc.
Sealy, Robert J. (1981). The Palace Academy of Henry III. Droz.
Micaleff, Fabrice (2018). Le batard royal:Henri d'Angouleme dans l'ombre des Valois (1551-1586) (in French). Droz. ISBN 978-2-600-05808-7. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland_Railroad | Disneyland Railroad | The Disneyland Railroad (DRR), formerly known as the Santa Fe & Disneyland Railroad, is a 3-foot (914 mm) narrow-gauge heritage railroad and attraction in the Disneyland theme park of the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, United States. Its route is 1.2 miles (1.9 km) long and encircles the majority of the park, with train stations in four different park areas. The rail line, which was constructed by WED Enterprises, operates with two steam locomotives built by WED and three historic steam locomotives originally built by Baldwin Locomotive Works. The ride takes roughly 18 minutes to complete a round trip on its mainline when three trains are running, and 20 minutes when four trains are running. Two to four trains can be in operation at any time, three on average.
The attraction was conceived by Walt Disney, who drew inspiration from the ridable miniature Carolwood Pacific Railroad built in his backyard. The Disneyland Railroad opened to the public at Disneyland's grand opening on July 17, 1955. Since that time, multiple alterations have been made to its route, including the addition of two large dioramas in the late 1950s and mid-1960s. Several changes have been made to its rolling stock, including the conversion of one of its train cars into a parlor car in the mid-1970s, and the switch from diesel oil to biodiesel to fuel its locomotives in the late 2000s.
The railroad has been consistently billed as one of Disneyland's top attractions, requiring a C ticket to ride when A, B, and C tickets were introduced in 1955, a D ticket to ride when those were introduced in 1956, and an E ticket to ride when those were introduced in 1959. The use of E tickets stood until a pay-one-price admission system was introduced in 1982. With an estimated 6.6 million passengers each year, the DRR has become one of the world's most popular steam-powered railroads.
== History ==
=== Attraction concept origins ===
Walt Disney, the creator of the concepts for Disneyland and its railroad, always had a strong fondness for trains. As a young boy, he wanted to become a train engineer like his father's cousin, Mike Martin, who told him stories about his experiences driving main-line trains on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. As a teenager, he obtained a news butcher job on the Missouri Pacific Railway, selling various products to train passengers, including newspapers, candy, and cigars. Many years later, after co-founding the Walt Disney Company with his older brother Roy O. Disney, he started playing polo. Fractured vertebrae and other injuries led him to abandon the sport on the advice of his doctor, who recommended a calmer recreational activity. Starting in late 1947, he developed an interest in model trains after purchasing several Lionel train sets.
By 1948, Disney's interest in model trains was evolving into an interest in larger, ridable miniature trains after observing the trains and backyard railroad layouts of several hobbyists, including Disney animator Ollie Johnston. In 1949, after purchasing 5 acres (2.0 ha) of vacant land in the Holmby Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, he started construction on a new residence for himself and his family, and on the elaborate 7+1⁄4 in (184 mm) gauge ridable miniature Carolwood Pacific Railroad behind it. The railroad featured a set of freight cars pulled by the Lilly Belle, a 1:8-scale live steam locomotive named after Disney's wife Lillian and built by the Walt Disney Studios' machine shop team led by Roger E. Broggie. The locomotive's design, chosen by Walt Disney after seeing a smaller locomotive model with the same design at the home of rail historian Gerald M. Best, was based directly on copies of the blueprints for the Central Pacific No. 173, a steam locomotive rebuilt by the Central Pacific Railroad in 1872. The Lilly Belle first ran on the Carolwood Pacific Railroad on May 7, 1950. Walt Disney's backyard railroad attracted visitors interested in riding his miniature steam train, and on weekends, when the railroad was operating, he allowed them to do so, even allowing some to become "guest engineers" and drive the train. In early 1953, after a visitor drove the Lilly Belle too fast along a curve, causing it to derail and injure a five-year-old girl, Disney, fearing the possibility of future accidents, closed down the Carolwood Pacific Railroad and placed the locomotive in storage.
Prior to the incident that closed his railroad, Disney consulted with Roger Broggie about the concept of including his ridable miniature train in a potential tour of Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, north of Downtown Los Angeles. Broggie, believing that there would be limited visitor capacity for the attraction, recommended to Disney that he make the train bigger in scale. The idea of a studio tour was eventually replaced by the idea of an amusement park named Disneyland across the street from the studio, and in one of its first design concepts at that proposed location, a miniature steam train ride was included, as well as a larger, narrow-gauge steam railroad attraction. During this time, Disney proposed that the narrow-gauge Crystal Springs & Southwestern Railroad, which the nearby Travel Town Museum in Griffith Park planned to build, be extended to run through Disneyland. Planned construction of the Ventura Freeway across land between the two sites, and rejection by the Burbank City Council of a new amusement park in their city, led Disney to look for a different location to build the park and its narrow-gauge railroad.
=== Planning and construction ===
By 1953, 139 acres (56 ha) of orchard land in Anaheim in Orange County, southeast of Downtown Los Angeles, were chosen as the location for the planned Disneyland park, and on August 8, Walt Disney drew the triangular route for the future Disneyland Railroad (DRR) on the park's site plan. After financing for Disneyland was secured and all of the parcels of land at the Anaheim site were purchased, construction of the park and its railroad began in August 1954. In order to cut costs, a sponsorship deal was arranged with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (AT&SF), and when it was finalized on March 29, 1955, the DRR was officially named Santa Fe & Disneyland Railroad, paying $50,000 per year. The DRR was known by that name until September 30, 1974, when the AT&SF's sponsorship ended due to the discontinuation of their passenger train business.
Prior to the start of construction of the DRR, in the hope of saving money by buying already-existing trains for the attraction, Disney tried to buy a set of 19 in (483 mm) gauge ridable miniature locomotives from William "Billy" Jones, but after Jones declined his offer, Disney decided that he wanted the railroad's rolling stock to be bigger and made from scratch. For this task, Disney again turned to Roger Broggie, who was confident that he and the Walt Disney Studios' machine shop team could use the design for Disney's 1:8-scale miniature Lilly Belle locomotive and enlarge it to build the DRR's locomotives. The exact size of the rolling stock for the new railroad was determined after Disney saw a set of narrow-gauge Oahu Railway and Land Company passenger cars that had recently arrived at the Travel Town Museum, whose dimensions Disney found to be favorable. The scale of the design for the DRR's passenger cars, based on the 3 ft (914 mm) narrow-gauge passenger cars at the Travel Town Museum, was nominally 5:8-scale when compared to the size of 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge rolling stock. The same scale was also chosen for the steam locomotives planned for the DRR, and when its locomotives and passenger cars were completed and paired with its 3 ft (914 mm) narrow-gauge track, the railroad had nearly identical proportions to those of a conventional standard gauge railroad.
Through WED Enterprises, a legally separate entity from Walt Disney Productions, Disney retained personal ownership of the DRR and financed the creation of two trains to run on it in time for Disneyland's opening day. The names of both trains contained the word Retlaw, which is Walter spelled backwards. The first train, referred to by Disneyland employees as Retlaw 1, would be pulled by the No. 2 locomotive, which was given a turn-of-the-20th-century appearance with a straight smokestack (typical of coal-burning locomotives), a circular headlamp, and a small cowcatcher. The No. 2 locomotive would pull six 1890s-style passenger cars designed by Bob Gurr, consisting of a combine car, four coaches, and an observation coach. The second train, referred to by Disneyland employees as Retlaw 2, would be pulled by the No. 1 locomotive, which was given a late-19th-century appearance with a spark-arresting diamond smokestack (typical of wood-burning locomotives), a rectangular headlamp, and a large cowcatcher. The No. 1 locomotive would pull six freight cars consisting of three cattle cars, two gondolas, and a caboose. Walt Disney Studios built the train cars and most of the parts for the locomotives; Dixon Boiler Works built the locomotive boilers, and Wilmington Iron Works built the locomotive frames. Both locomotives were designed to run on diesel oil to generate steam. Final assembly of the locomotives and their tenders took place at the Disneyland site in the DRR's new roundhouse, which was built in one week by a construction crew directed by Park Construction Administrator Joe Fowler, a former US Navy rear admiral. The two original DRR trains cost over $240,000 to build, with the two locomotives costing over $40,000 each.
Before the opening of Disneyland, a station in the Main Street, USA section and a station in the Frontierland section were built for the DRR. Main Street, USA Station, an example of Second Empire-style architecture, was built at the entrance to Disneyland using an original design that incorporated forced perspective elements on its upper levels to make it appear taller. Frontierland Station was built based on the design of the depot building located on the Grizzly Flats Railroad, a full-size 3 ft (914 mm) narrow-gauge railroad owned by Disney animator Ward Kimball in his backyard. Besides the depot building, the DRR's functioning water tower was also built at Frontierland Station.
Railroad-building expert Earl Vilmer created the track layout and operations for the DRR. Roger Broggie hired Vilmer because of his experience building railroads in Iran for the Allies during World War II, in France after the war, and later in Venezuela for U.S. Steel. Vilmer designed the operations of the DRR in such a way that each of its two trains would be assigned to a single station on the rail line, making only complete round trips possible. The Retlaw 1 passenger train pulled by the No. 2 locomotive only serviced Main Street, USA Station while the Retlaw 2 freight train pulled by the No. 1 locomotive only serviced Frontierland Station, and with sidings at both stations, each train would operate simultaneously and continue down the rail line even if the other train was stopped at its station. The first test run of the DRR's trains along the full length of its route occurred on July 10, 1955, one week before Disneyland's opening. The steam trains of the DRR were the first of Disneyland's attractions to become operational.
On July 17, 1955, Disneyland and its railroad opened, and the day began with Disney driving the DRR's No. 2 locomotive and its passenger train into Main Street, USA Station with California governor Goodwin J. Knight and AT&SF president Fred Gurley riding in the locomotive's cab. They were greeted at the station's platform by the park opening ceremony's host Art Linkletter, actor Ronald Reagan, and several television camera crews broadcasting the festivities nationwide. After exiting the locomotive, Linkletter briefly interviewed Disney, Knight, and Gurley before they walked towards the town square in the Main Street, USA section where Disney officially dedicated Disneyland. The DRR eventually became one of the most popular steam-powered railroads in the world with an estimated 6.6 million passengers each year.
=== Additions in the late 1950s ===
Shortly after the Disneyland Railroad opened, A, B, and C tickets were introduced in Disneyland for admission to its rides, and C tickets, the highest-ranked tickets, were required to ride the DRR. These tickets were joined by the higher-ranked D ticket in 1956, and D tickets from that point forward were needed to gain access to the DRR.
One of the first additions to the DRR occurred in March 1956 when new covered shelters were built on each end of Frontierland Station's depot building. The shelters were added after the DRR's track on the western edge of its route, and the depot building standing next to it, were moved outwards.
Also during 1956, the Fantasyland Depot, a new station with a Medieval theme and consisting of a covered platform with no station building, was created for the DRR in the Fantasyland section. By the time this new station was added, the DRR's system of having one train assigned to a single station and using sidings to pass trains stopped at stations was abandoned and replaced by the current system where each train stops at every station along the railroad's route. Fantasyland Depot was removed by July 1966 when the It's a Small World attraction, originally built for the 1964 New York World's Fair, was installed.
By 1957, the DRR was becoming overwhelmed by ever-increasing crowds; Disney determined that a third train was needed. Instead of having another locomotive built from scratch to pull the train, Disney believed that costs could be saved by purchasing and restoring an already-existing narrow-gauge steam locomotive, and the job of finding one was given to Roger Broggie. With the assistance of Gerald Best, a suitable locomotive was found in Louisiana; it had been built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1894, had previously been used as a switcher at a sugar cane mill in Louisiana owned by the Godchaux Sugar Company, and was initially used by the Lafourche, Raceland & Longport Railway in Louisiana. After its purchase, the locomotive was delivered to the Walt Disney Studios' machine shop where restoration work began, which included installing a new boiler built by Dixon Boiler Works and having its firebox reconfigured to burn diesel oil for fuel to generate steam. This locomotive became the DRR's No. 3 locomotive and it went into service on March 28, 1958, at a cost after restoration of more than $37,000. Joining the No. 3 locomotive when it went into service were five new open-air Narragansett-style excursion cars with front-facing bench seating collectively referred to by Disneyland employees as the Excursion Train, which was designed by Bob Gurr and built at Walt Disney Studios.
On March 31, 1958, the No. 3 locomotive participated in the inauguration ceremony for the DRR's Grand Canyon Diorama, which features a foreground with several lifelike animals, a background painted by artist Delmer J. Yoakum on a single piece of seamless canvas measuring 306 feet (93.3 m) long by 34 feet (10.4 m) high, and musical accompaniment from Ferde Grofé's Grand Canyon Suite. Located inside a tunnel on the DRR's route, the diorama was claimed by Disneyland to be the longest in the world, and during its inauguration it was blessed by Chief Nevangnewa, a 96-year-old Hopi chief. The diorama cost over $367,000 and took 80,000 labor hours to construct.
The addition of the Grand Canyon Diorama in 1958 prompted changes to the Retlaw 2 freight train pulled by the DRR's No. 1 locomotive, which involved adding side-facing bench seating pointed towards Disneyland and red-and-white striped awnings on all of the cattle cars and gondolas. The walls on the cattle cars facing the park were also removed to allow for better views of the diorama. That same year, a third gondola with the same modifications as the other gondolas was added, and a fourth gondola with the same attributes was added in 1959. This brought the total number of freight cars in the train set, now referred to by Disneyland employees as Holiday Red, to eight. Prior to these modifications, the cattle cars and gondolas of this train set had no seating, requiring passengers to stand for the duration of the ride. Despite safety concerns voiced by Ward Kimball related to the lack of seats on these train cars, Disney, for the purpose of authenticity, had insisted that there be no seats on them; he wanted the passengers to feel like cattle on an actual cattle train.
In April 1958, Tomorrowland Station, a new station with a futuristic theme and consisting of a covered platform with no station building, was built in the Tomorrowland section for the DRR. The station was updated in 1998 as part of a redevelopment of the Tomorrowland section.
Around the same time that the No. 3 locomotive was placed into service in 1958, Roger Broggie decided that a fourth locomotive was needed for the DRR. After Walt Disney concurred, Broggie once again began searching for a narrow-gauge steam locomotive to purchase and restore. Broggie eventually found an advertisement in a rail magazine offering a suitable locomotive for sale in New Jersey, and after contacting the seller, Broggie passed on the information to Gerald Best to research the locomotive. Best was able to determine that the locomotive had been built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1925, that it had previously been used to pull tourist trains on the Pine Creek Railroad in New Jersey, and that it had been initially used by the Raritan River Sand Company in New Jersey. After being purchased for $2,000, the locomotive was delivered to the Walt Disney Studios' machine shop where restoration work began, which included installing a new boiler built by Dixon Boiler Works and adding a new tender built by Fleming Metal Fabricators designed to hold diesel oil. This locomotive became the DRR's No. 4 locomotive and it went into service on July 25, 1959, at a cost after restoration of more than $57,000. 1959 was also the year in which E tickets arrived, and the attractions deemed to be the best in the park required them, including the DRR.
=== Changes since 1960 ===
To have sufficient space for the planned New Orleans Square section, the Disneyland Railroad's track on the western edge of its route was expanded outwards again in 1962, Frontierland Station's depot building in that same vicinity was moved across the DRR's track, and a covered platform with no station building was built on the opposite side to serve as the new Frontierland Station. Although the station was no longer in the Frontierland section, its name was not changed to New Orleans Square Station until September 1996.
By 1965, the six passenger cars of the DRR's Retlaw 1 train, due to their slow passenger loading and unloading times, began to be phased out of service. In July 1974, the Retlaw 1 passenger cars were retired and stored in the DRR's roundhouse, except for the Grand Canyon observation coach, which was converted into a parlor car and renamed Lilly Belle after Walt Disney's wife Lillian. The Lilly Belle was given a new exterior paint scheme and a new interior, which included varnished mahogany paneling, velour curtains and seats, a floral-patterned wool rug, and Disney family pictures framed and hung on the walls. The first official passenger to come aboard the Lilly Belle after its conversion into a parlor car in September 1975 was Japanese Emperor Hirohito, and since then it can be regularly seen coupled on the ends of the DRR's trains. In 1996, rail collector Bill Norred acquired the five other Retlaw 1 passenger cars. Norred died two years later, and in 1999 his family sold the four coaches of the former Retlaw 1 passenger train to Rob Rossi, owner of the Pacific Coast Railroad located within Santa Margarita Ranch in Santa Margarita, California, leaving only the Retlaw 1 combine car in the Norred family's possession. On July 10, 2010, the Norred family sold the Retlaw 1 combine car to the Carolwood Foundation, which restored it and put it on display next to Walt Disney's Carolwood Barn within the Los Angeles Live Steamers Railroad Museum complex in Los Angeles' Griffith Park.
In 1966, a five-gondola train set with green-and-white-striped awnings and a five-gondola train set with blue-and-white-striped awnings, referred to by Disneyland employees as Holiday Green and Holiday Blue respectively, were added to the DRR's rolling stock. Both train sets had side-facing bench seating like the Holiday Red freight train. By the time that the new Holiday Green and Holiday Blue trains sets were introduced in 1966, the DRR's original roundhouse, located on the end of a spur line connected to the main line near the Rivers of America in the Frontierland section, had been replaced by a larger roundhouse, located on the end of a new spur line connected to the main line in the Tomorrowland section. The new roundhouse, where the DRR's locomotives and train cars are stored and maintained, was also built to house the storage and maintenance facility for the Disneyland Monorail.
The DRR's Primeval World Diorama was put on display later in 1966, adjacent to the Grand Canyon Diorama. One year prior, the DRR's track on the eastern edge of its route had been expanded outwards to accommodate the diorama's construction. The Audio-Animatronic dinosaurs from Ford's Magic Skyway, one of the attractions created by Disney for the 1964 New York World's Fair, were incorporated into the diorama, including a Tyrannosaurus confronting a Stegosaurus. The diorama was one of the last additions made to the DRR, and Disneyland in general, before the death of Walt Disney on December 15, 1966.
From 1982, A, B, C, D, and E tickets were discontinued in favor of a pay-one-price admission system for Disneyland, allowing visitors to experience all of the park's attractions, including the DRR, as many times as desired. In June 1985, the new Videopolis Station, consisting of a covered platform with no station building, was constructed in the Fantasyland section for the DRR. That same year, the DRR's track on the northern edge of its route was expanded outwards in order to make room for the new Videopolis stage. With the Mickey's Toontown expansion of the park, Mickey's Toontown Depot, a cartoon-themed depot building, replaced Videopolis Station in 1993.
Out of a desire to have four trains regularly running at once each day on the DRR, in the mid-1990s, Disneyland began to search for an additional narrow-gauge steam locomotive to add to the railroad's rolling stock. One such locomotive was acquired from Bill Norred in 1996 in exchange for the combine car and four coaches from the DRR's retired Retlaw 1 passenger train set, but after the park received it, the new locomotive was deemed to be too large for the DRR's operations. In 1997, it was sent to the Walt Disney World Railroad in the Magic Kingdom park of Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, where the locomotive was dedicated, despite being too small for the railroad's operations, and named after Disney animator and rail enthusiast Ward Kimball. Still needing a fifth locomotive for the DRR, the park traded the Ward Kimball locomotive in 1999 to the Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad in the Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio, for a new locomotive suitable for the railroad. Named Maud L., the locomotive was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1902 and was originally used to haul sugar cane at the Laurel Valley Sugar Plantation in Louisiana owned by the Barker and Lepine Company. After arriving in Disneyland, the Maud L., later renamed Ward Kimball like the locomotive for which it was traded, was given a new cab built by Disney and a new boiler built by Hercules Power, which was subcontracted by Superior Boiler Works.
Due to budget issues, the restoration of the locomotive was suspended not long after its arrival, and its parts were planned to be placed in long-term storage in late 2003. The Ward Kimball locomotive's restoration efforts were resurrected soon after, when it was decided that its addition to the DRR would be incorporated into the celebration of Disneyland's fiftieth anniversary in July 2005. In late 2004, Boschan Boiler and Restorations in Carson, California, led by Paul Boschan, a former roundhouse manager and engineer at the Roaring Camp & Big Trees Narrow Gauge Railroad in Felton, California, was awarded the contract to complete the restoration of the Ward Kimball. The restoration work performed included installing new driving wheels, attaching a new smokebox door, and applying gold-leaf silhouettes of Kimball's Jiminy Cricket character on the sides of the headlamp. The Ward Kimball locomotive, which entered service on June 25, 2005, became the DRR's No. 5 locomotive, and on February 15 the following year, John Kimball, the son of Ward Kimball, who died in 2002, christened the locomotive during its dedication ceremony. In 2011, Ward Kimball's grandson Nate Lord became a DRR engineer and frequently drove the Ward Kimball locomotive.
A few weeks before the debut of the No. 5 locomotive, the railroad, for the first time in its history, hosted a privately owned train on its track. On the morning of May 10, before Disneyland opened for the day, a private ceremony was held at New Orleans Square Station to honor Disney animator and rail enthusiast Ollie Johnston, supposedly to thank him for helping to inspire Walt Disney's passion for trains, which led to the creation of Disneyland. The true motive for having Johnston there was soon revealed when a simple steam train not part of the DRR's rolling stock, consisting of a locomotive named Marie E. and a caboose, rolled towards the station and stopped at its platform. Johnston, a previous owner of the steam train, used to run it on his vacation property, which he sold, along with the train, in 1993. The man who now owned the train was Pixar film director John Lasseter, who had brought the train to Disneyland in order to give Johnston, his mentor, an opportunity to reunite with and drive his former locomotive. Johnston, then in his nineties, was helped into the Marie E., and with Lasseter at his side, he grasped the locomotive's throttle and drove his former possession three times around the DRR's main line. Although Johnston died in 2008, Lasseter continues to run the Marie E., the caboose, and an assortment of train cars on his private Justi Creek Railway.
The diesel oil used for fuel to generate steam in the DRR's locomotives was replaced in April 2007 with B98 biodiesel, consisting of two percent diesel oil and ninety-eight percent soybean oil. Due to problems with storing the soybean-based biodiesel, the DRR briefly switched back to conventional diesel oil in November 2008 before adopting new biodiesel incorporating recycled cooking oil in January 2009.
On January 11, 2016, the DRR temporarily closed to accommodate the construction of Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge. Additionally, the original DRR roundhouse building, which became a maintenance facility for ride vehicles of other Disneyland attractions, was demolished around April 2016. The DRR reopened on July 29, 2017, with a new route along the northern edge of the Rivers of America named Columbia Gorge, which features rock formations, waterfalls, a trestle bridge, and the line's only left-hand turn. The DRR's dioramas were also given new special projection effects. During a media preview for the attraction's reopening the previous day, Lasseter brought his Marie E. locomotive and drove it along the DRR's new route. Pulled behind the Marie E. were an inoperable locomotive and train car, which were both previously owned by Ward Kimball and run on his former Grizzly Flats Railroad. The inoperable locomotive, named Chloe, and the train car are now owned by the Southern California Railway Museum (formerly the Orange Empire Railway Museum) in Perris, California, which was in the process of restoring the Chloe to operating condition at the time of the DRR's media preview.
On May 31, 2023, the Splash Mountain log flume attraction containing one of the DRR tunnels permanently closed to be rethemed as Tiana's Bayou Adventure. The DRR temporarily closed between August 24 and 25 due to work being done on the former Splash Mountain tunnel. Since January 2024, the New Orleans Square Station has been temporarily closed due to retheming with the Haunted Mansion ride. On August 5 that same year, the DRR was temporarily closed for complete track maintenance. It reopened on October 25. In January 2025, the DRR closed again for more track maintenance between the Main Street, USA and New Orleans Square sections. The DRR reopened on March 7, 2025.
== Ride experience ==
Beginning at Main Street, USA Station adjacent to Disneyland's entrance, where a pump-style handcar built by the Kalamazoo Manufacturing Company can be seen on a siding, the trains of the Disneyland Railroad travel along its single track in a clockwise direction on its circular route. The train will take around 18 minutes to complete a round trip on the mainline when three trains are running, and 20 minutes when four trains are running; on any given day, between two and four trains run, with three trains running on average. Each train arrives at each station every 5-10 minutes. The entire round trip features pre-recorded commentary timed to each individual car. Several late actors such as Jack Wagner, Thurl Ravenscroft, and Earl Boen have provided their voice for the various versions of the trip, with the current voice being Bob Joles since 2017. An engineer accompanied by a fireman operates the locomotive, while conductors at each end of the train supervise the passengers. Prior to departing Main Street, USA Station, the engineer must confirm whether the signal light in the locomotive's cab is green, indicating that the track segment ahead is clear, or red, indicating that the track segment ahead is occupied by another train. The DRR's route is divided into eleven such segments, or blocks, and each locomotive has a block signal in its cab to communicate the status of each block. Prior to the installation of cab signalling in the locomotives around 2005, the status of each block along the railroad's 1.2 miles (1.9 km) of main-line track was displayed by track-side block signals, of which only the ones at the four stations remain. The speed limit of the DRR is 10–15 mph (16–24 km/h).
Once the signal light in the locomotive turns green, the journey from the Main Street, USA section begins with the train traversing a small bridge, passing by the Adventureland section, and going through a tunnel before arriving at New Orleans Square Station in the New Orleans Square section. While the train is stopped at this station, where the locomotive takes on water from the railroad's water tower if needed, the train crew will perform a boiler blowdown on the locomotive. At the old Frontierland Station depot building, a sound effect of a telegraph operator using a telegraph key to enter Morse code can be heard emanating the statement "To all who come to this happy place: welcome. Disneyland is your land." Adjacent to the old Frontierland Station depot building, a freight house building used as a train crew break and storage area can be seen, as well as a fully functioning historic semaphore signal connected to the station's block signal.
After the journey restarts, the train travels past the Haunted Mansion dark ride attraction, enters a tunnel with gaps that allow riders to see into the Tiana's Bayou Adventure log flume attraction, and crosses a trestle bridge over the Bayou Country section and past the Hungry Bear Barbecue Jamboree restaurant. It then moves over another trestle bridge that wraps around the Rivers of America in the Frontierland section, giving riders a unique view of the features as well as some animal maquettes not viewable to regular guests. Occasionally, the Mark Twain Riverboat can be seen in the Rivers of America alongside the train, at which time they will sound their whistles at each other to the tune of Shave and a Haircut. Afterwards, the train rolls past the Big Thunder Mountain Railroad roller coaster attraction and through another tunnel before reaching Mickey's Toontown Depot between the Mickey's Toontown and Fantasyland sections. While the train is stopped at this station, a non-functioning water tower can be seen on the opposite side of the track to the station's depot building.
Once the journey resumes, the train moves across an overpass and passes through the façade of the It's a Small World water-based dark ride attraction before reaching a fuel pump disguised as a boulder, where the train stops if the locomotive needs to be refueled. From this point, the train cuts across an access road, with the train having the right of way if a parade is occurring. Also in this area is a billboard titled "Agrifuture." The train then goes underneath the track of the Disneyland Monorail before stopping at Tomorrowland Station in the Tomorrowland section. A synthesized composition of the song There's a Great Big Beautiful Tomorrow, originally composed for the Carousel of Progress, plays during this stretch of the journey.
When the journey continues, the train goes across another access road and enters a tunnel containing the Grand Canyon Diorama followed by the Primeval World Diorama. As the train runs alongside the Grand Canyon Diorama, the main theme from On the Trail, the third movement of Ferde Grofé's Grand Canyon Suite, can be heard; and as the train runs alongside the Primeval World Diorama, music from the 1961 film Mysterious Island can be heard. Shortly after leaving the tunnel, the train arrives back at Main Street, USA Station, completing what the park refers to as The Grand Circle Tour.
The DRR usually runs at night during evening fireworks shows, but sometimes closes due to adverse weather conditions. An option to ride on a seat in the tenders of the DRR's Nos. 1, 2, and 4 locomotives is available upon request at Main Street, USA Station at the start of each operating day. The option to ride in the DRR's Lilly Belle parlor car is also available upon request at Main Street, USA Station when a Disneyland employee is available to monitor the passengers aboard it and no heavy rain is falling. The DRR's roundhouse, which cannot normally be viewed by the public, is made available for viewing to participants of specific runDisney events where the race course organized for the runners goes past the facility. On May 11, 2024, the DRR's roundhouse opened to guests taking the new Disneyland Railroad Guided Tour.
== Rolling stock ==
=== Locomotives ===
The first four steam locomotives to enter service on the Disneyland Railroad are named after former AT&SF Railway presidents. The fifth is named after a former Disney animator. Walt Disney himself, after putting on an engineer's outfit, occasionally drove the DRR's locomotives when they were pulling trains with passengers on board. Each year, the DRR locomotive fleet consumes about 200,000 US gallons (760,000 L) of fuel. The DRR locomotives each require 75 US gallons (280 L) gallons of water for one trip around the park. Since 2006, the DRR locomotives have been featured as static displays multiple times at Fullerton Railroad Days, an annual festival that takes place at the Fullerton Transportation Center in Fullerton, California. Since 2010, the DRR locomotives received overhauls one by one at the Hillcrest Shops in Reedley, California.
=== Train cars ===
The Disneyland Railroad today operates four sets of train cars, as well as a parlor car. The combine car from the railroad's former Retlaw 1 passenger train, one of the DRR's two original train sets, was Walt Disney's favorite train car on the railroad, as it brought back memories from his youth working as a news butcher on the Missouri Pacific Railway. On May 5 and 6, 2012, the Retlaw 1 combine car and the Lilly Belle parlor car were temporarily put on static display at Fullerton Railroad Days.
== Incidents ==
Within a week of Disneyland's opening on July 17, 1955, a brakeman pulled the switch connecting the Disneyland Railroad's main line with a siding at Main Street, USA Station too soon as the Retlaw 2 freight train on the siding was passing the Retlaw 1 passenger train stopped at the station on the main line. The caboose on the end of the freight train had not made it fully across the switch when it was pulled, and as a result the caboose's front set of wheels correctly traveled along the siding while the rear set of wheels incorrectly traveled along the main line towards the passenger train, causing the caboose to swing to the side before colliding with a concrete slab and derailing upon impact. During the ensuing commotion, the erring brakeman, presumably to avoid disciplinary action, quietly left the scene of the accident, exited the park, and was not seen again. No injuries were reported, and by the following year the use of sidings at stations on the DRR's main line came to an end.
In February 2000, a tree in the Adventureland section fell onto the DRR's Holiday Red freight train while it was in motion, damaging the awnings and their supports on the gondolas as well as knocking off the cupola on top of the caboose before the train came to a stop. No injuries occurred as a result of this accident.
On the night of April 4, 2004, at Tomorrowland Station, accumulated diesel fumes in the firebox of the DRR's No. 3 locomotive exploded after its fire suddenly went out. The explosion ejected the engineer from the locomotive's cab and inflicted serious burns on the fireman.
On the afternoon of August 11, 2019, the DRR's No. 5 locomotive broke down on a trestle over the entrance to Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge with a broken axle, forcing an evacuation of the train. No injuries were reported and the DRR was back in service by the following day.
Between the night of December 28 and early morning of December 29, 2022, a fire broke out in the New Orleans Square section, damaging the freight depot. The cause of the fire is under investigation.
On May 26, 2023, one of the DRR locomotives broke down on a trestle bridge over the Critter Country section near the entrance to Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge, forcing an evacuation of the train 45 minutes later.
== See also ==
AT&SF No. 3751 steam locomotive
Ghost Town & Calico Railroad
Rail transport in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
Official website
Geographic data related to Disneyland Railroad at OpenStreetMap |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Brother_5_(American_season) | Big Brother 5 (American season) | Big Brother 5 is the fifth season of the American reality television series Big Brother. It is based upon the Netherlands series of the same name, which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000. The season premiered on CBS on July 6, 2004, and lasted eleven weeks until the live finale on September 21, 2004. This season was the first to be accompanied by the House Calls: The Big Brother Talk Show spin-off series, which was viewable online and discussed the events of the game. The fifth season continued to have the ratings success of the previous season, averaging more than eight million viewers per episode. The Big Brother 5 premiere garnered 9.55 million viewers, almost matching that of the previous season's launch night. Ratings stayed gradually the same, with the finale receiving more than 10 million viewers. The season premiere currently has the third highest ratings for a premiere episode, only behind Big Brother 1 and Big Brother 4. Big Brother 5 featured a total of 14 HouseGuests, an increase from previous editions. The series ended after 82 days, in which HouseGuest Drew Daniel was crowned the Winner, and Michael Ellis the Runner-Up.
== Production ==
=== Development ===
Shortly after the confirmation of the fourth season, it was confirmed that producers such as Allison Grodner and Arnold Shapiro would return to the series for this season, and were also contracted to do the fifth season. Despite signing on for Big Brother 5, the series had not been confirmed at the time. In September 2003, following the ratings success of Big Brother 4, Entertainment Weekly confirmed that CBS had renewed the series leading up until 2006, ensuring three more seasons to air during the Summer time period. Casting for Big Brother 5 began on September 15, 2003, before the conclusion of the previous season. On the fifth season, producer Arnold Shapiro stated, "Allison [Grodner] and I are excited about Big Brother 5, and the new surprises and twists that await this summer's HouseGuests [...] The one constant we can promise participants and viewers alike is: expect the unexpected. We’re seeking the most outgoing, competitive, quirky and charismatic players we can find." Shortly afterwards, host Julie Chen began teasing about some changes to the format, and a video posted online also promised a "twisted" change to the game. The HouseGuests for this season, excluding Natalie, were revealed through the official CBS site for the series on June 30, 2004.
=== Prizes ===
The 14 HouseGuests this season were competing for the main prize of $500,000. The winner of the series, determined by the previously evicted HouseGuests, would win the $500,000 prize, while the Runner-Up would receive a $50,000 prize. Other than the main prize, various luxuries and prizes were given out throughout the season.
== Broadcast ==
Big Brother 5 was broadcast on CBS from July 6, 2004, to September 21, 2004. This season featured a change in the airing format, with episodes airing on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday each week. This was a change from the previous season, which aired on Wednesday and Friday instead of Thursday and Saturday. The Thursday episode, which aired at 8 pm Eastern Time, featured the live eviction and subsequent Head of Household competition taking place. During the live eviction, the show was hosted by Julie Chen. The Saturday episode, which aired at 9 pm Eastern Time, featured the food competition and nomination ceremony, as well as some highlights from the previous days. The Tuesday episode featured the Power of Veto competition and the Power of Veto ceremony, along with more highlights of recent events in the game. Some changes to the scheduling format were made. The season premiere lasted for a total of ninety minutes, and aired on Tuesday at 8 pm Eastern Time due to conflicts with the premiere of The Amazing Race 5.
This season saw the return of the fantasy game first introduced in the previous season. In the game, players would make a team of HouseGuests and earn points when a member of their team did certain things in the game. The website for the series also featured a "Love 'Em or Leave 'Em" poll, in which fans could monitor the popularity of the HouseGuests each week. Much like the previous editions, the live feeds were also available again for this season. HouseGuests enter the house a few days before the premiere, and the feeds are not live for the first few days. They later go live after the broadcast of the launch episode. This season also saw the introduction of the first spin-off series, House Calls: The Big Brother Talk Show. The online webshow, hosted by Gretchen Massey and Big Brother 3 HouseGuest Marcellas Reynolds aired thirty-minute episodes on weeknights, and allowed fans to call in and express their opinions on the events of the game. Evicted HouseGuests were also interviewed on the series following their eviction. This made House Calls the first live Internet talk show produced exclusively for a television network.
== House ==
The house used for Big Brother 5 remained mostly unchanged from the previous edition in terms of structure. The house was a one-story building which featured numerous two way mirrors around the walls. Behind these mirrors are numerous camera men, who film the HouseGuests non-stop while they are participating in the game. Aside from these, various cameras and microphones are planted in the house, to catch what is happening at all times. The living room featured two white couches sitting across from each other, with the nominees having their own chairs as in the previous seasons. These yellow chairs were in the middle of the couch, and HouseGuests were required to sit here on eviction nights. The bathroom remained unchanged from the previous editions, featuring blue walls with a bathtub and shower. There were a total of four bedrooms this season. One of these had four stone beds in it, with host Julie Chen referring to the room as "pretty bad" in an interview before the premiere. The second had three beds, however, had no privacy. The third featured two large beds, however, required two HouseGuests to sleep in each. This room featured a sky theme, with the walls being painted blue and given the appearance of having clouds on them. The fourth bedroom is the Head of Household room. The HoH for the week has this rooms, which features perks such as privacy, laundry service, and pictures from home. This was the first season in which a spy screen was placed in the Head of Household room, which featured a video feed of various rooms in the house. The house also featured a swimming pool and a hot tub, with HouseGuests competing for the hot tub in the first week. This season saw the removal of the basketball court from the backyard, and the fish tank in the house now features miniature sharks rather than fish.
== Format ==
The format remained largely unchanged from previous seasons. HouseGuests were sequestered in the Big Brother House with no contact to and from the outside world. Each week, the HouseGuests took part in several compulsory challenges that determined who would win food, luxuries, and power in the House. The winner of the Head of Household competition was immune from nominations and was instructed to nominate two fellow HouseGuests for eviction. After a HouseGuest became Head of Household he or she was ineligible to take part in the next Head of Household competition. HouseGuests also took part in a weekly food competition, with the losing team being placed on the peanut butter and jelly diet for a week. Some competitions allowed all HouseGuests to earn food for the week, while others cause them all to lose food for the week. The winner of the Power of Veto competition won the right to save one of the nominated HouseGuests from eviction. If the Veto winner exercised the power, the Head of Household then had to nominate another HouseGuest for eviction.
On eviction night all HouseGuests except for the Head of Household and the two nominees voted to evict one of the two nominees. Before the voting began the nominees had the chance to record a final message to their fellow HouseGuests. This compulsory vote was conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room by the host Julie Chen. In the event of a tie, the Head of Household would break the tie and reveal their vote in front of the other HouseGuests. Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the HouseGuests could discuss the nomination and eviction process open and freely. The nominee with the most votes from the other HouseGuests was evicted from the House on Thursday and interviewed by Julie Chen. HouseGuests could voluntarily leave the House at any time and those who broke the rules were expelled by Big Brother. The last seven evictees of the season, known as the jury members, voted for the winner on the season finale. The jury members were sequestered in a separate house and were not allowed to watch the show except for segments that included all of the HouseGuests. The jury members were not shown any Diary Room interviews or any footage that included strategy or details regarding nominations.
The season's main theme was titled "Project Do Not Assume", or "Project DNA" for short, and was incorporated through two twists. The first of these twists were that HouseGuests Michael "Cowboy" Ellis and Jennifer "Nakomis" Dedmon were, unbeknownst to them, half-siblings. The two share the same father, whom Ellis had never met. Ellis quickly figured out the twist, and Big Brother later gave the two letters from home explaining the situation. This twist had no impact on the format of the game, other than the personal implications that arise with the situation. The second twist was that a set of twins were switching spots in the house, with the goal of making it to the fifth week. If they succeeded this without getting caught, they would both be eligible to play as individuals. The twins, Adria and Natalie, both played as Adria, and would switch places at various times in the Diary Room. The sisters succeeded in the task, and Natalie entered the game on Day 35. This twist was later implemented in Big Brother 17. This was also the first season to feature a Fast Forward Week (later seasons were called "double eviction" week), where two HouseGuests were evicted in the span of one week with a second HoH and Veto competitions played concurrently during the remainder of the live show. Additionally, this is the first season in which only six people participated in the Power of Veto Competition: the Head Of Household, the two nominees, and three other players selected by the previously mentioned three's choosing.
== HouseGuests ==
=== Future appearances ===
Holly King appeared on Big Brother 6 to host a Power of Veto competition. Diane Henry, Jennifer "Nakomis" Dedmon, and Jase Wirey all returned to compete on Big Brother: All-Stars in 2006. Michael "Cowboy" Ellis was a candidate to return for Big Brother: All Stars, but ultimately was not chosen. Marvin Latimer and Scott Long returned to Big Brother: All Stars to participate in various competitions as well. Jase later made an appearance on Big Brother 10 to participate in a food competition. Michael was also a candidate to return for Big Brother 11 in 2009, but ultimately did not enter the game. Jase Wirey was one of four international Big Brother alumni up for a public vote to compete in the fourth season of Big Brother Canada, but was not selected.
== Summary ==
On Day 1, the original thirteen HouseGuests entered the house. That same night, the HouseGuests competed as a group in the "Hungry Hungry Helix" food competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had 75 seconds to crawl through a rotating helix DNA strand with small yellow balls attached to it. Each ball had the name of a food item on it, and each ball they managed to get across the helix would serve as an eatable food for that week; everyone except Holly successfully earned food for the group. During the competition, Lori obtained the "lobster tail" ball, which she was later instructed to keep. For finding this ball, Lori was offered $10,000 in exchange for putting the house on the peanut butter and jelly diet for the week; she accepted this offer, earning the prize. On Day 2, Drew, Jase, Michael, and Scott formed the "Four Hoursemen" alliance. That same day, Karen, Lori, and Will formed an alliance as they feared Jase and Scott as a duo. Michael later discovered that Nakomis was his sister, but chose not to reveal this to anyone yet. That night, HouseGuests competed in the "Treadmills of Terror" Head of Household competition. HouseGuests paired up, with one member of the team answering questions while the other walked on a treadmill. Each question that a HouseGuest's partner missed caused their treadmill to speed up, and the last pair remaining would be finalists for the title. Due to an uneven number of HouseGuests, Will chose to sit out from the competition. Jase and Scott were the finalists, and it was then revealed that Will would ask them a tie-breaker question to determine the winner; Jase correctly answered, and became the first Head of Household of the season.
Shortly after the competition, Michael revealed to Jase and Scott that Nakomis was his sister, and they convinced him to tell her. Big Brother revealed the twist to all of the HouseGuests later that night. On Day 4, the HouseGuests competed in the "Margarita Madness" luxury competition, in which they competed for the hot tub. HouseGuests worked together to build an oversized margarita, and if they completed the task within ten minutes they would earn the hot tub and a margarita party; they were successful, and earned both luxuries. Mike later began attempting to form an alliance to "protect themselves" from the stronger players. On Day 6, Jase chose to nominate Mike and Nakomis for eviction, with Mike as his main target. On Day 8, the HouseGuests competed in the Power of Veto competition; Jase chose Scott to play in the competition, with Mike and Nakomis choosing Holly and Drew respectively. In the "Flaringo Toss" Power of Veto competition, HouseGuests attempted to make their hoola hoops land on a decorative flamingo in the backyard. They would then receive a score depending on the area where their flamingo landed. The thrower would then challenge another player. If that player got a higher score, the challenger was eliminated, and if they failed to match the score, they were eliminated. If the two tied, both remained in the game. Ultimately, Scott won the Power of Veto. On Day 10, he chose to leave nominations intact. On Day 14, Mike became the first HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of ten to zero.
Following Mike's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Majority Rules" Head of Household competition. For this competition, players had to answer questions while attempting to remain in the majority. If they answered outside of the majority, they were eliminated. When it came down to Holly, Lori, Marvin, and Michael, Marvin correctly answered the tie-breaker question, thus became the new Head of Household. On Day 15, HouseGuests competed in the "Catapoultry" food competition. For this competition, HouseGuests found the backyard had been turned into a barnyard. They would try and shoot rubber chickens into various "nests" representing food items lined up on the wall. If a chicken landed in a nest, they would earn those food items for the week. There was also a space, the "bad egg", in which landing a chicken in it would result in the house losing all of the obtained food items. Will landed a chicken in this spot, though they managed to gain some food back. Later that day, Marvin chose to nominate Holly and Lori for eviction, citing them as two of the most influential players in the game. Following these nominations, Lori's allies secured the five votes they needed for her to stay in the game. When picking players for the Veto, Marvin chose Drew, Holly chose Jase, and Lori chose Karen. The group then competed in the "Snag the Veto" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to untangle a rope and successfully pull a Veto symbol out of the tangled rope. Jase was the first to complete the task, narrowly beating Lori, and he earned the Power of Veto for the week. On Day 18, Jase chose to use the Power of Veto on Holly, with Karen being nominated in her place. On Day 21, Lori became the second HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of seven to two.
Following Lori's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "High/Low" Head of Household competition. HouseGuests were given a statement about the game that involved a number, and HouseGuests had to determine whether the answer was higher or lower than the given number by stepping upward on downward on a staircase. Ultimately, Drew was the winner of the competition. On Day 22, HouseGuests competed in the "Alphabet Soup" food competition. To win food for the week, HouseGuests were required to leap into a giant bowl of tomato flavored Alphabet Soup, grabbing letters that spell a type of food. The group won whatever foods they spelled correctly for the week. That same day, Drew chose to nominate Holly and Nakomis for eviction, a decision which immediately formed a rift in the Four Horsemen alliance. When picking players for the Power of Veto, Drew chose Scott, Holly chose Jase, and Nakomis chose Natalie (pretending to be Adria). The HouseGuests then played in the "Bluff Me a Veto" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, each player had a turn as a "dealer." They drew a card with a question and answer printed on it. The answer is a truthful response that had previously given to that question on a questionnaire. They read the question to the other five HouseGuests and either read the truthful answer or bluff a different answer. The HouseGuests had to decide whether that person is telling the truth or bluffing. They signified whether they believe or not by placing a bet with a giant chip in front of them that either reads "Bluff' or "Truth." If the HouseGuest guessed correctly they got to keep their chip. If they were wrong, the "dealer" got to keep their chip. The winner was the HouseGuest with the most chips at the end of two rounds. Ultimately, Nakomis was the winner of the Power of Veto. On Day 25, Nakomis chose to use the Power of Veto on herself, with Adria being named the replacement nominee. On Day 28, Holly became the third HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of seven to one.
Following Holly's eviction, the HouseGuests competed in the "I Have a Secret" endurance Head of Household competition. The competition saw the HouseGuests standing on a small pedestal by a life-size cutout of themselves. Without crossing a black line by their feet, they had to hold a finger over a button on top of their mouths on the cutout. If a HouseGuest took their hand off the button, they were eliminated. As the game progressed, various rules were added, such as they could not change hands or not raise their feet off of the pedestal. Diane won the competition after nearly nine hours, becoming the first female Head of Household of the season. Due to the endurance Head of Household, no food competition was held that week. On Day 29, Diane chose to nominate Jase and Scott for eviction. When picking players for the Power of Veto competition, Diane chose Will, Jase chose Michael, and Scott chose Drew. The HouseGuests then competed in the "This Little Piggy Won the Veto" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, each player had ten Veto chips to distribute into six ceramic pigs representing a HouseGuest. They had to use the chips on at least two pigs. The pig closest to having 20 chips inside of it without going over would be the Veto winner. Ultimately, Jase was the winner of the competition. He later made the decision to remove himself from the block, with Marvin becoming the replacement nominee. On Day 35, Scott became the fourth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of four to three. Moments later, the HouseGuests learned of the twins twist, and Natalie entered the house as an official HouseGuest.
Following Scott's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Home Is Where the Answer Is" Head of Household competition. For this competition, HouseGuests were asked true or false questions about the Big Brother house. If a HouseGuest answered incorrectly, they were eliminated, with the last HouseGuest standing being the winner; Nakomis was the winner of the competition. On Day 36, HouseGuests competed in the "Fast Times and Custard Pie" food competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to eat various disgusting pies in an attempt to find an "eat" card, which would grant that HouseGuest food for the week. Ultimately, Adria, Diane, Jase, and Drew were on the peanut butter and jelly diet for the week. Before nominations, Nakomis came up with the "Six Finger Plan" in which she would nominate two of her allies. During the Veto competition, she and her allies would choose three other allies, thus ensuring a member of their team won the Power of Veto. When the Veto was used, she hoped to nominate Jase as the replacement nominee, with the plan ensuring that he could not play for the Power of Veto. On Day 36, Nakomis set forth the plan, nominating Diane and Marvin for eviction. When picking players for the Power of Veto competition, Nakomis chose Adria, Marvin chose Will, and Diane chose Drew. The HouseGuests then competed in the "Pop Goes the Veto" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests threw darts at a wheel of balloons, which were later revealed to have the faces of the competing HouseGuests behind them. When all of a HouseGuests balloons had been popped, they were eliminated from the competition; Drew was the eventual winner of the Power of Veto. Drew later chose to remove Diane from the block, with Jase being nominated as the replacement nominee. On Day 42, Jase became the fifth person to be evicted from the house in a vote of six to one.
Following Jase's eviction, HouseGuests competed in "The Puck Stops Here" Head of Household competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests had to shoot a puck down a shuffleboard with various rubber bands attached to it. Their goal was to aim for a blue space on the board. Adria was the closest to the blue spot, thus became the new Head of Household. On Day 43, HouseGuests competed in the "Backyard Burger Bonanza" food competition. For this, the HouseGuests split into two teams of four, and the teams had to assemble numerous hamburgers from across the yard. The team who made the most hamburgers would earn food for the week. The competition led to Diane, Drew, Marvin, and Natalie being on the peanut butter and jelly diet for the week. This made it the second consecutive week that Drew and Diane were on the diet. That same day, Adria chose to nominate Marvin and Will for eviction. When picking players for the Power of Veto competition, Adria chose Drew, Will chose Diane and Marvin chose Michael. HouseGuests then competed in the "A Very Veto Christmas" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests traded Christmas presents that were worth a certain number of Veto points. The player with the highest total of Veto points at the end of the competition would be the Veto winner; Adria won the Veto. The HouseGuests later competed in the "Admit One" luxury competition, in which Diane, Drew, and Will earned the right to watch the comedy film Without A Paddle. Later that week, Adria chose to leave the nominations intact. On Day 49, Will became the sixth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house, with Adria breaking a tie to evict him. He was the first member of the Jury of Seven.
Following Will's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Who Said It?" Head of Household competition. For this competition, HouseGuests answered questions based on statements made by the previously evicted HouseGuests. If a HouseGuest answered incorrectly, they were eliminated from the competition, with the last HouseGuest remaining becoming the winner. Ultimately, Nakomis became Head of Household for the second time this season. On Day 50, HouseGuests competed in the "Smoothies from hell" food competition. For this, HouseGuests were required to put their favorite meals in a blender, and were required to drink the meal. If a HouseGuest successfully completed the task, they would earn food for the day of the week that they represented. Ultimately, the HouseGuests earned food for every day of the week except for Saturday. That same day, Nakomis chose to nominate Adria and Natalie, due to Adria's betrayal the previous week. The HouseGuests later participated in "The Web" luxury competition, in which Diane won a $1,000 online shopping spree. When picking players for the Power of Veto competition, Nakomis chose Marvin, Adria chose Drew, and Natalie chose Michael. The HouseGuests then competed in the "Mug Shot" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, the faces of three different HouseGuests were combined to form one, and the HouseGuest who could successfully figure out which three HouseGuests composed each of the six pictures would win the Power of Veto. Ultimately, Adria won the Power of Veto for the second consecutive week. She later chose to use the power to save herself, with Nakomis choosing to nominate Michael in her place. On Day 56, Natalie became the seventh HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of four to one. She was the second member of the Jury of Seven.
Following Natalie's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Putting for Power" Head of Household competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests split up into two groups composed of three HouseGuests each. HouseGuests then attempted to get a ball in the hole against an uphill course. The first from each group to successfully get a ball into a hole would advance to the final round. Marvin and Michael advanced to the final round, in which the person who sunk the most balls in sixty seconds would become the new Head of Household. Marvin managed to get more than Michael, making Marvin the Head of Household for the second time this season. On Day 57, Marvin chose to nominate Adria and Michael for eviction. When picking players for the Power of Veto competition, Marvin chose Drew, Adria chose Karen, and Michael chose Nakomis. The HouseGuests then competed in the "Ice Ice Veto" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to use a "Super Soaker Gun" to try and free the Veto medallion from a frozen block of ice. There is also a "T", in which they can open a toolbox to help free the Veto quicker. The first HouseGuest to get the Veto medallion would be the winner of the Power of Veto. Ultimately, Karen was the winner of the Power of Veto, giving Karen her first win of the season. Karen later decided to leave Adria and Michael nominated for eviction. On Day 63, Adria became the eighth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of four to zero. She was the third member of the Jury of Seven.
Following Adria's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Chemical Reaction" Head of Household competition. For this competition, HouseGuests answered questions about previous events in the game. They would answer by pouring chemicals into a container; if they were incorrect, their chemical would remain the same, while a correct answer would turn the chemical blue. Drew was the winner of the competition, making it the second time he had held the title. Following his win, the HouseGuests learned that it would be a Double Eviction week, and that an eviction would occur the following day. That night, he chose to nominate Diane and Marvin for eviction. On Day 65, HouseGuests competed in the "Bounced" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests attempted to bounce balls into a hoop in the fastest time; Diane was the winner. She chose to use the Power of Veto to save herself, with Nakomis being nominated as the replacement nominee. That same night, Marvin became the ninth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of three to zero. He was the fourth member of the Jury of Seven. Following Marvin's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Ready, Set, Gone" Head of Household competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to answer questions about items that had gone missing from the house. Nakomis was the winner of the competition, making her the first person this season to hold the title three times. On Day 65, Nakomis chose to nominate Drew and Michael for eviction. On Day 66, the HouseGuests competed in the "Caged" Power of Veto competition. For this competition, HouseGuests had to make a device that could get them the keys to unlock a cage, thus earning the Veto. Diane was the winner of the competition, making it her second consecutive Power of Veto win. Diane chose to use the Veto on Drew, with Karen being the only eligible HouseGuest to be nominated in his place. On Day 70, Karen became the tenth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of two to zero. She was the fifth member of the Jury of Seven.
Following Karen's eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Before or After" Head of Household competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests were quizzed on whether one event happened before or after another event. Ultimately, Drew won the competition, making it the third time he had won the title. On Day 71, HouseGuests competed in the "Trashin' the Fashion" luxury competition. For this competition, HouseGuests earned a shopping spree in exchange for destroying various clothing items that they disliked. That same day, Drew chose to nominate Diane and Nakomis for eviction. The HouseGuests later competed in the "Socket to Me" final Power of Veto competition. For this competition, there were a total of ten boxes, each with the image of that week's Head of Household, nominees, and Power of Veto winner. They were required to electrically link all of the Power of Veto winners to one another in order, and the HouseGuest with the quickest time would win the Power of Veto. Michael was the winner of the competition, giving him his first win of the season. On Day 75, Michael had to use the veto to save a nominee, therefore evicting the other nominee not saved and chose to use the Veto on Diane. With Drew (the HoH), Michael (the Veto winner), and Diane (Vetoed) all immune from eviction, Nakomis was evicted by a Michael's sole vote, making her the sixth member of the jury.
Following Nakomis' eviction, HouseGuests competed in the "Earthquake" first round of the final Head of Household competition. For this endurance competition, HouseGuests were required to hold onto their keys while standing on a platform that moved around. Drew was the winner of this competition. Diane and Michael later faced off in the "Twisted twosomes" Head of Household competition, which Michael won. On Day 78, Drew and Michael competed in the "Encore Presentation" Head of Household competition. Drew was the winner of the competition, making him the final Head of Household of the season. Moments later, he cast the sole vote to evict Diane. On Day 82, the Jury of Seven chose to award Drew the grand prize in a vote of four to three.
== Episodes ==
== Voting history ==
Color key:
Notes
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
Big Brother 5 had similar ratings to that of the previous season, and averaged a total of 8.30 million viewers per episode. The season premiere drew in 9.55 million viewers, finishing first in its time slot for both total viewers and in key demographics such as Adults 18–49, Adults 18-34 and Adults 25–54. The Thursday, July 15 episode of the series, which saw Mike being evicted from the house, had a total of 8.76 million viewers, up 12% from the previous episode. This episode won its time period for both total viewers and all key demographics. The Tuesday, August 3 edition of the series, which featured Jase winning the Power of Veto, had a total of 9.7 million viewers. The episode averaged a total of 8.98 million viewers, and won all the time period for the night. The Thursday, August 12 episode, which featured Jase's eviction from the house, garnered a total of ten million viewers. The Tuesday, August 17 episode of the series came in third for the night, behind the Olympics, garnering a total of 8.2 million viewers. The Tuesday, August 24 episode of the series averaged 9.6 million viewers. The Tuesday, September 7 edition of the series averaged 10.7 million viewers. The same episode had a strong 6.8 Nielsen rating and an 11 share. The Thursday, September 9 episode had a 6.2 rating and a 10 share. The finale had a total of 10.54 million viewers, making it the highest rated episode of the season.
== References ==
== External links ==
Big Brother – official American site (Archived)
Big Brother at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Kath | Terry Kath | Terry Alan Kath (January 31, 1946 – January 23, 1978) was an American guitarist and singer who is best known as a founding member of the rock band Chicago. He played lead guitar and sang lead vocals on many of the band's early hit singles alongside Robert Lamm and Peter Cetera. He has been praised by his bandmates and other musicians for his guitar skills and his Ray Charles–influenced vocal style. Jimi Hendrix cited Terry Kath as one of his favorite guitarists, and considered Kath to be "the best guitarist in the universe."
Growing up in a musical family, Kath took up a variety of instruments in his teens, including the drums and banjo. He played bass in a number of local bands throughout the mid-1960s, gaining experience in various musical styles and group settings. As his musical direction evolved, he eventually transitioned to the guitar, which became his primary instrument by the time he co-founded the band that would later be known as Chicago. His dynamic and expressive guitar playing, which blended elements of rock, jazz, and blues, quickly became a central component of the group’s sound. From the band’s earliest recordings, his contributions helped define their musical identity and set them apart from other rock acts of the era.
He used a number of different guitars, but eventually became identified with a Fender Telecaster fitted with a single neck-position humbucker pickup combined with a bridge position angled single-coil pickup and decorated with numerous stickers.
Kath struggled with health issues and substance abuse in the late 1970s. In January 1978, he died from an unintentional self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. His death led the members of Chicago to consider disbanding; however, they ultimately chose to continue. Their decision to move forward was reflected in the memorial song "Alive Again." To commemorate his musicianship, they issued the 1997 album The Innovative Guitar of Terry Kath. In 2016, Kath's daughter Michelle Sinclair released the documentary The Terry Kath Experience, which chronicles his life and Chicago's early years.
== Early life ==
Kath was born to Raymond Elmer "Ray" Kath (1912–2003) and Evelyn Meline (nee Haugen) Kath (1916–1982) on January 31, 1946, in Chicago. He had an older brother, Rod Kath, was raised in the Norwood Park neighborhood of Chicago, and attended Taft High School.
His brother played the drums and his mother played the banjo, and Kath attempted to learn these instruments too. He acquired a guitar and amplifier when he was in the ninth grade, and his early influences included The Ventures, Johnny Smith, Dick Dale, and Howard Roberts. He was later influenced by George Benson, Kenny Burrell, Mike Bloomfield, Eric Clapton, and Jimi Hendrix.
Unlike several other Chicago members who received formal music training, Kath was mostly self-taught and enjoyed jamming. In a 1971 interview for Guitar Player, he said he had tried professional lessons but abandoned them, adding "All I wanted to do was play those rock and roll chords." His father wanted him to have a steady career, but he decided he would prefer a career in music.
== Career ==
=== Early career ===
Terry Kath joined his first semi-professional band, The Mystics, in 1963, moving to Jimmy Rice and the Gentlemen in 1965. He then played bass in a road band called Jimmy Ford and the Executives. Considered to be the bandleader, Kath guided the band's musical direction. Ford was the trumpeter, Walter Parazaider played saxophone and other wind instruments, and Danny Seraphine later became the drummer. Kath became close friends with Seraphine and Parazaider. The three musicians regularly socialized outside of the band. They were fired from the group, which wanted to merge with another band, Little Artie and the Pharaohs, while leader and guitarist Mike Sistack explained that "it's just business."
In 1966, Kath joined a cover band called the Missing Links, taking Parazaider and Seraphine with him, and started playing clubs and ballrooms in Chicago on a regular basis. Parazaider's friend at De Paul University, trumpeter Lee Loughnane, also sat in with the band from time to time. Kath's compatriot James William Guercio (who later became Chicago's producer) was lead guitarist in one of two road bands performing on The Dick Clark Show with the Missing Links. Kath received an offer from Guercio to play bass for the Illinois Speed Press and move to Los Angeles, but declined as he considered the guitar his main instrument and wanted to sing lead. He stayed with Parazaider, Seraphine, and Loughnane instead, who quickly recruited trombonist James Pankow from De Paul and vocalist/keyboardist Robert Lamm. Kath sang the lower range of lead vocals in the group in a style reminiscent of Ray Charles. The group practiced at Parazaider's parents' basement and changed its name to The Big Thing. With the addition of singer and bassist Peter Cetera of The Exceptions, they moved to Los Angeles and signed with Columbia Records, renaming the band Chicago Transit Authority. The real Chicago Transit Authority objected to the band's use of the name so in mid-1969 the name was shortened to Chicago.
=== Chicago ===
Kath was regarded as Chicago's bandleader and best soloist; his vocal, jazz and hard rock influences are regarded as integral to the band's early sound. He has been praised for his guitar skills and described by rock author Corbin Reiff as "one of the most criminally underrated guitarists to have ever set finger to fretboard". According to Loughnane, Kath could sing a lead vocal and play lead and rhythm guitar simultaneously.
The group's first album, Chicago Transit Authority, released in 1969, includes Kath's composition "Introduction", described as "Terry's masterpiece" by later Chicago guitarist Dawayne Bailey. The song displays many varied musical styles, including jazz, blues, salsa, rock and roll, acid rock, and pop. The same debut album includes an instrumental guitar piece titled "Free Form Guitar", which consisted largely of feedback and heavy use of the Stratocaster's tremolo arm. The album liner notes indicate that the nearly seven-minute piece was recorded live in the studio in one take, using only a Fender Dual Showman amplifier pre-amped with a Bogen Challenger P.A. amp. The guitar's neck was held together with a radiator hose clamp. The song "Beginnings" includes acoustic rhythm guitar by Kath.
For the group's second album, Kath contributed an extended guitar solo on "25 or 6 to 4", which became a live favorite. The same album saw Kath collaborate with orchestral arranger Peter Matz on the four-part suite "Memories of Love", singing the lead vocal.
Kath wrote at least one song and contributed at least one lead vocal to every Chicago album released during his lifetime. While 1976's Chicago X is best known for Cetera's number one hit, "If You Leave Me Now", Kath's "Once or Twice" showed he was still writing and recording rock material. He continued this style on the following year's Chicago XI, contributing the funky "Mississippi Delta City Blues" and the aggressive "Takin' It on Uptown", which counterbalanced some of the material other members were producing.
After his death, to memorialize Kath and to commemorate the resumption of Chicago, the band composed and published the song "Alive Again" on its first album without him, Hot Streets. Also in Kath's honor, they later published the song "Feel the Spirit".
== Equipment ==
Kath used several guitars in his early career, but many of these early ones were stolen while on the road. His first main instrument that he used when Chicago were still The Big Thing was a Register guitar that cost $80. When the band started becoming successful, he traded up to a Fender Stratocaster. He also used a Gibson SG Standard, as pictured on Chicago Transit Authority's inner sleeve, and a Gibson SG Custom, and was one of the few well-known guitarists to make regular use of the 1969 Les Paul "Professional" model, which sported a pair of unconventional low-impedance pickups with a special impedance-matching transformer for use with a standard high impedance-input amplifier. Kath tended to favor light strings, though for the top E string, he used one from a tenor guitar. In an interview with Guitar Player, he said that he used the tenor guitar string for the top E and moved all the regular strings down (top E was used as B, B used as a G, and so forth). For acoustic parts, he played an Ovation acoustic guitar.
In the latter part of his career, he favored a Fender Telecaster, which he heavily modified. The standard blonde Telecaster had its black pickguard and its neck-position pickup removed, and the hole enlarged and fitted with a Gibson humbucker. The guitar control plate was also reversed. He was an early investor in the Pignose company (a manufacturer of guitar amplifiers) and served in the management of the company and decorated his Telecaster with 25 Pignose stickers, a Maico motorcycles decal and a Chicago Blackhawks logo. Most of Kath's guitars had gone missing for many years, including the famous "Pignose" Telecaster. Several were located by Kath's daughter Michelle Kath Sinclair, at the home of her step-grandmother, during her research for the documentary film Chicago: The Terry Kath Experience. Among the re-discovered equipment was his "Pignose" Telecaster, an Ovation acoustic, a Fender Stratocaster, and a Gibson SG Custom with the pickups removed.
Kath experimented with a wide variety of amplification and distortion devices and used a wah-wah pedal frequently. Fascinated by gadgets, Kath was interested in trying to play guitar without using a pick. Lamm recalled him attempting to make an auto-picking device using a modified electrical cocktail mixer.
== Vocals ==
Kath sang lead vocals on several of Chicago's early songs, including "I'm a Man" (Chicago Transit Authority), "Colour My World", "Make Me Smile" (both part of "Ballet for a Girl in Buchannon"), "Movin' In", and "In The Country" (Chicago II), "Free" (Chicago III), "Dialogue (Part I & II)" (Chicago V), "Wishing You Were Here" (Chicago VII), and "Brand New Love Affair" (Chicago VIII). His vocal delivery was later described by Lamm as "The White Ray Charles". Pankow, who wrote "Make Me Smile", tried rehearsing the song with various members singing lead, but ultimately settled on Kath, saying "bingo – 'that' was the voice." Kath was one of the three primary lead singers of Chicago, with a vocal range between those of the other two, Peter Cetera's higher tenor and Robert Lamm's fuller, lower baritone. He often collaborated with Cetera on lead vocals as they did in "Dialogue (Part I & II)," "Ain't It Blue," "In The Country," and "Brand New Love Affair".
Kath also played lead guitar and sang lead vocals on the closing song "Tell Me" in the 1973 drama movie Electra Glide in Blue. The song was used in the final episode of the television series Miami Vice.
== Personal life and death ==
Kath had a self-admitted history of drug abuse, including alcohol. Seraphine knew that Kath had a high tolerance for drugs and he later recalled Kath telling him: "I'm going to get things under control ... if I don't, this stuff is going to kill me." Chicago bandmates, including Seraphine, had noted that he was then also becoming increasingly unhappy. The night before he died, Kath visited bandmate Laudir de Oliveira. De Oliveira offered him tea and the two spent all night talking. Guercio has said that Kath was finishing writing a solo album before he died and Pankow has adamantly denied that Kath was suicidal.
Kath enjoyed target shooting and by 1978 he was regularly carrying guns. On Monday, January 23, after a party at the home of roadie and band technician Don Johnson in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, California, Kath began to play with his guns. He spun his unloaded .38 revolver on his finger, put it to his temple and pulled the trigger. Johnson warned Kath several times to be careful. Kath picked up a semi-automatic 9 mm pistol and, leaning back in a chair, said to Johnson: "Don't worry about it ... Look, the clip is not even in it." His last words were, "What do you think I'm gonna do? Blow my brains out?" To calm Johnson's concerns, Kath showed him the empty magazine. Kath then replaced the magazine in the gun, put the gun to his temple and pulled the trigger. Apparently unbeknownst to Kath, the gun had a round in the chamber. He died instantly from the gunshot, eight days shy of his 32nd birthday.
Kath left behind his wife, Camelia Ortiz, and a 20-month-old daughter, Michelle Kath (now Michelle Kath Sinclair since her marriage to actor Adam Sinclair).
Kath is interred near his mother, Evelyn Kath and father, Raymond Kath, in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California in the Gardens of Remembrance.
The group's members were devastated over losing Kath and strongly considered disbanding but were persuaded by Doc Severinsen, musical director of the Tonight Show band, to continue. Kath's position as guitarist in Chicago was filled by Donnie Dacus. At Chicago concerts, members Lee Loughnane (trumpet) and Robert Lamm (keyboards) have performed lead vocals originally sung by Kath.
== Legacy ==
Because Chicago considered themselves a team, some band members have subsequently claimed Kath's contributions to be generally overlooked. Chicago band member Walter Parazaider later said, "If [Kath] was totally up front, he would have gotten a lot more recognition." According to Parazaider, Jimi Hendrix commented to him after a set at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles that "your guitar player is better than me."
In September 1997, Chicago released Chicago Presents The Innovative Guitar of Terry Kath, a CD remembrance of their late guitarist, on their own short-lived Chicago Records label.
Band members have since wondered if Kath would have stayed with Chicago had he lived or started a solo career. In 2010, Parazaider said:
"I'm not sure about that. [Terry] was a free spirit ... He was his own person when it came to different things. I would like to think he (would still be with Chicago) but he was very independent and I wonder what he would have thought about the 1980s. I'd have to say it's 50/50. It could have gone either way."
In 2012, Kath's daughter Michelle Kath Sinclair announced that enough funds had been donated to complete production on a documentary of his life, titled Searching for Terry: Discovering a Guitar Legend. In 2014, she confirmed she had interviewed the entire band except for Cetera and the project was planned for release in 2016. The film made its world premiere at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival, renamed as The Terry Kath Experience, and Peter Cetera was listed among the cast members. It made its United States premiere at the DOC NYC film festival in November 2016 under the same name, and was soon after acquired by FilmRise, which planned a 2017 release. The film made its television premiere on AXS TV, under the name Chicago: The Terry Kath Experience, on November 7, 2017, and it was released as VOD and DVD on December 12. The film includes interviews with guitarists Jeff Lynne, Steve Lukather, Mike Campbell, Dean DeLeo and Joe Walsh, who all praised Kath's work. Walsh said, "He was a great guy; he was a brilliant musician. He was a songwriter and a great singer. He was such a monster on guitar. ... He was just a total experimenter".
On April 8, 2016, Chicago was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Michelle Kath Sinclair accepted the award on her father's behalf.
== Discography with Chicago ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== External links ==
Terry Kath at Find a Grave
Terry Kath discography at Discogs
Terry Kath at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Mehretu#Notable_works_in_public_collections | Julie Mehretu | Julie Mehretu (born November 28, 1970) is an Ethiopian American contemporary visual artist, known for her multi-layered paintings of abstracted landscapes on a large scale. Her paintings, drawings, and prints depict the cumulative effects of urban sociopolitical changes.
== Early life and education ==
Mehretu was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1970, the first child of an Ethiopian college professor of geography and a Jewish American Montessori teacher. They fled the country in 1977 to escape political turmoil and moved to East Lansing, Michigan, for her father's teaching position in economic geography at Michigan State University.
A graduate of East Lansing High School, Mehretu received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and did a junior year abroad at Cheikh Anta Diop University (UCAD) in Dakar, Senegal, then attended the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence, Rhode Island, where she earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in 1997. She was chosen for the CORE program at the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston, a residency that provided a studio, a stipend, and an exhibition at the museum.
== Art career ==
Mehretu's canvases incorporate elements from technical drawings of various urban buildings and linear illustrations of urban efficiency, including city grids and weather charts. The pieces do not contain any formal, consistent sense of depth, instead utilizing multiple points of view and perspective ratios to construct flattened re-imaginings of city life. Her drawings are similar to her paintings, with many layers forming complex, abstracted images of social interaction on a global scale. The relatively smaller-scale drawings are opportunities for exploration made during the time between paintings.
In 2002, Mehretu said of her work:
I think of my abstract mark-making as a type of sign lexicon, signifier, or language for characters that hold identity and have social agency. The characters in my maps plotted, journeyed, evolved, and built civilizations. I charted, analysed, and mapped their experience and development: their cities, their suburbs, their conflicts, and their wars. The paintings occurred in an intangible no-place: a blank terrain, an abstracted map space. As I continued to work I needed a context for the marks, the characters. By combining many types of architectural plans and drawings I tried to create a metaphoric, tectonic view of structural history. I wanted to bring my drawing into time and place.
Emperial Construction, Istanbul (2004) exemplifies Mehretu's use of layers in a city's history. Arabic lettering and forms that reference Arabic script scatter around the canvas. In Stadia I, II, and III (2004) Mehretu conveys the cultural importance of the stadium through marks and layers of flat shape. Each Stadia contains an architectural outline of a stadium, abstracted flags of the world, and references to corporate logos.
Mogamma: A Painting in Four Parts (2012), the collective name for four monumental canvases that were included in dOCUMENTA (13), relates to 'Al-Mogamma', the name of the all purpose government building in Tahrir Square, Cairo, which was both instrumental in the 2011 revolution and architecturally symptomatic of Egypt's post-colonial past. The word 'Mogamma', however, means 'collective' in Arabic and historically, has been used to refer to a place that shares a mosque, a synagogue and a church and is a place of multi faith. A later work, The Round City, Hatshepsut (2013) contains architectural traces of Baghdad, Iraq, itself – its title referring to the historical name given to the city in ancient maps. Another painting, Insile (2013) built up from a photo image of Believers' Palace amid civilian buildings, activates its surface with painterly ink gestures, blurring and effacing the ruins beneath.
In 2007, the investment bank Goldman Sachs gave Mehretu a $5 million commission for a lobby mural. The resulting work Mural was the size of a tennis court and consisted of overlaid financial maps, architectural drawings of financial institutions, and references to works by other artists. Calvin Tomkins of the New Yorker called it "the most ambitious painting I've seen in a dozen years", and another commentator described it as "one of the largest and most successful public art works in recent times".
While best known for large-scale abstract paintings, Mehretu has experimented with prints since graduate school at the Rhode Island School of Design, where she was enrolled in the painting and printmaking program in the mid-1990s. Her exploration of printmaking began with etching. She has completed collaborative projects at professional printmaking studios across America, among them Highpoint Editions in Minneapolis, Crown Point Press in San Francisco, Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, and Derrière L'Étoile Studios and Burnet Editions in New York City.
Mehretu was a resident of the CORE Program, Glassell School of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, (1997–98) and the Artist-in-Residence Program at the Studio Museum in Harlem (2001). During a residency at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, in 2003, she worked with thirty high school girls from East Africa. In the spring of 2007 she was the Guna S. Mundheim Visual Arts Fellow at the American Academy in Berlin. Later that year, she led a monthlong residency program with 40 art students from Detroit public high schools.
During her residency in Berlin, Mehretu was commissioned to create seven paintings by the Deutsche Guggenheim; titled Grey Area (2008–2009), the series explores the urban landscape of Berlin as a historical site of generation and destruction. The painting Vanescere (2007), a black-and-white composition that depicts what appears to be a maelstrom of ink and acrylic marks, some of which are sanded away on the surface of the linen support, propelled a layering process of subtraction in the Grey Area series. Parts of Fragment (2008–09) and Middle Grey (2007–09) feature this erasing technique. Another in the series that was painted in Berlin, Berliner Plätze (2008–09), holds a phantom presence of overlapped outlines of nineteenth-century German buildings that float as a translucent mass in the frame. The art historian Sue Scott has this to say of the Grey Area series: "In these somber, simplified tonal paintings, many of which were based on the facades of beautiful nineteenth-century buildings destroyed in World War II, one gets the sense of buildings in the process of disappearing, much like the history of the city she was depicting." As Mehretu explains in Ocula Magazine, "The whole idea of 20th-century progress and ideas of futurity and modernity have been shattered, in a way. All of this is what is informing how I am trying to think about space."
In 2017, Mehretu collaborated with jazz musician and interdisciplinary artist Jason Moran to create MASS (HOWL, eon)]. Presented at Harlem Parish as part of the Performa 17 biennial, MASS (HOWL, eon) took the audience on an intensive tour of Mehretu's canvas while musicians played the composition by Moran.
Mehrhtu's first work in painted glass was installed in 2024. The 85 foot (26 m) tall artwork, Uprising of the Sun, is inspired by a quote from Barack Obama delivered in a speech at a memorial ceremony for the civil-rights-era
Selma marches. It was installed as a window in the museum tower of the Barack Obama Presidential Center.
Mehretu is a member of the Artists Committee of Americans for the Arts.
Mehretu has created the 20th BMW art car (BMW M Hybrid V8) in 2024. The car bore the number 20 for the 24h of Le Mans in 2024 and crashed early in the race. It was repaired overnight and finished.
== Recognition ==
In 2000, Mehretu was awarded a grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award. She was the recipient of the 2001 Penny McCall Award and one of the 2005 recipients of the MacArthur Fellowship, often referred to as the "genius grant."
In 2013, Mehretu was awarded the Barnett and Annalee Newman Award, and in 2015, she received the US Department of State Medal of Arts from Secretary of State John Kerry. In 2020, Time magazine included Mehretu in its list of the 100 most influential people. In 2023, German automaker BMW selected Mehretu to paint its annual "art car" for entry at the 24 Hours of Le Mans race.
Art critic for The Australian newspaper Christopher Allen described Mehretu's work as "the last feeble gasp of an overhyped and exhausted New York art market".
Mehretu is included in Time's 100 Most Influential People of 2020. The following year, The New York Times described her as a "rare example of a contemporary Black female painter who has already entered the canon."
In 2023, she was one of two women artists whose work was among the top ten in contemporary auction sale price.
== Notable works in public collections ==
In 2016, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art commissioned Mehretu to create a diptych, with each massive painting flanking the staircase in the atrium which is accessible and free to the public. HOWL, eon (I, II) (2016-2017) was first exhibited to the public on September 2, 2017. To facilitate the creation of the scale of the diptych, Mehretu used a decommissioned church in Harlem as her studio to create. Throughout the creation of her piece, she collaborated with jazz pianist Jason Moran. HOWL, eon (I, II) is a political commentary on the history of the western United States' landscape, including the San Francisco Bay Area. The foundation of each work contains digitally abstracted photos from recent race riots, street protests, and nineteenth-century images of the American West.
== Exhibitions ==
In 2001, Mehretu participated in the exhibition Painting at the Edge of the World at the Walker Art Center. She later was one of 38 artists whose work was exhibited in the 2004-5 Carnegie International: A Final Look. She has participated in numerous group exhibitions, including one at the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson (2000). Her work has appeared in Freestyle exhibition at the Studio Museum in Harlem (2001); The Americans at the Barbican Gallery in London (2001); White Cube gallery in London (2002), the Busan Biennale in Korea (2002); the 8th Baltic Triennial in Vilnius, Lithuania (2002); and Drawing Now: Eight Propositions (2002) at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Mehretu's work was also included in the "In Praise of Doubt" exhibition at the Palazzo Grassi in Venice in the summer of 2011 as well as dOCUMENTA (13) in Kassel in 2012. In 2014, she participated in The Divine Comedy: Heaven, Purgatory and Hell Revisited by Contemporary African Artists, curated by Simon Njami.
In 2021, the Whitney Museum of American Art devoted an entire floor to a retrospective of Mehretu's career. Mehretu's work is included in Every Sound Is a Shape of Time, a 2024 collections-based exhibition organized by the Pérez Art Museum Miami and curated by Franklin Sirmans, the museum director.
The first exhibition dedicated to Mehretu in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region, titled A Transcore of the Radical Imaginatory, was held by the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney, from November 2024 to April 2025.
== Art market ==
Mehretu's painting Untitled 1 (2001) sold for $1.02 million at Sotheby's in September 2010. Its estimated value had been $600–$800,000. At Art Basel in 2014, White Cube sold Mehretu's Mumbo Jumbo (2008) for $5 million. In 2023, Michael Ovitz sold Mehretu's Walkers With the Dawn and Morning (2008) for $10.7 million, setting a new record both for the artist herself and any artist born in Africa.
In 2005, Mehretu's work was the object of the Lehmann v. The Project Worldwide case before the New York Supreme Court, the first case brought by a collector regarding their right to secure primary access to contemporary art. The case involved legal issues over her work and the right of first refusal contracts between her then-gallery and a collector. In return for a $75,000 loan by the collector Jean-Pierre Lehmann to the Project Gallery, made in February 2001, the gallery was to give Lehmann a right of first refusal on any work by any artist the gallery represented, and at a 30 per cent discount until the loan was repaid. Lehmann saw this loan as direct access to Mehretu's work, however, there were four other individuals who were also given right of first choice from the gallery's represented artists. The gallery sold 40 works by Mehretu during the period of the contract, with some offered for discounts of up to 40 percent. Lehmann saw that several Mehretu pieces available in the catalog of the Walker Art Center had been sold to collector Jeanne Greenberg Rohatyn, and suspected that the agreement was not being kept. He subsequently wrote Haye demanding $17,500, and, after no offer of Mehretu pieces was made, he filed suit. The case, eventually won by Lehmann, revealed to a wider public precisely what prices and discounts galleries offer various collectors on paintings by Mehretu and other contemporary artists – information normally concealed by the art world.
In October 2023, Mehretu broke the auction record for an African artist at Sotheby's Hong Kong, with her piece Untitled (2001), which sold for $9.32 million.
== Personal life ==
Mehretu lives in a two-story house in Harlem. She married artist Jessica Rankin in 2008, with whom she has two children, Cade Elias (born 2005) and Haile (born 2011); her mother-in-law is author and poet Lily Brett. The couple separated in 2014.
Mehretu maintains a studio in Chelsea near the Whitney Museum of American Art. In 2004, she co-founded – together with Lawrence Chua and Paul Pfeiffer – Denniston Hill, an artist residency on a 200-acre campus in Sullivan County, New York. She also worked from an old arms factory in Berlin in 2007 and the former St. Thomas the Apostle Church in Harlem from 2016 to 2017.
In October 2024, The Whitney Museum announced that Mehretu had donated more than two million dollars to its "Free 25 and Under" program that provides free access to museum guests under the age of twenty-five.
== References ==
== External links ==
Website of her gallery carlier | gebauer including CV and works Archived February 28, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
Julie Mehretu at Highpoint Center for Printmaking, Minneapolis
Julie Mehretu at Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Julie Mehretu interviewed for Ethiopian Passages Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
2010 article including an image of Untitled 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramod_Kale | Pramod Kale | Pramod Kale (born 4 March 1941) is an Indian engineer who has worked for the Indian Space Research Organisation in various leadership roles.
== Early life and education ==
He was born on 4 March 1941 in Pune, India. Kale completed his matriculation in 1956 from the M.C. High School, Vadodara and went on to study at Fergusson College in Pune. He completed his BSc Physics from Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda in 1960 and then his MSc (Physics-Electronics) from Gujarat University, Ahmedabad in 1962.
== Career ==
While studying for his MSc he worked at the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad for getting practical experience of Electronics and Space Research. During that time he started work on Satellite tracking. After getting his MSc in 1962, he worked for three years as a research student of Vikram Sarabhai. In 1963 he was selected as a team member for the establishment of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), near Thiruvananthapuram and for that work was deputed to work at Goddard Space Flight Centre, NASA, USA.
== Awards ==
Shri Hari Om Ashram Prerit Vikram Sarabhai Award for System Analysis and Management Problems, 1975
Padma Shri, Government of India, 1984
Shri R L Wadhawa Gold Medal of Institution of Electronics and Telecommunications Engineers 1991
Bharat Jyoti Award presented by Front for National Progress 1999
Aryabhata Award, presented by the Astronautical Society of India in recognition of lifetime contribution to the promotion of astronautics, 2006
== Publications ==
Kale has published over twenty-five papers on various subjects from 1964 until 1994.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._C._Leyendecker | J. C. Leyendecker | Joseph Christian Leyendecker (March 23, 1874 – July 25, 1951) was one of the most prominent and financially successful freelance commercial artists in the United States. He was active between 1895 and 1951 producing drawings and paintings for hundreds of posters, books, advertisements, and magazine covers and stories. He is best known for his 80 covers for Collier's Weekly, 322 covers for The Saturday Evening Post, and advertising illustrations for B. Kuppenheimer men's clothing and Arrow brand shirts and detachable collars. He was one of the few known reportedly gay artists working in the early-twentieth century United States.
== Early life ==
Leyendecker (also known as 'J. C.' or 'Joe') was born on March 23, 1874, in Montabaur, Germany, to Peter Leyendecker (1838–1916) and Elizabeth Ortseifen Leyendecker (1845–1905). His brother and fellow illustrator Francis Xavier (aka "Frank") was born two years later. In 1882, the entire Leyendecker family immigrated to Chicago, Illinois, where Elizabeth's brother Adam Ortseifen was vice-president of the McAvoy Brewing Company. A sister, Augusta Mary, arrived after the family immigrated to America. Leyendecker was of Sephardic Jewish ancestry through his father.
As a teenager, around 1890, J. C. Leyendecker apprenticed at the Chicago printing and engraving company J. Manz & Company, eventually working his way up to the position of staff artist. At the same time he took night classes at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago.
After studying drawing and anatomy under John Vanderpoel at the Art Institute, J. C. and Frank enrolled in the Académie Julian in Paris from October 1895 through June 1897. Upon their return to Chicago, the Leyendecker brothers took an apartment in Hyde Park. They also shared a studio in Chicago's Fine Arts Building at 410 South Michigan Ave.
== Career ==
J. C. Leyendecker had a long career that extended from the mid-1890s until his death in 1951. During that time he worked for a wide range of commercial, editorial and government clients.
=== Before 1902: Chicago and Paris ===
As a staff artist at J. Manz & Company J. C. Leyendecker produced 60 Bible illustrations for the Powers Brothers Company, cover and interior illustrations for The Interior magazine, and frontispiece art for The Inland Printer. He also produced artwork for posters and book covers for the Chicago publisher E. A. Weeks. He also provided artwork for a range of marketing materials for the Chicago men's clothier Hart, Schaffner & Marx.
While in Paris, J. C. Leyendecker continued providing art to Hart, Schaffner & Marx, produced artwork for 12 covers of The Inland Printer, and won a contest (out of 700 entries) for the poster and cover of the midsummer 1896 issue of The Century Magazine, which garnered national newspaper and magazine coverage.
Upon his return from Paris in June 1897, Leyendecker illustrated for a range of mostly local clients including Hart, Schaffner & Marx, the Chicago department store Carson, Pirie & Scott, the Eastern Illinois Railroad, the Northern Pacific Railroad, Woman's Home Companion magazine, the stone cutter's trade journal Stone, Carter's monthly, the bird hobbyist magazine The Osprey, and books including Conan Doyle's Micah Clarke and Octave Thanet's A Book of True Lovers. He also painted 132 scenes of America for L. W. Yaggy's laptop panorama of Biblical scenes titled Royal Scroll published by Powers, Fowler & Lewis (Chicago).
On May 20, 1899, Leyendecker received his first commission for a cover for The Saturday Evening Post launching a forty-four-year association with the magazine. Eventually, his work would appear on 322 covers of the magazine, introducing many iconic visual images and traditions including the New Year's Baby, the pudgy red-garbed rendition of Santa Claus, flowers for Mother's Day, and firecrackers on the 4th of July.
During the 1890s, Leyendecker was active in Chicago's arts community. He exhibited with and attended social events by the Palette and Chisel Club, the Art Students League, and the Chicago Society of Artists. In December 1895, some of his posters were exhibited at the Siegel, Cooper & Company department store in Chicago. In January 1898 his posters for covers of The Inland Printer were exhibited at the Kimball Cafetier (Chicago).
During his 1895–97 time studying in Paris, J. C. Leyendecker's work won four awards at the Académie Julian and one of his paintings titled "Portrait of My Brother" was exhibited in the Paris salon in 1897. One of his posters for Hart, Schaffner & Marx titled "The Horse Show" was exhibited as part of the award-winning display of American manufacturers' posters at the Exposition Universelle (1900) in Paris.
=== After 1902: New York City and New Rochelle ===
After relocating to New York City in 1902, Leyendecker continued illustrating books, magazine covers and interiors, posters, and advertisements for a wide range increasingly prominent clients.
His illustrations for men's product advertising, pulp magazines, and college posters earned him a reputation as specialist in illustrations of men. Major clients included the Philadelphia suitmaker A. B. Kirschbaum, Wick Fancy Hat Bands, Gillette Safety Razors, E. Howard & Co. watches, Ivory Soap, Williams Shaving Cream, Karo Corn Syrup, Kingsford's Corn Starch, Interwoven socks, B. Kuppenheimer & Co., Cooper Underwear, and Cluett Peabody & Company, maker of Arrow brand shirts and detachable shirt collars and cuffs.
The male models who appeared in Leyendecker's 1907–30 illustrations for Arrow shirt and collar ads were often referred to as "the" Arrow Collar Man. But a number of different men served as models, and some developed successful careers in theater, film, and television. Among the models were Brian Donlevy, Fredric March, Jack Mulhall, Neil Hamilton, Ralph Forbes, and Reed Howes.
Among the men who modeled most frequently for Leyendecker was the Canadian-born Charles A. Beach (1881–1954). In 1903 Beach went to the artist's New York studio looking for modeling work. Beach subsequently appeared in many of Leyendecker's illustrations. The two enjoyed a nearly 50-year professional and personal relationship. Many Leyendecker biographers have described that relationship as having a romantic and sexual dimension.
Another important Leyendecker client was Kellogg's cereals. As part of a major advertising campaign, he painted a series of twenty different images of children eating Kellogg's Corn Flakes.
During the First and Second World Wars, Leyendecker painted military recruitment posters and war bonds posters for the U.S. government.
=== Decline of career ===
After 1930, Leyendecker's career began to slow, perhaps in reaction to the popularity of his work in the previous decade or as a result of the economic downturn following the Wall Street Crash of 1929.
Around 1930–31, Cluett Peabody & Company ceased using Leyendecker's illustrations in its advertisements for Arrow collars and shirts. In 1936, George Horace Lorimer, the famous editor at the Saturday Evening Post, retired and was replaced by Wesley Winans Stout (1937–1942) and then Ben Hibbs (1942–1962), both of whom rarely commissioned Leyendecker to illustrate covers. Leyendecker's last cover for the Saturday Evening Post was of a New Year Baby for the January 2, 1943, issue.
New commissions were fewer in the 1930s and 1940s. These included posters for the United States Department of War, in which Leyendecker depicted commanding officers of the armed forces encouraging the purchases of bonds to support the nation's efforts in World War II.
== Personal life ==
=== Sexuality ===
No statements (in Leyendecker's own words) survive concerning his sexual desires, behavior, or identity. But historians assess elements of his personal life as fitting the pattern they have identified for many gay men who lived during his time.
Leyendecker never married, and he lived with another man, model Charles A. Beach, for most of his adult life (1903–1951). Beach was Leyendecker's studio manager and frequent model, and many biographers describe Beach as Leyendecker's romantic, sexual, or life partner, for reasons stated before. They also describe Leyendecker as "gay" or "homosexual."
Some historians have attributed the homoeroticism in some of Leyendecker's work to his sexuality, while others have pointed to the collaborative nature of commercial art making, which suggests the content of Leyendecker's work was more expressive of the times in which it was created than the artist's sexuality.
=== Residences ===
In 1915, J. C., his brother Frank and sister Augusta Mary relocated from New York City to a newly built home and art studio in New Rochelle, New York, an art colony and suburb of New York City. Sometime after 1918, Charles Beach also moved into the New Rochelle home.
Leyendecker and Beach reportedly hosted large galas attended by people of consequence from all sectors. The parties they hosted at their New Rochelle home/studio were important social and celebrity making events.
While Beach often organized the famous gala-like social gatherings that Leyendecker was known for in the 1920s, he reportedly (by Norman Rockwell) also contributed largely to Leyendecker's social isolation in his later years. Beach reportedly forbade outside contact with the artist in the last months of his life.
Due to his professional success, Leyendecker enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle with large home, domestic servants, and chauffeured car. However, when commissions began to wane during the Great Depression, he was forced to curtail spending considerably. By the time of his death, Leyendecker had let all of the household staff at his New Rochelle estate go. He and Beach tried to maintain their home themselves.
=== Death, burial, disposition of estate ===
Leyendecker died on July 25, 1951, of an acute coronary occlusion at his home in New Rochelle. He was buried alongside his parents and brother Frank at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.
Leyendecker's will directed his estate—house, furnishings, paintings, etc.—be divided equally between his sister Augusta Mary and Charles Beach. Though Leyendecker directed Beach to burn his drawings upon his death, Beach instead sold many of his drawings and paintings at a lawn sale.
Other Leyendecker works were sold through New York's Society of Illustrators or given to the New York Public Library and Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sister Augusta Mary Leyendecker retained many of J. C. Leyendecker's paintings for Kellogg's cereals, and donated them along with other family ephemera upon her death to the Haggin Museum.
== Body of work ==
=== Notable clients ===
=== Museum holdings ===
Examples of Leyendecker's original artwork can be found in the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City), Norman Rockwell Museum (Stockbridge, MA), Haggin Museum (Stockton, CA), National Museum of American Illustration (Newport, RI), Lucas Museum of Narrative Art (Los Angeles, CA), and Pritzker Military Museum & Library in Chicago, IL. Significant collections of his work as reproduced can be found in many major archives and library collections including the Hagley Museum and Library (Wilmington, DE), Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library (Wilmington, DE), New York Public Library (New York, NY), and the D. B. Dowd Modern Graphic History Library Archives at Washington University in St. Louis (St. Louis, MO).
== Legacy ==
As the premier cover illustrator for the enormously popular Saturday Evening Post for much of the first half of the 20th century, Leyendecker's work both reflected and helped mold many of the visual aspects of the era's culture in America. The mainstream image of Santa Claus as a jolly fat man in a red fur-trimmed coat was popularized by Leyendecker, as was the image of the New Year Baby. The tradition of giving flowers as a gift on Mother's Day was started by Leyendecker's May 30, 1914 Saturday Evening Post cover depicting a young bellhop carrying hyacinths. It was created as a commemoration of President Woodrow Wilson's declaration of Mother's Day as an official holiday that year.
Leyendecker was a chief influence upon, and friend of, Norman Rockwell, who was a pallbearer at Leyendecker's funeral. In particular, the early work of Norman Rockwell for the Saturday Evening Post bears a strong superficial resemblance to that of Leyendecker. While today it is generally accepted that Norman Rockwell established the best-known visual images of Americana, in many cases they are derivative of Leyendecker's work, or reinterpretations of visual themes established by Rockwell's idol.
The visual style of Leyendecker's art inspired the graphics in The Dagger of Amon Ra, a video game, as well as designs in Team Fortress 2, a first-person shooter for the PC, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3.
Leyendecker's work inspired George Lucas and will be part of the collection of the anticipated Lucas Museum of Narrative Art.
Leyendecker's Beat-up Boy, Football Hero, which appeared on the cover of The Saturday Evening Post on November 21, 1914, sold for $4.12 million on May 7, 2021. The previous world record for a J. C. Leyendecker original was set in December 2020, when Sotheby's sold his 1930 work Carousel Ride for $516,100.
Costume designer Carol Cutshall used Leyendecker's illustrations as inspiration for the costumes created for Anne Rice's Interview with the Vampire on AMC, a 2022 television series adaptation of the 1976 novel by American author Anne Rice. Of the clothing designed specifically for the male characters Louis de Pointe du Lac and Lestat de Lioncourt, Cutshall said, in part, "And the whole first two episodes, their style sense in many ways is a love letter to Leyendecker. Some things are just perfectly pulled from – like their formalwear, their tuxedos that they wear to the opera in 1917, and the black pinstripe suit with the green tie and the white boutonniere that Lestat wears to the du Lac family home for dinner – those are from a Leyendecker illustration." Cutshall also referenced Louis and Lestat's clothing being created from Leyendecker's illustrations as a way to draw a parallel between Louis and Lestat, who were shown in the series as having to keep their romantic relationship hidden from the public in the 1910s and 1920s, and Leyendecker and his life partner, Charles Beach.
=== Films and plays ===
In Love with the Arrow Collar Man, a play written by Lance Ringel and directed by Chuck Muckle at Theatre 80 St. Marks from November to December 2017, dramatizes the life of Leyendecker and his life partner Charles Beach.
Coded, a 2021 film documentary, tells the story of Leyendecker and premiered at the TriBeCa Film Festival in 2021.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Frank Xavier Leyendecker
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Carter, Alice A., Judy Francis Zankel, and Terry Brown. Americans Abroad: J. C. Leyendecker and the European Academic Influence on American Illustration. New York: Society of Illustrators, 2008. ISBN 1-60530-843-9 OCLC 237005126
Cutler, Judy Goffman, and Laurence S. Cutler. Norman Rockwell and His Mentor, J. C. Leyendecker. Newport, R.I. : National Museum of American Illustration, 2010. OCLC 769953338
Cutler, Judy Goffman, and Laurence S. Cutler. J. C. Leyendecker: American Imagist. New York: Abrams, 2008. ISBN 0-8109-9521-2 OCLC 222664794
Ermoyan, Arpi. Famous American Illustrators. [Crans, Switzerland]: Published for the Society of Illustrators by Rotovision, 1997. ISBN 2-88046-316-5 OCLC 38530600
Leyendecker, J. C. An Exhibition of Original Poster Designs ... Under the Auspices of "The Inland Printer"... January 11 to 31, 1898. 1898. OCLC 62871338
Leyendecker, J. C. The Saturday Evening Post: An Illustrated Weekly Magazine ... December 29, 1906 ... New Year's. Philadelphia: s.n, 1906. OCLC 565522034
Meyer, Susan E. America's Great Illustrators. New York : H. N. Abrams, 1978. ISBN 0-8109-0663-5 OCLC 3275418
Moroney, Lindsay Anne. High Art Joins Popular Culture: The Life and Cover Art of J.C. Leyendecker. Thesis (Honors), College of William and Mary, 2004. OCLC 56995122
Saunders, David. The Art of J. C. Leyendecker. Decatur, IL: The Illustrated Press, 2021.
Schau, Michael. J. C. Leyendecker. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1974. ISBN 0-8230-2757-0 OCLC 874308
Steine, Kent and Fred Taraba. The J. C. Leyendecker Collection: American Illustrators Poster Book. Portland, Ore. : Collectors Press, 1996. ISBN 0-9635202-8-8 OCLC 35297768
The J. C. Leyendecker Poster Book. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1975. ISBN 0-8230-2758-9 OCLC 1583713
== External links ==
Leyendecker Collection at The National Museum of American Illustration
Leyendecker biography, with illustrations from JVJ Publishing
J.C. Leyendecker at Open Letters
Leyendecker Collection at The Haggin Museum
UNCG American Publishers' Trade Bindings: J.C. Leyendecker
J. C. Leyendecker at Library of Congress, with 34 library catalog records |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jung_Bahadur_Rana | Jung Bahadur Rana | Jung Bahadur Rana, , was born Bir Narsingh Kunwar (1817-1877). His mother, Ganesh Kumari, was the daughter of Kaji Nain Singh Thapa, the brother of Mukhtiyar Bhimsen Thapa from the prominent Thapa dynasty. During his lifetime, Jung Bahadur eliminated factional fighting at court, removed his family's rivals such as the Pandes and Basnyats, introduced innovations in the bureaucracy and judiciary, and made efforts to modernize Nepal. He is considered a significant figure in Nepalese history. Some modern historians blame Jung Bahadur for initiating a dark period in Nepalese history marked by an oppressive dictatorship that lasted 104 years, while others attribute this period to his nephews, the Shumsher Ranas. Rana's rule is often associated with tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation, and religious persecution.
His original name was Bir Narsingh Kunwar, but he was commonly known as Jung Bahadur, a name given to him by his maternal uncle, Mathabar Singh Thapa.
== Early life and family ==
=== Birth ===
Jung Bahadur was born on 18 June 1817 in Balkot, southern Nepal. He was the son of Bal Narsingh Kunwar, a bodyguard of King Rana Bahadur Shah, and his second wife, Ganesh Kumari.
=== Family ===
Jung Bahadur was a descendant of Kaji Ranajit Kunwar and Sardar Ram Krishna Kunwar, both prominent military figures under King Prithvi Narayan Shah. He also had familial connections to the Thapa dynasty with Mukhtiyar Bhimsen Thapa through his mother, Ganesh Kumari, and to the aristocratic Pande family through his maternal grandmother, Rana Kumari, who was the daughter of Kaji Ranajit Pande, a prominent royal courtier.
Bal Narsingh witnessed Sher Bahadur Shah, the king's half-brother, commit regicide in front of the court. In response, Bal Narsingh promptly executed Sher Bahadur. For this action, he was rewarded with the hereditary position of Kaji. As a result, the court granted Bal Narsingh exclusive permission to possess weapons within its premises. Rana's mother, Ganesh Kumari, was the sister of Mathabarsingh Thapa. In 1833, Bal Narsingh moved to Dadeldhura in Western Nepal and enrolled Jung Bahadur in the military. By the time Bal Narsingh relocated to Jumla in 1835, Jung Bahadur had already been promoted to the rank of second lieutenant. During this period, the Thapas held significant influence over the administration of Nepal. However, when Bhimsen Thapa was dismissed in 1837, all his relatives, including Bal Narsingh and Jung Bahadur, were also dismissed from their positions and had their properties seized. In search of work, Jung Bahadur went to Varanasi but returned to Terai after a brief period to work as a Mahout. He then moved to Kathmandu in 1839, where his wife and infant son had already died.
== Rise ==
In 1839, Jung Bahadur married the sister of Colonel Sanak Singh Shripali Tandon. The dowry from this marriage improved his financial situation. In 1840, King Rajendra traveled to Terai, where he coincidentally encountered Jung Bahadur. Jung Bahadur impressed the king with his audacious display. Pleased with his performance, the king promoted him to the rank of captain. The Crown Prince then recruited Jung Bahadur as one of his personal protectors. According to legend, Jung Bahadur leaped into the Trishuli River while riding a horse, following the Prince's orders.
After some time, Jung Bahadur was transferred from the prince's group back to the king's. He was appointed as a Kaji and assigned to the office of Kumarichowk. This position provided him with the opportunity to gain a thorough understanding of Nepal's financial transactions.
Jung Bahadur was known for his ambition. During that time, the youngest queen was the actual ruler of the country, with the king serving only a nominal role. Gagan Singh Khawas was the closest to the queen. Jung Bahadur successfully won the favor of the queen, the prince, and the prime minister through his diligent efforts. He also managed to influence Henry Lawrence and his wife, Honoria Lawrence.
When Mathabar Singh Thapa was still prime minister, a cousin of Jung Bahadur was sentenced to death. Jung Bahadur had requested Mathabar to persuade the queen to pardon his cousin, but Mathabar refused. This refusal led Jung Bahadur to harbor a grudge against him. Jung Bahadur then befriended Pandit Bijayaraj, the internal priest of the palace, and began to gain valuable information about the Durbar. He also managed to befriend Gagan Singh Khawas.
After assassinating Mathabar Singh Thapa, the queen promoted Jung Bahadur to the rank of General and included Gagan Singh in the council of ministers.
== Kot massacre ==
The Kot massacre took place on 14 September 1846, when Jung Bahadur Rana and his brothers killed about 40 members of the Nepalese palace court, including the Prime Minister and relative of the king, Chautariya Fateh Jung Shah, at the palace armory, known as the Kot, in Kathmandu. This event rendered King Rajendra Bikram Shah and Surendra Bikram Shah powerless and marked the beginning of the Rana autocracy.
By 1850, Jung Bahadur had defeated his main rivals, installed his own candidate on the throne, appointed his brothers and friends to significant positions, and ensured that he was the prime minister responsible for all important administrative decisions.
== Prime minister ==
After the massacre, on 15 September, the queen appointed Jung Bahadur as prime minister and Commander-in-chief. Following meetings with the queen and the king, Jung Bahadur visited the British residency to inform the resident about the massacre and assure him that the new government would maintain good relations with the British. On 23 September, all military and bureaucratic officers were ordered to report to their respective offices within 10 days. Subsequently, Jung Bahadur appointed his brothers and nephews to the highest ranks of the government.
=== Bhandarkhal massacre ===
The queen ordered Jung Bahadur to remove Prince Surendra from his position and declare Ranendra as the new prince, but Jung Bahadur ignored this command, leading the queen to hold a grudge against him. Some survivors of the Kot Massacre were secretly planning to take revenge on Jung Bahadur. The queen secretly contacted them and conspired to assassinate him. A plan was devised to carry out the assassination during a gathering to be held in the garden of Bhandarkhal, located at the eastern end of the palace.
Jung Bahadur had already stationed his spies inside the palace to gather information about the queen and events within the palace. These spies were responsible for secretly informing him about developments. A certain Putali Nani, whom Jung Bahadur had also recruited, worked inside the palace and informed him about the conspiracy.
After receiving a command from the Rawal Queen to come to Bhandarkhal, Jung Bahadur took his fully armed troops and proceeded towards the garden. Birdhwaj was assigned the task of ensuring Jung Bahadur arrived on time. When Birdhwaj reached the Jor-Ganesh temple, he saw Jung Bahadur approaching with his troops. Upon sighting him, Jung Bahadur signaled Capt. Ranamehar, who then killed Birdhwaj Basnyat. The troops continued to Bhandarkhal, and upon seeing Jung Bahadur and his fully armed troops, the conspirators began to flee. Twenty-three people were killed in the massacre, and fifteen escaped. The next day, all property of those involved in the massacre was seized. Jung Bahadur then imprisoned the queen and convened a council meeting in the name of King Rajendra, charging the queen with attempting to assassinate the prince and the prime minister. The council agreed to strip the queen of her rights. The queen requested permission to go to Benaras (Varanasi) with her family, which Jung Bahadur granted. The king accompanied the queen.
=== Battle of Alau ===
After the massacres at Kot and Bhandarkhal, the Thapas, Pandes, and other citizens had settled in Benaras. Similarly, some had moved to Nautanwa and Bettiah. Guru Prasad Shah of Palpa also went to live with the King of Bettiah. Upon learning of the king and queen's presence in Benaras, Guru Prasad went there and began gathering an army with the aim of overthrowing Jung Bahadur. After staying in Benaras for about two months, King Rajendra expressed interest in the conspiracy. He met with Guru Prasad, assured him of his support, and provided financial aid. With this support, Guru Prasad began organizing the Nepalese expatriates, gathering those who had come in search of work and starting their training.
Meanwhile, the spies in Benaras, who were monitoring every move of the king, provided weekly reports to Jung Bahadur. Understanding the activities in Benaras, Jung Bahadur called a meeting of the Council and issued a charter stating, "We can no longer obey the king; henceforth, we will act in accordance with the commands of Prime Minister Jung Bahadur," which he sent to Benaras. Upon receiving this letter, the king panicked and consulted with his new ministers as well as his guru.
The guru and others advised the king to send a letter to the army stating that the troops should support the king, not the prime minister. The king stamped the letter and sent it with Kumbhedan and Sewakram. They secretly arrived in Kathmandu and stayed at the house of a landowner in Killagal. Jung Bahadur's spies captured them from the house and destroyed it the next morning. A pistol and a letter were found with them. They were immediately imprisoned and, after a few days, were executed by hanging.
On 12 May 1847, Jung Bahadur gave a speech in Tudikhel, accusing the king of attempting to assassinate the prince and the prime minister. The Council then decided to dethrone King Rajendra, deeming him mentally ill, and on the same day, Surendra was crowned as the new king of Nepal.
Upon hearing the news of Surendra's coronation, Rajendra decided to take on the responsibility of removing Jung Bahadur and declared himself the leader of the army. He then left Benaras and appointed Guru Prasad Shah as the Chief of the Army for the operation to remove Jung Bahadur Rana from Nepal. Rajendra began to accumulate weapons and train troops at the camp of the King of Bettiah, a trusted ally. Additionally, treasure and weapons were purchased from secret groups in Benaras, Prayag, and other locations, and sent to Bettiah. The King of Bettiah also provided arms and a few elephants. A plan to attack Nepal was formulated.
Antagonism from the Company forced Rajendra and his troops to enter Nepal. On 23 July, the troops arrived at a village called Alau in Parsa and set up camp there. The number of troops in Alau was around three thousand, which was a thousand less than the number at Bettiah due to many deserters who had fled along the way.
A spy group from the Government of Nepal was closely monitoring the activities of the rebel groups in Bettiah. They reported the developments to Jung Bahadur, who immediately sent a troop led by Sanak Singh Tandon to Alau. Their mission was to suppress the rebellion, arrest Rajendra, and bring him to Kathmandu. On 27 July, the Gorakhnath Paltan arrived and camped in a village called Simraungadh, not far from Alau.
At dawn the next day, the troops from Kathmandu began firing cannons at the camp, causing widespread panic. Only a few soldiers from the king's side resisted and fought against the government forces. The former king also led his troops for a period, but Guru Prasad fled the location. Around a hundred soldiers of the king were killed in the battle, and the king was captured and brought to Kathmandu.
The Battle of Alau was a decisive conflict between the forces of the king and Jung Bahadur. The king suffered a significant defeat in the battle. The victory at Alau helped Jung Bahadur solidify his dictatorship. Rajendra was imprisoned in an old palace in Bhaktapur.
=== Visit to Bisauli ===
Towards the end of 1848, a fierce battle erupted between the British and the Sikhs in Punjab. Upon hearing the news, Jung Bahadur met with the Resident and assured him of the Nepal Government's support for the British. However, the Governor-General rejected the proposal, fearing that the Nepali troops might side with the Sikhs. To demonstrate his power to the British, Jung Bahadur decided to make a show of force. Although he was passionate about hunting, he had not had an opportunity to hunt since becoming prime minister. In 1848, Jung Bahadur planned a trip to the Terai with two objectives: hunting and showcasing his power to the British. On 22 December, he departed Kathmandu with the king and a large entourage, including thirty-two thousand foot soldiers, fifty-two cannons, three hundred risalla, and two hundred and fifty mules. Upon learning of this large force approaching its boundaries, the Governor-General sent a message to the Resident to verify the situation.
The king and Jung Bahadur then camped in a village called Bisauli, which was not far from the Company's territories. However, the spread of cholera and malaria, which began killing the soldiers, forced them to return.
=== Europe ===
After the Treaty of Sugauli, the British gained access to Nepal's internal affairs. While previous prime ministers of Nepal had somewhat resisted the Resident's involvement, Jung Bahadur strongly believed that neither the Resident nor the Governor-General should have any direct involvement in Nepalese matters. He sought to establish a direct relationship between the Government of Nepal and the Queen and Prime Minister of Great Britain. Additionally, he was keen to understand the true extent of British power and, for these reasons, wished to travel to Great Britain.
Jung Bahadur expressed his desire to the then Resident, Colonel Thorsby. Thorsby suggested that Jung Bahadur write a letter, which he did, and sent it to Calcutta. The Governor-General forwarded the message to Britain, where the request was accepted. The British also asked the Governor-General to arrange the necessary provisions. Subsequently, James Broun-Ramsay, sent a letter of acceptance to Kathmandu. The visit was to be diplomatic in nature, with Jung Bahadur visiting as a Royal Ambassador.
After appointing his brother, Bam Bahadur Kunwar, as interim prime minister, and Badri Narsingh as interim Commander-in-Chief, Jung Bahadur left Kathmandu for Calcutta on 15 January. During his stay in Calcutta, he met with Lord and Lady Dalhousie and participated in a royal program. He also visited the Jagannath Temple. On 7 April, the Nepalese delegation departed Calcutta on the P&O Heddington. The ship traveled through Madras, Sri Lanka, and Aden before reaching the Suez Canal.
In Egypt, Jung Bahadur and his team visited Cairo and Alexandria, where he met with Abbas Helmi. On 15 May 1850, the team arrived in Southampton.
In Britain, Jung Bahadur met and discussed various topics with Sir John Hubhouse, the Chairman of the Board of Trade, the Duke of Wellington, and others. On 19 June, Jung Bahadur and Queen Victoria met at a program organized in the Royal Palace. He also visited Parliament, closely observing the workings of the House of Commons and the British system. During his visit, he met with ministers and dukes, and proposed a direct relationship between Britain and Nepal, which the British government rejected.
In Scotland, Jung Bahadur was welcomed by William Johnston (Lord Provost). During his visit, he toured various forts and industries.
On 21 August 1850, Jung Bahadur and his team departed for France. There, he met with the then president of France. In France, he expressed his desire to establish a direct relationship between Nepal and France, but the French president insisted that such a relationship be formed through the British embassy, as there was no direct diplomatic connection between the two countries. Jung Bahadur and his team stayed in France for about six weeks. They departed from Paris on 3 October and arrived in Bombay on 6 November.
In India, he married an Indian woman.
During his visits, he attempted unsuccessfully to engage directly with the British government. However, the main outcome of the tour was a positive development in the British-Nepal relationship. Recognizing the power of industrialized Europe, he became convinced that close cooperation with the British was the best way to ensure Nepal's independence.
On 29 January 1851, Jung Bahadur returned to Nepal.
=== Muluki Ain ===
Jung Bahadur was impressed by the rule of law, the Parliament, and the democratic system in Britain. In Nepal, there were no written laws, and different types of punishment were often given for similar crimes. Realizing that the existing system would not be beneficial in the long run, Jung Bahadur established a Kausal Adda to work on drafting legal codes. He selected around two hundred members for the Adda and instructed them to draft legal codes as soon as possible.
The Adda began its work by carefully studying the traditions, castes, races, classes, and religious situation of Nepal. Some members also examined the Hindu Ain used in the English courts under the Company. After three years of rigorous research, a detailed Act was prepared. This Act covered court procedures, the system of punishment, and various administrative sections. However, it did not address the issue of caste inequality, as a progressive policy on this matter could have led to protests and turmoil in Nepalese society.
On 6 January 1854, the Muluki Ain was enacted in Nepal. This Act clarified confusions concerning religious laws and ensured that decisions on cases were made in a timely manner.
With the Muluki Ain, Jung Bahadur established the foundation of modern law in Nepal.
== Foreign relations ==
During the reign of Jung Bahadur Rana, Nepal began to experience some success in international affairs.
In 1859, Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh took refuge in Kathmandu with her 10-year-old son, Birjis Qadr, and some loyal staff. The then Prime Minister of Nepal, Jung Bahadur Rana, provided her with shelter at the palace in Thapathali, which now houses an office of the Nepal Rastra Bank (Thapathali Durbar), according to Samim Miya Ansari. Jung Bahadur Rana took this step despite being on good terms with the British at the time.
The Sikh Empire's last regent, Maharani Jind Kaur, was also given asylum in Nepal by Jung Bahadur after she escaped from a British prison and reached Kathmandu. The Nepalese government built a new residence, Chaburja Darbar, for her and provided an allowance. The British Resident in Kathmandu kept a close watch on her, suspecting she might still be planning to revive the Sikh dynasty. She lived in Nepal for 11 years.
In 1850, Jung Bahadur visited Europe to establish direct diplomatic relations with the British government, though he was unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the tour diplomatically strengthened Nepal and ensured its territorial integrity, as he met influential figures such as Queen Victoria and the President of France. The main outcome of the tour was a positive development in Anglo-Nepalese relations.
== Rana Dynasty ==
Jung Bahadur Rana, and later prime ministers from his family added his name to their own in honor of his accomplishments. The Rana dynasty ruled Nepal from 1848 until 1951 and is historically known for its iron-fisted rule. Jung Bahadur remained prime minister until 1877, suppressing conspiracies and local revolts while enjoying the fruits of his early successes.
== Honours and titles ==
=== Titles ===
1817–1835: Jung Bahadur Kunwar
1835–1840: Second Lieutenant Jung Bahadur Kunwar
1840–1841: Captain Jung Bahadur Kunwar
1841–1845: Kaji Captain Jung Bahadur Kunwar
1845–1848: Kaji Major-General Jung Bahadur Kunwar
1848–1856: Kaji Major-General Jung Bahadur Kunwar Rana
1856–1857: Kaji Commanding-General Jung Bahadur Kunwar Rana, Maharaja of Lamjang and Kaski
1857–1858: His Highness Commanding-General Shree Shree Shree Maharaja Jung Bahadur Kunwar Rana, Maharajah of Lamjung and Kaski
1858–1872: His Highness Commanding-General Shree Shree Shree Maharaja Sir Jung Bahadur Kunwar Rana, Maharaja of Lamjang and Kaski, GCB
1872–1873: His Highness Commanding-General Shree Shree Shree Maharaja Sir Jung Bahadur Kunwar Rana, T'ung-ling-ping-ma-Kuo-Kang-wang, Maharaja of Lamjang and Kaski, GCB
1873–1877: His Highness Commanding-General Shree Shree Shree Maharaja Sir Jung Bahadur Kunwar Rana, T'ung-ling-ping-ma-Kuo-Kang-wang, Maharaja of Lamjang and Kaski, Shree Tin Maharajah of Nepal, GCB, GCSI
=== Honours ===
Sword of Honour from Napoleon III, 1851
India General Service Medal, 1854
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, 1858
Indian Mutiny Medal, 1858
Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India, 1873
Prince of Wales' Medal, 1876
== Ancestry ==
== Film depictions ==
Basanti (2000 film), where he was portrayed by Neeraj Thapa
Seto Bagh, where he was portrayed by Bedendra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana popularly known as B.S. Rana
== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
=== Notes ===
=== Books ===
Acharya, Baburam (1 January 1971), "The Fall Of Bhimsen Thapa And The Rise Of Jung Bahadur Rana" (PDF), Regmi Research Series, 3 (1): 13–25
Acharya, Baburam (1 October 1978), "Jung Bahadur" (PDF), Regmi Research Series, 10 (10): 145
Regmi, Mahesh Chandra (1 May 1975), "Preliminary Notes on the Nature of Rana Law and Government" (PDF), Regmi Research Series, 7 (5): 88–97
== Further reading ==
Regmi, D. R. (1958). A century of family autocracy in Nepal: being the account of the condition and history of Nepal during the last hundred years of Rana autocracy, 1846–1949. Kathmandu: Nepali National Congress. p. 326.
== External links ==
Biography of Jung Bahadur (Britannica)
Library of Congress
Mc Findia
Gautam, Prawash. (2011-10-02). Kot legacy and lessons Archived 3 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. www.ekantipur.com. Retrieved: 26 December 2011. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Temple#:~:text=Percy%20Brown%20also%20classified%20the,own%20unique%20characteristics%20and%20inventions. | Golden Temple | The Golden Temple is a gurdwara located in Amritsar, Punjab, India. It is the pre-eminent spiritual site of Sikhism and is one of its holiest sites, alongside the Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Kartarpur and the Gurdwara Janam Asthan in Nankana Sahib, both in Punjab, Pakistan.
The sarovar (holy pool) on the site of the gurdwara was completed by the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das, in 1577. In 1604, Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, placed a copy of the Adi Granth in the Golden Temple and played a prominent role in its development. The gurdwara was repeatedly rebuilt by the Sikhs after they became a target of persecution and was destroyed several times by the Mughal and invading Afghan armies. Maharaja Ranjit Singh, after founding the Sikh Empire, rebuilt it in marble and copper in 1809, and overlaid the sanctum with gold leaf in 1830. This has led to the name the Golden Temple.
The Golden Temple is spiritually the most significant shrine in Sikhism. It became a centre of the Singh Sabha Movement between 1883 and the 1920s, and the Punjabi Suba Movement between 1947 and 1966. In the early 1980s, the gurdwara became a centre of conflict between the Indian government and a radical movement led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale. In 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi sent in the Indian Army as part of Operation Blue Star, leading to the deaths of thousands of soldiers, militants and civilians, as well as causing significant damage to the gurdwara and the destruction of the nearby Akal Takht — the prime seat of authority for the Sikhs. The gurdwara complex was again rebuilt after the 1984 attack.
The Golden Temple is an open house of worship for all people, from all walks of life and faiths. It has a square plan with four entrances, and a circumambulation path around the pool. The four entrances of the gurdwara symbolise the Sikh belief in equality and the Sikh view that people from all groups, castes and ethnicities are welcome at their holy place. The complex is a collection of buildings around the sanctum and the pool. One of these is Akal Takht, the chief centre of religious authority of Sikhism. Additional buildings include a clock tower, the offices of the Gurdwara Committee, a Museum and a langar — a free Sikh community-run kitchen that offers a vegetarian meal to all visitors without discrimination. Over 150,000 people visit the shrine every day for worship. The gurdwara complex has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.
== Nomenclature ==
The Harmandir Sahib is also spelled as Harimandar or Harimandir Sahib. It is also called the Durbār Sahib, which means "sacred audience", as well as the Golden Temple for its gold leaf-covered sanctum centre. The word "Harmandir" is composed of two words: "Hari", which scholars translate as "God ", and "mandir", which means "house". "Sahib" is further appended to the shrine's name, the term often used within Sikh tradition to denote respect for places of religious significance. The Sikh tradition has several gurdwaras named "Harmandir Sahib", such as those in Kiratpur and Patna. Of these, the one in Amritsar is most revered.
== History ==
According to the Sikh historical records, the land that became Amritsar and houses the Harimandir Sahib was chosen by Guru Amar Das, the third Guru of the Sikh tradition. It was then called Guru Da Chakk, after he had asked his disciple Ram Das to find land to start a new town with a man-made pool as its central point. After Guru Ram Das succeeded Guru Amar Das in 1574, and in the face of hostile opposition from the sons of Amar Das, Ram Das founded the town that came to be known as "Ramdaspur". He started by completing the pool with the help of Baba Buddha (not to be confused with the Buddha of Buddhism). Ram Das built his new official centre and home next to it. He invited merchants and artisans from other parts of India to settle in the new town with him.
Ramdaspur town expanded during the time of Guru Arjan financed by donations and constructed by voluntary work. The town grew to become the city of Amritsar, and the area grew into the temple complex). The construction activity between 1574 and 1604 is described in Mahima Prakash Vartak, a semi-historical Sikh hagiography text likely composed in 1741, and the earliest known document dealing with the lives of all the ten Gurus. Guru Arjan installed the scripture of Sikhism inside the new gurdwara in 1604. Continuing the efforts of Ram Das, Guru Arjan established Amritsar as a primary Sikh pilgrimage destination. He wrote a voluminous amount of Sikh scripture including the popular Sukhmani Sahib.
=== Construction ===
Guru Ram Das acquired the land for the site. Two versions of stories exist on how he acquired this land. In one, based on a Gazetteer record, the land was purchased with Sikh donations of 700 rupees from the people and owners of the village of Tung. In another version, Emperor Akbar is stated to have donated the land to the wife of Ram Das.
In 1581, Guru Arjan initiated construction. During the construction the pool was kept empty and dry. It took eight years to complete the first version of the Harmandir Sahib. Guru Arjan planned a gurdwara at a level lower than the city to emphasise humility and the need to efface one's ego before entering the premises to meet the Guru. He also demanded that the gurdwara compound be open on all sides to emphasise that it was open to all. The sanctum inside the pool where his Guru seat was, had only one bridge to emphasise that the end goal was one, states Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair. In 1589, the gurdwara made with bricks was complete. Guru Arjan is believed by some later sources to have invited the Sufi saint Mian Mir of Lahore to lay its foundation stone, signalling pluralism and that the Sikh tradition welcomed all. This belief is however unsubstantiated. According to Sikh traditional sources such as Sri Gur Suraj Parkash Granth it was laid by Guru Arjan himself. After the inauguration, the pool was filled with water. On 16 August 1604, Guru Arjan completed expanding and compiling the first version of the Sikh scripture and placed a copy of the Adi Granth in the gurdwara. He appointed Baba Buddha as the first Granthi.
Ath Sath Tirath ("shrine of 68 pilgrimages"), is a raised canopy on the parkarma (circumambulation marble path around the pool). The name, as stated by W. Owen Cole and other scholars, reflects the belief that visiting this temple is equivalent to 68 Hindu pilgrimage sites in the Indian subcontinent, or that a Tirath to the Golden Temple has the efficacy of all 68 Tiraths combined. The completion of the first version of the Golden Temple was a major milestone for Sikhism, states Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair, because it provided a central pilgrimage place and a rallying point for the Sikh community, set within a hub of trade and activity.
=== Mughal Empire era destruction and rebuilding ===
The growing influence and success of Guru Arjan drew the attention of the Mughal Empire. Guru Arjan was arrested under the orders of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir and asked to convert to Islam. He refused, was tortured and executed in 1606. Arjan's son and successor Guru Hargobind fought a Battle at Amritsar and later left Amritsar and its surrounding areas in 1635 for Kiratpur. For about a century after the Golden Temple was occupied by the Minas. In the 18th century, Guru Gobind Singh after creating the Khalsa sent Bhai Mani Singh to take back the temple. The Golden Temple was viewed by the Mughal rulers and Afghan Sultans as the centre of Sikh faith and it remained the main target of persecution. After the original temple was destroyed by hostile forces, the shrine was reconstructed in 1764 (a date which H.H. Cole affirms in his monograph on the temple), however most of the elaborate decorations and additions were added to the shrine in the early 19th century. However, according to Giani Gian Singh's Tawarikh Sri Amritsar (1889), a slightly later date of 1776 is given for the construction of the temple tank (sarovar), the temple edifice proper, the causeway, and the entry gateway or archway (Darshani Deori).
The Golden Temple was the centre of historic events in Sikh history:
In 1709, the governor of Lahore sent in his army to suppress and prevent the Sikhs from gathering for their festivals of Vaisakhi and Diwali. The Sikhs defied by gathering in the Golden Temple. In 1716, Banda Singh and numerous Sikhs were arrested and executed.
In 1737, the Mughal governor ordered the capture of the custodian of the Golden Temple named Mani Singh and executed him. He appointed Masse Khan as the police commissioner who then occupied the Temple and converted it into his entertainment centre with dancing girls. He befouled the pool. Sikhs avenged the sacrilege of the Golden Temple by assassinating Masse Khan inside the Temple in August 1740.
In 1746, another Lahore official Diwan Lakhpat Rai working for Yahiya Khan, and seeking revenge for the death of his brother, filled the pool with sand. In 1749, Sikhs restored the pool when Muin ul-Mulk slackened Mughal operations against Sikhs and sought their help during his operations in Multan.
In 1757, the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, attacked Amritsar and desecrated the Golden Temple. He had waste poured into the pool along with entrails of slaughtered cows, before departing for Afghanistan. The Sikhs restored it again.
In 1762, Ahmad Shah Durrani returned and had the Golden Temple blown up with gunpowder. Sikhs returned and celebrated Diwali in its premises. In 1764, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia collected donations to rebuild the Golden Temple. A new main gateway (Darshan Deorhi), causeway and sanctum were completed in 1776, while the floor around the pool was completed in 1784. The Sikhs also completed a canal to bring in fresh water from Ravi River for the pool.
The Golden Temple was attacked by the Afghan forces under Ahmed Shah Durrani on 1 December 1764. Baba Gurbaksh Singh along with 29 other Sikhs lead a last stand against the much larger Afghan forces and were killed in the skirmish. Abdali then destroyed the Golden Temple for the 3rd time.
=== Ranjit Singh era reconstruction ===
Ranjit Singh founded the nucleus of the Sikh Empire at the age of 36 with help of Sukerchakia Misl forces he inherited and those of his mother-in-law Rani Sada Kaur. In 1802, at age 22, he took Amritsar from the Bhangi misl, paid homage at the Golden Temple and announced that he would renovate and rebuild it with marble and gold. The Sikh ruler donated the gilded copper panels for the roof, which was worth 500,000 rupees in the erstwhile currency. He entrusted Mistri Yar Muhammad Khan to carry-out the roofing work, who himself was supervised by Bhai Sand Singh. The first gilded copper panel was placed on the shrine in 1803.
Various personalities helped decorate and embellish the ceiling of the first floor, with names of some contributors to the cause being Tara Singh Gheba, Partap Singh, Jodh Singh, and Ganda Singh Peshawari. Ganda Singh Peshawari sent his donation in the year 1823. For the decoration and gilding with copper of the main entryway and archway to the causeway leading to the temple proper, known as the Darshani Deori, the prime personality who helped assist with this work was Raja Sangat Singh of Jind State. Due to the central and paramount importance of the shrine in Sikhism, essentially every Sikh sardar of the era had contributed or donated in some manner to assist with the architectural and artistic renovations of the shrine. Owing to the large number of people helping with the renovation work back then, it is difficult to account for when certain parts of the temple were constructed or decorated and by whom (aside from instances where the work has a date inscribed to it) and a chronological record of how the temple evolved over time (in-regards to its murals, decorations, and other aspects) is near-impossible to complete.
The Temple was renovated in marble and copper in 1809, and in 1830 Ranjit Singh donated gold to overlay the sanctum with gold leaf. There is an inscription on embossed metal located at the entrance to the temple proper which commemorates the renovations of the temple undertaken by Ranjit Singh and done through Giani Sant Singh, of the Giani Samparda.
"The Great Guru in His wisdom looked upon Maharaja Ranjit Singh as his chief servitor and Sikh and, in his benevolence, bestowed on him the privilege of serving the temple."
After learning of the gurdwara through Ranjit Singh, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khan started giving yearly grants towards it. The management and operation of Durbar Sahib – a term that refers to the entire Golden Temple complex of buildings, was taken over by Ranjit Singh. He appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia (1768–1832) to manage it and made land grants whose collected revenue was assigned to pay for the Temple's maintenance and operation.
Hari Singh Nalwa, a general of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, decorated the Akal Takht with gold and is responsible for adding the golden dome at the top of the edifice.
Ranjit Singh also made the position of Temple officials hereditary. The Giani family was the only family allowed to do Katha in the Golden Temple, they served the Sikh community till 1921, when the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee came into power, they were the only family allowed to do Katha since 1788 and were also he heads of the Giani Samparda, they had built all the Bungas around the Golden Temple and helped in construction work including overlaying the temple with Gold and Marble. One of the main Bungas that was destroyed in 1988 was the Burj Gianian. The other family were the Kapurs, who were made as the Head Granthis, this included the ancestors of Bhai Jawahir Singh Kapur who also did try to become the Head Granthi in the late 1800s, but was not allowed (his father Bhai Atma Singh, grandfather Bhai Mohar Singh and their ancestors were also Head Granthis).
=== Destruction and reconstruction after Indian independence ===
The destruction of the temple complex occurred during the Operation Blue Star. It was the codename of an Indian military action carried out between 1 and 8 June 1984 to remove militant Sikh Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and his followers from the buildings of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) complex in Amritsar, Punjab. The decision to launch the attack rested with Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In July 1982, Harchand Singh Longowal, the President of the Sikh political party Akali Dal, had invited Bhindranwale to take up residence in the Golden Temple Complex to evade arrest. The government claimed Bhindranwale later made the sacred temple complex an armoury and headquarters.
On 1 June 1984, after negotiations with the militants failed, Indira Gandhi ordered the army to launch Operation Blue Star, simultaneously attacking scores of gurudwaras across Punjab. A variety of army units and paramilitary forces surrounded the Golden Temple complex on 3 June 1984. The fighting started on 5 June with skirmishes and the battle went on for three days, ending on 8 June. A clean-up operation codenamed Operation Woodrose was also initiated throughout Punjab.
The army had underestimated the firepower possessed by the militants, whose armament included Chinese-made rocket-propelled grenade launchers with armour piercing capabilities. Tanks and heavy artillery were used to attack the militants, who responded with anti-tank and machine-gun fire from the heavily fortified Akal Takht. After a 24-hour firefight, the army gained control of the temple complex. Casualty figures for the army were 83 dead and 249 injured. According to the official estimates, 1,592 militants were apprehended and there were 493 combined militant and civilian casualties. According to the government claims, high civilian casualties were attributed to militants using pilgrims trapped inside the temple as human shields.
Brahma Chellaney, the Associated Press's South Asia correspondent, was the only foreign reporter who managed to stay on in Amritsar despite the media blackout. His dispatches, filed by telex, provided the first non-governmental news reports on the bloody operation in Amritsar. His first dispatch, front-paged by The New York Times, The Times of London and The Guardian, reported a death toll about twice of what authorities had admitted. According to the dispatch, about 780 militants and civilians and 400 troops had perished in fierce gun-battles. Chellaney reported that about "eight to ten" men suspected of being Sikh militants had been shot with their hands tied. In that dispatch, Chellaney interviewed a doctor who said he had been picked up by the army and forced to conduct postmortems despite the fact he had never done any postmortem examination before. In reaction to the dispatch, the Indian government charged Chellaney with violating Punjab press censorship, two counts of fanning sectarian hatred and trouble, and later with sedition, calling his report baseless and disputing his casualty figures.
The military action in the temple complex was criticised by Sikhs worldwide, who interpreted it as an assault on the Sikh religion. Many Sikh soldiers deserted their units; several Sikhs resigned from civil administrative office and returned awards received from the Indian government. Five months after the operation, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated in an act of revenge by her two Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh. Public outcry over Gandhi's death led to the killings of more than 3,000 Sikhs in Delhi alone in the ensuing 1984 anti-Sikh riots. A few months after the government operation of 1984, major kar seva renovations were undertaken at the shrine complex, including a complete draining and then cleaning of the temple tank (sarovar) by volunteers.
Following the operation the central government demolished hundreds of houses and created a corridor around the compound called "Galliara" (also spelled Galiara or Galyara) for security reasons. This was made into a public park and opened in June 1988.
In December 2021, a young man was allegedly beaten to death after disrupting the Rehras Sahib (evening prayer) at the sanctum of the temple. He reportedly jumped over a railing and picked up the sword lying before the temple's copy of the Guru Granth Sahib, before attempting to touch the Guru Granth Sahib itself. He was subsequently overpowered by the pilgrims and received fatal injuries to the head.
The 2023 Golden Temple blasts occurred on 7 May and on 9 May 2023.
== Architecture ==
The Golden Temple's architecture reflects different architectural practices prevalent in the Indian subcontinent, as various iterations of temple were rebuilt and restored.
The first structure of the Harmandir Sahib constructed under the purview of Guru Arjan combined the concepts of dharamsaals and the holy water tanks (sarovar). Rather than copying the traditional method of Hindu temple construction by building the shrine on a high plinth, Guru Arjan rather decided to build the shrine lower than the surroundings so that devotees would have to walk downwards to reach it. The four entrances represented that the Sikh faith was equally open to all four of the traditional Indian caste classifications (varnas). No surviving account, depiction, or record is extant or known of the proto-type, pre-1764 Harmandir Sahib that was built by the Sikh gurus themselves. However, Kanwarjit Singh Kang believes the original, Guru-constructed structure was mostly comparable and similar to the present-day structure said to have been constructed in 1764.
James Fergusson considered the Golden Temple as a specimen of one of the forms that the architecture of Hindu temples developed into in the 19th century. When a list of structures of interest was prepared and published by the colonial government of Punjab in 1875, it was claimed that the architectural design of the Golden Temple, in the form it was constructed as by Ranjit Singh, was based ultimately on the shrine of the Sufi saint Mian Mir. Louis Rousselet stated in 1882 that the shrine was a "handsome style of Jat architecture." Major Henry Hardy Cole described the architecture of the edifice as being primarily drawn from Islamic sources with a significant input from Hindu styles. Percy Brown also classified the temple as being a synthesis of Islamic and Hindu architectural styles, but also observed that the structure has its own unique characteristics and inventions. Hermann Goetz believed that the temple's architecture was a "Kangra transformation of Oudh architecture" that the Sikhs adopted for their own constructions, which he praises, however he also critiqued the temple for having "gaudy" elements commonly found in Indian gurdwaras, an example being the rococo-styled art. The Temple is described by Ian Kerr, and other scholars, as a mixture of the Indo-Islamic Mughal and the Hindu Rajput architecture.
The sanctum is a 12.25 x 12.25 metre square with two storeys and a gold leaf dome. This sanctum has a marble platform that is a 19.7 x 19.7 metre square. It sits inside an almost square (154.5 x 148.5 m2) pool called amritsar or amritsarovar (amrit means nectar, sar is short form of sarovar and means pool). The pool is 5.1 metres deep and is surrounded by a 3.7 metre wide circumambulatory marble passage that is circled clockwise. The sanctum is connected to the platform by a causeway and the gateway into the causeway is called the Darshani Ḍeorhi (from Darshana Dvara). For those who wish to take a dip in the pool, the temple provides a half hexagonal shelter and holy steps to Har ki Pauri. Bathing in the pool is believed by many Sikhs to have restorative powers, purifying one's karma. Some carry bottles of the pool water home particularly for sick friends and relatives. The pool is maintained by volunteers who perform kar seva (community service) by draining and desilting it periodically.
There is a section of the shrine known as the Har-Ki-Pauri, located on the backside of the temple proper, where pilgrims and worshippers can take a sip of the water from the holy temple tank. The water used for the daily ritual cleaning of the temple premises is also sourced from this section. The water is mixed with milk to dilute the milk content, with the combined solution used to clean the temple's surfaces on a daily basis.
The sanctum has two floors. The Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib is seated on the lower square floor for about 20 hours every day, and for 4 hours it is taken to its bedroom inside Akal Takht with elaborate ceremonies in a palki, for sukhasana and Prakash. The floor with the seated scripture is raised a few steps above the entrance causeway level. The upper floor in the sanctum is a gallery and connected by stairs. The ground floor is lined with white marble, as is the path surrounding the sanctum. The sanctum's exterior has gilded copper plates. The doors are gold leaf-covered copper sheets with nature motifs such as birds and flowers. The ceiling of the upper floor is gilded, embossed and decorated with jewels. The sanctum dome is semi-spherical with a pinnacle ornament. The sides are embellished with arched copings and small solid domes, the corners adorning cupolas, all of which are covered with gold leaf-covered gilded copper. There is a pavilion located on the second-floor called the Shish Mahal (mirror room).
The floral designs on the marble panels of the walls around the sanctum are Arabesque. The arches include verses from the Sikh scripture in gold letters. The frescoes follow the Indian tradition and include animal, bird and nature motifs rather than being purely geometrical. The stair walls have murals of Sikh Gurus such as the falcon carrying Guru Gobind Singh riding a horse.
The Darshani Deorhi is a two-storey structure that houses the temple management offices and treasury. At the exit of the path leading away from the sanctum is the Prasada facility, where volunteers serve a flour-based sweet offering called Karah prasad. Typically, the pilgrims to the Golden Temple enter and make a clockwise circumambulation around the pool before entering the sanctum. There are four entrances to the gurdwara complex signifying the openness to all sides, but a single entrance to the sanctum of the temple through a causeway.
=== Akal Takht and Teja Singh Samundri Hall ===
In front of the sanctum and the causeway is the Akal Takht building. It is the chief Takht, a centre of authority in Sikhism. Its name Akal Takht means "throne of the Timeless (God)". The institution was established by Guru Hargobind after the martyrdom of his father Guru Arjan, as a place to conduct ceremonial, spiritual and secular affairs, issuing binding writs on Sikh gurdwaras far from his own location. A building was later constructed over the Takht founded by Guru Hargobind, and this came to be known as Akal Bunga. The Akal Takht is also known as Takht Sri Akal Bunga. The Sikh tradition has five Takhts, all of which are major pilgrimage sites in Sikhism. These are in Anandpur, Patna, Nanded, Talwandi Sabo and Amritsar. The Akal Takht in the Golden Temple complex is the primary seat and chief. It is also the headquarters of the main political party of the Indian state of Punjab, Shiromani Akali Dal (Supreme Akali Party). The Akal Takht issues edicts or writs (hukam) on matters related to Sikhism and the solidarity of the Sikh community.
The Teja Singh Samundri Hall is the office of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (Supreme Committee of Temple Management). It is located in a building near the Langar-kitchen and Assembly Hall. This office coordinates and oversees the operations of major Sikh temples.
=== Ramgarhia Bunga and Clock Tower ===
The Ramgarhia Bunga – the two high towers visible from the parikrama (circumambulation) walkway around the tank, is named after a Sikh subgroup. The red sandstone minaret-style Bunga (buêgā) towers were built in the 18th century, a period of Afghan attacks and temple demolitions. It is named after the Sikh warrior and Ramgarhia misl chief Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. It was constructed as the temple watchtowers for sentinels to watch for any military raid approaching the temple and the surrounding area, help rapidly gather a defence to protect the Golden Temple complex. According to Fenech and McLeod, during the 18th century, Sikh misl chiefs and rich communities built over 70 such Bungas of different shapes and forms around the temple to watch the area, house soldiers and defend the temple. These served defensive purposes, provided accommodation for Sikh pilgrims and served as centres of learning in the 19th century. Most of the Bungas were demolished during the British colonial era. The Ramgarhia Bunga remains a symbol of the Ramgarhia Sikh community's identity, their historic sacrifices and contribution to defending the Golden Temple over the centuries.
The Clock Tower did not exist in the original version of the temple. In its location was a building, now called the "lost palace". The officials of the British India wanted to demolish the building after the Second Anglo-Sikh war and once they had annexed the Sikh Empire. The Sikhs opposed the demolition, but this opposition was ignored. In its place, the clock tower was added. The clock tower was designed by John Gordon in a Gothic cathedral style with red bricks. The clock tower construction started in 1862 and was completed in 1874. The tower was demolished by the Sikh community about 70 years later. In its place, a new entrance was constructed with a design more harmonious with the Temple. This entrance on the north side has a clock, houses a museum on its upper floor, and it continues to be called ghanta ghar deori.
=== Ber trees ===
The Golden Temple complex originally was open and had numerous trees around the pool. It is now a walled, two-storey courtyard with four entrances, that preserve three Ber trees (jujube). One of them is to the right of the main ghanta ghar deori entrance with the clock, and it is called the Ber Baba Buddha. It is believed in the Sikh tradition to be the tree where Baba Buddha sat to supervise the construction of the pool and first temple.
A second tree is called Laachi Ber, believed to the one under which Guru Arjan rested while the temple was being built. The third one is called Dukh Bhanjani Ber, located on the other side of the sanctum, across the pool. It is believed in the Sikh tradition that this tree was the location where a Sikh was cured of his leprosy after taking a dip in the pool, giving the tree the epithet of "suffering remover". There is a small gurdwara underneath the tree. The Ath Sath Tirath, or the spot equivalent to 68 pilgrimages, is in the shade underneath the Dukh Bhanjani Ber tree. Sikh devotees, states Charles Townsend, believe that bathing in the pool near this spot delivers the same fruits as a visit to 68 pilgrimage places in India.
=== Sikh history museums ===
The main ghanta ghari deori north entrance has a Sikh history museum on the first floor, according to the Sikh tradition. The display shows various paintings of gurus and martyrs, many narrating the persecution of Sikhs over their history, and historical items such as swords, kartar, comb, chakkars. A new underground museum near the clock tower, but outside the temple courtyard also shows Sikh history. According to Louis E. Fenech, the display does not present the parallel traditions of Sikhism and is partly ahistorical such as a headless body continuing to fight, but a significant artwork and reflects the general trend in Sikhism of presenting their history to be one of persecution, martyrdoms and bravery in wars.
The main entrance to the gurdwara has many memorial plaques that commemorate past Sikh historical events, saints and martyrs, contributions of Ranjit Singh, as well as commemorative inscriptions of all the Sikh soldiers who died fighting in the two World Wars and the various Indo-Pakistan wars.
=== Amrit Sarovar ===
The Amrit Sarovar is the name of the main temple-tank (sarovar) of the complex. It is a large, rectangular water-tank that measures approximately 150 meters by 150 meters with the principal shrine edifice in the middle of it, with it being surrounded on its sides by the marble walkway of the complex (parikarma). Its construction was first started via digging by Guru Amar Das in November 1573, with the main bulk of the work being attributed to the successor Guru Ram Das, and a later expansion by Guru Arjan. The Udasis of Brahm Buta Akhara also were responsible for digging a hansli (water channel) to feed water into the Amrit Sarovar of the Darbar Sahib complex in 1783. Later, the hansli was made redundant through the construction of a Amritsar-Lahore branch and Kasur-Sabraon branch. Since 1866, the Amrit Sarovar of the Golden Temple complex has been fed water from the Jethuwal distributory of the Upper Bari Doab of the region between the Beas and Ravi, via a connection between the Kaulsar Sarovar and Amrit Sarovar. The canal was originally kachcha but later was lined and covered. Since the 1900s, the sarovar has been regularly, periodically cleaned in the form of communal Kar Seva projects, with the first modern one being held on 17 June 1923. Aside from the Amrit Sarovar, other prominent sarovars of the city of Amritsar are the Santokhsar Sarovar, Ramsar Sarovar, Kaulsar Sarovar, and Bibeksar Sarovar.
== Daily ceremonies ==
There are several rites performed every day in the Golden Temple as per the historic Sikh tradition. These rites treat the scripture as a living person, a Guru out of respect. They include:
Closing rite called sukhasan (sukh means "comfort or rest", asan means "position"). At night, after a series of devotional kirtans and three part ardās, the Guru Granth Sahib is closed, carried on the head, placed into and then carried in a flower decorated, pillow-bed palki (palanquin), with chanting. Its bedroom is in the Akal Takht, on the first floor. Once it arrives there, the scripture is tucked into a bed.
Opening rite called prakash which means "light". At about dawn every day, the Guru Granth Sahib is taken out its bedroom, carried on the head, placed and carried in a flower-decorated palki with chanting and bugle sounding across the causeway. It is brought to the sanctum. Then after ritual singing of a series of Var Asa kirtans and ardas, a random page is opened. This is the mukhwak of the day, it is read out loud, and then written out for the pilgrims to read over that day.
=== Guru Ram Das Langar ===
Harmandir Sahib complex has a langar, a community-run free kitchen and dining hall. It is attached to the east side of the courtyard near the Dukh Bhanjani Ber, outside of the entrance. Food is served here to all visitors who want it, regardless of faith, gender or economic background. Vegetarian food is served and all people eat together as equals. Everyone sits on the floor in rows, which is called sangat. The meal is served by volunteers as part of their kar seva ethos. Over 100,000 meals are served at the langar every day.
== Art ==
The art of the Golden Temple has rarely been analysed or studied in a serious manner. Within the Shish Mahal on the second-story of the building, there are mirror-work art designs which consist of small pieces of mirror which are inlaid into the walls and ceilings, highlighted with decorations of floral designs. The ceilings, walls and arches of the structure are embellished by intricate mural artwork. The pietra dura (inlaid stone design) artwork of the shrine, which features avian and other animalistic designs using semi-precious stones, was mostly inspired by the Mughal tradition. The temple premises is also decorated with embossed copper, gach, tukri, jaratkari, and ivory inlay artwork. The external portions of the upper story's walls of the temple have been affixed with beaten copper plates that feature raised designs depicting usually florals and abstracts but there are some depictions of human figures as well. An example of embossed metal designs depicting humans are two raised copper panels located on the front-side of the temple prior, the first which depicts Guru Nanak surrounded by his companions, Bhai Mardana and Bhai Bala, on each side. The second embossed panel features an equestrian portrayal of Guru Gobind Singh.
Gach can be described as a kind of stone or gypsum. Gach was transformed into a paste and used on the walls, similar in nature to lime-plaster. Once applied to the wall, it was decorated into shape with steel cutters and other tools. Sometimes the gach had coloured glass pieces placed on it, which is known as tukri. The Shish Mahal features a lot of examples of tukri work. On the other hand, jaratkari was an art form and method which involved placing inlaid and cut stones of varying colours and types into marble. Surviving exemplars of jaratkari art from the temple can be found on the bottom-section of the exterior walls which are encased with marble panels featuring jaratkari artwork. The jaratkari marble panels in this lower exterior section is classified as pietra dura and semi-precious stones, like lapis lazuli and onyx, were utilised. While the Mughals also decorated their edifices using jaratkari and pietra dura art, what sets apart the Sikh form of the art technique from the Mughal one is that the Sikh jaratkari art form also depicts human and animal figuratives with it, something that is not found in Mughal jaratkari art.
Inlaid ivory work can be witnessed on the doors of the Darshani Deori structure of the complex. The structure of the Darshani Deori was made out of shisham wood, the front of the edifice is overlaid with silverwork, including ornamated silver panels. The back of the structure is decorated with panels consisting of floral and geometric designs but also animal figuratives, such as deer, tigers, lions, and birds. Portions of the inlaid ivory had been coloured red or green, an aspect of the artwork that was praised by H.H. Cole for its harmoniousness.
The oldest extant murals in the complex date back to the 1830s. Most of the vast array of murals that once coated the walls of the complex were destroyed in subsequent renovation works conducted under the guise of kar seva, such as by being covered by marble slabs affixed to the walls. A prominent artist who painted many of the murals in the complex was Gian Singh Naqqash. The mural artwork of the temple consists primarily of floral designs with scattered examples of animal designs and themes. There are over 300 different design patterns dispersed all over the walls of the edifice. These wall paintings were created by Naqqashi artists, who had developed their own lingo to differentiate their various themes and designs. The most prominent design category was referred to as Dehin, which is described as "a medium of expression of the imaginative study of the artist's own creation of idealised forms". The base of dehin is known as Gharwanjh. Gharwanjh is a "decorative device involving knotted grapples between animals". The gharwanjh designs of the Golden Temple features cobras, lions, and elephants holding one another or carrying floral vases which feature fruit and fairies as decoration. The decorative border of the dehin is known as Patta, usually utilising creepers for its design. Some feature designs incorporating aquatic creatures.
The only mural depicting human figures within the temple proper is located on the wall behind the northern narrow staircase leading to the top of the shrine. It depicts Guru Gobind Singh on horseback alongside his retinue leaving the fort of Anandpur - a mural adaptation of what was originally a Kangra miniature painting. When H.H. Cole wrote about the murals of the Golden Temple, he witnessed many murals depicting Indic mythological scenes but these murals have since been lost.
While W. Wakefield had recorded that he observed murals depicting erotic scenes painted on the Golden Temple's walls in a work published in 1875, Kanwarjit Singh Kang finds this to be a spurious account which is likely false because there is no corroborative accounts to support this.
The various artists and craftsmen who worked on creating the mural artwork and other accessory art of the temple are mostly unknown and it is nearly impossible to link any particular art piece with a specific name, aside from a very few. A traditional Sikh artist who had worked at the Golden Temple, named Hari Singh, had prepared a list of all the names of the artists, painters (naqqashis), and craftsmen he could recount that had also worked at some point in time at the Golden Temple, the names are as follows: Kishan Singh, Bishan Singh, Kapur Singh, Kehar Singh, Mahant Ishar Singh, Sardul Singh, Jawahar Singh, Mehtab Singh, Mistri Jaimal Singh, Harnam Singh, Ishar Singh (not to be confused with Mahant Ishar Singh), Gian Singh, Lal Singh Tarn Taran, Mangal Singh, Mistri Narain Singh, Mistri Jit Singh, Atma Singh, Darja Mal, and Vir Singh.
Most of the artwork lost over the years, throughout the various changes and renovations to the temple, were murals. Murals started being lost in the temple around the last years of the 19th century, when devotees were allowed to start donating inlaid marble panels to affix to the walls of the shrine. The walls that were covered by these marble panels usually were painted with murals and thus the murals were either hidden under the marble panels or destroyed. The Golden Temple used to have many traditional buildings, known as bungas, surrounding it. These bungas were a great source and collection of murals and thus their artwork was lost when the vast majority of the bungas were demolished over the years under the guise of modernising the religious site and expanding its parikrama. When the Darshani Deori was covered with marble panels, many wall paintings that had been executed by Mahant Ishar Singh were covered up and lost due to them.
== Influence on contemporary era Sikhism ==
=== Singh Sabha movement ===
The Singh Sabha movement was a late-19th century movement within the Sikh community to rejuvenate and reform Sikhism at a time when Christian, Hindu and Muslim proselytisers were actively campaigning to convert Sikhs to their religion. The movement was triggered by the conversion of Ranjit Singh's son Duleep Singh and other well-known people to Christianity. Started in 1870s, the Singh Sabha movement's aims were to propagate the true Sikh religion, restore and reform Sikhism to bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates who had left Sikhism. There were three main groups with different viewpoints and approaches, of which the Tat Khalsa group had become dominant by the early 1880s. Before 1905, the Golden Temple had Brahmin priests, idols and images for at least a century, attracting pious Sikhs and Hindus. In 1890s, these idols and practices came under attack from reformist Sikhs. In 1905, with the campaign of the Tat Khalsa, these idols and images were removed from the Golden Temple. The Singh Sabha movement brought the Khalsa back to the fore of gurdwara administration over the mahants (priests) class, who had taken over control of the main gurdwaras and other institutions vacated by the Khalsa in their fight for survival against the Mughals during the 18th century and had been most prominent during the 19th century.
=== Jallianwala Bagh massacre ===
As per tradition, the Sikhs gathered in the Golden Temple to celebrate the festival of Baisakhi in 1919. After their visit, many walked over to the Jallianwala Bagh next to it to listen to speakers protesting the Rowlatt Act and other policies implemented by the British colonial government. A large crowd had gathered, when Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer ordered a detachment of ninety soldiers (drawn from the 9th Gorkha Rifles and the 59th Scinde Rifles) under his command to surround the Jallianwala Bagh, and then open fire into the crowd. 379 were killed and thousands were wounded in the massacre. The massacre strengthened the opposition to colonial rule throughout India, particularly that from Sikhs. It triggered massive non-violent protests. The protests pressured the British colonial government to transfer the control over the management and treasury of the Golden Temple to an elected organisation called Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC). The SGPC continues to manage the Golden Temple.
=== Punjabi Suba movement ===
The Punjabi Suba movement was a long-drawn political agitation, launched by the Sikhs, demanding the creation of a Punjabi Suba, or Punjabi-speaking state, in the post-independence state of East Punjab. It was first presented as a policy position in April 1948 by the Shiromani Akali Dal, after the States Reorganisation Commission set up after independence was not effective in the north of the country during its work to delineate states on a linguistic basis. The Golden Temple complex was the main centre of operations of the movement, and important events during the movement that occurred at the gurdwara included the 1955 raid by the government to quash the movement, and the subsequent Amritsar Convention in 1955 to convey Sikh sentiments to the central government. The complex was also the site of speeches, demonstrations, and mass arrests, and where leaders of the movement domiciled in huts during hunger strikes. The borders of the modern state of Punjab, along with the official status of the state's native language of Punjabi in the Gurmukhi script, are the result of the movement, which culminated in the setting of the current borders in 1966.
=== Operation Blue Star ===
The Golden Temple and Akal Takht were occupied by various militant groups in the early 1980s. These included the Dharam Yudh Morcha led by Sikh fundamentalist Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, the Babbar Khalsa, the AISSF and the National Council of Khalistan. In December 1983, the Sikh political party Akali Dal's President Harchand Singh Longowal had invited Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale to take up residence in Golden Temple Complex. The Bhindranwale-led group under the military leadership of General Shabeg Singh had begun to build bunkers and observations posts in and around the Golden Temple. They organised the armed militants present at the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar in June 1984. The Golden Temple became a place for weapons training for the militants. Shabeg Singh's military expertise is credited with the creation of effective defences of the Gurdwara Complex that made the possibility of a commando operation on foot impossible. Supporters of this militant movement circulated maps showing parts of northwest India, north Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan as historic and future boundaries of the Khalsa Sikhs, with varying claims in different maps.
In June 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian Army to begin Operation Blue Star against the militants. The operation caused severe damage and destroyed the Akal Takht. Numerous soldiers, militants and civilians died in the crossfire, with official estimates of death of 492 civilians and 83 Indian army men. Within days of the Operation Bluestar, some 2,000 Sikh soldiers in India mutinied and attempted to reach Amritsar to liberate the Golden Temple. Within six months, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi's Sikh bodyguards assassinated her.
In 1986, Indira Gandhi's son and the next Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi ordered repairs to the Akal Takht Sahib. These repairs were removed and Sikhs rebuilt the Akal Takht Sahib in 1999.
== See also ==
Golden Temple, Vellore
Amritsar Jamnagar Expressway
Amritsar Ring Road
Delhi Amritsar Katra Expressway
Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib
Hazur Sahib Nanded
List of Gurudwaras
Takht Sri Patna Sahib
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== General bibliography ===
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelia_Parker#Work | Cornelia Parker | Cornelia Ann Parker (born 14 July 1956) is an English visual artist, best known for her sculpture and installation art.
== Life and career ==
Parker was born in 1956 in Cheshire, England. Her childhood with a mentally fragile mother and a violent father had a strong influence on her. Her German mother was a nurse in the Luftwaffe during the Second World War; her British grandfather fought in the Battle of the Somme in the First World War.
Parker studied at the Gloucestershire College of Art and Design (1974–1975) and Wolverhampton Polytechnic (1975–1978). She received her MFA from Reading University in 1982 and honorary doctorates from the University of Wolverhampton in 2000, the University of Birmingham (2005), the University of Gloucestershire (2008) and the University of Manchester (2017).
In 1997, Parker was shortlisted for the Turner Prize along with Christine Borland, Angela Bulloch, and Gillian Wearing (who won the prize). She was Honorary Professor at the University of Manchester 2015–2018 and between 2016 and 2019 was Visiting Fellow at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She was appointed Honorary Fellow at Trinity Hall, Cambridge in 2020.
Cornelia Parker's first solo museum exhibition was at the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston in 2000. In 2019 she had a survey exhibition at MCA Sydney. A major survey exhibition of her work opened at Tate Britain in May 2022.
She has one daughter, Lily, with her former husband Jeff McMillan, and lives and works in London.
== Work ==
Parker is best known for large-scale installations such as Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View (1991) – first shown at the Chisenhale Gallery in Bow, East London – for which she had a garden shed blown up by the British Army and suspended the fragments as if suspending the explosion process in time. In the centre was a light which cast the shadows of the wood dramatically on the walls of the room. This inspired an orchestral composition of the same name by Joo Yeon Sir.
In contrast, in 1997 at the Turner Prize exhibition, Parker exhibited Mass (Colder Darker Matter) (1997), suspending the charred remains of a church that had been struck by lightning in Texas. Eight years later, Parker made a companion piece "Anti-Mass" (2005), using charcoal from a black congregation church in Kentucky, which had been destroyed by arson. Hanging Fire (Suspected Arson) (1999) is another example of Parker's suspended sculptures, featuring charred remains of an actual case of suspected arson.
The Maybe (1995) at the Serpentine Gallery, London, was a performance piece conceived by Tilda Swinton, who lay, apparently asleep, inside a vitrine. She asked Parker to collaborate with her on the project, and to create an installation in which she could sleep. Swinton's original idea was to lie in state as Snow White in a glass coffin, but through the collaboration with Parker the idea evolved into her appearing as herself and not as an actor posing as a fictional character. Parker filled the Serpentine with glass cases containing relics that belonged to famous historical figures, such as the pillow and blanket from Freud's couch, Mrs. Simpson's ice skates, Charles Dickens' quill pen and Queen Victoria's stocking. A version of the piece was later re-performed in Rome (1996) and then MoMA, New York (2013) without Parker's involvement.
Avoided Object is an ongoing series of smaller works which have been developed in liaison with various institutions, including the Royal Armouries, British Police Forces, Colt Firearms and Madame Tussauds.
Parker has made other interventions involving historical artworks. In 1998 in her solo show at the Serpentine Gallery she exhibited the backs of Turner paintings (Room for Margins) as works in their own right, she wrapped Rodin's The Kiss sculpture in Tate Britain with a mile of string (2003) as her contribution to the 2003 Tate Triennial Days Like These at Tate Britain. The intervention was titled The Distance (A Kiss With String Attached). She re-staged this piece as part of her mid-career retrospective at the Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester, in 2015 and at Tate Britain in 2022.
Subconscious of a Monument (2005) is composed of fragments of dry soil suspended on wires from the gallery ceiling. These lumps are the now-desiccated clay which was removed from beneath the Leaning Tower of Pisa in order to prevent its collapse.
These "avoided" objects have often had their identities transformed by being burned, shot, squashed, stretched, drawn, exploded, cut, or simply dropped off cliffs. Cartoon deaths have long held a fascination for Parker: "Tom being run over by a steamroller or Jerry riddled with bullet holes." Sometimes the object's demise has been orchestrated, or it may have occurred accidentally or by natural causes. According to Parker:They might be 'preempted' objects that have not yet achieved a fully formed identity, having been plucked prematurely from the production line like Embryo Firearms 1995. They may not even be classified as objects: things like cracks, creases, shadows, dust or dirt The Negative of Whispers 1997: Earplugs made with fluff gathered in the Whispering Gallery, St Paul's Cathedral). Or they might be those territories you want to avoid psychologically, such as the backs, underbellies or tarnished surfaces of things."Another example of this work is Pornographic Drawings (1997), using ink made by the artist who used solvent to dissolve (pornographic) video tape, confiscated by HM Customs and Excise.
I resurrect things that have been killed off... My work is all about the potential of materials—even when it looks like they've lost all possibilities.
In 2009, for the opening of Jupiter Artland, a sculpture park near Edinburgh, Parker created a firework display titled Nocturne: A Moon Landing containing a lunar meteorite. Therefore, the moon "landed on Jupiter". The following year Parker made Landscape with Gun and Tree for Jupiter Artland, a nine-metre-tall cast iron and Corten steel shotgun leaning against a tree. It was inspired by the painting Mr and Mrs Andrews by Thomas Gainsborough, where Mr Andrews poses with a gun slung over his arm. The shotgun used in the piece is a facsimile of the one owned by Robert Wilson, one of the founders of Jupiter Artland.
For the Folkestone Triennial in 2011, Parker created The Folkestone Mermaid, her version of one of the popular tourist attractions in Copenhagen, The Little Mermaid. Through a process of open submission, Parker chose Georgina Baker, 38 year old mother of two, Folkestone born and bred. Unlike the idealised Copenhagen version, this is a life-size, life-cast sculpture, celebrating womankind.
To celebrate the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta, Parker created Magna Carta (An Embroidery), a hand-embroidered representation of the Wikipedia article on Magna Carta as it was on 15 June 2014, completed in 2015. Embroiderers included members of the Embroiderers Guild, HM prisoners, Peers, MP's, judges, human rights lawyers, a US ambassador and his staff, and various public figures including Edward Snowden, Julian Assange, Jimmy Wales, Jarvis Cocker and Doreen Lawrence.
Whilst Magna Carta (An Embroidery) was on display at the British Library, Parker presented One More Time, a Terrace Wires commission for St Pancras International Station, London, co-presented by HS1 Ltd. and the Royal Academy of Arts.
In 2016 Parker became the first female artist to be commissioned to create a new work for the Roof Garden of the Met in New York. Transitional Object (PsychoBarn) is a scaled-down replica of the house from the 1960 Hitchcock film Psycho and was constructed using a salvaged red barn.
Parker continued her work as a curator for the Found exhibition for The Foundling Museum, which incorporated sixty-eight artists from an array of creative disciplines, as well as contributing her own piece, A Little Drop of Gin. This limited-edition print, nicknamed 'mother's ruin', was a photogravure using a 1750s gin glass and droppings of gin. Parker was named Artist of the Year in the 2016 Apollo Awards for her involvement and contributions in the art world.
Parker appeared in the BBC Four television series What Do Artists Do All Day?, a BBC Scotland production, first broadcast in 2013. In the programme she talks about her life and work. In May 2015, Parker was included in the Brilliant Ideas series broadcast by Bloomberg TV in which she reveals her inspirations and discusses some of her best-loved works. In summer 2016, BBC One broadcast "Danger! Cornelia Parker" as part of the TV series Imagine. In autumn 2016 she was included in Gaga for Dada, a programme to mark the 100th anniversary of Dada, presented by Vic Reeves. She also contributed to the BBC Four production Bricks! broadcast on 21 September 2016, marking the 40th anniversary of Carl Andre's sculpture Equivalent VIII, better known as "The Tate Bricks".
On 1 May 2017 Parker was chosen as the official election artist for the 2017 United Kingdom general election; she was the first woman to take on that role.
In 2017, Parker made a series of blackboard drawings with the collaboration of 5- to 10-year-old schoolchildren from Torriano Primary School. The children were asked by the artist to copy out news headlines collected from various UK and US newspapers. "At that age, children have a barely formed view of the news and world affairs—they don't yet have a vote, but the political turmoil unfolding in their young lives will have a profound effect on their futures."
In November 2019 Parker opened her first major retrospective exhibition in Australia at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney for the Tenth Sydney International Art Series.
In May 2022 Parker exhibited 100 artworks at Tate Britain in her largest solo exhibition to date. She showed several of her films, Chomskian Abstract 2007, Made in Bethlehem 2012, War Machine 2015, American Gothic 2016, Left, Right & Centre 2017, Election Abstract 2018, Thatcher’s Finger 2018 and Flag 2022. Tabish Khan, reviewing the exhibition for Culture Whisper, said "Conceptual art can often be seen as abstruse but Cornelia Parker is able to make it accessible and playful, yet she also adds a level of intelligent rigour to her work that challenges us to think about the wider world we live in. It’s precisely what conceptual art should be."
In May 2023, her photograph "Snap" was used as the cover artwork for the Peter Gabriel song "Four Kinds of Horses".
In November 2024, Parker's glass rendition of the chandelier featured in Van Eyck's The Arnolfini Portrait was suspended in the Procuratie Vecchie in St Mark's Square, Venice. This work was created as part of Murano Illumina il Mondo (“Murano Lights Up the World”) and was the first time in living memory that artworks were permitted to be displayed in the colonnade.
== Curatorial ==
In 2011 Parker curated an exhibition titled Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain for the Collections Gallery at the Whitechapel Gallery in London using selected works from the Government Art Collection arranged as a colour spectrum.
For the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 2014, Parker curated the Black and White Room which included a number of well-known artists who she thought should be future Royal Academicians.
In 2016, as part of her Hogarth Fellowship at the Foundling Museum, Parker curated a group exhibition titled FOUND presenting works from over sixty artists from a range of creative disciplines, asked to respond to the theme of "found", reflecting on the museum's heritage.
== Honours and recognition ==
In 2010 Parker was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts, London and appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 Birthday Honours. In 2000, 2005 and 2008 and 2017 she received Honorary Doctorates from the Universities of Wolverhampton, Birmingham, and Gloucestershire and Manchester respectively.
Parker won the Artist of the Year Apollo Award in 2016. Other shortlisted artists were Carmen Herrera, David Hockney, Ragnar Kjartansson, Jannis Kounellis and Helen Marten.
Parker was named the official Election Artist for the 2017 general election in the United Kingdom. In this role she observed the election campaign leading up to the vote on 8 June, and was required to produce a piece of art in response. Parker created two films and a series of 14 photographic works as a result of this commission, which were previewed on BBC Newsnight on 2 February 2018 and made available online via the UK Parliament website prior to an exhibition in Westminster Hall.
She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to the arts.
== Politics ==
In politics, prior to the 2015 general election, she was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party's Caroline Lucas.
== See also ==
Art of the United Kingdom
Book Works
== References ==
== External links ==
Tate: Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View
Tate: Cornelia Parker: Talking Art Cornelia Parker interviewed by writer and curator Lisa LeFeuvre. 31 May 2008
Tateshots: Cornelia Parker's 'Folkestone Mermaid' The artist talks about her work for Folkestone Triennial 2011. 23 June 2011
Sculptor and Artist Cornelia Parker (video)
IMAGINE: DANGER! Cornelia Parker First Broadcast July 2016, the artist discusses her work with Alan Yentob |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serenity_(Clara) | Serenity (Clara) | Serenity is a public artwork in Meridian Hill Park, an urban park in Washington, D.C. It was sculpted by Spanish-Catalan artist Josep Clarà, who created an identical version on display in Barcelona. The sculpture was commissioned by Charles Deering, an American businessman and art collector, who was friends with Clarà. The sculpture was completed in 1921 and Deering dedicated it to his lifelong friend, Lieutenant Commander William H. Schuetze, who died in 1902. Deering gifted it to the United States and it was installed in 1925. The Carrara marble sculpture rests on a granite base and depicts a woman sitting on a rocky ledge. Soon after it was installed, there were protests about its artistic value and it was vandalized. For almost a century, Serenity has been repeatedly damaged, with its nose, hand, and other pieces missing. It has been called the "most vandalized memorial" in Washington, D.C.
== Description ==
The sculpture is of an allegorical woman wearing long, flowing classical robes which are tied at her waist. She has long hair and stares intensely in front of her. "Serenity" sits on a rocky ledge with her arms casually resting on the rocks behind her. Her left foot rested on a broken sword. The Carrera marble sculpture is 6.7 ft (2.05 m) tall and 5.4 ft (1.64 m) wide. It rests on a granite base measuring 1.83 ft (0.56 m) tall and 8.25 ft (2.51 m) wide.
The sculpture is signed on the proper left side: "Jose Clara"
The front of the base is inscribed:
SERENITY
IN REMEMBRANCE OF WILLIAM HENRY SCHEVTZE
LIEVTENANT COMMANDER VNITED STATES NAVY
MDCCCLIII–MCMII
The name of William Henry Schuetze on the base is misspelled. Due to vandalism, the sculpture is missing several pieces. The sculpture is located along a walkway in the northwest portion of Meridian Hill Park, an urban park in Washington, D.C., and is partially obscured by trees. Serenity is owned and maintained by the National Park Service (NPS), an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. It is one of several artworks in the park, including the Joan of Arc equestrian statue, the Dante Alighieri statue, the James Buchanan Memorial, and the Noyes Armillary Sphere.
== History ==
=== Background ===
Charles Deering, an American businessman, philanthropist, and art collector, built a house in Sitges, Spain, in 1917. Among the many artists whose works were displayed on the property, now housing the Palau de Maricel museum, was Josep Clarà, a prominent Spanish-Catalan sculptor whom Deering befriended. According to art historian Kineton Parkes, Clarà "absorbed all modern ideas on sculpture, and amalgamated them with those of the grandeur of classical work, and the work of the Renaissance. Phidias and Michealangelo are his teachers, as well as Rodin." In 1915, Deering commissioned Clarà to create a sculpture for his home in Sitges. The piece, titled Serenity, was not completed until 1921, at which time there was no longer space for it at Deering's house.
Deering dedicated the sculpture to his longtime friend, Lieutenant Commander William Henry Schuetze, who had died in Washington, D.C., in 1902. Schuetze and Deering attended the United States Naval Academy where they were roommates and became lifelong friends. Schuetze graduated first in his class in 1873. One of his early assignments in the United States Navy was the retrieval of bodies from the ill-fated Jeannette expedition. He later served in the White Squadron and as a navigator on the USS Iowa during the Spanish–American War. After his death, Captain Samuel C. Lemly, Judge Advocate General of the Navy, said "No words of praise are too strong for this gallant officer." His funeral took place at St. John's Episcopal Church, Lafayette Square.
=== Installation ===
Deering presented the sculpture as a gift to the United States for it to be installed on public land in Washington, D.C. On March 12, 1924, the United States Congress accepted the sculpture on behalf of the American people and directed the United States Army Corps of Engineers to select a site for it to be installed. The United States Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) selected a site in Meridian Hill Park in Washington, D.C. The sculpture was placed in a storage facility of the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds until it was ready to be moved to a permanent locatiion. The foundation was built in March 1925 and the base installed three months later. The project was completed in July 1925 at a cost of $4,500, paid for by Deering. It is one of the few outdoor statues in Washington, D.C., to never receive a dedication ceremony. A very similar sculpture, titled Serenitat, was made by Clarà in 1929. It is on display in the Miramar Gardens in Barcelona, Spain.
=== Protests and vandalism ===
Soon after it was installed, there was criticism of the sculpture's artistic value. Rear Admiral William Wirt Kimball sent a protest letter to the CFA. The first recorded act of vandalism in Meridian Hill Park took place when hammers were used to leave marks on Serenity. In April 1926, someone put paint on the figure's hair and cheeks, ink was splashed on it, and she was partially draped with a piece of cloth. In 1932, someone applied makeup to the figure. It was during this time a local neighborhood group, the Columbia Heights Citizens' Association (CHCA), requested Serenity be covered or removed. The occasional application of makeup continued and park officials would have the sculpture cleaned. The CHCA continued its quest to have it removed, taking their complaints to Lieutenant Commander Ulysses S. Grant III, who was serving as director of the Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital at the time. Grant informed the CHCA that since Serenity was accepted through an Act of Congress, he had no authority to remove it. Grant did note his distaste for Serenity, calling it an "entirely unattractive statue". The CHCA appealed to the Federation of Citizens Associations of the District of Columbia, which deferred on the matter.
In the 1950s, the NPS noted Serenity was the "chief headache" in the annual monument cleaning program. Instead of yearly maintenance, the sculpture had to be cleaned more often because of makeup and pencil marks being left on the figure. A 1957 article in The Evening Star described the condition of Serenity: "Its nose has been chipped off. Its marble lips have been daubed with lipstick and mud. Fingers on its right hand have been broken off. In its lap lie shards of broken glass from discarded whiskey bottles. Its surface is pocketed from a thousand missiles." In 1960, a congressional report noted the artworks in Meridian Hill Park had to be cleaned every two weeks to remove makeup and other vandalism. The nose, fingers, and toes on Serenity were replaced, costing $500.
The sculpture's nose and missing teeth were replaced in the 1990s, but by 1998, vandals had removed them. In 2001, the NPS suggested Serenity be placed in storage until it could be repaired, but due to its fragile, damaged state, this did not occur. Several years later, John Kelly of The Washington Post said Serenity resembled a "weathered sculpture from antiquity". In 2013, black paint was splashed onto the sculpture and red paint was used to create a smile similar to the Joker's. It was removed shortly after by the NPS. Due to its history of repeated damage, Serenity has been described as the "most vandalized memorial" in Washington, D.C.
== See also ==
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 1
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Serenity (Clara) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vice-chancellors_of_the_Jawaharlal_Nehru_University | List of vice-chancellors of the Jawaharlal Nehru University | The vice-chancellor is the executive head of Jawaharlal Nehru University.
== Vice-chancellors of JNU ==
The vice-chancellors of JNU are as follows.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Walt_Disney_anthology_television_series_episodes_(seasons_1%E2%80%9329) | List of Walt Disney anthology television series episodes (seasons 1–29) |
== Walt Disney's Disneyland episodes ==
The original incarnation of the anthology series was conceived as a means to fund development and construction of Disneyland, the television program originally focused on and highlighted the original four lands of the park.
=== Season 1 (1954–1955) ===
=== Season 2 (1955–1956) ===
=== Season 3 (1956–1957) ===
=== Season 4 (1957–1958) ===
== Walt Disney Presents episodes ==
At the start of the 5th season ABC rebranded the show as Walt Disney Presents.
=== Season 5 (1958–1959) ===
=== Season 6 (1959–1960) ===
=== Season 7 (1960–1961) ===
== Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color episodes ==
Note: The show was moved from ABC to NBC in order to be able to broadcast the show in color.
=== Season 8 (1961–1962) ===
=== Season 9 (1962–1963) ===
=== Season 10 (1963–1964) ===
=== Season 11 (1964–1965) ===
=== Season 12 (1965–1966) ===
=== Season 13 (1966–1967) ===
=== Season 14 (1967–1968) ===
=== Season 15 (1968–1969) ===
== The Wonderful World of Disney episodes (first run) ==
At the start of the 16th season NBC rebranded the show as The Wonderful World of Disney.
=== Season 16 (1969–1970) ===
=== Season 17 (1970–1971) ===
=== Season 18 (1971–1972) ===
=== Season 19 (1972–1973) ===
=== Season 20 (1973–1974) ===
=== Season 21 (1974–1975) ===
=== Season 22 (1975–1976) ===
=== Season 23 (1976–1977) ===
=== Season 24 (1977–1978) ===
=== Season 25 (1978–1979) ===
== Disney's Wonderful World episodes ==
At the start of the 26th season NBC rebranded the show as Disney's Wonderful World.
=== Season 26 (1979–1980) ===
=== Season 27 (1980–1981) ===
== Walt Disney episodes ==
Note: All of the following episodes were first aired on CBS.
=== Season 28 (1981–1982) ===
=== Season 29 (1982–1983) ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Skolnik_Award#:~:text=J.%20Rowlett%2C%20Jr.-,1984%3A%20Montagu%20Hyams,-1986%3A%20Dale | Herman Skolnik Award | The Herman Skolnik Award is awarded annually by the Division of Chemical Information of the American Chemical Society, "to recognize outstanding contributions to and achievements in the theory and practice of chemical information science". As of 2024 the award is of 3,000 US dollars.
It is named for Herman Skolnik (1914-1994), who was a co-founder of the then ACS Division of Chemical Literature in 1948 and a key figure in the Division. The first award was made to him.
== Recipients ==
Source:
=== 1970s ===
1976: Herman Skolnik
1977: Eugene Garfield
1978: Fred A. Tate
=== 1980s ===
1980: William J. Wiswesser
1981: Ben H. Weil
1982: Robert Fugmann
1983: Russell J. Rowlett, Jr.
1984: Montagu Hyams
1986: Dale B. Baker
1987: William Theilheimer
1988: David R. Lide, Jr.
1989: Michael F. Lynch and Stuart Marson
=== 1990s ===
1990: Ernst Meyer
1991: Todd Wipke
1992: Jacques-Emile Dubois
1993: Peter Willett
1994: Alexandru T. Balaban
1995: Reiner Luckenbach and Clemens Jochum
1996: Milan Randic
1997: Johann Gasteiger
1998: Gary D. Wiggins
1999: Stuart M. Kaback
=== 2000s ===
2000: Stephen R. Heller and G. W. A. Milne
2001: Guenter Grethe
2002: Peter Norton
2003: Frank H. Allen
2004: Peter Johnson
2005: Lorrin Garson
2006: Hugo Kubinyi
2007: Robert S. Pearlman
2008: Gerald M. Maggiora
2009: Yvonne Connolly Martin
=== 2010s ===
2010: Anton J. Hopfinger
2011: Alexander Lawson
2012: Peter Murray-Rust and Henry Rzepa
2013: Richard D. Cramer
2014: Engelbert Zass
2015: Jürgen Bajorath
2016: Stephen H. Bryant and Evan Bolton
2017: David Winkler
2018: Gisbert Schneider
2019: Kimito Funatsu
=== 2020s ===
2020: Wendy A. Warr
2023 Patrick Walters
2024 Alexandre Varnek
2025 Matthias Rarey
2026 Antony John Williams
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
List of computer science awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah#Early_life_and_education | Kwame Nkrumah | Francis Kwame Nkrumah (Nzema: [kwame Nkruma] 21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He served as Prime Minister of the Gold Coast from 1952 until 1957, when it gained independence from Britain. He was then the first prime minister and then the president of Ghana, from 1957 until 1966. An influential advocate of Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and winner of the Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union in 1962.
After twelve early years abroad pursuing higher education, developing his political philosophy, and organizing with other diasporic pan-Africanists, Nkrumah returned to the Gold Coast to begin his political career as an advocate of national independence. He formed the Convention People's Party, which achieved rapid success through its unprecedented appeal to the common voter. He became Prime Minister in 1952 and retained the position when he led Ghana to independence from Britain in 1957, a first in sub-Saharan Africa at the time. In 1960, Ghanaians approved a new constitution and elected Nkrumah as president.
His administration was primarily socialist as well as nationalist. It funded national industrial and energy projects, developed a strong national education system and promoted a pan-Africanist culture. Under Nkrumah, Ghana played a leading role in African international relations and the pan-africanist movement during Africa's decolonization period, supporting numerous liberation struggles.
After an alleged assassination plot against him, coupled with increasingly difficult local economic conditions, Nkrumah's government became increasingly authoritarian in the 1960s, as he repressed political opposition and conducted elections that were neither free nor fair. In 1964, a constitutional amendment made Ghana a one-party state, with Nkrumah as president for life of both the nation and its party. He fostered a personality cult, forming ideological institutes and adopting the title of 'Osagyefo Dr.' Nkrumah was deposed in 1966 in a coup d'état by the National Liberation Council. Claims of CIA involvement in his overthrow have never been verified. Nkrumah lived the rest of his life in Guinea, where he was named honorary co-president. In 1999, he was voted BBC African of the millennium.
== Early life and education ==
=== Gold Coast ===
Kwame Nkrumah was born on Tuesday, 21 September 1909 in Nkroful, Nzema East, (now Ellembele), Gold Coast (now Ghana). Nkroful was a small village in the Nzema area, in the southwest of the Gold Coast, close to the frontier with the French colony of the Ivory Coast. His father did not live with the family, but worked in Half Assini where he pursued his goldsmith business until his death. Kwame Nkrumah was raised by his mother and his extended family, who lived together traditionally and had more distant relatives often visiting. He lived a carefree childhood, spent in the village, in the bush, and on the nearby sea.
During his years as a student in the United States, he was known as Francis Nwia Kofi Nkrumah, Kofi being the Akan name given to males born on Fridays. He later changed his name to Kwame Nkrumah in 1945 in the UK, preferring the name "Kwame". According to Ebenezer Obiri Addo in his study of the future president, the name "Nkrumah", a name traditionally given to a ninth child, indicates that Kwame probably held that place in the house of his father, who had several wives.
His father, Opanyin Kofi Nwiana Ngolomah, came from Nkroful and belonged to the Asona clan of the Akan Tribe. Sources indicated that Ngolomah stayed at Tarkwa-Nsuaem and dealt in the goldsmith business. Ngolomah was respected for his wise counsel by those who sought his advice on traditional issues and domestic affairs. He died in 1927.
Kwame was his mother's only child. She sent him to the elementary school run by a Catholic mission at Half Assini, where he proved an adept student.
Although his mother, whose name was Elizabeth Nyanibah (1877–1979), later stated his year of birth as 1912, Nkrumah wrote that he was born on 21 September 1909. His mother hailed from Nsuaem and belonged to the Agona family. She was a fishmonger and petty trader when she married his father. Eight days after his birth, his father named him as Francis Nwia-Kofi after a relative but later his parents named him as Francis Kwame Ngolomah.
He progressed through the ten-year elementary programme in eight years. In 1925, he was a student-teacher in the school and was baptized into the Catholic faith. While at the school, he was noticed by the Reverend Alec Garden Fraser, principal of the Government Training College (soon to become Achimota School) in the Gold Coast's capital, Accra. Fraser arranged for Nkrumah to train as a teacher at his school. Here, Columbia-educated deputy headmaster Kwegyir Aggrey exposed him to the ideas of Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. Du Bois. Aggrey, Fraser, and others at Achimota thought that there should be close co-operation between the races in governing the Gold Coast, but Nkrumah, echoing Garvey, soon came to believe that only when the black race governed itself could there be harmony between the races.
After obtaining his teacher's certificate from the Prince of Wales' College at Achimota in 1930, Nkrumah was given a teaching post at the Roman Catholic primary school in Elmina in 1931. During his years at Achimota, Nkrumah was noted for his debating and leadership skills, traits that later shaped his role as a nationalist leader.
After a year there, he was made headmaster of the school at Axim. In Axim, he started to get involved in politics and founded the Nzema Literary Society. In 1933, he was appointed a teacher at the Catholic seminary at Amissano. Although life there was strict, he liked it, and considered becoming a Jesuit. Nkrumah had heard journalist and future Nigerian president Nnamdi Azikiwe speak while a student at Achimota; the two men met and Azikiwe's influence increased Nkrumah's interest in black nationalism. The young teacher decided to further his education. Azikiwe had attended Lincoln University, a historically black college in Chester County, Pennsylvania, west of Philadelphia, and he advised Nkrumah to enroll there.
Nkrumah, who had failed the entrance examination for London University, gained funds for the trip and his education from relatives. He travelled by way of Britain, where he learned, to his outrage, of Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, one of the few independent African nations. He arrived in the United States, in October 1935.
=== United States ===
According to historian John Henrik Clarke in his article on Nkrumah's American sojourn, "the influence of the ten years that he spent in the United States had a lingering effect on the rest of his life." Nkrumah had sought entry to Lincoln University some time before he began his studies there. On Friday, 1 March 1935, he sent the school a letter noting that his application had been pending for more than a year. When he arrived in New York in October 1935, he traveled to Pennsylvania, where he enrolled despite lacking the funds for the full semester. He soon won a scholarship that provided for his tuition at Lincoln University. He remained short of funds through his time in the US. To make ends meet, he did menial jobs on roles such as a wholesaler of fish and poultries, cleaner, dishwasher and others. On Sundays, he visited black Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia and in New York.
Nkrumah completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology in 1939. Lincoln then appointed him an assistant lecturer in philosophy. He began to receive invitations to be a guest preacher in Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia and New York. In 1939, Nkrumah enrolled at Lincoln's seminary and at the Ivy League institution, the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and in 1942, he was initiated into the Mu chapter of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity at Lincoln University. Nkrumah gained a Bachelor of Theology degree from Lincoln in 1942, the top student in the course. He earned from Penn the following year a Master of Arts degree in philosophy and a Master of Science in education. While at Penn, Nkrumah worked with the linguist William Everett Welmers, providing the spoken material that formed the basis of the first descriptive grammar of his native Fante dialect of the Akan language. Nkrumah was also initiated into Prince Hall Freemasonry while living in the United States.
Nkrumah spent his summers in Harlem, a center of black life, thought and culture. He found housing and employment in New York City with difficulty and involved himself in the community. He spent many evenings listening to and arguing with street orators, and according to Clarke, Kwame Nkrumah in his years in America stated;
These evenings were a vital part of Kwame Nkrumah's American education. He was going to a university – the university of the Harlem Streets. This was no ordinary time and these street speakers were no ordinary men ...The streets of Harlem were open forums, presided over [by] master speakers like Arthur Reed and his protege Ira Kemp. The young Carlos Cook [sic], founder of the Garvey oriented African Pioneer Movement was on the scene, also bringing a nightly message to his street followers. Occasionally Suji Abdul Hamid [sic], a champion of Harlem labour, held a night rally and demanded more jobs for blacks in their own community ...This is part of the drama on the Harlem streets as the student Kwame Nkrumah walked and watched.
Nkrumah was an activist student, organizing a group of expatriate African students in Pennsylvania and building it into the African Students Association of America and Canada, becoming its president. Some members felt that the group should aspire for each colony to gain independence on its own; Nkrumah urged a Pan-African strategy. Nkrumah played a major role in the Pan-African conference held in New York in 1944, which urged the United States, at the end of the Second World War, to help ensure Africa became developed and free.
His old teacher Aggrey had died in 1929 in the US, and in 1942, Nkrumah led traditional prayers for Aggrey at the graveside. This led to a break between him and Lincoln, though after he rose to prominence in the Gold Coast, he returned in 1951 to accept an honorary degree. Nevertheless, Nkrumah's doctoral thesis remained uncompleted. He had adopted the forename Francis while at the Amissano seminary; in 1945, he took the name Kwame Nkrumah.
Nkrumah read books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy. In 1943 Nkrumah met Trinidadian Marxist C. L. R. James, Russian expatriate Raya Dunayevskaya, and Chinese-American Grace Lee Boggs, all of whom were members of an American-based Marxist intellectual cohort. Nkrumah later credited James with teaching him "how an underground movement worked". Federal Bureau of Investigation files on Nkrumah, kept from January to May 1945, identify him as a possible communist. Nkrumah was determined to go to London, wanting to continue his education there now that the Second World War had ended. James, in a 1945 letter introducing Nkrumah to Trinidad-born George Padmore in London, wrote: "This young man is coming to you. He is not very bright, but nevertheless do what you can for him because he's determined to throw Europeans out of Africa."
=== London ===
Nkrumah returned to London in May 1945 and enrolled at the London School of Economics as a PhD candidate in Anthropology. He withdrew after one term and the next year enrolled at University College London, with the intent to write a philosophy dissertation on "Knowledge and Logical Positivism". His supervisor, A. J. Ayer, declined to rate Nkrumah as a "first-class philosopher", saying, "I liked him and enjoyed talking to him but he did not seem to me to have an analytical mind. He wanted answers too quickly. I think part of the trouble may have been that he wasn't concentrating very hard on his thesis. It was a way of marking time until the opportunity came for him to return to Ghana." Finally, Nkrumah enrolled in, but did not complete, a study in law at Gray's Inn.
Nkrumah spent his time on political organizations. He and Padmore were among the principal organizers, and co-treasurers, of the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester (15–19 October 1945). The Congress elaborated a strategy for supplanting colonialism with African socialism. They agreed to pursue a federal United States of Africa, with interlocking regional organizations, governing through separate states of limited sovereignty. They planned to pursue a new African culture without tribalism, democratic within a socialist system, synthesizing traditional aspects with modern thinking, and for this to be achieved by non-violent means if possible. Among those who attended the congress was the venerable W. E. B. Du Bois along with some who later took leading roles in leading their nations to independence, including Hastings Banda of Nyasaland (which became Malawi), Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Obafemi Awolowo of Nigeria.
The congress sought to establish ongoing African activism in Britain in conjunction with the West African National Secretariat (WANS) to work towards the decolonisation of Africa. Nkrumah became the secretary of WANS. In addition to seeking to organize Africans to gain their nations' freedom, Nkrumah sought to succour the many West African seamen who had been stranded, destitute, in London at the end of the war, and established a Coloured Workers Association to empower and succour them. The U.S. State Department and MI5 watched Nkrumah and the WANS, focusing on their links with Communism. Nkrumah and Padmore established a group called The Circle to lead the way to West African independence and unity; the group aimed to create a Union of African Socialist Republics. A document from The Circle, setting forth that goal was found on Nkrumah upon his arrest in Accra in 1948, and was used against him by the British authorities.
== Return to the Gold Coast ==
=== United Gold Coast Convention ===
The 1946 Gold Coast constitution gave Africans a majority on the Legislative Council for the first time. Seen as a major step towards self-government, the new arrangement prompted the colony's first true political party, founded in August 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC). The UGCC sought self-government as quickly as possible. Since the leading members were all successful professionals, they needed to pay someone to run the party, and their choice fell on Nkrumah at the suggestion of Ako Adjei. Nkrumah hesitated but realized that the UGCC was controlled by conservative interests and noted that the new post could open huge political opportunities for him and accepted. After being questioned by British officials about his communist affiliations, Nkrumah boarded the MV Accra at Liverpool in November 1947 for the voyage home.
After brief stops in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Ivory Coast, he arrived in the Gold Coast where he briefly stayed and reunited with his mother in Tarkwa. He began work at the party's headquarters in Saltpond on 29 December 1947 where he worked as a general secretary. Nkrumah quickly submitted plans for branches of the UGCC to be established colony-wide, and for strikes if necessary to gain political ends. This activist stance divided the party's governing committee, which was led by J. B. Danquah. Nkrumah embarked on a tour to gain donations for the UGCC and establish new branches.
Although the Gold Coast was more developed politically than Britain's other West African colonies, there was considerable discontent. Postwar inflation had caused public anger at high prices, leading to a boycott of small businesses run by Arabs which began in January 1948. Local cocoa bean farmers were upset because trees exhibiting cacao swollen-shoot virus, but still capable of yielding a crop, were being destroyed by the colonial authorities. There were about 63,000 World War II veterans in the Gold Coast, many of whom had trouble obtaining employment and felt the colonial government was doing nothing to address their grievances. Nkrumah and Danquah addressed a meeting of the Ex-Service men's Union in Accra on 20 February 1948, which was made in advance of a planned march to present a petition to the governor. When the march took place on 28 February, three veterans were killed by police gunfire, prompting the 1948 Accra riots, which spread throughout the country. According to Nkrumah's biographer, David Birmingham, "West Africa's erstwhile "model colony" witnessed a riot and business premises were looted. The African Revolution had begun."
The colonial government assumed that the UGCC was responsible for the unrest, and arrested six leaders, including Nkrumah and Danquah. The Big Six were incarcerated together in Kumasi, increasing the rift between Nkrumah and the others, who blamed him for the riots and their detention. After the colonial government learned that there were plots to storm the prison, the six were separated, with Nkrumah sent to Lawra; all six were freed in April 1948. Many students and teachers had demonstrated for their release and had been suspended; Nkrumah, using his own funds, began the Ghana National College. This among other activities, led UGCC committee members to accuse him of acting in the party's name without authority. Fearing he would harm them more outside the party than within, they agreed to make him honorary treasurer. Nkrumah's popularity, already large, was increased with his founding of the Accra Evening News, which was not a party organ but was owned by Nkrumah and others. He also founded the Committee on Youth Organization (CYO) as a youth wing for the UGCC. It soon broke away and adopted the motto "Self-Government Now". The CYO united students, ex-servicemen, and market women. Nkrumah recounted in his autobiography that he knew that a break with the UGCC was inevitable, and wanted the masses behind him when the conflict occurred. Nkrumah's appeals for "Free-Dom" appealed to the great numbers of underemployed youths who had come from the farms and villages to the towns. "Old hymn tunes were adapted to new songs of liberation which welcomed traveling orators, and especially Nkrumah himself, to mass rallies across the Gold Coast."
According to a public speech delivered by Aaron Mike Oquaye, a meeting occurred in Saltpond, a town in the Central region, between Nkrumah and the members of UGCC where Nkrumah was said to have rejected a proposal for the promotion of fundamental human rights.
=== Convention People's Party ===
Beginning in April 1949, there was considerable pressure on Nkrumah from his supporters to leave the UGCC and form his own party. On 12 June 1949, he announced the formation of the Convention People's Party (CPP), with the word "convention" chosen, according to Nkrumah, "to carry the masses with us". There were attempts to heal the breach with the UGCC; at one July meeting, it was agreed to reinstate Nkrumah as secretary and disband the CPP. But Nkrumah's supporters would not have it, and persuaded him to refuse the offer and remain at their head.
The CPP adopted the red cockerel as its symbol – a familiar icon for local ethnic groups, and a symbol of leadership, alertness, and masculinity. Party symbols and colours (red, white, and green) appeared on clothing, flags, vehicles and houses. CPP operatives drove red-white-and-green vans across the country, playing music and rallying public support for the party and especially for Nkrumah. These efforts were wildly successful, especially because previous political efforts in the Gold Coast had focused exclusively on the urban intelligentsia.
The British convened a selected commission of middle-class Africans, including all of the Big Six except Nkrumah, to draft a new constitution that would give the Gold Coast more self-government. Nkrumah saw, even before the commission reported, that its recommendations would fall short of full dominion status, and began to organize a Positive Action campaign. Nkrumah demanded a constituent assembly to write a constitution. When the governor, Charles Arden-Clarke, would not commit to this, Nkrumah called for positive action, with the unions beginning a general strike to begin on 8 January 1950. The strike quickly led to violence, and Nkrumah and other CPP leaders were arrested on 22 January, and the Evening News was banned. Nkrumah was sentenced to a total of three years in prison, and he was incarcerated with common criminals in Accra's Fort James.
Nkrumah's assistant, Komla Agbeli Gbedemah, ran the CPP in his absence; the imprisoned leader was able to influence events through smuggled notes written on toilet paper. The British prepared for an election for the Gold Coast under their new constitution, and Nkrumah insisted that the CPP contest all seats. The situation had become calmer once Nkrumah was arrested, and the CPP and the British worked together to prepare electoral rolls. Nkrumah stood, from prison, for a directly elected Accra seat. Gbedemah worked to set up a nationwide campaign organization, using vans with loudspeakers to blare the party's message. The UGCC failed to set up a nationwide structure, and proved unable to take advantage of the fact that many of its opponents were in prison.
In the February 1951 legislative election, the first general election to be held under universal franchise in colonial Africa, the CPP was elected in a landslide. The CPP secured 34 of the 38 seats contested on a party basis, with Nkrumah elected for his Accra constituency. The UGCC won three seats, and one was taken by an independent. Arden-Clarke saw that the only alternative to Nkrumah's freedom was the end of the constitutional experiment. Nkrumah was released from prison on 12 February, receiving a rapturous reception from his followers. The following day, Arden-Clarke sent for him and asked him to form a government.
Nkrumah had stolen Arden-Clarke's secretary Erica Powell after she was dismissed and sent home for getting too close to Nkrumah. Powell returned to Ghana in January 1955 to be Nkrumah's private secretary, a position she held for ten years. Powell was very close to him and during their time together she largely wrote Nkrumah's (auto)biography, although this was not admitted until much later.
=== Leader of Government Business and Prime Minister ===
Nkrumah faced several challenges as he assumed office. He had never served in government, and needed to learn that art. The Gold Coast was composed of four regions, several former colonies amalgamated into one. Nkrumah sought to unite them under one nationality, and bring the country to independence. Key to meeting the challenges was convincing the British that the CPP's programmes were not only practical, but inevitable, and Nkrumah and Arden-Clarke worked closely together. The governor instructed the civil service to give the fledgling government full support, and the three British members of the cabinet took care not to vote against the elected majority.
Prior to the CPP taking office, British officials had prepared a ten-year plan for development. With demands for infrastructure improvements coming in from all over the colony, Nkrumah approved it in general, but halved the time to five years. The colony was in good financial shape, with reserves from years of cocoa profit held in London, and Nkrumah was able to spend freely. Modern trunk roads were built along the coast and within the interior. The rail system was modernized and expanded. Modern water and sewer systems were installed in most towns, where housing schemes were begun. Construction began on a new harbour at Tema, near Accra, and the existing port, at Takoradi, was expanded. An urgent programme to build and expand schools, from primary to teacher and trade training, was begun. From 1951 to 1956, the number of pupils being educated at the colony's schools rose from 200,000 to 500,000. Nevertheless, the number of graduates being produced was insufficient to the burgeoning civil service's needs, and in 1953, Nkrumah announced that though Africans would be given preference, the country would be relying on expatriate European civil servants for several years.
Nkrumah's title was Leader of Government Business in a cabinet chaired by Arden-Clarke. Quick progress was made, and in 1952, the governor withdrew from the cabinet, leaving Nkrumah as his prime minister, with the portfolios that had been reserved for expatriates going to Africans. There were accusations of corruption, and of nepotism, as officials, following African custom, attempted to benefit their extended families and their tribes. The recommendations following the 1948 riots had included elected local government rather than the existing system dominated by the chiefs. This was uncontroversial until it became clear that it would be implemented by the CPP. That party's majority in the Legislative Assembly passed legislation in late 1951 that shifted power from the chiefs to the chairs of the councils, though there was some local rioting as rates were imposed.
Nkrumah's re-titling as prime minister had not given him additional power, and he sought constitutional reform that would lead to independence. In 1952, he consulted with the visiting Colonial Secretary, Oliver Lyttelton, who indicated that Britain would look favorably on further advancement, so long as the chiefs and other stakeholders had the opportunity to express their views. Initially skeptical of Nkrumah's socialist policies, Britain's MI5 had compiled large amounts of intelligence on Nkrumah through several sources, including tapping phones and mail interception under the code name of SWIFT. Beginning in October 1952, Nkrumah sought opinions from councils and from political parties on reform, and consulted widely across the country, including with opposition groups. The result the following year was a White Paper on a new constitution, seen as a final step before independence. Published in June 1953, the constitutional proposals were accepted both by the assembly and by the British, and came into force in April of the following year. The new document provided for an assembly of 104 members, all directly elected, with an all-African cabinet responsible for the internal governing of the colony. In the election on 15 June 1954, the CPP won 71, with the regional Northern People's Party forming the official opposition.
A number of opposition groups formed the National Liberation Movement. Their demands were for a federal, rather than a unitary government for an independent Gold Coast, and for an upper house of parliament where chiefs and other traditional leaders could act as a counter to the CPP majority in the assembly. They drew considerable support in the Northern Territory and among the chiefs in Ashanti, who petitioned the British queen, Elizabeth II, asking for a Royal Commission into what form of government the Gold Coast should have. This was refused by her government, who in 1955 stated that such a commission should only be used if the people of the Gold Coast proved incapable of deciding their own affairs. Amid political violence, the two sides attempted to reconcile their differences, but the NLM refused to participate in any committee with a CPP majority. The traditional leaders were also incensed by a new bill that had just been enacted, which allowed minor chiefs to appeal to the government in Accra, bypassing traditional chiefly authority. The British were unwilling to leave unresolved the fundamental question as to how an independent Gold Coast should be governed, and in June 1956, the Colonial Secretary, Alan Lennox-Boyd announced that there would be another general election in the Gold Coast, and if a "reasonable majority" took the CPP's position, Britain would set a date for independence. The results of the July 1956 election were almost identical to those from four years before, and on 3 August the assembly voted for independence under the name Nkrumah had proposed in April, Ghana. In September, the Colonial Office announced independence day would be 6 March 1957.
The opposition was not satisfied with the plan for independence, and demanded that power be devolved to the regions. Discussions took place through late 1956 and into 1957. Although Nkrumah did not compromise on his insistence on a unitary state, the nation was divided into five regions, with power devolved from Accra, and the chiefs having a role in their governments. On 21 February 1957, the British prime minister, Harold Macmillan, announced that Ghana would be a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations with effect from 6 March.
== Ghanaian independence ==
Ghana became independent on 6 March 1957 as the Dominion of Ghana. As the first of Britain's African colonies to gain majority-rule independence, the celebrations in Accra were the focus of world attention; over 100 reporters and photographers covered the events. United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent congratulations and his vice president, Richard Nixon, to represent the U.S. at the event. The Soviet delegation urged Nkrumah to visit Moscow as soon as possible. Political scientist Ralph Bunche, an African American, was there for the United Nations, while the Duchess of Kent represented Queen Elizabeth II. Offers of assistance poured in from across the world. Even without them, the country seemed prosperous, with cocoa prices high and the potential of new resource development.
As the fifth of March turned to the sixth, Nkrumah stood before tens of thousands of supporters and proclaimed, "Ghana will be free forever." He spoke at the first session of the Ghana Parliament that Independence Day, telling his new country's citizens that "we have a duty to prove to the world that Africans can conduct their own affairs with efficiency and tolerance and through the exercise of democracy. We must set an example to all Africa."
As part of the ceremony, Nkrumah gave a speech to instill hope and ooze assurance.
Nkrumah was hailed as the Osagyefo – which means "redeemer" in the Akan language. This independence ceremony included the Duchess of Kent and Governor General Charles Arden-Clarke. With more than 600 reporters in attendance, Ghanaian independence became one of the most internationally reported news events in modern African history.
The flag of Ghana was designed by Theodosia Okoh, inverting Ethiopia's green-yellow-red Lion of Judah flag and replacing the lion with a black star. Red symbolizes bloodshed; green stands for beauty, agriculture, and abundance; yellow represents mineral wealth; and the Black Star represents African freedom. The country's new coat of arms, designed by Amon Kotei, includes eagles, a lion, a St. George's Cross, and a Black Star, with copious gold and gold trim. Philip Gbeho was commissioned to compose the new national anthem, "God Bless Our Homeland Ghana".
As a monument to the new nation, Nkrumah opened Black Star Square near Osu Castle in the coastal district of Osu, Accra. This square would be used for national symbolism and mass patriotic rallies.
Under Nkrumah's leadership, Ghana adopted some social democratic policies and practices. Nkrumah created a welfare system, started various community programs, and established schools.
== Ghana's leader (1957–1966) ==
=== Political developments and presidential election ===
Nkrumah had only a short honeymoon before there was unrest among his country's people. The government deployed troops to Togo-land to quell unrest following a disputed plebiscite on membership in the new country. A serious bus strike in Accra stemmed from resentments among the Ga people, who believed members of other tribes were getting preferential treatment in government promotion, and thus resulted in riots there in August. Nkrumah's response was to repress local movements by the Avoidance of Discrimination Act (6 December 1957), which banned regional or tribal-based political parties. Another strike at tribalism fell in Ashanti, where Nkrumah and the CPP got most local chiefs who were not party supporters destooled. These repressive actions concerned the opposition parties, who came together to form the United Party under Kofi Abrefa Busia.
In 1958, an opposition MP was arrested on charges of attempting to obtain arms abroad for a planned infiltration of the Ghana Army (GA). Nkrumah was convinced there had been an assassination plot against him, and his response was to have the parliament pass the Preventive Detention Act, allowing for incarceration for up to five years without charge or trial, with only Nkrumah empowered to release prisoners early. According to Nkrumah's biographer, David Birmingham, "no single measure did more to bring down Nkrumah's reputation than his adoption of internment without trial for the preservation of security." Nkrumah intended to bypass the British-trained judiciary, which he saw as opposing his plans when they subjected them to constitutional scrutiny.
Another source of irritation was the regional assemblies, which had been organized on an interim basis pending further constitutional discussions. The opposition, which was strong in Ashanti and the north, proposed significant powers for the assemblies; the CPP wanted them to be more or less advisory. In 1959, Nkrumah used his majority in the parliament to push through the Constitutional Amendment Act, which abolished the assemblies and allowed the parliament to amend the constitution with a simple majority.
Queen Elizabeth II remained sovereign over Ghana from 1957 to 1960. William Hare, 5th Earl of Listowel was the Governor-General, and Nkrumah remained Prime Minister. On 6 March 1960, Nkrumah announced plans for a new constitution that would make Ghana a republic, headed by a president with broad executive and legislative powers. The draft included a provision to surrender Ghanaian sovereignty to a Union of African States. On 19, 23, and 27 April 1960 a presidential election and plebiscite on the constitution were held. The constitution was ratified and Nkrumah was elected president over J. B. Danquah, the UP candidate, 1,016,076 to 124,623. Ghana remained a part of the British-led Commonwealth of Nations.
==== Opposition to tribalism ====
Nkrumah also sought to eliminate "tribalism", a source of loyalties held more deeply than those to the nation-state. Thus, as he wrote in Africa Must Unite: "We were engaged in a kind of war, a war against poverty and disease, against ignorance, against tribalism and disunity. We needed to secure the conditions which could allow us to pursue our policy of reconstruction and development." To this end, in 1958, his government passed "An Act to prohibit organizations using or engaging in racial or religious propaganda to the detriment of any other racial or religious community, or securing the election of persons on account of their racial or religious affiliations, or for other purposes in connection therewith." Nkrumah attempted to saturate the country in national flags, and declared a widely disobeyed ban on tribal flags.
Kofi Abrefa Busia of the United Party (Ghana) gained prominence as an opposition leader in the debate over this Act, taking a more classically liberal position and criticizing the ban on tribal politics as repressive. Soon after, he left the country. Nkrumah was also a very flamboyant leader. The New York Times in 1972 wrote: "During his high‐flying days as the leader of Ghana in the 1950s and early 1960s, Kwame Nkrumah was a flamboyant spellbinder. At home, he created a cult of personality and gloried in the title of Osagyefo (Akan for 'Redeemer'). Abroad, he met with the world's leaders as the first man to lead an African colony to independence after World War II."
During his tenure as Prime Minister and then first President, Nkrumah succeeded in reducing the political importance of the local chieftaincy (e.g., the Akan chiefs and the Asantehene). These chiefs had maintained authority during colonial rule through collaboration with the British authorities; in fact, they were sometimes favored over the local intelligentsia, who made trouble for the British with organizations like the Aborigines' Rights Protection Society. The Convention People's Party had a strained relationship with the chiefs when it came to power, and this relationship became more hostile as the CPP incited political opposition chiefs and criticized the institution as undemocratic. Acts passed in 1958 and 1959 gave the government more power to dis-stool chiefs directly, and proclaimed government of stool land – and revenues. These policies alienated the chiefs and led them to looking favorably on the overthrow of Nkrumah and his Party.
==== Increased power of the Convention People's Party ====
In 1962, three younger members of the CPP were brought up on charges of taking part in a plot to blow up Nkrumah's car in a motorcade. The sole evidence against the alleged plotters was that they rode in cars well behind Nkrumah's car. When the defendants were acquitted, Nkrumah sacked the chief judge of the state security court, then got the CPP-dominated parliament to pass a law allowing a new trial. At this second trial, all three men were convicted and sentenced to death, though these sentences were subsequently commuted to life imprisonment. Shortly afterward, the constitution was amended to give the president the power to summarily remove judges at all levels.
In 1964, Nkrumah proposed a constitutional amendment that would make the CPP the only legal party, with Nkrumah as president for life of both nation and party. The amendment passed with 99.91 percent of the vote, an implausibly high total that led observers to condemn the vote as "obviously rigged". Ghana had effectively been a one-party state since independence. The amendment transformed Nkrumah's presidency into a de facto legal dictatorship.
=== Civil service ===
After substantial Africanization of the civil service in 1952–60, the number of expatriates rose again from 1960 to 1965. Many of the new outside workers came not from the United Kingdom but from the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Italy.
=== Education ===
In 1951, the CPP created the Accelerated Development Plan for Education. This plan set up a six-year primary course, to be attended as close to universally as possible, with a range of possibilities to follow. All children were to learn arithmetic, as well as gain "a sound foundation for citizenship with permanent literacy in both English and the vernacular." Primary education became compulsory in 1962. The plan also stated that religious schools would no longer receive funding, and that some existing missionary schools would be taken over by government.
In 1961, Nkrumah laid the first stones in the foundation of the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute created to train Ghanaian civil servants as well as promote Pan-Africanism. In 1964, all students entering college in Ghana were required to attend a two-week "ideological orientation" at the institute. Nkrumah remarked that "trainees should be made to realize the party's ideology is religion, and should be practiced faithfully and fervently."
In 1964, Nkrumah brought forth the Seven Year Development Plan for National Reconstruction and Development, which identified education as a key source of development and called for the expansion of secondary technical schools. Secondary education would also include "in-service training programmes". As Nkrumah told Parliament: "Employers, both public and private, will be expected to make a far greater contribution to labour training through individual factory and farm schools, industry-wide training schemes, day release, payment for attendance at short courses and evening classes." This training would be indirectly subsidized with tax credits and import allocations.
In 1952, the Artisan Trading Scheme, arranged with the Colonial Office and UK Ministry of Labour, provided for a few experts in every field to travel to Britain for technical education. Kumasi Technical Institute was founded in 1956. In September 1960, it added the Technical Teacher Training Centre. In 1961, the CPP passed the Apprentice Act, which created a general Apprenticeship Board along with committees for each industry.
=== Culture ===
Nkrumah was an ardent promoter of pan-Africanism, seeing the movement as the "quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent". The period of Nkrumah's active political involvement has been described as the "golden age of high pan-African ambitions"; the continent had experienced rising nationalist movements and decolonization by most European colonial powers, and historians have noted that "the narrative of rebirth and solidarity had gained momentum within the pan-Africanist movement". Reflecting his African heritage, Nkrumah frequently eschewed Western fashion, donning a fugu (a Northern attire) made with Southern-produced Kente cloth, a symbol of his identity as a representative of the entire country. He oversaw the opening of the Ghana Museum on 5 March 1957; the Arts Council of Ghana, a wing of the Ministry of Education and Culture, in 1958; the Research Library on African Affairs in June 1961; and the Ghana Film Corporation in 1964. In 1962, Nkrumah opened the Institute of African Studies.
A campaign against nudity in the northern part of the country received special attention from Nkrumah, who reportedly deployed Propaganda Secretary Hannah Cudjoe to respond. Cudjoe also formed the Ghana Women's League, which advanced the Party's agenda on nutrition, raising children, and wearing clothing. The League also led a demonstration against the detonation of French nuclear weapons in the Sahara. Cudjoe was eventually demoted with the consolidation of national women's groups, and marginalized within the Party structure.
Laws passed in 1959 and 1960 designated special positions in parliament to be held by women. Some women were promoted to the CPP Central Committee. Women attended more universities, took up more professions including medicine and law, and went on professional trips to Israel, the Soviet Union, and the Eastern Bloc. Women also entered the army and air force. Most women remained in agriculture and trade; some received assistance from the Co-operative Movement.
Nkrumah's image was widely disseminated, for example, on postage stamps and on money, in the style of monarchs – providing fodder for accusations of a Nkrumahist personality cult.
=== Media ===
In 1957, Nkrumah created a well-funded Ghana News Agency to generate domestic news and disseminate it abroad. In ten years time the GNA had 8045 km of domestic telegraph line, and maintained stations in Lagos, Nairobi, London and New York City.
Nkrumah consolidated state control over newspapers, establishing the Ghanaian Times in 1958 and then in 1962 obtaining its competitor, the Daily Graphic, from the Mirror Group of London. As he wrote in Africa Must Unite: "It is part of our revolutionary credo that within the competitive system of capitalism, the press cannot function in accordance with a strict regard for the sacredness of facts, and that the press, therefore, should not remain in private hands." Starting in 1960, he invoked the right of pre-publication censorship of all news.
The Gold Coast Broadcasting Service was established in 1954 and revamped as the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC). Many television broadcasts featured Nkrumah, commenting for example on the problematic "insolence and laziness of boys and girls". Before celebrations of May Day, 1963, Nkrumah went on television to announce the expansion of Ghana's Young Pioneers, the introduction of a National Pledge, the beginning of a National Flag salute in schools, and the creation of a National Training program to inculcate virtue and the spirit of service among Ghanaian youth. Nkrumah outlined his views on the role of Ghanaian television to Parliament on 15 October 1963 saying, "Ghana's television will not cater for cheap entertainment or commercialism; its paramount objective will be education in its broadest and purest sense."
As per the 1965 Instrument of Incorporation of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, the Minister of Information and Broadcasting had "powers of direction" over the media, and the President had the power "at any time, if he is satisfied that it is in the national interest to do so, take over the control and management of the affairs or any part of the functions of the Corporation," hiring, firing, reorganizing, and making other commands at will.
Radio programmes, designed in part to reach non-reading members of the public, were a major focus of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation. In 1961, the GBC formed an external service broadcasting in English, French, Arabic, Swahili, Portuguese and Hausa. Using four 100-kilowatt transmitters and two 250-kilowatt transmitters, the GBC External Service broadcast 110 hours of Pan-Africanist programming to Africa and Europe each week.
He refused advertising in all media, beginning with the Evening News of 1948.
=== Economic policy ===
The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with schools, railways, hospitals, social security, and an advanced economy.
Nkrumah attempted to rapidly industrialize Ghana's economy. He reasoned that if Ghana escaped the colonial trade system by reducing dependence on foreign capital, technology, and material goods, it could become truly independent.
After the Ten Year Development Plan, Nkrumah brought forth the Second Development Plan in 1959. This plan called for the development of manufacturing: 600 factories producing 100 varieties of product.
The Statutory Corporations Act, passed in November 1959 and revised in 1961 and 1964, created the legal framework for public corporations, which included state enterprises. This law placed the country's major corporations under the direction of government ministers. The State Enterprises Secretariat office was located in Flagstaff House and under the direct control of the president.
After visiting the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China in 1961, Nkrumah apparently became still more convinced of the need for state control of the economy.
During Nkrumah's time in office, free health care and education were introduced.
A Seven-Year Plan introduced in 1964 focused on further industrialization, emphasizing domestic substitutes for common imports, modernization of the building materials industry, machine making, electrification and electronics.
==== Energy projects ====
Nkrumah's advocacy of industrial development, with help of longtime friend and Minister of Finance, Komla Agbeli Gbedema, led to the Volta River Project: the construction of a hydroelectric power plant, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in eastern Ghana. The Volta River Project was the centrepiece of Nkrumah's economic programme. On 20 February 1958, he told the National Assembly: "It is my strong belief that the Volta River Project provides the quickest and most certain method of leading us towards economic independence." Ghana used assistance from the United States, Israel and the World Bank in constructing the dam.
Kaiser Aluminum agreed to build the dam for Nkrumah, but restricted what could be produced using the power generated. Nkrumah borrowed money to build the dam, and placed Ghana in debt. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. This accentuated regional differences and jealousy. The dam was completed and opened by Nkrumah amidst global publicity on 22 January 1966.
Nkrumah initiated the Ghana Nuclear Reactor Project in 1961, created the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission in 1963, and in 1964 laid the first stone in the building of an atomic energy facility.
==== Cocoa ====
In 1954 the world price of cocoa rose from £150 to £450 per ton. Rather than allowing cocoa farmers to keep the windfall, Nkrumah appropriated the increased revenue via central government levies, then invested the capital into various national development projects. This policy alienated one of the major constituencies that helped him come to power.
Prices continued to fluctuate. In 1960 one ton of cocoa sold for £250 in London. By August 1965 this price had dropped to £91, one fifth of its value ten years before. The quick price decline caused the government's reliance on the reserves and forced farmers to take a portion of their earning in bonds.
=== Foreign and military policy ===
Nkrumah actively promoted a policy of Pan-Africanism from the beginning of his presidency. This entailed the creation of a series of new international organizations, which held their inaugural meetings in Accra. These were:
the First Conference of Independent States, in April 1958;
the more inclusive All-African Peoples' Conference, with representatives from 62 nationalist organizations from across the continent, in December 1958;
the All-African Trade Union Federation, meeting in November 1959, to coordinate the African labour movement;
the Positive Action and Security in Africa conference, in April 1960, discussing Algeria, South Africa, and French nuclear weapons testing;
the Conference of African Women, on 18 July 1960.
Meanwhile, Ghana withdrew from colonial organizations including West Africa Airways Corporation, the West African Currency Board, the West African Cocoa Research Institute and the West African Court of Appeal.
In the Year of Africa, 1960, Nkrumah negotiated the creation of a Union of African States, a political alliance between Ghana, Guinea, and Mali. Immediately, they formed a women's group called Women of the Union of African States.
Nkrumah was a leading figure in the short-lived Casablanca Group of African leaders, which sought to achieve pan-African unity and harmony through deep political, economic, and military integration of the continent in the early 1960s prior to the establishment of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). In 1961, he was a participant in the 1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade, FPR Yugoslavia making Ghana one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Nkrumah was instrumental in the creation of the OAU in Addis Ababa in 1963. He aspired to create a united military force, the African High Command, which Ghana would substantially lead, and committed to this vision in Article 2 of the 1960 Republican Constitution:"In the confident expectation of an early surrender of sovereignty to a union of African states and territories, the people now confer on Parliament the power to provide for the surrender of the whole or any part of the sovereignty of Ghana."
He was also a proponent of the United Nations, but critical of the Great Powers' ability to control it.
Nkrumah opposed the entry of African states into the Common Market of the European Economic Community, a status given to many former French colonies and considered by Nigeria. Instead, Nkrumah advocated, in a speech given on 7 April 1960,
an African common market, a common currency area and the development of communications of all kinds to allow the free flow of goods and services. International capital can be attracted to such viable economic areas, but it would not be attracted to a divided and balkanized Africa, with each small region engaged in senseless and suicidal economic competition with its neighbours.
Nkrumah sought to exploit the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union in order to gain maximum concessions from both sides in their geopolitical attempts to outmanoeuvre one another in West Africa and elsewhere. This was exemplified by the Volta River Dam Project and its back-and-forth oscillation between Soviet and Western financial backing.
==== Armed forces ====
In 1956, the Gold Coast took control of the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF), Gold Coast Regiment, from the British War Office. This force had formerly been deployed to quell internal dissent, and occasionally to fight in wars: most recently, in World War II, against the Japanese in India and Burma. The most senior officers in this force were British, and, although training of African officers began in 1947, only 28 of 212 officers in December 1956 were indigenous Africans. The British officers still received British salaries, which vastly exceeded those allotted to their Ghanaian counterparts. Concerned about a possible military coup, Nkrumah delayed the placement of African officers in top leadership roles.
Nkrumah quickly established the Ghanaian Air Force, acquiring 14 Beaver airplanes from Canada and setting up a flight school with British instructors. Otters, Caribou, and Chipmunks were to follow. Ghana also obtained four Ilyushin-18 aircraft from the Soviet Union. Preparation began in April 1959 with assistance from India and Israel. Nkrumah also established a gliding school led by Hanna Reitsch and J.E.S. de Graft-Hayford.
The Ghanaian Navy received two inshore minesweepers with 40mm and 20mm guns, the Afadzato and the Yogaga, from Britain in December 1959. It subsequently received the Elmina and the Komenda, seaward defence boats with 40-millimetre guns. The Navy's flagship, and training ship, was the Achimota, a British yacht constructed during World War II. In 1961, the Navy ordered two 600-ton corvettes, the Keta and Kromantse, from Vosper & Company and received them in 1967. It also procured four Soviet patrol boats. Naval officers were trained at the Britannia Royal Naval College in Dartmouth. The Ghanaian military budget rose each year, from $9.35 million (US dollars) in 1958 to $47 million in 1965.
The first international deployment of the Ghanaian armed forces was to the Congo (Léopoldville/Kinshasa), where Ghanaian troops were airlifted in 1960 at the beginning of the Congo Crisis. One week after Belgian troops occupied the lucrative mining province of Katanga, Ghana dispatched more than a thousand of its own troops to join a United Nations force. The use of British officers in this context was politically unacceptable, and this event occasioned a hasty transfer of officer positions to Ghanaians. The Congo war was long and difficult. On 19 January 1961 the Third Infantry Battalion mutinied. On 28 April 1961, 43 men were massacred in a surprise attack by the Congolese army.
Ghana also gave military support to rebels fighting against Ian Smith's white-minority government in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), which had unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965.
==== Relationship with Communist world ====
In 1961, Nkrumah went on tour through Eastern Europe, proclaiming solidarity with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. Nkrumah's clothing changed to the Chinese-supplied Mao suit.
In 1962 Kwame Nkrumah was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize by the Soviet Union.
== 1966 coup d'état ==
In February 1966, while Nkrumah was on a state visit to North Vietnam and China, his government was overthrown in a violent coup d'état led by the national military and police forces, with backing from the civil service. The conspirators, led by Joseph Arthur Ankrah, named themselves the National Liberation Council and ruled as a military government for three years. Nkrumah did not learn of the coup until he arrived in China. After the coup, Nkrumah stayed in Beijing for four days, and Premier Zhou Enlai treated him with courtesy.
Nkrumah alluded to American involvement in the coup in his 1969 memoir, Dark Days in Ghana; he may have based this conclusion on documents shown to him by the KGB. In 1978 John Stockwell, former Chief of the Angola Task Force of the CIA turned critic, wrote that agents at the CIA's Accra station "maintained intimate contact with the plotters as a coup was hatched". Afterward, "inside CIA headquarters the Accra station was given full, if unofficial credit for the eventual coup. ...None of this was adequately reflected in the agency's written records." Later that same year, Seymour Hersh, then at The New York Times, defended Stockwell's account, citing "first hand intelligence sources". He claimed that "many CIA operatives in Africa considered the agency's role in the overthrow of Dr. Nkrumah to have been pivotal." These claims have never been verified.
Following the coup, Ghana realigned itself internationally, cutting its close ties to Guinea and the Eastern Bloc, accepting a new friendship with the Western Bloc, and inviting the International Monetary Fund and World Bank to take a leading role in managing the economy. With this reversal, accentuated by the expulsion of immigrants and a new willingness to negotiate with apartheid South Africa, Ghana lost a good deal of its stature in the eyes of African nationalists.
In assessing Nkrumah's legacy, Edward Luttwak argued that he was undone by the growth of political consciousness and his inability to repress potential opponents:
Nkrumah, in spite of his eccentricities, was largely defeated by his own success: the by-product of the considerable economic development achieved by Ghana was to stimulate and educate the masses and the new elite; their attitude to Nkrumah's regime became more and more critical in the light of the education the regime itself provided. When this happens, more and more repression and propaganda are needed to maintain political stability. In spite of considerable efforts, Nkrumah was unable to build a sufficiently ruthless police system. The cause of his downfall was not, therefore, the mismanagement of the economy—which was considerable—but rather the success of much of the development effort.
== Exile and death ==
Nkrumah died on 27 April 1972, in Bucharest, the capital of Romania, of an unknown but apparently incurable sickness. Since the coup, he had been living in the Guinean capital of Conakry, lying low.
== Tributes and legacy ==
Over his lifetime, Nkrumah was awarded honorary doctorates by many universities including Lincoln University (Pennsylvania), Moscow State University (USSR), Cairo University (Egypt), Jagiellonian University (Poland), and Humboldt University (East Germany).
In 2000, he was voted African Man of the Millennium by listeners to the BBC World Service, being described by the BBC as a "Hero of Independence", and an "International symbol of freedom as the leader of the first black African country to shake off the chains of colonial rule."
According to intelligence documents released by the U.S. Department of State's Office of the Historian, "Nkrumah was doing more to undermine [U.S. government] interests than any other black African."
In September 2009, President John Atta Mills declared 21 September (the 100th anniversary of Kwame Nkrumah's birth) to be Founders' Day, a statutory holiday in Ghana to celebrate the legacy of Kwame Nkrumah. In April 2019, President Akufo-Addo approved the Public Holidays (Amendment) Act 2019 which changed 21 September from Founders' Day to Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Day.
Nkrumah generally took a non-aligned Marxist perspective on economics, and believed capitalism had malignant effects that were going to stay with Africa for a long time. Although he was clear on distancing himself from the African socialism of many of his contemporaries, Nkrumah argued that socialism was the system that would best accommodate the changes that capitalism had brought, while still respecting African values. He specifically addresses these issues and his politics in a 1967 essay entitled "African Socialism Revisited":
We know that the traditional African society was founded on principles of egalitarianism. In its actual workings, however, it had various shortcomings. Its humanist impulse, nevertheless, is something that continues to urge us towards our all-African socialist reconstruction. We postulate each man to be an end in himself, not merely a means; and we accept the necessity of guaranteeing each man equal opportunities for his development. The implications of this for sociopolitical practice have to be worked out scientifically, and the necessary social and economic policies pursued with resolution. Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism. Hence, socialism. Hence, also, scientific socialism.
Nkrumah was also best-known politically for his strong commitment to and promotion of pan-Africanism. He was inspired by the writings of black intellectuals such as Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and George Padmore, and his relationships with them. Much of his understanding and relationship to these men was created during his years in America as a student. Some would argue that his greatest inspiration was Marcus Garvey, although he also had a meaningful relationship with C. L. R. James. Nkrumah looked to these men to craft a general solution to the ills of Africa. To follow in these intellectual footsteps Nkrumah had intended to continue his education in London, but found himself involved in direct activism. Then, motivated by advice from Du Bois, Nkrumah decided to focus on creating peace in Africa. He became a passionate advocate of the "African Personality", embodied in the slogan "Africa for the Africans", earlier popularised by Edward Wilmot Blyden, and he viewed political independence as a prerequisite for economic independence. Nkrumah's dedications to pan-Africanism in action attracted these intellectuals to his Ghanaian projects. Many Americans, such as Du Bois and Kwame Ture, moved to Ghana to join him in his efforts. Du Bois and Ture are buried there today. His press officer for six years was the Grenadian anticolonialist Sam Morris. Nkrumah's biggest success in this area was his significant influence in the founding of the Organisation of African Unity.
Nkrumah also became a symbol for black liberation in the United States. When in 1958 the Harlem Lawyers Association had an event in Nkrumah's honour, diplomat Ralph Bunche told him:
We salute you, Kwame Nkrumah, not only because you are Prime Minister of Ghana, although this is cause enough. We salute you because you are a true and living representation of our hopes and ideals, of the determination we have to be accepted fully as equal beings, of the pride we have held and nurtured in our African origin, of the freedom of which we know we are capable, of the freedom in which we believe, of the dignity imperative to our stature as men.
In 1961, Nkrumah delivered a speech called "I Speak Of Freedom". During this speech he talked about how "Africa could become one of the greatest forces for good in the world". He mentions how Africa is a land of "vast riches" with mineral resources from that "range from gold and diamonds to uranium and petroleum". Nkrumah says that the reason Africa is not thriving right now is because the European powers have been taking all the wealth for themselves. If Africa could be independent of European rule, he said, then it could truly flourish and contribute positively to the world. In the ending words of this speech Nkrumah calls his people to action by saying "This is our chance. We must act now. Tomorrow may be too late and the opportunity will have passed, and with it the hope of free Africa's survival". This rallied the nation in a nationalistic movement.
In his honour, an annual event called "Journey to Nkroful" was set up to celebrate his birthday. Mausoleum and Museum at Nkroful, Western Region have been named after him that showcase some of the artifacts he used when alive.
Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park & Museum, Accra has been there to keep memory of him. Also, University of Science and Technology was changed to Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology to recognise his support building a strong education system in the country.
== Personal life ==
Kwame Nkrumah married Fathia Ritzk, an Egyptian Coptic bank worker and former teacher, on the evening of her arrival in Ghana: New Year's Eve, 1957–1958. Fathia's mother refused to bless their marriage, after another one of her children left with a foreign husband.
As a married couple, Fathia and Nkrumah had three children: Gamal (born 1958), Samia (born 1960) and Sekou (born 1964). Gamal is a newspaper journalist, while Samia and Sekou are politicians. Nkrumah also has another son, Francis, a paediatrician (born 1935).
== Cultural depictions ==
In the 2010 book The Other Wes Moore, Nkrumah, during his time in the United States, is noted to have served as a mentor to the author's grandfather for several months upon the immigration of the author's family into the country.
Nkrumah is played by Danny Sapani in the Netflix television series The Crown (season 2, episode 8 "Dear Mrs Kennedy"). The show's portrayal of the historical significance of the Queen's visit to Ghana and dance with Nkrumah has been described as exaggerated in one source interviewing Nat Nuno-Amarteifio, later mayor of Accra, who was a teenage student at the time.
African's Black Star: The Legacy of Kwame Nkrumah is a 2011 film about the rise and fall of this colonial rebellion leader.
A golden statue of Nkrumah is a centrepiece in Ghanaian rapper Serious Klein's 2021 video "Straight Outta Pandemic".
Even though the state film archive was ordered to be burned after the coup, Nkrumah's personal cameraman Chris Hesse was able to preserve 1300 rolls of film which weren't revealed to the public until he was in his 90s. Hesse's attempts to screen the footage publicly were made into a documentary film, The Eyes of Ghana, that was produced by Barack and Michelle Obama and premiered at the 2025 Toronto International Film Festival.
== Honours and awards ==
=== Foreign honours ===
== Works by Kwame Nkrumah ==
"Negro History: European Government in Africa", The Lincolnian, 12 April 1938, p. 2 (Lincoln University, Pennsylvania) – see Special Collections and Archives, Lincoln University Archived 17 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
"Primitive Education in West Africa," Educational Outlook, January 1941 (University of Pennsylvania). See Archived 3 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine
"Education and Nationalism in Africa," Educational Outlook, November 1943 (University of Pennsylvania). See Archived 3 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine
Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (1957). ISBN 0-901787-60-4
Africa Must Unite (1963). ISBN 0-901787-13-2
African Personality (1963)
The essence of neo-colonialism is that the State which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside.
Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism (1965)
Axioms of Kwame Nkrumah (1967). ISBN 0-901787-54-X
African Socialism Revisited (1967)
Challenge of the Congo Archived 5 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine (1967)
Voice From Conakry (1967). ISBN 90-17-87027-3
Dark Days in Ghana (1968). ISBN 0-7178-0046-6
Handbook of Revolutionary Warfare (1968). ISBN 0-7178-0226-4
The Way Out, "Civilian Rule" Fraud and A Call for Positive Action and Armed Struggle (1970)
Consciencism: Philosophy and Ideology for De-Colonisation (1970). ISBN 0-901787-11-6
Class Struggle in Africa (1970). ISBN 0-901787-12-4
The Struggle Continues (1973). ISBN 0-901787-41-8
I Speak of Freedom (1973). ISBN 0-901787-14-0
Revolutionary Path (1973). ISBN 978-0-901787-22-4
== Festival ==
For details see Kwame Nkrumah Festival
== See also ==
Nkrumah government
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Addo, Ebenezer Obiri (1997). Kwame Nkrumah: A Case Study of Religion and Politics in Ghana. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-0785-8.
Birmingham, David (1998). Kwame Nkrumah: The Father of African Nationalism. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1242-8.
Bourret, F. M. (1960) [1949]. Ghana—The Road to Independence (Revised ed.). Stanford University Press. OCLC 414362.
Clarke, John Henrik (October 1974). "Kwame Nkrumah: His years in America". The Black Scholar. 6 (2): 9–16. doi:10.1080/00064246.1974.11431459. JSTOR 41065759. S2CID 141785632.
Fuller, Harcourt (2014). Building the Ghanaian Nation-State. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-44856-9.
Mazrui, Ali (2004). Nkrumah's Legacy and Africa's Triple Heritage Between Globalization and Counter Terrorism. Ghana Universities Press. ISBN 978-9964-3-0296-2.
Owusu-Ansah, David (2014). Biographical Dictionary of Ghana (4th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-7242-4.
Rooney, David (1988). Kwame Nkrumah: The Political Kingdom in the Third World. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-02479-6.
Sherwood, Marika (1996). Kwame Nkrumah: The Years Abroad 1935–1947. Freedom Publications. ISBN 978-9988-7716-0-7.
Thompson, W. Scott (1969). Ghana's Foreign Policy 1957–1966. Princeton University Press. OCLC 2616.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Faces of Africa Kwame Nkrumah Archived 5 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum and Museum at Nkroful, Western Region
Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park & Museum, Accra Archived 22 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Ghana-pedia Kwame Nkrumah
Ghana-pedia Operation Cold Chop: The Fall Of Kwame Nkrumah Archived 22 February 2025 at the Wayback Machine
Excerpt from Commanding Heights Archived 22 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine by Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw
Timeline of events related to the overthrow of Kwame Nkrumah
The Kwame Nkrumah Lectures at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, 2007 Archived 27 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Kwame Nkrumah Information and Resource Site Archived 16 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Ghana re-evaluates Nkrumah Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by The Global Post
Dr Kwame Nkrumah's Midnight Speech on the day of Ghana's independence – 6 March 1957.
Newsreel on First Conference of Independent African States Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine
"Father of Ghana's independence Kwame Nkrumah died 50 years ago • FRANCE 24 English" Archived 28 April 2024 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henriette_Wienecke | Henriette Wienecke | Sigrid Ingeborg Henriette Wienecke née Stadfeldt ( March 13, 1819 – April 18, 1907) was a Norwegian-Danish composer. She produced over 140 psalms and musical pieces.
== Biography ==
Wienecke was born in Frederikshald, Norway to Asgeir Johnson Stadfeldt (1786-1831) and Anna Bruun Tordenskjold (1781-1848).
Wienecke moved to Oslo with her mother after the death of her father, and in 1834 married her singing teacher, Friedrich Ferdinand Wienecke (1809-1877), who was employed by the Christiania Theater; the couple had one daughter, who died as an infant. Wienecke wanted to become an actress, but her husband did not consider it suitable for a person of her social class. She did, however, take piano lessons. The couple moved, with her mother, to Copenhagen in 1839, where both Friedrich and Henriette unsuccessfully tried to get jobs at the Royal Theater. In 1840, she moved permanently to Copenhagen with her mother and husband.
In 1848, after having lost her mother, she retired from social life, had a religious conversion, and started to compose psalms, and songs based on texts by Hans Christian Andersen and others. She and her husband became followers of N.F.S. Grundtvig and Nicolai Gottlieb Blædel (1816-1879), and hosted bible studies and religious concerts in their home.
She died at Gentofte, Denmark.
== Works ==
=== Theatre ===
Fader Vor (Our Father; text by Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock; music by Wienecke)
== Vocal ==
Aftensang (Evening Song)
Arne's Song (text by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson; music by Wienecke)
Compositions for Voice and Piano (2 Volumes containing134 songs)
Dannebrogslied (Flag of Denmark Song)
De Tvende Draaker (The Second Dragon)
God, My God
Gud Tilgive Dig (God Forgive You)
Hvidtfeld
Koenig Christian
Maria Magdalene (text by H. H. Nyegaard; music by Wienecke)
Min Lille Fugl (My Little Bird)
Se Jeg Vil Sende Min Engel (I Will Send My Angel)
Sorg (Grief; text by P. E. Benzon; music by Wienecke)
To Psalmer (Psalms; arranged for 4 voices and for voice and piano)
Tre Psalmer (Three Hymns)
Vinterfuglen (Winter Bird)
== References ==
This article was initially translated from the Danish Wikipedia. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey#:~:text=In%201988%2C%20she%20purchased%20an,Indiana%20as%20her%20weekend%20refuge. | Oprah Winfrey | Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Globally, she is the richest Black woman and the wealthiest female celebrity. Dubbed the "Queen of All Media", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century and was once the world's only Black billionaire. By 2007, she was often ranked as the most influential woman in the world.
Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company.
Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. She has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, and has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In the same year, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.
In 1994, Winfrey was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Then in October, she finished the Marine Corps Marathon in less than four and a half hours. She has received honorary doctorate degrees from multiple universities. Winfrey has won many awards throughout her career, including 19 Daytime Emmy Awards (including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award), 2 Primetime Emmy Awards (including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award), a Tony Award, a Peabody Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award awarded by the Academy Awards, in addition to two competitive Academy Award nominations. Winfrey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021.
== Early life ==
Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to a teenaged mother, Vernita Lee, and father Vernon Winfrey. Winfrey's parents never married. Vernita Lee (1935–2018) was a housemaid. Vernon Winfrey (1933–2022) was a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, from the area that became Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian.
After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. Her grandmother, a believer in the adage "spare the rod, spoil the child," beat her almost daily.
At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Her mother had little time for Oprah as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia, who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of eight, she was baptized in a Baptist church.
Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. A biographer alleged that when Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home.
When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990.
Winfrey attended Lincoln Middle and High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with her father in Nashville, although this time, she did not take her daughter back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation. In 1986, Winfrey said, "'When my father took me, it changed the course of my life. He saved me. He simply knew what he wanted and expected. He would take nothing less'".
Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store. At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time. She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college. Winfrey won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality. It was only then Winfrey earned her degree.
Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself".
== Television ==
Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars.
In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago, after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies. It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988:
Few people would have bet on Oprah Winfrey's swift rise to host of the most popular talk show on TV. In a field dominated by white males, she is a black female of ample bulk. As interviewers go, she is no match for, say, Phil Donahue ... What she lacks in journalistic toughness, she makes up for in plainspoken curiosity, robust humor and, above all empathy. Guests with sad stories to tell are apt to rouse a tear in Oprah's eye ... They, in turn, often find themselves revealing things they would not imagine telling anyone, much less a national TV audience. It is the talk show as a group therapy session.
TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular." Newsday's Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world" and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots."
In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals.
In addition to her talk show, Winfrey moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994 and also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen, which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey Show, Dr. Phil, Rachael Ray, The Dr. Oz Show and many others.
Dr. Phil has been criticized as being at best, simplistic and, at worst, ineffective or harmful. The National Alliance on Mental Illness has called Dr. Phil's conduct "unethical" and "incredibly irresponsible". Dr. Oz (Mehmet Oz) has been criticized by various medical publications and physicians for spreading pseudoscience Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), One website, Science-Based Medicine, said "No other show on television can top The Dr. Oz Show for the sheer magnitude of bad health advice it consistently offers, all while giving everything a veneer of credibility".
Multiple publications have called on Winfrey to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure.
On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011.
The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011.
In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018.
In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+. The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world".
=== Celebrity interviews ===
In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview called, Michael Jackson Talks ... to Oprah with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple, which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening," said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City.
In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women," but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009.
In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club", referring to the controversy around James Frey's A Million Little Pieces.
In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention.
In 2024, ABC aired a new television special titled "AI and the Future of Us: An Oprah Winfrey Special". The one-hour show aimed to delve into the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on daily life. It featured interviews with prominent figures from the tech industry, including OpenAI CEO Sam Altman and Bill Gates.
== Other media ==
=== Film ===
Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandiwe Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role.
In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO.
In 2013, Winfrey starred in the film The Butler directed by Lee Daniels. Though her performance garnered significant Oscar buzz, she was not nominated for the award.
Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery.
In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a Native American origin tale.
=== Publishing and writing ===
Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton.
In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016.
Winfrey publishes the magazine Oprah Daily and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home. In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry. Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent to 2.4 million from 2005 to 2008, the January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women. In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue. In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition".
=== Online ===
Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week. Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List", through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured.
=== Radio ===
On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year.
== Personal life ==
=== Homes ===
Oprah's extensive and continuously evolving real-estate portfolio has garnered heightened attention throughout her life and career, with many prominent industry outlets branding her a "tycoon" regarding her investments which as of 2022, are estimated to total approximately $127 million.
As her talk show was beginning, Oprah first purchased a condominium in Chicago's Water Tower Place in 1985, before purchasing the condos adjoining and directly below it in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. In 1988, she purchased an 164-acre property including main and guest residences, orchard, and stables in Rolling Prairie, Indiana as her weekend refuge. In 1992, she purchased an 80-acre compound in Telluride, Colorado, which she would go on to sell in approximately late 2000. In 1994, she also purchased an apartment at the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago. Between 1996 and 2000 she purchased a total of five condos in different development areas of Fisher Island, Florida. In 2000, through her Chicago-based LLC Overground Railroad, Oprah purchased her friend Gayle King an estate in Greenwich, Connecticut. In 2001, Oprah sold all five of her Fisher Island condos and purchased what would become her "main home base" she has also called "The Promised Land" (where she currently lives as of 2022), a (then) 42-acre (17 ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California.
Additionally that year, she also purchased homes in both Elmwood Park, Illinois and Merrillville, Indiana for other family members and friends. Similarly, in 2002, she purchased her father's home in Franklin, Tennessee and a lakefront condo in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2003 she listed her compound in Rolling Prairie, Indiana, and sold it in 2004. From 2003 to 2005, Oprah acquired several properties totaling 163 acres in Kula and Hana, Hawaii as well as a penthouse apartment in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, she purchased a home in Douglasville, Georgia which was gifted in 2011 to a family member.
In 2006, Oprah purchased a co-op apartment along Lake Shore Drive in downtown Chicago, reportedly with plans to permanently move there from her prior adjoined-condo unit in Water Tower Place for the duration of her show; for reasons unknown, the property sat entirely unused until she sold it in 2012. In 2008, she sold her penthouse apartment in Atlanta. That year, she also listed Gayle King's estate and purchased her (through her second LLC Sophie's Penthouse) a penthouse apartment in midtown Manhattan, New York City which would later be sold in 2012.
In early 2014, she listed her combined-unit Chicago duplex on the market. Later that year, Oprah came back to Telluride, Colorado to purchase a 60-acre lot with plans to build on the property. A lawsuit filed against her that year by a retired nuclear physicist living in the area regarding trail access rights was dismissed later that year with the judge citing little case law to support his case, among other issues. The extent of the agreement between all the parties and jurisdictions regarding her subsequent development on the property remains undisclosed.
In 2015, Oprah purchased another property in Telluride, and later that year, expanded her Montecito compound with another 23-acre estate and yet another 44-acre dedicated crop and equestrian preserve. That year she also sold both of her downtown Chicago homes.
In 2018, Oprah obtained two adjoining parcels of land totaling 23 acres including the Madroneagle compound on Orcas Island, Washington and sold her last home property in the Chicago area from Elmwood Park. In late 2019, Oprah yet again expanded her Montecito home-base compound, this time to 70 contiguous acres, with the purchase of a four-acre complex from actor Jeff Bridges. In 2021, she sold her Orcas Island compound as she said she was too busy to use it and purchased another compound in Montecito further away from her home-base compound, flipping the latter in 2022 with split properties, one of which was sold to her property manager and longtime personal trainer Bob Greene, and the other to actress Jennifer Aniston. In 2023, Winfrey also purchased 870 acres of land in Maui for $6.6 million.
=== Romantic history ===
Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student. The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide. She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year.
In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to-die-for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her". Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other," Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget."
In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship.
When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best," Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had."
According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it."
According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval."
Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man."
Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship.
In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication.
In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham.
Winfrey and her partner Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place.
=== Close friends ===
Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay," Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?" "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please."
Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida.
=== Personal wealth ===
Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400. By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen; namely, "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon". Winfrey was the highest-paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million.
Forbes' list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003. One of the richest celebrities ever, as of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America.
=== Religious views ===
Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again.
She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything." She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing."
Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28.
Oprah attends The Potter's House, an Evangelical church in Dallas.
=== Other ===
After the loss of her infant child at age 14, Winfrey did not want more children. In a 2017 interview with Vanity Fair, she explained "I didn't want babies. I wouldn't have been a good mom for babies. I don't have the patience. I have the patience for puppies but that's a quick stage!"
== Influence ==
=== Rankings ===
Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and TIME, "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator, "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions.
At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman". In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013.
As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008. She has been listed as one of the world's 100 most powerful women by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014 and 31st in 2023. In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list.
Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story." Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful."
In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".
In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame.
=== "Oprahfication" ===
The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives."
Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics". Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create."
The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality."
==== Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people ====
While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it. Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki Lake, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back, Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high-impact media visibility for gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones, Oprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week." Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media.
In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) came out as a lesbian.
=== "The Oprah Effect" ===
The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books."
When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy". After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement," claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. Phil, The Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect".
=== Politics ===
Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news.
Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president," with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House.
In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages.
Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a "demagogue". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States.
Winfrey has at times been the subject of media speculation that she may run for president herself, most notably in the lead-up to the 2020 election in which some reports claimed that she was actively considering launching a campaign for the Democratic nomination. Winfrey ultimately denied any plans to run for president, saying in 2018 that while it was "a humbling thing to have people think you can run the country", she "would not be able to do it. It's not a clean business. It would kill me." Winfrey suggested that she would publicly endorse a candidate in the 2020 Democratic primaries, however she ultimately did not do so. She later campaigned for Joe Biden during the general election.
In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States.
In the 2022 Pennsylvania Senate election, Winfrey endorsed Democrat John Fetterman over Republican Mehmet Oz, whose show she promoted. In the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, she endorsed Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary, co-hosting a virtual fundraiser for him in June. Winfrey later attended and spoke at Moore's gubernatorial inauguration on January 18, 2023.
In 2022, Winfrey set up OWN Your Vote, a nonpartisan group dedicated to voter registration and a get-out-the-vote campaign focused on providing Black women with tools and resources to vote in the November election. Their partners include Advancement Project, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Color Of Change, Delta Sigma Theta sorority, The King Center, The Lawyers' Committee, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, National Action Network, National Bar Association, National Council of Negro Women, Sigma Gamma Rho, Southern Poverty Law Center, VoteRunLead, and Vote.org.
On August 21, 2024, Winfrey endorsed Kamala Harris in the 2024 United States presidential election at the 2024 Democratic National Convention.
=== Spiritual leadership ===
In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality." The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah. Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary.
In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites.
On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the war on terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed.
Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day." In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question." Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president.
A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war.
In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The Secret. The Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God." Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought".
Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried.
In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward".
On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree."
=== Fan base ===
The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest-rated talk show.
In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans.
Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab world. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia. In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her.
=== Philanthropy ===
In 2004, Winfrey became the first Black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes.
As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006.
In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year.
Winfrey purchased 2,130 acres of land in Maui and set up a bed and breakfast for entertaining friends as well as a (unprofitable) organic farm; she is dedicated to keeping the area unoccupied and growing native species to aid in the restoration of damaged watersheds. She distributed pillows, diapers and other supplies to survivors of a devastating fire and, with Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, set up the People’s Fund of Maui, personally donating $25 million of her own towards the cause.
==== Oprah's Angel Network ====
In 1998, Winfrey created Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down.
==== South Africa ====
In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, "Oprah's Christmas Kindness", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school, set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, a theatre, and a beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you." Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.
== Filmography ==
== Bibliography ==
By Oprah Winfrey
Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own Words
Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan)
Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene)
Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a Superstar
Winfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for Sure
Winfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace)
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and Happiness
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of Sundays
Winfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and Purpose
Winfrey, Oprah (2021). What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing (co-authored with B. Perry)
== Awards, honors, and recognition ==
American Library Association Honorary Membership (1997)
Honorary degrees from: Princeton University, Howard University, Duke University, Harvard University, University of Massachusetts Lowell, University of the Free State, Tennessee State University, Spelman College, Colorado College, Smith College, Skidmore College
Mural including her image by Shawn Michael Warren in Chicago (painted in 2020)
Portrait of her by Shawn Michael Warren for the National Portrait Gallery (unveiled in 2023)
== See also ==
African Americans in Mississippi
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Mair, George (1994). Oprah Winfrey: The Real Story. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 1-55972-250-9. (Mair (1995). updated.) (updated 2001)
Moore, Michael (2003). Dude, Where's My Country?. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-53223-1.
Cooper, Irene (2007). Oprah Winfrey. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-06162-4.
== External links ==
Official website
Oprah Winfrey at IMDb
NPR "Oprah: The Billionaire Everywoman". Audio file, video and biography. Retrieved September 17, 2010
Works by Oprah Winfrey at Open Library
Oprah Winfrey (Archived February 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine)—Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
Appearances on C-SPAN
Watching Oprah (Archived April 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine)—Smithsonian exhibition on the Oprah Show and Winfrey |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Society_Against_Environmental_Pollution | Women's Society Against Environmental Pollution | The Women's Society Against Environmental Pollution (WSAEP, Persian: جامعه زنان در برابر آلودگی محیط زیست) is a non-governmental women's and environmental rights organisation based in Iran.
== History ==
The organisation was founded in 1993 by Mahlagha Mallah, a retired librarian from the University of Tehran, and Victoria Jamali, an expert on environmental law. Mallah's work began investigation pollution in Tehran in 1978, she then approached foreign embassies in the city in order to research international environmental movements. The 1979 Revolution and the Iran-Iraq War halted environmental progress in Iran. However by 1993, Mallah and her husband had established the society and in 1995 it was registered with the Ministry of the Interior, moving to registration with the Department of Environment. This registration enables the organisation to work openly, but is not an endorsement by the government, however it does prohibit WSAEP from criticising it. This means that their campaigns are phrased as "technical" rather than political issues.
The first WSAEP branch was established in Isfahan. Although WSAEP is a society which emphasises the role that women play in environmental issues, men can also be members.
== Campaigns ==
WSAEP has campaigned for better air quality in Tehran since 2001, advocating for a reduction in the number of old cars on the road and a ban on cars to driven if they only have the driver in them. The Society organised demonstrations which also involved local children. Under the influence of Victoria Jamali, the Society has campaigned for western-style environmental laws. They also produce free educational resources, aiming to improve public awareness of the environmental challenges Iran faces.
Working with women to create goods from recycled materials is another strand of WSAEP's work. The society emphasises the importance of women since they control what happens in households, where key decisions about recycling and pollution rest. WSAEP has also been instrumental in campaigning for a family-planning programme in Iran.
The organisation publishes the journal فرياد زامين(Faryad-e-Zamin - Cry of the Earth), which is edited by Victoria Jamali. As of 2015, it had educated over 25,000 families in recycling and waste management. It established a young people's programme – the Earth's Fans Society – which provides environmental education in schools and kindergartens. They have worked with universities to ratify the inclusion of an optional course in environmental management in degrees, as well as providing training for civil servants in rural areas.
== Awards ==
In 2016, the Isfahan WSAEP branch was awarded Iran's National Environmental Award.
== Legacy ==
However, the work of WSAEP has been described as "non-threatening" to the government, despite their efficiency in the field they do campaign in.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Dimitrov#:~:text=Death,-The%20new%2Dbuilt&text=Dimitrov%20died%20on%202%20July%201949%20in%20the%20Barvikha%20sanatorium%20near%20Moscow. | Georgi Dimitrov | Georgi Dimitrov Mihaylov (; Bulgarian: Георги Димитров Михайлов) also known as Georgiy Mihaylovich Dimitrov (Russian: Георгий Михайлович Димитров; 18 June 1882 – 2 July 1949), was a Bulgarian communist politician who served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party from 1933 to 1949, and the first leader of the Communist People's Republic of Bulgaria from 1946 to 1949. From 1935 to 1943, he was the General Secretary of the Communist International.
Born in western Bulgaria, Dimitrov worked as a printer and trade unionist during his youth. He was elected to the Bulgarian parliament as a socialist during the First World War and campaigned against his country's involvement in the conflict, which led to his brief imprisonment for sedition. In 1919, he helped found the Bulgarian Communist Party. Two years later, he moved to the Soviet Union and was elected to the executive committee of Profintern. In 1923, Dimitrov led a failed communist uprising against the government of Aleksandar Tsankov and was subsequently forced into exile. He lived in the Soviet Union until 1929, at which time he relocated to Germany and became head of the Comintern operations in central Europe.
Dimitrov rose to international prominence in the aftermath of the 1933 Reichstag fire trial. Accused of plotting the arson, he refused counsel and mounted an eloquent defence against his Nazi accusers, in particular Hermann Göring, ultimately winning acquittal. After the trial he relocated to Moscow and was elected head of Comintern.
In 1946, Dimitrov returned to Bulgaria after 22 years in exile and was elected prime minister of the newly founded People's Republic of Bulgaria. He negotiated with Josip Broz Tito to create a federation of Southern Slavs, which led to the 1947 Bled accord. The plan ultimately fell apart over differences regarding the future of the joint country as well as the Macedonian question, and was completely abandoned following the fallout between Stalin and Tito. Dimitrov died after a short illness in 1949 in Barvikha near Moscow. His embalmed body was housed in the Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum in Sofia until its removal in 1990; the mausoleum was demolished in 1999.
== Early life ==
The first of eight children, Dimitrov was born in Kovachevtsi, in present-day Pernik Province, to refugee parents from Ottoman Macedonia (a mother from Bansko and a father from Razlog). His father was a rural craftsman, forced by industrialisation to become a factory worker. His mother, Parashkeva Doseva, was a Protestant Christian, and his family is sometimes described as Protestant. The family moved to Radomir and then to Sofia. Several of Georgi's siblings engaged in leftist political activities. His brother Nikola moved to Russia and joined the Bolsheviks in Odessa. In 1908, Nikola was arrested and exiled to Siberia where he died in 1916. Georgi's brother Konstantin became a trade union leader but was killed in the First Balkan War in 1912. One of his sisters, Lena, married a future communist leader, Valko Chervenkov.
Dimitrov was sent to Sunday school by his mother, who wanted him to be a pastor, but he was expelled at age 12. He then trained as a compositor, and became active in the labor movement in the Bulgarian capital. By age 15, he was an active trade union member. By age 18 in 1900, he was secretary of the Sofia branch of the printers' union.
== Career ==
Dimitrov joined the Bulgarian Social Democratic Workers' Party in 1902. The following year he allied himself with Dimitar Blagoev and the faction that formed the Social Democratic Labour Party of Bulgaria ("The Narrow Party", or tesniaks). In 1919, this party became the Bulgarian Communist Party when it affiliated with Bolshevism and the Comintern. From 1904 to 1923, Dimitrov was Secretary of the General Trade Unions Federation, which the Narrows controlled.
In 1911, he spent a month in prison for libeling an official of the rival Free Federation of Trade Unions, whom he accused of strike-breaking. In 1913, he was elected to the Bulgarian Parliament. He opposed government policies in the Balkan Wars and World War I. In 1915, he voted against awarding new war credits and denounced Bulgarian nationalism, for which he received short prison sentences. In summer 1917, after he intervened in defense of wounded soldiers who were being ordered by an officer to clear out of a first-class railway carriage, Dimitrov was charged with incitement to mutiny, stripped of his parliamentary immunity, and imprisoned on 29 August 1918. Released in 1919, he went underground and made two failed attempts to visit Russia, finally reaching Moscow in February 1921. He returned to Bulgaria later in 1921, but then travelled again to Moscow and was elected in December 1922 to the Executive Bureau of Profintern, the communist trade union international.
In June 1923, when Bulgarian Prime Minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski was deposed through a coup d'état, Dimitrov and Khristo Kabakchiev, the leading communists in Bulgaria at the time, resolved not to take sides, a decision condemned by the Comintern as a "political capitulation" brought on by the party's "dogmatic-doctrinaire approach". After Vasil Kolarov had been sent from Moscow to impose a change in the Bulgarian party line, Dimitrov accepted the Comintern's authority. In September 1923, he and Kolarov led the failed uprising against the regime of Aleksandar Tsankov, which cost the lives of possibly five thousand communist supporters during the fighting and the reprisals which followed. Despite its failure, the attempt was approved by the Comintern, and secured the positions of Kolarov and Dimitrov – who escaped via Yugoslavia to Vienna – as the joint leaders of the Bulgarian CP.
The political struggle in Bulgaria intensified in 1925. Dimitrov's only surviving brother, Todor, was arrested and killed that year by royal police. After the April 1925 St Nedelya Church assault, which was a terrorist bomb attack carried out by members of the Bulgarian CP, Dimitrov was tried in absentia in May 1926 and sentenced to death, although he had not approved the attack. Living under pseudonyms, he remained in the Soviet Union until 1929, when he was ousted from his Bulgarian CP leadership role by a faction of younger, more left-wing activists. Dimitrov then relocated to Germany where he was given charge of the Central European section of the Comintern. In 1932, he was appointed Secretary General of the World Committee Against War and Fascism, replacing Willi Münzenberg.
== Leipzig trial ==
Dimitrov was living in Berlin in early 1933 when Adolf Hitler and the Nazis took power. On the night of 27 February, the German parliament building, the Reichstag, was severely damaged in an arson attack. A Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was found near the scene of the crime and presumed to be the culprit. Hitler quickly blamed a Communist conspiracy for the arson, and the Nazis proceeded to make mass arrests. On 9 March, Dimitrov was arrested based on the evidence of a waiter who claimed to have seen "three Russians" (in reality, Dimitrov and two other Bulgarians, Vasil Tanev, and Blagoy Popov, both of whom were members of the faction that had supplanted Dimitrov in the Bulgarian Communist Party) talking in a cafe with Van der Lubbe. Dimitrov would remain in Nazi detention until the following February. His diary entries during this period tended to be "dry and elliptical, and occasionally obscure" since he knew they would be subject to examination by his captors.
The Reichstag fire trial lasted from September to December 1933. Because it occurred at the Reich Supreme Court in Leipzig, it is often referred to as the Leipzig Trial. Dimitrov decided to refuse counsel and defend himself against his Nazi accusers, most famously Hermann Göring. Dimitrov used the trial as an opportunity to defend the Communist ideology. Explaining why he chose to speak in his own defense, Dimitrov said:
I admit that my tone is hard and grim. The struggle of my life has always been hard and grim. My tone is frank and open. I am used to calling a spade a spade. I am no lawyer appearing before this court in the mere way of his profession. I am defending myself, an accused Communist. I am defending my political honor, my honor as a revolutionary. I am defending my Communist ideology, my ideals. I am defending the content and significance of my whole life. For these reasons every word which I say in this court is a part of me, each phrase is the expression of my deep indignation against the unjust accusation, against the putting of this anti-Communist crime, the burning of the Reichstag, to the account of the Communists.
Dimitrov's calm conduct of his defence, and the accusations he directed at his prosecutors, won him world renown. In Europe, a popular saying spread across the Continent: "There is only one brave man in Germany, and he is a Bulgarian." Among those impressed with Dimitrov was the noted U.S. attorney Arthur Garfield Hays, co-founder of the American Civil Liberties Union. Hays attended the Leipzig Trial and devoted a chapter to it in his 1942 autobiography. In an oft-quoted passage, Hays wrote of Dimitrov:I have never seen such a magnificent exhibition of moral courage. The man was not only brave but reckless, and selflessly so. Whenever he got to his feet, he would by force of his personality place the court, the prosecutors, the German audience, and the Nazis on the defensive. This striking characterization was cited in multiple American newspaper reviews of Hays' book and helped introduce Dimitrov's name throughout the U.S.
On 23 December 1933, the verdicts were read. While Van der Lubbe was found guilty and sentenced to death, the judge acquitted Dimitrov, Tanev, and Popov because of insufficient evidence to connect them to what the judge was convinced was a conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag. The three Bulgarians were expelled from Germany and sent to the USSR.
== Head of Comintern ==
When Dimitrov arrived in Moscow on 28 February 1934, he was encouraged by Joseph Stalin to end the practice of denouncing Social Democrats as 'social fascists', practically indistinguishable from actual fascists, and to instead promote "united front" tactics against the threat of European fascism. In April, as Dimitrov's fame grew in the wake of the Leipzig Trial, he was appointed a member of the Executive of Comintern and of its political secretariat, in charge of the Anglo-American and Central European sections. He was being groomed to take control of the Comintern from two of the so-called "Old Bolsheviks", Iosif Pyatnitsky and Wilhelm Knorin, who had held the position since 1923. Finally, in 1934, Stalin chose Dimitrov to head the international organization. At this point, Tzvetan Todorov writes, Dimitrov "became part of the Soviet leader's inner circle."
From 25 July to 20 August 1935, the 7th World Congress of the Communist International met in Moscow. Dimitrov was the dominant presence; he was elected the Comintern's General Secretary. His impassioned anti-fascist speeches at the Congress were transcribed and published in a September 1935 pamphlet, The United Front Against Fascism, which went through numerous editions over the ensuing years.
During the Great Purge in the Soviet Union, Dimitrov knew about the mass arrests, but did almost nothing. In November 1937, he was told by Stalin to lure the German communist Willi Münzenberg to the USSR so that he could be arrested. Dimitrov did not object and did as he was told. He noted in his diary when Julian Leszczyński, Henryk Walecki, and several members of his staff were arrested, but again did nothing, though he did raise questions when the NKVD representative in Comintern, Mikhail Trilisser, was arrested.
== Leader of Bulgaria ==
In 1946, Dimitrov returned to Bulgaria after 22 years in exile. After a referendum abolished the monarchy in September, Bulgaria was declared a people's republic. Later that year, he succeeded Kimon Georgiev as Prime Minister, though Dimitrov had already been the most powerful man in the country since the monarchy was abolished two months earlier. He retained his Soviet citizenship.
One of Dimitrov's first acts as Prime Minister was to negotiate with Josip Broz Tito on the creation of a Federation of the Southern Slavs. The Bulgarian and Yugoslav Communist leaderships had been discussing this matter since November 1944. The idea was based on the fact that Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were the only two homelands of the Southern Slavs, and were separated from the rest of the Slavic world. The idea eventually resulted in the 1947 Bled accord, signed by Dimitrov and Tito, which called for abandoning frontier travel barriers, arranging for a future customs union, and having Yugoslavia unilaterally forgive Bulgarian war reparations. The preliminary plan for the federation included the incorporation of the Blagoevgrad Region ("Pirin Macedonia") into the People's Republic of Macedonia and the return of the Western Outlands from Serbia to Bulgaria. In anticipation of this, Bulgaria accepted teachers from Yugoslavia who started to teach the newly codified Macedonian language in the schools in Pirin Macedonia, and also issued an order that the Bulgarians of the Blagoevgrad Region should claim а Macedonian identity.
However, differences soon emerged between Dimitrov and Tito with regard to both the future joint country and the Macedonian question. Whereas Dimitrov envisaged a state where Yugoslavia and Bulgaria would be placed on an equal footing and Macedonia would be more or less attached to Bulgaria, Tito saw Bulgaria as a seventh republic in an enlarged Yugoslavia tightly ruled from Belgrade. Their differences also extended to the national character of the Macedonians; whereas Dimitrov considered them to be an offshoot of the Bulgarians, Tito regarded them as an independent nation of people who had nothing whatsoever to do with the Bulgarians. The initial tolerance for the Macedonization of Pirin Macedonia gradually grew into outright alarm.
By January 1948, Tito's plans to annex Bulgaria and Albania had become an obstacle to policy of the Cominform and the other Eastern Bloc countries. In December 1947, Enver Hoxha and an Albanian delegation were invited to a high-level meeting in Bulgaria. Dimitrov was aware of the subversive activity of Koçi Xoxe and other pro-Yugoslav Albanian officials. He told Enver Hoxha during the meeting: "Look here, Comrade Enver, keep the Party pure! Let it be revolutionary, proletarian and everything will go well with you!"
After the initial rupture, Stalin invited Dimitrov and Tito to Moscow regarding the recent incident. Dimitrov accepted the invitation, but Tito refused, and sent his close associate Edvard Kardelj instead. The resulting rift between Stalin and Tito in 1948 gave the Bulgarian Government an eagerly-awaited opportunity of denouncing Yugoslav policy in Macedonia as expansionistic, and of revising its policy on the Macedonian question. The ideas of a Balkan Federation and a United Macedonia were abandoned, the Macedonian teachers were expelled and the teaching of Macedonian throughout the province was discontinued. At the 5th Congress of the Bulgarian Workers' Party (Communists), Dimitrov accused Tito of "nationalism" and hostility towards the internationalist communists, specifically the Soviet Union. Despite the fallout, Yugoslavia did not reverse its position on renouncing Bulgarian war reparations, as defined in the 1947 Bled accord.
== Personal life ==
In 1906, Dimitrov married his first wife, Serbian emigrant milliner, writer and socialist Ljubica Ivošević, with whom he lived until her death in 1933. While in the Soviet Union, Dimitrov married his second wife, the Czech-born Roza Yulievna Fleishmann (1896–1958), who gave birth to his only son, Mitya, in 1936. The boy died at age seven of diphtheria. While Mitya was alive, Dimitrov adopted Fani, a daughter of Wang Ming, the acting General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 1931. He and his wife adopted another child, Boiko Dimitrov, born 1941.
== Death ==
Dimitrov died on 2 July 1949 in the Barvikha sanatorium near Moscow. The speculation that he had been poisoned has never been confirmed, although his health seemed to deteriorate quite abruptly. The supporters of the poisoning theory claim that Stalin did not like the "Balkan Federation" idea of Dimitrov and his closeness with Tito.
After the funeral, Dimitrov's body was embalmed and placed on display in Sofia's Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum. After the end of Communist rule in Bulgaria, his body was buried in Sofia's central cemetery in 1990. His mausoleum was demolished in 1999.
== Legacy ==
=== Armenia ===
A statue in the village of Dimitrov, named in his honour in 1949.
=== Benin ===
A large painted statue of Dimitrov survives in the centre of Place Bulgarie in Cotonou, Republic of Benin, decades after the country abandoned Marxism–Leninism and the colossal statue of Vladimir Lenin was removed from Place Lenine.
=== Bulgaria ===
Dimitrovgrad, Bulgaria
Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum 1949–1999
=== Cambodia ===
There is also an avenue (#114) named for him in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
=== Cuba ===
A main avenue in the Nuevo Holguin neighborhood, which was built during the 1970s and 1980s in the city of Holguín is named after him.
Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias Jorge Dimitrov in Bayamo is named after him.
IPUEC Jorge Dimitrov (Ceiba 7) school in Caimito
Primary School Escuela Primaria Jorge Dimitrov in Havana
=== East Germany ===
In then-East Berlin's Pankow district, a street that since 1874 had been named Danziger Straße — after the formerly German city Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) — was in 1950 renamed Dimitroffstraße (Dimitrov Street) by the Communist East German regime. It also lent its name to an U-Bahn station. After German unification, the Berlin Senate in 1995 restored the street's name to Danziger Straße, and the U-Bahn station was renamed Eberswalder Straße.
=== England ===
In July 1982, there was a centennial celebration of Dimitrov's birth held at Mahatma Gandhi Hall in London. A lecture from the event was printed in the pamphlet, Georgi Dimitrov: Fighter Against Fascism.
=== Greece ===
In 1974, the song Mavra Korakia along with 20 songs of album "Antartika" (The Guerilla [Songs]) were published by Notis Mavroudis and Petros Pandis, as part of the return of KKE in Greece during the Metapolitefsi. The song is a glorification of the Leipzig Trial of Dimitrov, Tanev and Popov, emphasising Dimitrov's ability to avoid hanging. It is widely sung in the left-wing circles of Greek society.
=== Hungary ===
The square Fővám tér and the street Máriaremetei út in Budapest, Hungary were named after Dimitrov between 1949 and 1991. In the square, a bust of him was erected in 1954, replaced by a full-length statue in 1983, which was then relocated to the eponymous street a year later. Both sculptures are exhibited since 1992 in the Memento Park.
Szentlőrincpuszta, part of Érsekvadkert was called Dimitrovpuszta (Dimitrov Plains) between 1955 and the late 1990s.
=== Italy ===
There is a Georgi Dimitrov street in the city of Reggio Emilia, Emilia Romagna administrative region.
=== Nicaragua ===
The Sandinista government of Nicaragua renamed one of Managua's central neighbourhoods "Barrio Jorge Dimitrov" to commemorate him during that country's revolution in the 1980s.
=== Romania ===
In Bucharest, a boulevard was named after him (Bulevardul Dimitrov). In 1990, following the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, this boulevard was renamed in honor of the former Romanian King Ferdinand I (Bulevardul Ferdinand).
=== Russia ===
Dimitrovgrad, Russia
In Novosibirsk a large street leading to a bridge over the Ob River are both named after him. The bridge was opened in 1978.
=== Serbia ===
Dimitrovgrad, Serbia (see below)
=== Slovakia ===
During the times of the communist rule, an important chemical factory in Bratislava was called "Chemické závody Juraja Dimitrova" (colloquially Dimitrovka) in his honour. After the Velvet Revolution, it was renamed Istrochem.
=== Ukraine ===
Dymytrov, now Myrnohrad in Ukraine was named Dymytrov between 1972 and 2016.
=== Yugoslavia ===
After the 1963 Skopje earthquake, Bulgaria joined the international reconstruction effort by donating funds for the construction of a high school, which opened in 1964. In order to honor the donor country's first post-World War II president, the high school was named after Georgi Dimitrov, a name it still bears today.
The town of Caribrod (Цариброд) in what was then the People's Republic of Serbia, FPRY was renamed in 1950 to Dimitrovgrad (Димитровград) to honor the late Bulgarian leader, despite the Tito-Stalin split. The name has been kept since, although in recent years the local city council has tried to restore the old name (most recently in 2019), and some people prefer the older name to avoid confusion with the Dimitrovgrad in Bulgaria.
== Works ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Banac, Ivo, ed. (2003). The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov, 1933–1949. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300097948.
== Further reading ==
Dallin, Alexander; Firsov, Fridrikh Igorevich, eds. (2000). Dimitrov and Stalin, 1934–1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300080212.
Stankova, Marietta (2010). Georgi Dimitrov: A Life (Communist Lives). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1845117283.
== External links ==
Georgi Dimitrov Internet Archive at Marxists Internet Archive.
Selected Works in English (Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3) in PDF format, published in Bulgaria in 1972.
Stella Blagoeva, George Dimitroff, International Publishers, 1943.
Georgi Dimitrov: 90th Birth Anniversary, containing biographical information.
Video A Better Tomorrow: The Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum from UCTV (University of California)
Newspaper clippings about Georgi Dimitrov in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
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