url stringlengths 33 435 | title stringlengths 3 72 | page stringlengths 102 132k |
|---|---|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Talyzin | Nikolai Talyzin | Nikolai Vladimirovich Talyzin (Russian: Никола́й Влади́мирович Талы́зин; 28 January 1929 – 23 January 1991) was a Soviet bureaucrat and economist who was head of the Gosplan, or the State Planning Committee.
== Biography ==
He was born in Moscow to a working-class family. After graduating from the Moscow Communications Institute, he worked at the Scientific Research Institute of Radio of the Soviet Ministry of Communications as an engineer, leading designer, senior research fellow, and deputy director. At the institute, he headed the pioneering work on the creation of the world's first satellite television broadcasting system "Orbita" in the USSR, which was put into operation in 1967 and provided the opportunity to watch Soviet Central Television programs for almost 90 million citizens of the USSR living in Siberia and the Russian Far East. Under his leadership, the satellite systems "Moscow" and "Moscow-Global" were also introduced.
Talyzin was chosen by Mikhail Gorbachev in October 1985 to help start the program of economic change known as perestroika, after serving five years as the Soviet representative at Comecon, the Eastern European trade bloc. He was appointed head of the State Planning Commission, or Gosplan, when almost every sector of the Soviet economy was still firmly under state control. He became one of the three First Deputy Premiers at this time, as well as a non-voting member of the Communist Party Politburo.
The planning commission's task shifted from setting production targets to mapping out economic strategy, as Gorbachev pushed his economic reforms. Talyzin came under strong criticism, and moved to the post of head of the Bureau for Social Development in 1988, blamed for slowing reforms. In September 1989, with perestroika failing to produce the promised results, he was dismissed, along with many other conservatives in Nikolai Ryzhkov's government, whom he blamed for slowing the pace of reforms.
== Awards and decorations ==
Order of Lenin
Order of the October Revolution
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Order of the Red Star
Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR, twice (1968, 1974)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs | György Lukács | György Lukács (born Bernát György Löwinger; Hungarian: Szegedi Lukács György; German: Georg Bernard Lukács; 13 April 1885 – 4 June 1971) was a Hungarian Marxist philosopher, literary historian, literary critic, and aesthetician. He was one of the founders of Western Marxism, an interpretive tradition that departed from the Soviet Marxist ideological orthodoxy. He developed the theory of reification, and contributed to Marxist theory with developments of Karl Marx's theory of class consciousness. He was also a philosopher of Leninism. He ideologically developed and organised Vladimir Lenin's pragmatic revolutionary practices into the formal philosophy of vanguard-party revolution.
Lukács was especially influential as a critic due to his theoretical developments of literary realism and of the novel as a literary genre. In 1919, he was appointed the Hungarian Minister of Culture of the government of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic (March–August 1919). Lukács has been described as the preeminent Marxist intellectual of the Stalinist era, though assessing his legacy can be difficult as Lukács seemed both to support Stalinism as the embodiment of Marxist thought, and yet also to champion a return to pre-Stalinist Marxism.
== Life and politics ==
Lukács was born Bernát György Löwinger in Budapest, Austria-Hungary, to the investment banker József Löwinger (later Szegedi Lukács József; 1855–1928) and his wife Adele Wertheimer (Wertheimer Adél; 1860–1917), who were a wealthy Jewish family. He had a brother and sister. He and his family converted to Lutheranism in 1907.
His father was knighted by the empire and received a baronial title, making Lukács a baron as well through inheritance. As a writer, he published under the names Georg Lukács and György Lukács. Lukács participated in intellectual circles in Budapest, Berlin, Florence and Heidelberg. He received his doctorate in economic and political sciences (Dr. rer. oec.) in 1906 from the Royal Hungarian University of Kolozsvár. In 1909, he completed his doctorate in philosophy at the University of Budapest under the direction of Zsolt Beöthy.
=== Pre-Marxist period ===
Whilst at university in Budapest, Lukács was part of socialist intellectual circles through which he met Ervin Szabó, an anarcho-syndicalist who introduced him to the works of Georges Sorel (1847–1922), the French proponent of revolutionary syndicalism. In that period, Lukács's intellectual perspectives were modernist and anti-positivist. From 1904 to 1908, he was part of a theatre troupe that produced modernist, psychologically realistic plays by Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg, and Gerhart Hauptmann.
Between 1906 and 1909 while in his early twenties, he worked on his 1,000 page A modern dráma fejlődésének története (English: History of the Development of the Modern Drama). It was published in Hungary in 1911. He was dismayed when it won a prize in 1908 because he did not think the jury was fit to judge it.
Lukács spent much time in Germany, and studied at the University of Berlin from 1906 to 1907, during which time he made the acquaintance of the philosopher Georg Simmel. Later in 1913 whilst in Heidelberg, he befriended Max Weber, Emil Lask, Ernst Bloch, and Stefan George. The idealist system to which Lukács subscribed at this time was intellectually indebted to neo-Kantianism (then the dominant philosophy in German universities) and to Plato, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Søren Kierkegaard, Wilhelm Dilthey, and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. In that period, he published Soul and Form (Die Seele und die Formen, Berlin, 1911; tr. 1974) and The Theory of the Novel (1916/1920; tr. 1971).
After the beginning of the First World War, Lukács was exempted from military service. In 1914, he married the Russian political activist Jelena Grabenko.
In 1915, Lukács returned to Budapest, where he was the leader of the "Sunday Circle", an intellectual salon. Its concerns were the cultural themes that arose from the existential works of Dostoyevsky, which thematically aligned with Lukács's interests in his last years at Heidelberg. As a salon, the Sunday Circle sponsored cultural events whose participants included literary and musical avant-garde figures, such as Karl Mannheim, the composer Béla Bartók, Béla Balázs, Arnold Hauser, Zoltán Kodály and Karl Polanyi; some of them also attended the weekly salons. In 1918, the last year of the First World War (1914–1918), the Sunday Circle became divided. They dissolved the salon because of their divergent politics; several of the leading members accompanied Lukács into the Communist Party of Hungary.
=== Pivot to communism ===
In the aftermath of the First World War and the Russian Revolution of 1917, Lukács rethought his ideas. He became a committed Marxist in this period and joined the fledgling Communist Party of Hungary in 1918. Up until at least September 1918, he had intended to emigrate to Germany, but after being rejected from a habilitation in Heidelberg, he wrote on 16 December that he had already decided to pursue a political career in Hungary instead. Lukács later wrote that he was persuaded to this course by Béla Kun. The last publication of Lukács' pre-Marxist period was "Bolshevism as a Moral Problem", a rejection of Bolshevism on ethical grounds that he apparently reversed within days.
=== Communist leader ===
As part of the government of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic, Lukács was made People's Commissar for Education and Culture (he was deputy to the Commissar for Education Zsigmond Kunfi).
It is said by József Nádass that Lukács was giving a lecture entitled "Old Culture and New Culture" to a packed hall when the republic was proclaimed, which was interrupted due to the revolution.
During the Hungarian Soviet Republic, Lukács was a theoretician of the Hungarian version of the red terror. In an article in the Népszava, 15 April 1919, he wrote that "The possession of the power of the state is also a moment for the destruction of the oppressing classes. A moment, we have to use". Lukács later became a commissar of the Fifth Division of the Hungarian Red Army, in which capacity he ordered the execution of eight of his own soldiers in Poroszló, in May 1919, which he later admitted in an interview.
After the Hungarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Lukács was ordered by Kun to remain behind with Ottó Korvin, when the rest of the leadership evacuated. Lukács and Korvin's mission was to clandestinely reorganize the communist movement, but this proved to be impossible. Lukács went into hiding, with the help of photographer Olga Máté. After Korvin's capture in 1919, Lukács fled from Hungary to Vienna. He was arrested but was saved from extradition due to a group of writers including Thomas and Heinrich Mann. Thomas Mann later based the character Naphta on Lukács in his novel The Magic Mountain.
He married his second wife, Gertrúd Bortstieber in 1919 in Vienna, a fellow member of the Hungarian Communist Party.
Around the 1920s, while Antonio Gramsci was also in Vienna, though they did not meet each other, Lukács met a fellow communist, Victor Serge, and began to develop Leninist ideas in the field of philosophy. His major works in this period were the essays collected in his magnum opus History and Class Consciousness (Geschichte und Klassenbewußtsein, Berlin, 1923). Although these essays display signs of what Vladimir Lenin referred to as "left communism" (with later Leninists calling it "ultra-leftism"), they provided Leninism with a substantive philosophical basis. In July 1924, Grigory Zinoviev attacked this book along with the work of Karl Korsch at the Fifth Comintern Congress.
In 1925, shortly after Lenin's death, Lukács published in Vienna the short study Lenin: A Study in the Unity of His Thought (Lenin: Studie über den Zusammenhang seiner Gedanken). In 1925, he published a critical review of Nikolai Bukharin's manual of historical materialism.
As a Hungarian exile, he remained active on the left wing of the Hungarian Communist Party, and was opposed to the Moscow-backed programme of Béla Kun. His "Blum theses" of 1928 called for the overthrow of the counter-revolutionary regime of Admiral Horthy in Hungary by a strategy similar to the Popular Fronts that arose in the 1930s. He advocated a "democratic dictatorship" of the proletariat and peasantry as a transitional stage leading to the dictatorship of the proletariat. After Lukács's strategy was condemned by the Comintern, he retreated from active politics into theoretical work.
Lukács left Vienna in 1929, first for Berlin, then for Budapest.
=== Under Stalin and Rákosi ===
In 1930, while residing in Budapest, Lukács was summoned to Moscow. This coincided with the signing of a Viennese police order for his expulsion. Leaving their children to attend their studies, Lukács and his wife went to Moscow in March 1930. Soon after his arrival, Lukács was "prevented" from leaving and assigned to work alongside David Riazanov ("in the basement") at the Marx–Engels Institute.
Lukács returned to Berlin in 1931 and in 1933 he once again left Berlin for Moscow to attend the Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences. During this time, Lukács first came into contact with the unpublished works of the young Marx.
Lukács survived the purges of the Great Terror, but he and his wife were not permitted to leave the Soviet Union until after the Second World War. Shortly after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, on June 29, 1941 Lukács was arrested by the NKVD, but released on August 26. He was then evacuated to Tashkent with a group of German-speaking writers, where he and Johannes Becher became friends. There is much debate among historians concerning the extent to which Lukács accepted Stalinism at this period.
In 1945, Lukács and his wife returned to Hungary. As a member of the Hungarian Communist Party, he took part in establishing the new Hungarian government. From 1945 Lukács was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Between 1945 and 1946, he strongly criticised non-communist philosophers and writers. Lukács has been accused of playing an "administrative" (legal-bureaucratic) role in the removal of independent and non-communist intellectuals such as Béla Hamvas, István Bibó, Lajos Prohászka, and Károly Kerényi from Hungarian academic life. Between 1946 and 1953, many non-communist intellectuals, including Bibó, were imprisoned or forced into menial work or manual labour.
Lukács's personal aesthetic and political positions on culture were always that socialist culture would eventually triumph in terms of quality. He thought it should play out in terms of competing cultures, not by "administrative" measures. In 1948–49, Lukács's position for cultural tolerance was smashed in a "Lukács purge," when Mátyás Rákosi turned his famous salami tactics on the Hungarian Working People's Party.
In the mid-1950s, Lukács was reintegrated into party life. The party used him to help purge the Hungarian Writers' Union in 1955–1956. Tamás Aczél and Tibor Méray (former Secretaries of the Hungarian Writers' Union) both believe that Lukács participated grudgingly, and cite Lukács's leaving the presidium and the meeting at the first break as evidence of this reluctance.
=== De-Stalinisation ===
In 1956, Lukács became a minister of the brief communist revolutionary government led by Imre Nagy, which opposed the Soviet Union. At this time, Lukács's daughter led a short-lived party of communist revolutionary youth. Lukács's position on the 1956 revolution was that the Hungarian Communist Party would need to retreat into a coalition government of socialists and slowly rebuild its credibility with the Hungarian people. While a minister in Nagy's revolutionary government, Lukács also participated in trying to reform the Hungarian Communist Party on a new basis. This party, the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, was rapidly co-opted by János Kádár after 4 November 1956.
During the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, Lukács was present at debates of the anti-party and revolutionary communist Petőfi Society while remaining part of the party apparatus. During the revolution, as mentioned in Budapest Diary, Lukács argued for a new Soviet-aligned communist party. In Lukács's view, the new party could win social leadership only by persuasion instead of force. Lukács envisioned an alliance between the dissident communist Hungarian Revolutionary Youth Party, the revolutionary Hungarian Social Democratic Party and his own Soviet-aligned party as a very junior partner.
Following the defeat of the Revolution, Lukács was deported to the Socialist Republic of Romania with the rest of Nagy's government. Unlike Nagy, he avoided execution, albeit narrowly. Due to his role in Nagy's government, he was no longer trusted by the party apparatus. Lukács's followers were indicted for political crimes throughout the 1960s and '70s, and a number fled to the West. Lukács's books The Young Hegel (Der junge Hegel, Zurich, 1948) and The Destruction of Reason (Die Zerstörung der Vernunft, Berlin, 1954) have been used to argue that Lukács was covertly critical of Stalinism as a distortion of Marxism. In this reading, these two works are attempts to reconcile the idealism of Hegelian-dialectics with the dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels, and position Stalinism as a philosophy of irrationalism.
He returned to Budapest in 1957. Lukács publicly abandoned his positions of 1956 and engaged in self-criticism. Having abandoned his earlier positions, Lukács remained loyal to the Communist Party until his death in 1971. In his last years, following the uprisings in France and Czechoslovakia in 1968, Lukács became more publicly critical of the Soviet Union and the Hungarian Communist Party.
In an interview just before his death, Lukács remarked:
Without a genuine general theory of society and its movement, one does not get away from Stalinism. Stalin was a great tactician... But Stalin, unfortunately, was not a Marxist... The essence of Stalinism lies in placing tactics before strategy, practice above theory... The bureaucracy generated by Stalinism is a tremendous evil. Society is suffocated by it. Everything becomes unreal, nominalistic. People see no design, no strategic aim, and do not move..." Thus Lukács concludes "we must learn to connect the great decisions of popular political power with personal needs, those of individuals.
== Work ==
=== History and Class Consciousness ===
Written between 1919 and 1922 and published in 1923, Lukács's collection of essays History and Class Consciousness contributed to debates concerning Marxism and its relation to sociology, politics and philosophy. With this work, Lukács initiated the current of thought that came to be known as "Western Marxism". At Lukács' direction, there was no reprinting in his lifetime, making it rare and hard to acquire before 1968. Its return to prominence was aided by the social movements of the 1960s.
The most important essay in Lukács's book introduces the concept of "reification". In capitalist societies, human properties, relations and actions are transformed into properties, relations and actions of human-produced things, which become independent of them and govern their life. These human-created things are then imagined to be originally independent of the human. Moreover, human beings are transformed into thing-like beings that do not behave in a human way but according to the laws of the thing-world. This essay is notable for reconstructing aspects of Marx's theory of alienation before the publication of the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 — the work in which Marx most clearly expounds the theory.
Lukács also develops the Marxist theory of class consciousness - the distinction between the objective situation of a class and that class's subjective awareness of this situation. Lukács proffers a view of a class as an "historical imputed subject". An empirically existing class can successfully act only when it becomes conscious of its historical situation, i.e. when it transforms from a "class in itself" to a "class for itself". Lukács's theory of class consciousness has been influential within the sociology of knowledge.
In his later career, Lukács repudiated the ideas of History and Class Consciousness, in particular the belief in the proletariat as a "subject-object of history" (1960 Postface to French translation). As late as 1925–1926, he still defended these ideas, in an unfinished manuscript, which he called Tailism and the Dialectic. It was not published until 1996 in Hungarian and English in 2000 under the title A Defence of History and Class Consciousness.
==== What is Orthodox Marxism? ====
Lukács argues that methodology is the only thing that distinguishes Marxism: even if all its substantive propositions were rejected, it would remain valid because of its distinctive method:
Orthodox Marxism, therefore, does not imply the uncritical acceptance of the results of Marx's investigations. It is not the 'belief' in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of a 'sacred' book. On the contrary, orthodoxy refers exclusively to method. It is the scientific conviction that dialectical materialism is the road to truth and that its methods can be developed, expanded and deepened only along the lines laid down by its founders.
He criticises Marxist revisionism by calling for the return to this Marxist method, which is fundamentally dialectical materialism. Lukács conceives "revisionism" as inherent to the Marxist theory, insofar as dialectical materialism is, according to him, the product of class struggle:
For this reason the task of orthodox Marxism, its victory over Revisionism and utopianism can never mean the defeat, once and for all, of false tendencies. It is an ever-renewed struggle against the insidious effects of bourgeois ideology on the thought of the proletariat. Marxist orthodoxy is no guardian of traditions, it is the eternally vigilant prophet proclaiming the relation between the tasks of the immediate present and the totality of the historical process.
According to him, "The premise of dialectical materialism is, we recall: 'It is not men's consciousness that determines their existence, but on the contrary, their social existence that determines their consciousness.' ...Only when the core of existence stands revealed as a social process can existence be seen as the product, albeit the hitherto unconscious product, of human activity." (§5). In line with Marx's thought, he criticises the individualist bourgeois philosophy of the subject, which founds itself on the voluntary and conscious subject. Against this ideology, he asserts the primacy of social relations. Existence – and thus the world – is the product of human activity; but this can be seen only if the primacy of social process on individual consciousness is accepted. Lukács does not restrain human liberty for sociological determinism: to the contrary, this production of existence is the possibility of praxis.
He conceives the problem in the relationship between theory and practice. Lukács quotes Marx's words: "It is not enough that thought should seek to realise itself; reality must also strive towards thought." How does the thought of intellectuals relate to class struggle, if theory is not simply to lag behind history, as it is in Hegel's philosophy of history ("Minerva always comes at the dusk of night...")? Lukács criticises Friedrich Engels's Anti-Dühring, saying that he "does not even mention the most vital interaction, namely the dialectical relation between subject and object in the historical process, let alone give it the prominence it deserves." This dialectical relation between subject and object is the basis of Lukács's critique of Immanuel Kant's epistemology, according to which the subject is the exterior, universal and contemplating subject, separated from the object.
For Lukács, "ideology" is a projection of the class consciousness of the bourgeoisie, which functions to prevent the proletariat from attaining consciousness of its revolutionary position. Ideology determines the "form of objectivity", thus the very structure of knowledge. According to Lukács, real science must attain the "concrete totality" through which only it is possible to think the current form of objectivity as a historical period. Thus, the so-called eternal "laws" of economics are dismissed as the ideological illusion projected by the current form of objectivity ("What is Orthodoxical Marxism?", §3). He also writes: "It is only when the core of being has shown itself as social becoming, that the being itself can appear as a product, so far unconscious, of human activity, and this activity, in turn, as the decisive element of the transformation of being." ("What is Orthodoxical Marxism?", §5) Finally, "orthodoxical Marxism" is not defined as an interpretation of Capital as if it were the Bible or an embrace of "Marxist thesis", but as fidelity to the "Marxist method", dialectics.
==== Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat ====
Drawing from the insights of Max Weber and Georg Simmel, Lukács introduces the concept of reification to describe the mystified consciousness of capitalist society, where human relations and activities are objectified as commodities. This idea builds on Marx's analysis of "commodity fetishism" in Capital. Under capitalism, human qualities are subordinated to the demands of production and exchange, reducing individuals to mere units of labor power. Rationalization — manifesting in legal systems, technology, and labor organization — fragments human activity and diminishes individuality. This specialization creates a society where holistic understanding becomes impossible, and bourgeois philosophy reinforces this fragmentation by prioritizing calculable, empirical facts over any unifying vision of reality.
For Lukács, bourgeois rationalism, with its reliance on abstract mathematics and calculability, excludes any meaningful engagement with the whole. It either confines itself to empirical reality or ventures into utopian speculation, neither of which can address the systemic contradictions of capitalism. The idealist dialectic, in its attempt to restore unity by emphasizing the subject’s creativity, fails to grasp the revolutionary potential of human praxis.
Reification cannot be overcome within the limits of bourgeois consciousness. Only the proletariat, through its unique position as both a commodity and the creator of social reality, can grasp the totality of the social mechanism. When the proletariat achieves class consciousness, it recognizes and rebels against the pervasive reification of social life. This awakening is not mere awareness but a revolutionary act that liberates humanity from objectification. For the proletariat, truth is not a passive reflection of an external reality but part of a historical process of emancipation.
Lukács saw the destruction of society as a proper solution to the "cultural contradiction of the epoch". In 1969, he cited:“Even though my ideas were confused from a theoretical point of view, I saw the revolutionary destruction of society as the one and only solution to the cultural contradictions of the epoch. Such a worldwide overturning of values cannot take place without the annihilation of the old values.
=== Literary and aesthetic work ===
In addition to his standing as a Marxist political thinker, Lukács was an influential literary critic of the twentieth century. His important work in literary criticism began early in his career, with The Theory of the Novel, a seminal work in literary theory and the theory of genre. The book is a history of the novel as a form, and an investigation into its distinct characteristics. In The Theory of the Novel, he coins the term "transcendental homelessness", which he defines as the "longing of all souls for the place in which they once belonged, and the 'nostalgia… for utopian perfection, a nostalgia that feels itself and its desires to be the only true reality'". Lukács maintains that "the novel is the necessary epic form of our time."
Lukács later repudiated The Theory of the Novel, writing a lengthy introduction that described it as erroneous, but nonetheless containing a "romantic anti-capitalism" which would later develop into Marxism. (This introduction also contains his famous dismissal of Theodor Adorno and others in Western Marxism as having taken up residence in the "Grand Hotel Abyss".)
Lukács's later literary criticism includes the well-known essay "Kafka or Thomas Mann?", in which Lukács argues for the work of Thomas Mann as a superior attempt to deal with the condition of modernity, and criticises Franz Kafka's brand of modernism. Lukács steadfastly opposed the formal innovations of modernist writers like Kafka, James Joyce, and Samuel Beckett, preferring the traditional aesthetic of realism.
During his time in Moscow in the 1930s, Lukács worked on Marxist views of aesthetics while belonging to the group around an influential Moscow magazine "The Literary Critic" (Literaturny Kritik). The editor of this magazine, Mikhail Lifshitz, was an important Soviet author on aesthetics. Lifshitz's views were very similar to Lukács's insofar as both argued for the value of traditional art; despite the drastic difference in age (Lifschitz was much younger), both Lifschitz and Lukács indicated that their working relationship at that time was a collaboration of equals. Lukács contributed frequently to this magazine, which was also followed by Marxist art theoreticians around the world through various translations published by the Soviet government.
The collaboration between Lifschitz and Lukács resulted in the formation of an informal circle of the like-minded Marxist intellectuals connected to the journal Literaturnyi Kritik [The Literary Critic], published monthly starting in the summer of 1933 by the Organisational Committee of the Writers' Union. ... A group of thinkers formed around Lifschitz, Lukács and Andrei Platonov; they were concerned with articulating the aesthetical views of Marx and creating a kind of Marxist aesthetics that had not yet been properly formulated.
Lukács famously argued for the revolutionary character of the novels of Sir Walter Scott and Honoré de Balzac. Lukács felt that both authors' nostalgic, pro-aristocratic politics allowed them accurate and critical stances because of their opposition (albeit reactionary) to the rising bourgeoisie. This view was expressed in his later book The Historical Novel (published in Russian in 1937, then in Hungarian in 1947), as well as in his essay "Realism in the Balance" (1938).
The Historical Novel is probably Lukács's most influential work of literary history. In it, he traces the development of the genre of historical fiction. While prior to 1789, he argues, people's consciousness of history was relatively underdeveloped, the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars that followed brought about a realisation of the constantly changing, evolving character of human existence. This new historical consciousness was reflected in the work of Sir Walter Scott, whose novels use 'representative' or 'typical' characters to dramatise major social conflicts and historical transformations, for example, the dissolution of feudal society in the Scottish Highlands and the entrenchment of mercantile capitalism. Lukács argues that Scott's new brand of historical realism was taken up by Balzac and Tolstoy, and enabled novelists to depict contemporary social life not as a static drama of fixed, universal types, but rather as a moment of history, constantly changing, open to the potential of revolutionary transformation. For this reason, he sees these authors as progressive and their work as potentially radical, despite their own personal conservative politics.
For Lukács, this historical realist tradition began to give way after the 1848 revolutions, when the bourgeoisie ceased to be a progressive force and their role as agents of history was usurped by the proletariat. After this time, historical realism begins to sicken and lose its concern with social life as inescapably historical. He illustrates this point by comparing Flaubert's historical novel Salammbô to that of the earlier realists. For him, Flaubert's work marks a turning away from relevant social issues and an elevation of style over substance. Why he does not discuss Sentimental Education, a novel much more overtly concerned with recent historical developments, is not clear. For much of his life Lukács promoted a return to the realist tradition that he believed had reached its height with Balzac and Scott, and bemoaned the supposed neglect of history that characterised modernism.
The Historical Novel has been hugely influential in subsequent critical studies of historical fiction, and no serious analyst of the genre fails to engage at some level with Lukács's arguments.
==== Critical and socialist realism ====
Lukács defined realistic literature as literature capable of relating human life to the totality. He distinguishes between two forms of realism, critical and socialist. Lukács argued that it was precisely the desire for a realistic depiction of life that enabled politically reactionary writers such as Balzac, Walter Scott and Tolstoy to produce great, timeless and socially progressive works. According to Lukács, there is a contradiction between worldview and talent among such writers. He greatly valued the comments made in that direction by Lenin on Tolstoy and especially by Engels on Balzac, where Engels describes the "triumph of realism":
Balzac boldly exposed the contradiction of nascent capitalist society and hence his observation of reality constantly clashed with his political prejudices. But as an honest artist he always depicted only what he himself saw, learned and underwent, concerning himself not at all whether his-true-to-life description of the things he saw contradicted his pet ideas.
Critical realists include writers who could not rise to the communist worldview, but despite this, tried to truthfully reflect the conflicts of the era, not content with the direct description of single events. A great story speaks through individual human destinies in their work. Such writers are not naturalists, allegorists and metaphysicians. They do not flee from the world into the isolated human soul and do not seek to raise its experiences to the rank of timeless, eternal and irresistible properties of human nature. Balzac, Tolstoy, Anatole France, Romain Rolland, George Bernard Shaw, Lion Feuchtwanger and Thomas Mann are the brightest writers from the gallery of critical realists.
Lukács notes that realistic art is usually found either in highly developed countries or in countries undergoing a period of rapid socio-economic development, yet it is possible that backward countries often give rise to advanced literature precisely because of their backwardness, which they seek to overcome by artistic means. Lukács (together with Lifshitz) polemicized against the "vulgar sociological" thesis then dominant in Soviet literary criticism. The "vulgar sociologists" (associated with the former RAPP) prioritized class origin as the most important determinant for an artist and his work, categorizing artists and artistic genres as "feudal", "bourgeois", "petty-bourgeois" etc. Lukács and Lifshitz sought to prove that such great artists as Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Goethe or Tolstoy were able to rise above their class worldview by grasping the dialectic of individual and society in its totality and depicting their relations truthfully.
All modernist art – avant-garde, naturalism, expressionism, surrealism, etc. – is the opposite of realism. This is decadent art, examples of which are the works of Kafka, Joyce, Musil, Beckett, etc. The main shortcoming of modernism, which predicts its inevitable defeat, is the inability to perceive the totality and carry out the act of mediation. One cannot blame the writer for describing loneliness, but one must show it in such a way that it is clear to everyone: human loneliness is an inevitable consequence of capitalist social relations. Whereas in Kafka, we meet with "ontological solitariness", depicted as a permanent situation of man and a universal value. In this regard, Kafka stops at the description of the phenomenon, given directly; he is not able to rise to the totality, which alone can reveal the meaning of loneliness. Therefore, Kafka acts like the naturalists. In order for the image of chaos, confusion and fear of the modern world and man to be realistic, the writer must show the social roots that generate all these phenomena. And if, like Joyce, one depicts the spiritual world and the sense of time of a person in a state of absolute decay, without bothering to search for reasons and prospects for a way out, then the writer gives a false image of the world, and his works must be recognized as immature.
So, modernism is deprived of a historical perspective, tying the person to positions and situations that are not really historically and socially determined. Modernism transforms such situations into transcendental qualities. The great images of great literature, Achilles and Werther, Oedipus and Tom Joad, Antigone and Anna Karenina, are social beings, for Aristotle already noted that man is a social being. And the heroes of modernist literature are torn out of their ties with society and history. Narrative becomes purely "subjective", the animal in man is opposed to the social in him, which corresponds to Heidegger's denial and condemnation of society as something impersonal. He wrote:
Literary and art history is a mass graveyard where many artists of talent rest in deserved oblivion because they neither sought nor found any association to the problems of advancing humanity and did not set themselves on the right side in the vital struggle between health and decay.
Barbara Stackman maintains that, for Lukács, decadents are decadent not because they depict illness and decay, but because they do not recognize the existence of health, of the social sphere that would reunite the alienated writer to the progressive forces of history. Sickness, then, is a reactionary mode of insertion into the class struggle; sickness, writes Lukács, "produces a complete overturning of values." Though "sick art" may have its dialectical moment in the sun (Lukács cites only Antigone as an example where that which is declining may even appear as human greatness and purity), it is destined for the dust heap of history, while "healthy art" is a "reflection of the lasting truth of human relationships."
On the other hand, socialist realism is recognized as the highest stage in the development of literature:
The prospect of socialist realism is, of course, the struggle for socialism. Socialist realism differs from critical realism not only in that it is based on a specific socialist perspective, but also in that it uses this perspective to describe from within the forces that work in favor of socialism. Critical realists have more than once described the political struggle of our time and depicted heroes – socialists and communists. But only socialist realists describe such heroes from the inside, thus identifying them with the forces of progress. The greatness of socialist realism lies in the fact that the historical totality, directed towards communism, becomes clear as daylight in any fragment of a given work.
In 1938, in his work Realism in the Balance, a polemic against Ernst Bloch, Walter Benjamin, Bertolt Brecht and Theodor Adorno, Lukács explained the lack of modernism in the Soviet Union in this way:
The more the domination of the proletariat strengthened, the more deeply and comprehensively socialism penetrated the economy of the Soviet Union, the wider and deeper the cultural revolution embraced the working masses, the stronger and more hopelessly "avant-garde" art was pushed out by an ever more conscious realism. The decline of expressionism is ultimately a consequence of the maturity of the revolutionary masses.
No less typical is his article "Propaganda or Partisanship?", in which he polemicizes against the definition of socialist art as "tendentious." Literature, in his opinion, should not be biased, but only "party-spirited" in the essence of taking the side of the class that is objectively progressive in the given historical moment. Tendentious literature eclectically connects "pure art" with politically alien elements brought in from outside. But such a program, which Franz Mehring once defended, means "the primacy of form over content" and contrasts the aesthetic and political elements of the work. This understanding of art, Lukács says, is Trotskyist.
Lukács' defense of socialist realism contained a critique of Stalinism and a condemnation of most of the party-propagandistic Soviet literature of the 1930s and 1940s (which was based on Andrei Zhdanov's doctrine of "conflictless art" and which Lukács dismissively called "illustrative" literature) as a distortion of true socialist realism. He acknowledged that Stalinism suffered from a lack of "mediation" in the field of cultural policy. Instead of describing the real conflicts of the life of a socialist society, Stalinist literature turned into bare schemes and abstractions, describing the general truths of theory and in no way "mediating" them with images taken from reality. The specificity of art was forgotten, and it turned into an instrument of agitation. Schematic optimism has spread in place of the historical. The heroes did not represent any of the typical qualities of the new society. Lenin's article "Party Organization and Party Literature", which, as Nadezhda Krupskaya said, dealt only with political literature, turned into a rule of artistic activity and its evaluation.
Despite all this criticism, Lukács never changed his basic conviction: socialist realism represents a "fundamentally" and "historically" higher stage in the development of art than all its predecessors.
The most surprising product of Lukács' discourse on socialist realism is his articles on Alexander Solzhenitsyn, whom he considered to be the greatest "plebeian realist" writer of the twentieth century. Lukács welcomed the appearance of the writer's short stories and novellas as the first sign of the renaissance of socialist realism, since Solzhenitsyn, in describing camp life in A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, depicts everyday events as a symbol of an entire era. Nor is Solzhenitsyn a naturalist, since he refers the events described to the socio-historical totality and does not seek to restore capitalism in Russia. According to Lukács, Solzhenitsyn criticizes Stalinism from a plebeian, and not from a communist point of view. And if he does not overcome this weakness, then his artistic talent will decrease.
=== Ontology of social being ===
Later in life, Lukács undertook a major exposition on the ontology of social being, which has been partly published in English in three volumes. The work is a systematic treatment of dialectical philosophy in its materialist form.
== Bibliography ==
History and Class Consciousness (1972). ISBN 0-262-62020-0.
The Theory of the Novel (1974). ISBN 0-262-62027-8.
Lenin: A Study in the Unity of His Thought (1998). ISBN 1-85984-174-0.
A Defense of History and Class Consciousness (2000). ISBN 1-85984-747-1.
The culture of people's democracy : Hungarian essays on literature, art, and democratic transition, 1945-1948 (2013). ISBN 9789004217270
== See also ==
Lajos Jánossy, Lukács's adopted son
Marx's notebooks on the history of technology
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
Fekete, Eva and Karadi, Eva (ed.), Gyorgy Lukacs : his life in pictures and documents. Budapest : Corvina Kiado, 1981.
Furner, James. "Commodity Form Philosophy," in Marx on Capitalism: The Interaction-Recognition-Antinomy Thesis. (Leiden: Brill, 2018). pp. 85–128.
Gerhardt, Christina. "Georg Lukács," The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, 1500 to the Present. 8 vols. Ed. Immanuel Ness (Malden: Blackwell, 2009). 2135–2137.
Hohendahl, Peter Uwe. "The Scholar, The Intellectual, And The Essay: Weber, Lukács, Adorno, And Postwar Germany," German Quarterly 70.3 (1997): 217–231.
Hohendahl, Peter Uwe "Art Work And Modernity: The Legacy of Georg Lukács," New German Critique: An Interdisciplinary Journal of German Studies 42.(1987): 33–49.
Hohendahl, Peter Uwe, and Blackwell Jeanine. "Georg Lukács in the GDR: On Recent Developments in Literary Theory," New German Critique: An Interdisciplinary Journal of German Studies 12.(1977): 169–174.
Holz, Hans Heinz (et al.), Conversations with Lukács, Cambridge, Mass : MIT Press, 1974.
Jameson, Fredric. Marxism and Form: Twentieth-century Dialectical Theories of Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.
Jay, Martin, Marxism and totality : the adventures of a concept from Lukács to Habermas, Berkeley : University of California Press, 1984.
Kadarkay, Arpad (ed.), The Lukács reader. Oxford : Blackwell, 1995.
Marcus, Judith and Tar, Zoltan (ed.), Georg Lukacs : selected correspondence, 1902-1920 : dialogues with Weber, Simmel, Buber, Mannheim, and others. New York : Columbia University Press, 1986.
Morgan, W. John, 'Political Commissar and Cultural Critic: Georg Lukács'. Chapter 6 in Morgan, W. John, Communists on Education and Culture 1848–1948, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 83–102. ISBN 0-333-48586-6
Morgan, W. John, ‘Georg Lukács: cultural policy, Stalinism, and the Communist International.’ International Journal of Cultural Policy, 12 (3), 2006, pp. 257–271.
Stern, L. "George Lukacs: An Intellectual Portrait," Dissent, vol. 5, no. 2 (Spring 1958), pp. 162–173.
== External links ==
Works by György Lukács at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about György Lukács at the Internet Archive
Georg Lukács Archive, Marxists website
Guide to Literary Theory Archived 1 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine, Johns Hopkins University Press
Georg Lukács, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Petri Liukkonen. "György Lukács". Books and Writers.
Bendl Júlia, "Lukács György élete a századfordulótól 1918-ig"
Lukács and Imre Lakatos
Hungarian biography
Georg Lukács Archive, Libertarian Communist Library
Múlt-kor Történelmi portál (Past-Age Historic Portal): Lukács György was born 120 years ago (in Hungarian)
Levee Blanc, "Georg Lukács: The Antinomies of Melancholy", Other Voices, Vol.1 no.1, 1998.
Michael J. Thompson, "Lukacs Revisited" New Politics, 2001, Issue 30
Realism in the Balance |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lallemand | André Lallemand | André Lallemand (French pronunciation: [ɑ̃dʁe lalmɑ̃]; September 29, 1904 – March 24, 1978) was a French astronomer and director of the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris.
Lallemand made important contributions to the development of photomultipliers for astronomical use and the "electronic telescope" (or Lallemand camera). He was awarded the Lalande Prize of the French Academy of Sciences in 1938 and the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1962 for his work.
Lallemand was the President of the Société astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1960-1962.
The crater Lallemand on the Moon is named in his honor, and the French Academy of Sciences has a biennial award for work in astronomy called the "Prix Lallemand".
== References ==
== External links ==
Brief biography of Lallemand and photo
Text of the award speech
Virtual exhibition "L'émergence de la caméra Lallemand" on the Paris Observatory virtual library |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred_Cohn | Mildred Cohn | Mildred Cohn (July 12, 1913 – October 12, 2009) was an American biochemist who furthered understanding of biochemical processes through her study of chemical reactions within animal cells. She was a pioneer in the use of nuclear magnetic resonance for studying enzyme reactions, particularly reactions of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
She received the nation's highest science award, the National Medal of Science, in 1982, and was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
== Early life ==
Cohn's parents, childhood sweethearts Isidore Cohn and Bertha Klein Cohn, were Jewish. Her father was a rabbi. They left Russia for the United States around 1907. Mildred Cohn was born July 12, 1913, in the Bronx, where her family lived in an apartment. When Mildred was 13, her father moved the family to a Yiddish-speaking cooperative, Heim Gesellschaft, which strongly emphasized education, the arts, social justice, and the preservation of Yiddish culture.
== Education ==
Cohn graduated from high school at 14.
She went on to attend Hunter College, which was both free and open to all qualified women, irrespective of race, religion or ethnic background. She received her Bachelor's cum laude in 1931. She managed to afford a single year at Columbia University, but was ineligible for an assistantship because she was a woman. After receiving her master's degree in 1932, she worked for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics for two years. Although she had a supportive supervisor, she was the only woman among 70 men, and was informed that she would never be promoted. She subsequently returned to Columbia, studying under Harold Urey, who had just won the Nobel Prize. Originally, Cohn was working to study the different isotopes of carbon. However, her equipment failed her, and she could not finish this project. She went on to write her dissertation on oxygen isotopes and earned her PhD in physical chemistry in 1938.
== Career ==
With Urey's recommendation, Cohn was able to obtain a position as a research associate in the laboratory of Vincent du Vigneaud at the George Washington University Medical School in Washington, D.C.. There Cohn conducted post-doctoral studies on sulfur amino acid metabolism using radioactive sulfur isotopes. Cohn pioneered the use of isotopic tracers to examine the metabolism of sulfur-containing compounds. When du Vigneaud moved his laboratory to Cornell University Medical College in New York City, Cohn and her new husband, physicist Henry Primakoff, moved to New York as well.
In 1946, Henry Primakoff was offered a faculty appointment at Washington University School of Medicine. Cohn was able to obtain a research position with Carl and Gerty Cori in their biochemistry laboratory in the university's school of medicine. There, she was able to choose her own research topics. She used nuclear magnetic resonance to investigate the reaction of phosphorus with ATP, revealing considerable information about the biochemistry of ATP, including the structure of ATP, oxidative phosphorylation and role of divalent ions in the enzymatic conversion of ATP and ADP.
When asked in later life about her most exciting moments in science, Cohn replied: "In 1958, using nuclear magnetic resonance, I saw the first three peaks of ATP. That was exciting. [I could] distinguish the three phosphorus atoms of ATP with a spectroscopic method, which had never been done before." Using a stable isotope of oxygen, Cohn discovered how phosphorylation and water are part of the electron transport system of the metabolic pathway oxidative phosphorylation, the ubiquitous process used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy, in the form of ATP, from nutrients. She elucidated how the divalent metal ions are involved in the enzymatic reactions of ADP and ATP by studying NMR spectra of the phosphorus nuclei and the structural change in the presence of various divalent ions.
In 1958, she was promoted from research associate to associate professor. In 1960, Cohn and her husband joined the University of Pennsylvania. Mildred was appointed as an associate professor of Biophysics and Physical Biochemistry, and became a full professor the following year. In 1964, she became the first woman to receive the American Heart Association's Lifetime Career Award, providing support until she reached age sixty-five. In 1971, she was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. She was elected to the American Philosophical Society the following year. In 1982, she retired from the faculty as the Benjamin Rush Professor Emerita of Physiological Chemistry. In 1984, Cohn received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In the course of her career, Mildren Cohn worked with four Nobel laureates, who received three Nobel prizes:
Harold Urey, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1934
Carl and Gerty Cori, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1947
Vincent du Vigneaud, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1955
== Achievements ==
Cohn wrote 160 papers, mostly on her primary research subject of using nuclear magnetic resonance to study ATP. She received a number of honorary doctorates.
She won the American Chemical Society's Garvan-Olin Medal in 1963. In 1968, she was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1975, for her work on nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of enzymatic complexes. She received the International Organization of Women Biochemists Award in 1979. She received Columbia University's Chandler Medal in 1986.
She was presented with the National Medal of Science by President Ronald Reagan in 1983 for 'pioneering the use of stable isotopic tracers and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the study of the mechanisms of enzymatic catalysis'.
During her career, Cohn achieved several gender firsts: She was the first woman to be appointed to the editorial board of the Journal of Biological Chemistry, where she served as editor from 1958–63 and from 1968–73. She was also the first woman to become president of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, then called the American Society of Biological Chemists (serving as such from 1978 to 1979), and the first woman career investigator for the American Heart Association. In 2009, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York.
== Marriage ==
Mildred Cohn was married to physicist Henry Primakoff from 1938 until his death in 1983. They had three children, all of whom earned doctorates. Mildren Cohn is quoted in Elga Wasserman's book, The Door in the Dream: Conversations With Eminent Women in Science, as saying “My greatest piece of luck was marrying Henry Primakoff, an excellent scientist who treated me as an intellectual equal and always assumed that I should pursue a scientific career and behaved accordingly.”
== Partial bibliography ==
Cohn, Mildred; Hughes, T. R. (1960). "Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectra of adenosine diphosphate and triphosphate. I. Effect of PH". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 235: 3250–3. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(20)81346-5.
Cohn, Mildred; Hughes, T. R. (1962). "Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of adenosine di- and triphosphate. II. Effect of complexing with divalent metal ions". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 237: 176–81. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)81382-5. PMID 13880359.
Cohn, Mildred (1953). "A study of oxidative phosphorylation with 0-18 labeled inorganic phosphate". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 201 (2): 735–50. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)66231-3. PMID 13061412.
== Further reading ==
Shearer, Benjamin F. (1997). Notable women in the physical sciences : a biographical dictionary (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn. [u.a.]: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313293030. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
Wayne, Tiffany K. (2011). American women of science since 1900. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1598841596. OCLC 702118874.
Grinstein, Louise S. (1993). Women in chemistry and physics : a biobibliographic sourcebook (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn. u.a.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313273827. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
== References ==
== External links ==
Center for Oral History. "Mildred Cohn". Science History Institute.
Gortler, Leon (15 December 1987). Mildred Cohn, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Leon Gortler at University of Pennsylvania on 15 December 1987 and 6 January 1988 (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation.
Mildred Cohn, Ph.D.: The Science of Fearlessness, Video, 18 min 43 sec, Science History Institute, Philadelphia, PA |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firazorexton | Firazorexton | Firazorexton (INNTooltip International Nonproprietary Name; development code TAK-994) is an experimental orexin 2 (OX2) receptor agonist first described in a 2019 patent filed by Takeda Pharmaceutical Company.
Firazorexton was studied by Takeda for the treatment of narcolepsy. It is a small-molecule and orally active compound and acts as a highly selective agonist of the orexin receptor 2 (OX2) with >700-fold selectivity over the orexin receptor 1 (OX1). Firazorexton is related to danavorexton (TAK-925).
The compound reached phase 2 clinical trials for narcolepsy. However, clinical development was discontinued in October 2021 for safety reasons. More specifically, it produced severe drug-induced liver injury in phase 2 trials. This hepatotoxicity is unlikely to be related to firazorexton's orexin receptor agonism.
== See also ==
Orexin receptor § Agonists
List of investigational narcolepsy and hypersomnia drugs
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chief_justices_of_India | List of chief justices of India | The chief justice of India is the highest-ranking officer of the Indian judiciary and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of India. As head of the Supreme Court, the chief justice is responsible for the allocation of cases and appointment of constitutional benches which deal with important matters of law. In accordance with Article 145 of the Constitution of India and the Supreme Court Rules of Procedure of 1966, the chief justice allocates all work to the other judges.
A new chief justice is appointed by the president of India with recommendations by the outgoing chief justice in consultation with other judges. The chief justice serves in the role until they reach the age of sixty-five or are removed by the constitutional process of impeachment. As per convention, the name suggested by the incumbent chief justice is almost always the next senior-most judge in the Supreme Court. This convention has been broken twice: in 1973, Justice A. N. Ray was appointed superseding three senior judges and in 1977, Justice Mirza Hameedullah Beg was appointed as the chief justice superseding Justice Hans Raj Khanna.
A total of 53 chief justices have served in the office since the Supreme Court of India superseded the Federal Court of India in 1950. Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud, the 16th chief justice, is the longest-serving chief justice, serving over seven years (February 1978 – July 1985), while Kamal Narain Singh, the 22nd chief justice, is the shortest-serving, for 17 days in 1991. As of 2025, there has been no woman who has served as chief justice of India. The current and 53rd chief justice is Surya Kant who entered office on 24 November 2025. He will have a term of 15 months which is due to end on 9 February 2027.
== List of chief justices of the Federal Court of India ==
The Federal Court of India came into being on 1 October 1937. The seat of the court was in Delhi and it functioned until the establishment of the Supreme Court of India on 28 January 1950. The first chief justice was Sir Maurice Gwyer.
Key
== List of chief justices of India ==
== See also ==
List of current Indian chief justices
List of female chief justices in India
List of sitting judges of the Supreme Court of India
List of former judges of the Supreme Court of India
List of female judges of the Supreme Court of India
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Abramovi%C4%87#:~:text=medication%20wore%20off.-,Rhythm%204%2C%201974,the%20limits%20of%20her%20lungs. | Marina Abramović | Marina Abramović (Serbian Cyrillic: Марина Абрамовић, pronounced [marǐːna abrǎːmovitɕ]; born November 30, 1946) is a Serbian conceptual and performance artist. Her work explores body art, endurance art, the relationship between the performer and audience, the limits of the body, and the possibilities of the mind. Being active for over four decades, Abramović refers to herself as the "grandmother of performance art". She pioneered a new notion of artistic identity by bringing in the participation of observers, focusing on "confronting pain, blood, and physical limits of the body". In 2007, she founded the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a non-profit foundation for performance art.
== Early life ==
Abramović was born in Belgrade, PR Serbia, FPR Yugoslavia, on November 30, 1946. In an interview, Abramović described her family as having been "Red bourgeoisie". Her great-uncle was Varnava, Serbian Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Both of her Montenegrin-born parents, Danica Rosić and Vojin Abramović, were Yugoslav Partisans during World War II. After the war, Abramović's parents were given positions in the postwar Yugoslavian government.
Abramović was raised by her grandparents until she was six years old. Her grandmother was deeply religious and Abramović "spent [her] childhood in a church following [her] grandmother's rituals—candles in the morning, the priest coming for different occasions". When she was six, her brother was born, and she began living with her parents while also taking piano, French, and English lessons. Although she did not take art lessons, she took an early interest in art and enjoyed painting as a child.
Life in Abramović's parental home under her mother's strict supervision was difficult. When Abramović was a child, her mother beat her for "supposedly showing off". In an interview published in 1998, Abramović described how her "mother took complete military-style control of me and my brother. I was not allowed to leave the house after 10 o'clock at night until I was 29 years old. ... [A]ll the performances in Yugoslavia I did before 10 o'clock in the evening because I had to be home then. It's completely insane, but all of my cutting myself, whipping myself, burning myself, almost losing my life in 'The Firestar'—everything was done before 10 in the evening."
In an interview published in 2013, Abramović said, "My mother and father had a terrible marriage." Describing an incident when her father smashed 12 champagne glasses and left the house, she said, "It was the most horrible moment of my childhood."
== Education and teaching career ==
She was a student at the Academy of Fine Arts in Belgrade from 1965 to 1970. She completed her post-graduate studies in the art class of Krsto Hegedušić at the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb, SR Croatia, in 1972. Then she returned to SR Serbia and, from 1973 to 1975, taught at the Academy of Fine Arts at Novi Sad while launching her first solo performances.
In 1976, following her marriage to Neša Paripović (between 1970 and 1976), Abramović went to Amsterdam to perform a piece and then decided to move there permanently.
From 1990 to 1995, Abramović was a visiting professor at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and at the Berlin University of the Arts. From 1992 to 1996 she also served as a visiting professor at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and from 1997 to 2004 she was a professor for performance-art at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Braunschweig.
== Art career ==
=== Rhythm 10, 1973 ===
In her first performance in Edinburgh in 1973, Abramović explored elements of ritual and gesture. Making use of ten knives and two tape recorders, the artist played the Russian game, in which rhythmic knife jabs are aimed between the splayed fingers of one's hand, the title of the piece getting its name from the number of knives used. Each time she cut herself, she would pick up a new knife from the row of ten she had set up, and record the operation. After cutting herself ten times, she replayed the tape, listened to the sounds, and tried to repeat the same movements, attempting to replicate the mistakes, merging past and present. She set out to explore the physical and mental limitations of the body – the pain and the sounds of the stabbing; the double sounds from the history and the replication. With this piece, Abramović began to consider the state of consciousness of the performer. "Once you enter into the performance state you can push your body to do things you absolutely could never normally do."
=== Rhythm 5, 1974 ===
In this performance, Abramović sought to re-evoke the energy of extreme bodily pain, using a large petroleum-drenched star, which the artist lit on fire at the start of the performance. Standing outside the star, Abramović cut her nails, toenails, and hair. When finished with each, she threw the clippings into the flames, creating a burst of light each time. Burning the communist five-pointed star or pentagram represented a physical and mental purification, while also addressing the political traditions of her past. In the final act of purification, Abramović leapt across the flames into the center of the large pentagram. At first, due to the light and smoke given off by the fire, the observing audience did not realize that the artist had lost consciousness from lack of oxygen inside the star. However, when the flames came very near to her body and she still remained inert, a doctor and others intervened and extricated her from the star.
Abramović later commented upon this experience: "I was very angry because I understood there is a physical limit. When you lose consciousness you can't be present, you can't perform."
=== Rhythm 2, 1974 ===
Prompted by her loss of consciousness during Rhythm 5, Abramović devised the two-part Rhythm 2 to incorporate a state of unconsciousness in a performance. She performed the work at the Gallery of Contemporary Art in Zagreb, in 1974. In Part I, which had a duration of 50 minutes, she ingested a medication she describes as 'given to patients who suffer from catatonia, to force them to change the positions of their bodies.' The medication caused her muscles to contract violently, and she lost complete control over her body while remaining aware of what was going on. After a ten-minute break, she took a second medication 'given to schizophrenic patients with violent behavior disorders to calm them down.' The performance ended after five hours when the medication wore off.
=== Rhythm 4, 1974 ===
Rhythm 4 was performed at the Galleria Diagramma in Milan. In this piece, Abramović knelt alone and naked in a room with a high-power industrial fan. She approached the fan slowly, attempting to breathe in as much air as possible to push the limits of her lungs. Soon after she lost consciousness.
Abramović's previous experience in Rhythm 5, when the audience interfered in the performance, led to her devising specific plans so that her loss of consciousness would not interrupt the performance before it was complete. Before the beginning of her performance, Abramović asked the cameraman to focus only on her face, disregarding the fan. This was so the audience would be oblivious to her unconscious state, and therefore unlikely to interfere. After several minutes of Abramović's unconsciousness, the cameraman refused to continue and sent for help.
=== Rhythm 0, 1974 ===
To test the limits of the relationship between performer and audience, Abramović developed one of her most challenging and best-known performances, which took place in Naples, Italy. She assigned a passive role to herself, with the public being the force that would act on her. Abramović placed on a table 72 objects that people were allowed to use in any way that they chose; a sign informed them that they held no responsibility for any of their actions. Some of the objects could give pleasure, while others could be wielded to inflict pain, or to harm her. Among them were a rose, a feather, honey, a whip, olive oil, scissors, a scalpel, a gun and a single bullet. For six hours the artist allowed audience members to manipulate her body and actions without consequences. This tested how vulnerable and aggressive human subjects could be when actions have no social consequences. At first the audience did not do much and was extremely passive. However, as the realization began to set in that there was no limit to their actions, the piece became brutal. By the end of the performance, her body was stripped, attacked, and devalued into an image that Abramović described as the "Madonna, mother, and whore." As Abramović described it later: "What I learned was that ... if you leave it up to the audience, they can kill you. ... I felt really violated: they cut up my clothes, stuck rose thorns in my stomach, one person aimed the gun at my head, and another took it away. It created an aggressive atmosphere. After exactly 6 hours, as planned, I stood up and started walking toward the audience. Everyone ran away, to escape an actual confrontation."
In her works, Abramović defines her identity in contradiction to that of spectators; however, more importantly, by blurring the roles of each party, the identity and nature of humans individually and collectively also become less clear. By doing so, the individual experience morphs into a collective one and truths are revealed. Abramović's art also represents the objectification of the female body, as she remains passive and allows spectators to do as they please to her; the audience pushes the limits of what might be considered acceptable. By presenting her body as an object, she explores the limits of danger and exhaustion a human can endure.
=== Works with Ulay (Uwe Laysiepen) ===
In 1976, after moving to Amsterdam, Abramović met the West German performance artist Uwe Laysiepen, who went by the single name Ulay. They began living and performing together that year. When Abramović and Ulay began their collaboration, the main concepts they explored were the ego and artistic identity. They created "relation works" characterized by constant movement, change, process and "art vital". This was the beginning of a decade of influential collaborative work. Each performer was interested in the traditions of their cultural heritage and the individual's desire for ritual. Consequently, they decided to form a collective being called "The Other", and spoke of themselves as parts of a "two-headed body". They dressed and behaved like twins and created a relationship of complete trust. As they defined this phantom identity, their individual identities became less defined. In an analysis of phantom artistic identities, Charles Green has noted that this allowed a deeper understanding of the artist as performer, since it revealed a way of "having the artistic self made available for self-scrutiny".
The work of Abramović and Ulay tested the physical limits of the body and explored male and female principles, psychic energy, transcendental meditation, and nonverbal communication. While some critics have explored the idea of a hermaphroditic state of being as a feminist statement, Abramović herself rejects this analysis. Her body studies, she insists, have always been concerned primarily with the body as the unit of an individual, a tendency she traces to her parents' military pasts. Rather than concerning themselves with gender ideologies, Abramović/Ulay explored extreme states of consciousness and their relationship to architectural space. They devised a series of works in which their bodies created additional spaces for audience interaction. In discussing this phase of her performance history, she has said: "The main problem in this relationship was what to do with the two artists' egos. I had to find out how to put my ego down, as did he, to create something like a hermaphroditic state of being that we called the death self."
In Relation in Space (1976) they ran into each other repeatedly for an hour – mixing male and female energy into the third component called "that self".
Relation in Movement (1977) had the pair driving their car inside of a museum for 365 laps; a black liquid oozed from the car, forming a kind of sculpture, each lap representing a year. (After 365 laps the idea was that they entered the New Millennium.)
In Relation in Time (1977) they sat back to back, tied together by their ponytails for sixteen hours. They then allowed the public to enter the room to see if they could use the energy of the public to push their limits even further.
To create Breathing In/Breathing Out the two artists devised a piece in which they connected their mouths and took in each other's exhaled breaths until they had used up all of the available oxygen. Nineteen minutes after the beginning of the performance they pulled away from each other, their lungs having filled with carbon dioxide. This personal piece explored the idea of an individual's ability to absorb the life of another person, exchanging and destroying it.
In Imponderabilia (1977, reenacted in 2010) two performers of opposite sexes, both completely nude, stand in a narrow doorway. The public must squeeze between them in order to pass, and in doing so choose which one of them to face.
In AAA-AAA (1978) the two artists stood opposite each other and made long sounds with their mouths open. They gradually moved closer and closer, until they were eventually yelling directly into each other's mouths. This piece demonstrated their interest in endurance and duration.
In 1980, they performed Rest Energy, in an art exhibition in Amsterdam, where both balanced each other on opposite sides of a drawn bow and arrow, with the arrow pointed at Abramović's heart. With almost no effort, Ulay could easily kill Abramović with one finger. This was intended to represent the power advantage men have over women in society. In addition, the handle of the bow is held by Abramović and is pointed at herself. The handle of the bow is the most significant part of a bow. This would be a whole different piece if it were Ulay aiming a bow at Abramović, but by having her hold the bow, even while her life is subject to his will, she supports him.
Between 1981 and 1987, the pair performed Nightsea Crossing in twenty-two performances. They sat silently across from each other in chairs for seven hours a day.
In 1988, after several years of tense relations, Abramović and Ulay decided to make a spiritual journey that would end their relationship. They each walked the Great Wall of China, in a piece called Lovers, starting from the two opposite ends and meeting in the middle. As Abramović described it: "That walk became a complete personal drama. Ulay started from the Gobi Desert and I from the Yellow Sea. After each of us walked 2500 km, we met in the middle and said good-bye." She has said that she conceived this walk in a dream, and it provided what she thought was an appropriate, romantic ending to a relationship full of mysticism, energy, and attraction. She later described the process: "We needed a certain form of ending, after this huge distance walking towards each other. It is very human. It is in a way more dramatic, more like a film ending ... Because in the end, you are really alone, whatever you do." She reported that during her walk she was reinterpreting her connection to the physical world and to nature. She felt that the metals in the ground influenced her mood and state of being; she also pondered the Chinese myths in which the Great Wall has been described as a "dragon of energy". It took the couple eight years to acquire permission from the Chinese government to perform the work, by which time their relationship had completely dissolved.
At her 2010 MoMA retrospective, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, in which she shared a period of silence with each stranger who sat in front of her. Although "they met and talked the morning of the opening", Abramović had a deeply emotional reaction to Ulay when he arrived at her performance, reaching out to him across the table between them; the video of the event went viral.
In November 2015, Ulay took Abramović to court, claiming she had paid him insufficient royalties according to the terms of a 1999 contract covering sales of their joint works and a year later, in September 2016, Abramović was ordered to pay Ulay €250,000. In its ruling, the court in Amsterdam found that Ulay was entitled to royalties of 20% net on the sales of their works, as specified in the original 1999 contract, and ordered Abramović to backdate royalties of more than €250,000, as well as more than €23,000 in legal costs. Additionally, she was ordered to credit all works created between 1976 and 1980 as "Ulay/Abramović" and all works created between 1981 and 1988 as "Abramović/Ulay".
=== Cleaning the Mirror, 1995 ===
Cleaning the Mirror consisted of five monitors playing footage in which Abramović scrubs a grimy human skeleton in her lap. She vigorously brushes the different parts of the skeleton with soapy water. Each monitor is dedicated to one part of the skeleton: the head, the pelvis, the ribs, the hands, and the feet. Each video is filmed with its own sound, creating an overlap. As the skeleton becomes cleaner, Abramović becomes covered in the grayish dirt that was once covering the skeleton. This three-hour performance is filled with metaphors of the Tibetan death rites that prepare disciples to become one with their own mortality. The piece was composed of three parts. Cleaning the Mirror #1, lasting three hours, was performed at the Museum of Modern Art. Cleaning the Mirror #2 lasts 90 minutes and was performed at Oxford University. Cleaning the Mirror #3 was performed at Pitt Rivers Museum over five hours.
=== Spirit Cooking, 1996 ===
Abramović worked with Jacob Samuel to produce a cookbook of "aphrodisiac recipes" called Spirit Cooking in 1996. These "recipes" were meant to be "evocative instructions for actions or for thoughts". For example, one of the recipes calls for "13,000 grams of jealousy", while another says to "mix fresh breast milk with fresh sperm milk." The work was inspired by the popular belief that ghosts feed off intangible things like light, sound, and emotions.
In 1997, Abramović created a multimedia Spirit Cooking installation. This was originally installed in the Zerynthia Associazione per l'Arte Contemporanea in Rome, Italy, and included white gallery walls with "enigmatically violent recipe instructions" painted in pig's blood. According to Alexxa Gotthardt, the work is "a comment on humanity's reliance on ritual to organize and legitimize our lives and contain our bodies".
Abramović also published a Spirit Cooking cookbook, containing comico-mystical, self-help instructions that are meant to be poetry. Spirit Cooking later evolved into a form of dinner party entertainment that Abramović occasionally lays on for collectors, donors, and friends.
=== Balkan Baroque, 1997 ===
In this piece, Abramović vigorously scrubbed thousands of bloody cow bones over a period of four days, a reference to the ethnic cleansing that had taken place in the Balkans during the 1990s. This performance piece earned Abramović the Golden Lion award at the Venice Biennale.
Abramović created Balkan Baroque as a response to the Yugoslav Wars. She remembers other artists reacting immediately, creating work and protesting about the effects and horrors of the war. Abramović could not bring herself to create work on the matter so soon, as it hit too close to home for her. Eventually, Abramović returned to Belgrade, where she interviewed her mother, her father, and a rat-catcher. She then incorporated these interviews into her piece, as well as clips of the hands of her father holding a pistol and her mother's empty hands and later, her crossed hands. Abramović is dressed as a doctor recounting the story of the rat-catcher. While the clips are playing, Abramović sits among a large pile of bones and tries to wash them.
The performance occurred in Venice in 1997. Abramović remembered the horrible smell – for it was extremely hot in Venice that summer – and that worms emerged from the bones. She has explained that the idea of scrubbing the bones clean and trying to remove the blood, is impossible. The point Abramović was trying to make is that blood can't be washed from bones and hands, just as the war couldn't be cleansed of shame. She wanted to allow the images from the performance to speak for not only the war in Bosnia, but for any war, anywhere in the world.
=== Seven Easy Pieces, 2005 ===
Beginning on November 9, 2005, Abramović presented Seven Easy Pieces commissioned by Performa, at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. On seven consecutive nights for seven hours she recreated the works of five artists first performed in the 1960s and 1970s, in addition to re-performing her own Thomas Lips and introducing a new performance on the last night. The performances were arduous, requiring both the physical and the mental concentration of the artist. Included in Abramović's performances were recreations of Gina Pane's The Conditioning, which required lying on a bed frame suspended over a grid of lit candles, and of Vito Acconci's 1972 performance in which the artist masturbated under the floorboards of a gallery as visitors walked overhead. It is argued that Abramović re-performed these works as a series of homages to the past, though many of the performances were altered from the originals. All seven performances were dedicated to Abramović's late friend Susan Sontag.
A full list of the works performed is as follows:
Bruce Nauman's Body Pressure (1974)
Vito Acconci's Seedbed (1972)
Valie Export's Action Pants: Genital Panic (1969)
Gina Pane's The Conditioning (1973)
Joseph Beuys's How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (1965)
Abramović's own Thomas Lips (1975)
Abramović's own Entering the Other Side (2005)
=== The Artist Is Present: March–May 2010 ===
From March 14 to May 31, 2010, the Museum of Modern Art held a major retrospective and performance recreation of Abramović's work, the biggest exhibition of performance art in MoMA's history, curated by Klaus Biesenbach. Biesenbach also provided the title for the performance, which referred to the fact that during the entire performance "the artist would be right there in the gallery or the museum."
During the run of the exhibition, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, a 736-hour and 30-minute static, silent piece, in which she sat immobile in the museum's atrium while spectators were invited to take turns sitting opposite her. Ulay made a surprise appearance at the opening night of the show.
Abramović sat in a rectangle marked with tape on the floor of the second floor atrium of the MoMA; theater lights shone on her sitting in a chair and a chair opposite her. Visitors waiting in line were invited to sit individually across from the artist while she maintained eye contact with them. Visitors began crowding the atrium within days of the show opening, some gathering before the exhibit opened each morning to get a better place in line. Most visitors sat with the artist for five minutes or less, while a few sat with her for an entire day. The line attracted no attention from museum security until the last day of the exhibition, when a visitor vomited in line and another began to disrobe. Tensions among visitors in line could have arisen from the realization that the longer the earlier visitors spent with Abramović, the less chance that those further back in line would be able to sit with her. Due to the strenuous nature of sitting for hours at a time, art-enthusiasts have wondered whether Abramović wore an adult diaper in order to eliminate the need for bathroom breaks. Others have highlighted the movements she made in between sitters as a focus of analysis, as the only variations in the artist between sitters were when she would cry if a sitter cried and her moment of physical contact with Ulay, one of the earliest visitors to the exhibition. Abramović sat across from 1,545 sitters, including Klaus Biesenbach, James Franco, Lou Reed, Alan Rickman, Jemima Kirke, Jennifer Carpenter, and Björk; sitters were asked not to touch or speak to her. By the end of the exhibit, hundreds of visitors were lining up outside the museum overnight to secure a spot in line the next morning. Abramović concluded the performance by slipping from the chair where she was seated and rising to a cheering crowd more than ten people deep.
A support group for the "sitters", "Sitting with Marina", was established on Facebook, as was the blog "Marina Abramović made me cry". The Italian photographer Marco Anelli took portraits of every person who sat opposite Abramović, which were published on Flickr, compiled in a book and featured in an exhibition at the Danziger Gallery in New York.
Abramović said the show changed her life "completely – every possible element, every physical emotion". After Lady Gaga saw the show and publicized it, Abramović found a new audience: "So the kids from 12 and 14 years old to about 18, the public who normally don't go to the museum, who don't give a shit about performance art or don't even know what it is, started coming because of Lady Gaga. And they saw the show and then they started coming back. And that's how I get a whole new audience." In September 2011, a video game version of Abramović's performance was released by Pippin Barr. In 2013, Dale Eisinger of Complex ranked The Artist Is Present ninth (along with Rhythm 0) in his list of the greatest performance art works.
Her performance inspired Australian novelist Heather Rose to write The Museum of Modern Love and she subsequently launched the US edition of the book at the Museum of Modern Art in 2018.
=== Balkan Erotic Epic: October 2025 ===
Balkan Erotic Epic was a durational performance artwork by Marina Abramović, presented at Factory International's Aviva Studios in Manchester from 9 to 19 October 2025. Building on Abramović’s 2005 multi-channel video installation of the same name, the four-hour performance explored Balkan folklore,, collective mythology, ancient myths, ritual, eroticism, spirituality and tradition. It featured more than seventy performers, including dancers, musicians, and singers, and allowed audiences to move freely through a sequence of thirteen immersive scenes. Incorporating elements such as Fertility Rite, Massaging the Breast, and Scaring the Gods, the work re-examines the connection between sexuality, spirituality, and the body in ritual traditions.
The production was noted for its ritualistic use of nudity, its multi-space choreography, and its focus on reclaiming the body as a site of power and transformation. Frieze called the performance "a reclamation, reinvention and perversion of personal and collective history, mythology and identity."
The performance is touring in Barcelona (24-30 January 2026), Berlin (14-17 October 2026) and New York (8-20 December 2026).
=== Other ===
In 2009, Abramović was featured in Chiara Clemente's documentary Our City Dreams and a book of the same name. The five featured artists – also including Swoon, Ghada Amer, Kiki Smith, and Nancy Spero – "each possess a passion for making work that is inseparable from their devotion to New York", according to the publisher. Abramović is also the subject of an independent documentary film entitled Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present, which is based on her life and performance at her retrospective "The Artist Is Present" at the Museum of Modern Art in 2010. The film was broadcast in the United States on HBO and won a Peabody Award in 2012. In January 2011, Abramović was on the cover of Serbian ELLE, photographed by Dušan Reljin. Kim Stanley Robinson's science fiction novel 2312 mentions a style of performance art pieces known as "abramovics".
A world premiere installation by Abramović was featured at Toronto's Trinity Bellwoods Park as part of the Luminato Festival in June 2013. Abramović is also co-creator, along with Robert Wilson of the theatrical production The Life and Death of Marina Abramović, which had its North American premiere at the festival, and at the Park Avenue Armory in December.
In 2007 Abramović created the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a nonprofit foundation for performance art, in a 33,000 square-foot space in Hudson, New York. She also founded a performance institute in San Francisco. She is a patron of the London-based Live Art Development Agency.
In June 2014 she presented a new piece at London's Serpentine Gallery called 512 Hours. In the Sean Kelly Gallery-hosted Generator, (December 6, 2014) participants are blindfolded and wear noise-canceling headphones in an exploration of nothingness.
In celebration of her 70th birthday on November 30, 2016, Abramović took over the Guggenheim museum (eleven years after her previous installation there) for her birthday party entitled "Marina 70". Part one of the evening, titled "Silence," lasted 70 minutes, ending with the crash of a gong struck by the artist. Then came the more conventional part two: "Entertainment", during which Abramović took to the stage to make a speech before watching English singer and visual artist ANOHNI perform the song "My Way" while wearing a large black hood.
In March 2015, Abramović presented a TED talk titled, "An art made of trust, vulnerability and connection".
In 2019, IFC's mockumentary show Documentary Now! parodied Abramović's work and the documentary film Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present. The show's episode, entitled "Waiting for the Artist", starred Cate Blanchett as Isabella Barta (Abramović) and Fred Armisen as Dimo (Ulay).
Originally set to open on September 26, 2020, her first major exhibition in the UK at the Royal Academy of Arts was rescheduled for autumn 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the Academy, the exhibition would "bring together works spanning her 50-year career, along with new works conceived especially for these galleries. As Abramović approaches her mid-70s, her new work reflects on changes to the artist's body and explores her perception of the transition between life and death." On reviewing this exhibition Tabish Khan, writing for Culture Whisper, described it thus: “It’s intense, it’s discomfiting, it’s memorable, and it’s performance art at its finest".
In 2021, she dedicated a monument, entitled, Crystal wall of crying, at the site of a Holocaust massacre in Ukraine and which is memorialized through the Babi Yar memorials.
In 2022, she condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
In September 2023, Abramović became the first woman to have a solo exhibition in the Royal Academy’s main galleries; the show, which she helped stage while recovering from a near-fatal pulmonary embolism, explored how her performance works might be reinterpreted or reperformed by others, testing the endurance of her legacy through archival footage, installations, and live performances by artists trained in the Marina Abramović Method.
In 2026, she is planned to have a solo exhibition titled Transforming Energy at Venice's Gallerie dell'Accademia art biennale. It will be the first exhibition for a living female artist at the museum's 275 years history.
=== Unfulfilled proposals ===
Abramović had proposed some solo performances during her career that never were performed. One such proposal was titled "Come to Wash with Me". This performance would take place in a gallery space that was to be transformed into a laundry with sinks placed all around the walls of the gallery. The public would enter the space and be asked to take off all of their clothes and give them to Abramović. The individuals would then wait around as she would wash, dry and iron their clothes for them, and once she was done, she would give them back their clothing, and they could get dressed and then leave. She proposed this in 1969 for the Galerija Doma Omladine in Belgrade. The proposal was refused.
In 1970 she proposed a similar idea to the same gallery that was also refused. The piece was untitled. Abramović would stand in front of the public dressed in her regular clothing. Present on the side of the stage was a clothes rack adorned with clothing that her mother wanted her to wear (including oversized items such as a bra or a slip). She would take the clothing one by one and change into them, then stand to face the public for a while. "From the right pocket of my skirt I take a gun. From the left pocket of my skirt I take a bullet. I put the bullet into the chamber and turn it. I place the gun to my temple. I pull the trigger." The performance had two possible outcomes. One of them is that Abramović dies as a result of shooting herself.
== Films ==
Abramović directed a segment, Balkan Erotic Epic, in Destricted, a compilation of erotic films made in 2006. In 2008 she directed a segment Dangerous Games in another film compilation Stories on Human Rights. She also acted in a five-minute short film Antony and the Johnsons: Cut the World.
== Marina Abramović Institute ==
The Marina Abramović Institute (MAI) is a performance art organization with a focus on performance, works of long duration, and the use of the "Abramović Method".
In its early phases, it was a proposed multi-functional museum space in Hudson, New York. Abramović purchased the site for the institute in 2007. Located in Hudson, New York, the building was built in 1933 and has been used as a theater and community tennis center. The building was to be renovated according to a design by Rem Koolhaas and Shohei Shigematsu of OMA. The early design phase of this project was funded by a Kickstarter campaign. It was funded by more than 4,000 contributors, including Lady Gaga and Jay-Z. The building project was canceled in October 2017 due to its excessive cost.
The institute continues to operate as a traveling organization. To date, MAI has partnered with many institutions and artists internationally, traveling to Brazil, Greece, and Turkey.
== Collaborations ==
In her youth, she was a performer in one of Hermann Nitsch's performances which were part of the Viennese actionism.
Abramović maintains a friendship with actor James Franco, who interviewed her for The Wall Street Journal in 2009. Franco visited her during The Artist Is Present in 2010, and the two also attended the 2012 Met Gala together.
In July 2013, Abramović worked with Lady Gaga on the pop singer's third album Artpop. Gaga's work with Abramović, as well as artists Jeff Koons and Robert Wilson, was displayed at an event titled "ArtRave" on November 10. Furthermore, both have collaborated on projects supporting the Marina Abramović Institute, including Gaga's participation in an 'Abramović Method' video and a nonstop reading of Stanisław Lem's sci-fi novel Solaris.
Also that month, Jay-Z showcased an Abramović-inspired piece at Pace Gallery in New York City. He performed his art-inspired track "Picasso Baby" for six straight hours. During the performance, Abramović and several figures in the art world were invited to dance with him standing face to face. The footage was later turned into the music video for the aforementioned song. She allowed Jay-Z to adapt "The Artist Is Present" under the condition that he would donate to her institute. Abramović stated that Jay-Z did not live up to his end of the deal, describing the performance as a "one-way transaction". However, two years later in 2015, Abramović publicly issued an apology stating she was never informed of Jay-Z's sizable donation.
== Personal life ==
Abramović claims she feels "neither like a Serb, nor a Montenegrin", but an ex-Yugoslav. "When people ask me where I am from," she says, "I never say Serbia. I always say I come from a country that no longer exists."
In February 2025, Abramović endorsed the 2024–2025 Serbian anti-corruption protests.
Abramović has had three abortions during her life, and has said that having children would have been a "disaster" for her work.
Sculptor Nikola Pešić says that Abramović has a lifelong interest in esotericism and spiritualism.
=== Occultism conspiracy theories ===
Among the Podesta emails was a message from Abramović to Podesta's brother discussing an invitation to a spirit cooking, which was interpreted by conspiracy theorists such as Alex Jones as an invitation to a satanic ritual, and was presented by Jones and others as proof that Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton had links to the occult. In a 2013 Reddit Q&A, in response to a question about occult in contemporary art, she said: "Everything depends on which context you are doing what you are doing. If you are doing the occult magic in the context of art or in a gallery, then it is the art. If you are doing it in different context, in spiritual circles or private house or on TV shows, it is not art. The intention, the context for what is made, and where it is made defines what art is or not".
On April 10, 2020, Microsoft released a promotional video for HoloLens 2 which featured Abramović. However, due to accusations by right-wing conspiracy theorists of her having ties to Satanism, Microsoft eventually pulled the advertisement. Abramović responded to the criticism, appealing to people to stop harassing her, arguing that her performances are just the art that she has been doing for the last 50 years.
== Awards ==
ars viva, 1982
Golden Lion, XLVII Venice Biennale, 1997
Niedersächsischer Kunstpreis, 2002
New York Dance and Performance Awards (The Bessies), 2002
International Association of Art Critics, Best Show in a Commercial Gallery Award, 2003
Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2008)
Honorary Doctorate of Arts, University of Plymouth UK, September 25, 2009
Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA), September 27, 2011
Cultural Leadership Award, American Federation of Arts, October 26, 2011
Honorary Doctorate of Arts, Instituto Superior de Arte, Cuba, May 14, 2012
July 13' Lifetime Achievement Awards, Podgorica, Montenegro, October 1, 2012
The Karić brothers award (category art and culture), 2012
Berliner Bär (B.Z.-Kulturpreis) (2012; not to be confused with the Silver and Golden Bear at the Berlin Film Festival; a cultural award of the German tabloid BZ)
Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters, 2013
Golden Medal for Merits, Republic of Serbia, 2021
Princess of Asturias Award in the category of Arts, 2021.
Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters, 2022
Sonning Prize, 2023
Praemium Imperiale, 2025
== Bibliography ==
=== Books by Abramović and collaborators ===
Cleaning the House, artist Abramović, author Abramović (Wiley, 1995) ISBN 978-1-85490-399-0
Artist Body: Performances 1969–1998, artist, Abramović; authors Abramović, Toni Stooss, Thomas McEvilley, Bojana Pejic, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Chrissie Iles, Jan Avgikos, Thomas Wulffen, Velimir Abramović; English ed. (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-88-8158-175-7.
The Bridge / El Puente, artist Abramović, authors Abramović, Pablo J. Rico, Thomas Wulffen (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-84-482-1857-7.
Performing Body, artist Abramović, authors Abramović, Dobrila Denegri (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-88-8158-160-3.
Public Body: Installations and Objects 1965–2001, artist Abramović, authors Celant, Germano, Abramović (Charta, 2001) ISBN 978-88-8158-295-2.
Marina Abramović, fifteen artists, Fondazione Ratti; coauthors Abramović, Anna Daneri, Giacinto Di Pietrantonio, Lóránd Hegyi, Societas Raffaello Sanzio, Angela Vettese (Charta, 2002) ISBN 978-88-8158-365-2.
Student Body, artist Abramović, vari; authors Abramović, Miguel Fernandez-Cid, students; (Charta, 2002) ISBN 978-88-8158-449-9.
The House with the Ocean View, artist Abramović; authors Abramović, Sean Kelly, Thomas McEvilley, Cindy Carr, Chrissie Iles, RosaLee Goldberg, Peggy Phelan (Charta, 2004) ISBN 978-88-8158-436-9; the 2002 piece of the same name, in which Abramović lived on three open platforms in a gallery with only water for 12 days, was reenacted in Sex and the City in the HBO series' sixth season.
Marina Abramović: The Biography of Biographies, artist Abramović; coauthors Abramović, Michael Laub, Monique Veaute, Fabrizio Grifasi (Charta, 2004) ISBN 978-88-8158-495-6.
Balkan Epic, (Skira, 2006).
Seven Easy Pieces, artist, Abramović; authors Nancy Spector, Erika Fischer-Lichte, Sandra Umathum, Abramović; (Charta, 2007). ISBN 978-88-8158-626-4.
Marina Abramović, artist Abramović; authors Kristine Stiles, Klaus Biesenbach, Chrissie Iles, Abramović; (Phaidon, 2008). ISBN 978-0-7148-4802-0.
When Marina Abramović Dies: A Biography. Author James Westcott. (MIT, 2010). ISBN 978-0-262-23262-3.
Walk Through Walls: A Memoir, author Abramović (Crown Archetype, 2016). ISBN 978-1-101-90504-3.
=== Films by Abramović and collaborators ===
Balkan Baroque, (Pierre Coulibeuf, 1999)
Balkan Erotic Epic, as producer and director, Destricted (Offhollywood Digital, 2006)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Hear the artist speak about her work MoMA Audio: Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present
Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present at MoMA
Marina Abramović: 512 Hours at the Serpentine Galleries
Marina Abramović: Advice to Young Artists Video by Louisiana Channel
Marina Abramović & Ulay: Living Doors of the Museum Video by Louisiana Channel
The Story of Marina Abramović and Ulay Video by Louisiana Channel
47-minute in-depth interview – Marina Abramović: Electricity Passing Through Video by Louisiana Channel
Abramovic SKNY Sean Kelly Gallery
Marina Abramović at Art:21
Marina Abramović on Artnet
Marina Abramovic Institute, Hudson, NY.
Marina Abramović at the Lisson Gallery
Royal Academy of Arts Marina Abramović |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armsia_petasus | Armsia petasus | Armsia petasus is a species of small, air-breathing, land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Amastridae. They are critically endangered by habitat loss.
This species is endemic to the United States.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66_Maja | 66 Maja | 66 Maja () is a carbonaceous background asteroid from the central regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 71 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 9 April 1861, by American astronomer Horace Tuttle at the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The asteroid was named after Maia from Greek mythology.
== Orbit and classification ==
Maja is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central asteroid belt at a distance of 2.2–3.1 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,571 days; semi-major axis of 2.65 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at the Harvard Observatory, one night after its official discovery observation.
== Physical characteristics ==
In the Tholen classification, Maja is a carbonaceous C-type asteroid, while in the SMASS classification it is a "hydrated" carbonaceous subtype (Ch).
=== Rotation period and spin axes ===
Several rotational lightcurves of Maja have been obtained from photometric observations since 1988. Analysis of the best-rated lightcurve by French amateur astronomers Maurice Audejean and Jérôme Caron from February 2011 gave a rotation period of 9.73509 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.25 magnitude (U=3).
In 2016, a modeled lightcurve was derived from various photometric database sources, giving a concurring sidereal period of 9.73570 hours and two spin axes of (49.0°, −70.0°) and (225.0°, −68.0°) in ecliptic coordinates.
=== Diameter and albedo ===
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Maja measures between 62.87 and 82.28 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.03 and 0.0759.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0618 and a diameter of 71.82 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.36.
== Naming ==
This minor planet was named by Harvard's former president, J. Quincy, after Maia, one of the Seven Sisters of the Pleiades in Greek mythology. She is the mother of Hermes (Mercury) and the daughter of Atlas and Pleione. The official naming citation was mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (H 10).
The asteroids 130 Elektra, 233 Asterope and 1051 Merope were also named after the mythological Seven Sisters. In 1861, the director of the discovering observatory, George Phillips Bond, raised a minor concern since these names had already been applied to some of the brightest stars of the Pleiades in the constellation of Taurus: Maia, Electra, Asterope and Merope.
== Spacecraft visits ==
At present, Maja has not been visited by any spacecraft. As of 1988, mission planning for the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft included a flyby of Maja while leaving the inner solar system in March 1997, however due to delays, the launch of Cassini-Huygens was moved from April 1996 to October 1997, thus negating the option to pass near Maja. Cassini-Huygens passed by asteroid 2685 Masursky on 23 January 2000 instead.
== References ==
== External links ==
Disc-Integrated Radar Properties of Main-Belt Asteroids, JPL, Magri (2004)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info Archived 16 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine)
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
66 Maja at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
66 Maja at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_American_League_Championship_Series | 1986 American League Championship Series | The 1986 American League Championship Series was a best-of-seven semifinal series in Major League Baseball's 1986 postseason between the Boston Red Sox and the California Angels for the right to advance to the 1986 World Series to face the winner of the 1986 National League Championship Series. The Red Sox came in with a 95–66 record and the AL East division title, while the Angels went 92–70 during the regular season to win the AL West.
== Summary ==
=== Boston Red Sox vs. California Angels ===
The Eastern division champion held home field advantage for the third consecutive year in the ALCS. Between 1969-84, the home field advantage alternated between the West in odd-numbered years and the East in even-numbered years. In 1987, that alternation resumed and continued through 1993.
Boston won the series, 4–3.
== Game summaries ==
=== Game 1 ===
Tuesday, October 7, 1986, at Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts
Angels left fielder Brian Downing went 2-for-5 with four RBI and Mike Witt pitched a five-hit complete game, allowing just one run in the sixth on Marty Barrett's RBI single after a two-out walk and single. After getting two outs, Red Sox starter Roger Clemens walked two in the second before Ruppert Jones's RBI single, Wally Joyner's RBI double, and Downing's two-run single put the Angels up 4–0. Gary Pettis's RBI single with two on extended their lead to 5–0, the run unearned due to shortstop Spike Owen's throwing error to first on Bob Boone's ground-ball. In the eighth, Dick Schofield singled with one out, stole second and scored on Boone's single. After a Pettis single, Joe Sambito relieved Clemens and allowed a two-out walk to load the bases, then Downing's two-run single capped the game's scoring at 8–1 as the Angels took a 1–0 series lead.
=== Game 2 ===
Wednesday, October 8, 1986, at Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts
The next day, the tables were turned. The Red Sox struck first in the bottom of the first when Wade Boggs hit a leadoff triple off Kirk McCaskill and scored on Marty Barrett's double. Barrett's bases-loaded RBI single next inning made it 2–0 Red Sox, but Bill Buckner hit into an inning-ending double play to limit the damage. Dick Schofield's bases-loaded single in the fourth cut the Red Sox's lead to 2–1, but Bruce Hurst retired the next two batters to keep them in front. Next inning, Wally Joyner's home run tied the game, but in the bottom half, Dwight Evans's RBI double with two on put the Red Sox ahead for good, 3–2. Boston padded their lead in the seventh. An error, single and walk loaded the bases with one out before another error on Evans's ground ball allowed one run to score and keep the bases loaded, then a third error on Rich Gedman's force out allowed two more runs to score. Next inning, Buckner's sacrifice fly with runners on first and third off Gary Lucas made it 7–2 Red Sox before Jim Rice's home run off Doug Corbett capped the game's scoring at 9–2. Hurst pitched a complete game as the Red Sox tied the series 1–1 heading to California.
=== Game 3 ===
Friday, October 10, 1986, at Anaheim Stadium in Anaheim, California
In Game 3, the Red Sox struck first in the second on Rich Gedman's RBI single with two on off John Candelaria, but after pitching five shutout innings, Oil Can Boyd allowed a game-tying RBI single to Reggie Jackson in the sixth. Dick Schofield's two-out home run in the seventh put the Angels up 2–1. After Bob Boone singled, Gary Pettis's two-run home run extended their lead to 4–1. The Red Sox scored two runs in the eighth on Donnie Moore's balk with runners on second and third and Gedman's RBI single, but the Angels padded their lead in the bottom half on Ruppert Jones's sacrifice fly off Calvin Schiraldi. Moore pitched a scoreless ninth as the Angels went up 2–1 in the series with a 5–3 win. During the game, scoring on Reggie Jackson's single, Wally Joyner suffered an opened staph infection, which would sideline him for the rest of the series.
=== Game 4 ===
Saturday, October 11, 1986, at Anaheim Stadium in Anaheim, California
Roger Clemens, the Game 1 loser for the Red Sox, started Game 4, and was solid for most of the game. Boston put up a run in the sixth on Bill Buckner's RBI double with two on off Don Sutton. In the eighth, Spike Owen hit a leadoff single off Vern Ruhle, moved to third on a groundout and wild pitch, then scored on Marty Barrett's single. Chuck Finley relieved Ruhle and a passed ball and error on Buckner's ground ball allowed Barrett to score to make it 3–0 Red Sox. Another error and walk off Doug Corbett loaded the bases, but Rich Gedman hit into a forceout to end the inning. In the bottom of the ninth, Doug DeCinces led off with a home run. After the next batter grounded out, Dick Schofield and Bob Boone singled. After coming within two outs of a complete game, Clemens was removed, and Boone was replaced with a pinch runner. Gary Pettis, batting next, doubled to score Schofield. Ruppert Jones was intentionally walked to load the bases, a fatal mistake, as two batters later, Brian Downing was hit by a pitch, bringing in the tying run.
Angels relief pitcher Doug Corbett pitched a perfect tenth and eleventh innings, and California broke through in the bottom of the 11th.innings Jerry Narron scored on Bobby Grich's one-out single off Calvin Schiraldi, giving California a 4–3 win and a 3–1 series lead.
=== Game 5 ===
Sunday, October 12, 1986, at Anaheim Stadium in Anaheim, California
Heading into Game 5, California looked set to earn their first trip to a World Series. Rich Gedman's two-run home run in the second put the Red Sox up 2–0, but Bob Boone's home run off Bruce Hurst in the third cut the lead to 2–1. Bobby Grich, the previous night's hero, hit a two-run home run to give the Halos a 3–2 lead in the sixth inning; Red Sox center fielder Dave Henderson had tried to leap at the wall to catch Grich's long fly ball, but ended up deflecting it over the fence. The Angels added to their lead in the seventh inning off Bob Stanley on Rob Wilfong's RBI double with two on and Brian Downing's bases-loaded sacrifice fly.
In the ninth, Mike Witt allowed a leadoff single to Bill Buckner but struck out Jim Rice, putting him two outs away from his second complete game victory of the series. The next batter, Don Baylor, hit a two-strike, two-run home run to pull the Red Sox within one run. After retiring the next batter, Witt was replaced. Gary Lucas was brought in to face catcher Rich Gedman who had been 3 for 3 in the game against Witt, including a double and a home run. Lucas, on the other hand, had a history of striking Gedman out. But with his very first pitch, Lucas hit Gedman, and was replaced by Donnie Moore. The Angels closer brought his team within one strike of its first AL pennant, but Henderson caught hold of a Moore forkball and launched a home run into the left field stands, stunning the hometown crowd and greatly redeeming himself for his earlier miscue. Boston had taken a 6–5 lead.
The lead would not last, however, as in the bottom of the ninth, Bob Boone singled off Stanley, and Ruppert Jones pinch-ran for him. Gary Pettis sacrificed Jones to second, and Wilfong singled him home off Joe Sambito, tying the game. Dick Schofield then singled, sending Wilfong to third, and Downing was intentionally walked to load the bases with only one out. All of Boston's top-half heroics would have been washed away with a mere sacrifice fly at this point. But instead, Doug DeCinces only managed to hit a short fly ball to right field. Grich's subsequent line-out to pitcher Steve Crawford ended the inning.
The teams settled down and the tenth inning was again scoreless, but the Red Sox loaded the bases in the top of the 11th off Donnie Moore on a hit-by-pitch and two singles for Henderson. He hit a sacrifice fly, scoring Baylor with the go-ahead run. Calvin Schiraldi then retired the Halos in order in the bottom of the 11th, completing a shocking comeback and sending the series back to Boston.
=== Game 6 ===
Tuesday, October 14, 1986, at Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts
Still reeling from their Game 5 loss, the Angels struck first in the top of the first off Oil Can Boyd on back-to-back two-out RBI doubles by Reggie Jackson and Doug DeCinces after a one-out walk, but the Red Sox tied the game in the bottom of the inning off Kirk McCaskill without a hit. With runners on second and third and one out via two walks and a groundout, a passed ball and Jim Rice's groundout scored both runners. In the third, after back-to-back leadoff singles, Marty Barrett's RBI double put the Red Sox up 3–2, then Bill Buckner's RBI single extended their lead to 4–2. After a forceout at home, Don Baylor's two-run single (aided by first baseman Bobby Grich's throwing error) and Dwight Evans's RBI single made it 7–2 Red Sox. Dave Henderson's bases-loaded groundout off Doug Corbett in the fifth made it 8–2 Red Sox. Brian Downing hit a home run in the top of the seventh off Boyd, but in the bottom of the inning, Spike Owen's two-run triple off Corbett after a single and walk made it 10–3 Red Sox. The Angels got a run in the eighth off Bob Stanley on shortstop Owen's throwing error on Rob Wilfong with Dick Schofield at second, but could not score again as the Red Sox's 10–4 win forced a deciding Game 7.
=== Game 7 ===
Wednesday, October 15, 1986, at Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts
With momentum fully on their side in Game 7, the Red Sox loaded the bases in the second off John Candelaria with no outs on an error, single and walk. Rich Gedman's groundout scored a run and after an intentional walk reloaded the bases, Wade Boggs's two-run single made it 3–0 Red Sox. In the fourth Dave Henderson reached third on an error, then scored on Spike Owen's single. After a two-out walk, Jim Rice's three-run home run made it 7–0 Red Sox, all runs unearned. Dwight Evans's home run in the seventh off Don Sutton made it 8–0 Red Sox. The Angels scored their only run of the game on Doug DeCinces's RBI single off Calvin Schiraldi, the run charged to starter Roger Clemens. Schiraldi pitched two innings to close as the Red Sox advanced to the World Series with an 8–1 win after trailing the series three games to one. It was their first pennant in 11 years.
== Composite box ==
1986 ALCS (4–3): Boston Red Sox over California Angels
== Series Statistics ==
=== Boston Red Sox ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
=== California Angels ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
== Aftermath ==
By virtue of winning the ALCS, the Red Sox advanced to the 1986 World Series, where they faced the New York Mets, with memorable results. Like the Angels in the ALCS, the Red Sox found themselves one strike away from winning the World Series, yet could not hold the lead. Taking a 5–3 lead into the bottom of the tenth inning of Game 6, the Red Sox gave up three runs, culminating in an infamous ground ball through the legs of Bill Buckner to hand the Mets a 6–5 victory. The Mets would go on to win Game 7 and the Series.
As for the Angels, Donnie Moore was regarded the scapegoat of the series for giving up Henderson's home run in Game 5, and then his game-winning sacrifice fly two innings later. Moore was blasted by the sports media, as well as the fans. He sank into depression and alcoholism over the next two years, and committed suicide on July 18, 1989, just one year after his MLB career ended.
The 1986 ALCS was Reggie Jackson’s last playoff series. He retired the following season in 1987, playing for the team that originally drafted him, the Oakland Athletics. Nicknamed Mr. October, Jackson always seemed to elevate his game during the biggest stage. He finished his career hitting .278/.358/.527 with 18 home runs in 77 career games in the postseason, which was highlighted by two World Series MVPs in 1973 and 1977.
1986 was also Gene Mauch's last chance at winning a pennant. In his 26 years as manager, his name became linked with coming up just short, coming three times within a single victory of reaching a World Series. In 1964, his Philadelphia Phillies suffered a dramatic collapse during the final two weeks of the season, squandering a 6+1⁄2 game lead with 12 games to play. The "Phold of '64", as it became known, was one of the most infamous regular season collapses in baseball history. Mauch won two division titles in his managerial career (both with the Angels) and three NL Manager of the Year Awards. Many of his fellow managers considered him the most insightful and tactical manager in his day, including Alvin Dark; although one of the important reasons his teams never reached the highest heights was that "he didn't understand pitching", according to Dark. Mauch retired in 1987 with 3,942 games managed and 1,902 games won, by far the winningest manager to have never won a league pennant.
In retrospect, most people consider the 1986 postseason to be one of the best (if not the best) postseasons of all time, as it not only was exciting but also made up for a lackluster regular season, in which the Red Sox, Angels, Mets, and Houston Astros all won their divisions handily.
In 2002, the Angels would finally have their moment(s) of glory. They would win the American League Wild Card, as well as their Division Series (dethroning the four-time defending A.L. champion N.Y. Yankees in four games), their first pennant (over Minnesota in five games), and their first World Series title (over San Francisco in seven games).
In 2004, the Angels and Red Sox met in the American League Division Series with the Red Sox sweeping the series. The Red Sox would eventually go on to defeat the New York Yankees for their first pennant since 1986 and also win their first World Series title since 1918 against the St. Louis Cardinals.
In 2007, the Angels and Red Sox met again in the ALDS. The Red Sox again swept the series, continuing their domination of the Halos in the postseason. From Game 4 of the 1986 ALCS until Game 3 of the 2008 ALDS, the Angels lost 11 straight playoff games against the Red Sox, who won all four playoff meetings against them in that span. The Red Sox would win the 2008 ALDS three games to one despite losing eight of nine regular season games against the Angels. In 2009, the Angels finally broke through and defeated the Red Sox in a sweep of the ALDS.
== References ==
== External links ==
Baseball-Reference's 1986 ALCS page
MLB Network Remembers: 1986 ALCS
1986 ALCS Official Souvenir Program |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_Inorganic_Chemistry_Award | Applied Inorganic Chemistry Award | The Applied Inorganic Chemistry Award, established in 2008, is conferred biennially by the Dalton division of the Royal Society of Chemistry for "outstanding contributions to the development of any branch of inorganic chemistry which has an application in industry." The winner gives a lecture tour in the UK, and receives a medal and £2000. The award was discontinued in 2020.
== Winners ==
Source:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_painting#:~:text=In%20November%202018%2C%20scientists%20reported%20the%20discovery%20of%20the%20oldest,the%20Indonesian%20island%20of%20Borneo. | Cave painting | In archaeology, cave paintings are a type of parietal art (which category also includes petroglyphs, or engravings), found on the wall or ceilings of caves. The term usually implies prehistoric origin. Several groups of scientists suggest that the oldest of such paintings were created not by Homo sapiens, but by Denisovans and Neanderthals.
Discussion around prehistoric art is important in understanding the history of Homo sapiens and how human beings have come to have unique abstract thoughts. Some point to these prehistoric paintings as possible examples of creativity, spirituality, and sentimental thinking in prehistoric humans.
== Dating ==
Nearly 350 caves have now been discovered in France and Spain that contain art from prehistoric times. Initially, the age of the paintings had been a contentious issue, since methods like radiocarbon dating can produce misleading results if contaminated by other samples, and caves and rocky overhangs (where parietal art is found) are typically littered with debris from many time periods. But subsequent technology has made it possible to date the paintings by sampling the pigment itself, torch marks on the walls, or the formation of carbonate deposits on top of the paintings. The subject matter can also indicate chronology: for instance, the reindeer depicted in the Spanish cave of Cueva de las Monedas places the drawings in the last Ice Age.
The oldest known cave painting is a red hand stencil in Maltravieso cave, Cáceres, Spain. It has been dated using the uranium-thorium method to older than 64,000 years and was made by a Neanderthal. The oldest date given to an animal cave painting is now a depiction of several human figures hunting pigs in the caves in the Maros-Pangkep karst of South Sulawesi, Indonesia, dated to be over 43,900 years old. Before this, the oldest known figurative cave paintings were that of a bull dated to 40,000 years, at Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, and a depiction of a pig with a minimum age of 35,400 years at Timpuseng cave in Sulawesi.
The earliest known European figurative cave paintings are those of the Cave of El Castillo in Spain, which a 2012 study using uranium-thorium dated back to at least 40,000 BC. Prior to this announcement, it was believed that the oldest figurative cave paintings were those of the Chauvet Cave in France, dating to earlier than 30,000 BC in the Upper Paleolithic according to radiocarbon dating. Some researchers believe the drawings are too advanced for this era and question this age. More than 80 radiocarbon dates had been obtained by 2011, with samples taken from torch marks and from the paintings themselves, as well as from animal bones and charcoal found on the cave floor. The radiocarbon dates from these samples show that there were two periods of creation in Chauvet: 35,000 years ago and 30,000 years ago. One of the surprises was that many of the paintings were modified repeatedly over thousands of years, possibly explaining the confusion about finer paintings that seemed to date earlier than cruder ones.
In 2009, cavers discovered drawings in Coliboaia Cave in Romania, stylistically comparable to those at Chauvet. An initial dating puts the age of an image in the same range as Chauvet: about 32,000 years old.
In Australia, cave paintings have been found on the Arnhem Land plateau showing megafauna which are thought to have been extinct for over 40,000 years, making this site another candidate for oldest known painting; however, the proposed age is dependent on the estimate of the extinction of the species seemingly depicted. Another Australian site, Nawarla Gabarnmang, has charcoal drawings that have been radiocarbon-dated to 28,000 years, making it the oldest site in Australia and among the oldest in the world for which reliable date evidence has been obtained.
Other examples may date as late as the Early Bronze Age, but the well-known Magdalenian style seen at Lascaux in France (c. 15,000 BC) and Altamira in Spain died out about 10,000 BC, coinciding with the advent of the Neolithic period. Some caves probably continued to be painted over a period of several thousands of years.
The next phase of surviving European prehistoric painting, the rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, was very different, concentrating on large assemblies of smaller and much less detailed figures, with at least as many humans as animals. This was created roughly between 10,000 and 5,500 years ago, and painted in rock shelters under cliffs or shallow caves, in contrast to the recesses of deep caves used in the earlier (and much colder) period. Although individual figures are less naturalistic, they are grouped in coherent grouped compositions to a much greater degree. Over a long period of time, the cave art has become less naturalistic and has graduated from beautiful, naturalistic animal drawings to simple ones, and then to abstract shapes.
=== The oldest specimens ===
The oldest known cave paintings are more than 40,000 years old (art of the Upper Paleolithic) and found in the caves in the district of Maros (Sulawesi, Indonesia). The oldest are often constructed from hand stencils and simple geometric shapes. More recently, in 2021, cave art of a pig found in Sulawesi, Indonesia, and dated to over 45,500 years ago, has been reported.
A 2018 study claimed an age of 64,000 years for the oldest examples of non-figurative cave art in the Iberian Peninsula. Represented by three red non-figurative symbols found in the caves of Maltravieso, Ardales and La Pasiega, Spain, these predate the appearance of modern humans in Europe by at least 20,000 years and thus must have been made by Neanderthals rather than modern humans.
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo. In December 2019, cave paintings portraying pig hunting within the Maros-Pangkep karst region in Sulawesi were discovered to be even older, with an estimated age of at least 51,200 years. This finding was recognized as "the oldest known depiction of storytelling and the earliest instance of figurative art in human history." On July 3, 2024, the journal Nature published research findings indicating that the cave paintings which depict anthropomorphic figures interacting with a pig and measure 36 by 15 inches (91 by 38 cm) in Leang Karampuang are approximately 51,200 years old, establishing them as the oldest known figurative art paintings in the world.
== Subjects, themes, and patterns in cave painting ==
Cave artists used a variety of techniques such as finger tracing, modeling in clay, engravings, bas-relief sculpture, hand stencils, and paintings done in two or three colors. Scholars classify cave art as "Signs" or abstract marks.
The most common subjects in cave paintings are large wild animals, such as bison, horses, aurochs, and deer, and tracings of human hands as well as abstract patterns, called finger flutings. The species found most often were suitable for hunting by humans, but were not necessarily the actual typical prey found in associated deposits of bones; for example, the painters of Lascaux have mainly left reindeer bones, but this species does not appear at all in the cave paintings, where equine species are the most common. Drawings of humans were rare and are usually schematic as opposed to the more detailed and naturalistic images of animal subjects. Kieran D. O'Hara, geologist, suggests in his book Cave Art and Climate Change that climate controlled the themes depicted.
Pigments used include red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was incised in the rock first, and in some caves all or many of the images are only engraved in this fashion, taking them somewhat out of a strict definition of "cave painting".
Similarly, large animals are also the most common subjects in the many small carved and engraved bone or ivory (less often stone) pieces dating from the same periods. But these include the group of Venus figurines, which with a few incomplete exceptions have no real equivalent in Paleolithic cave paintings. One counterexample is a feminine figure in the Chauvet Cave, as described in an interview with Dominique Baffier in Cave of Forgotten Dreams.
Hand stencils, formed by placing a hand against the wall and covering the surrounding area in pigment result in the characteristic image of a roughly round area of solid pigment with the negative shape of the hand in the centre, these may then be decorated with dots, dashes, and patterns. Often, these are found in the same caves as other paintings, or may be the only form of painting in a location. Some walls contain many hand stencils. Similar hands are also painted in the usual fashion. A number of hands show a finger wholly or partly missing, for which a number of explanations have been given. Hand images are found in similar forms in Europe, Eastern Asia, Australia, and South America. One site in Baja California features handprints as a prominent motif in its rock art. Archaeological study of this site revealed that, based on the size of the handprints, they most likely belonged to the women of the community. In addition to this, they were likely used during initiation rituals in Chinigchinich religious practices, which were commonly practiced in the Luiseño territory where this site is located.
=== Theories and interpretations ===
In the early 20th century, following the work of Walter Baldwin Spencer and Francis James Gillen, scholars such as Salomon Reinach, Henri Breuil and Count Bégouën interpreted the paintings as 'utilitarian' hunting magic to increase the abundance of prey. Jacob Bronowski states, "I think that the power that we see expressed here for the first time is the power of anticipation: the forward-looking imagination. In these paintings the hunter was made familiar with dangers which he knew he had to face but to which he had not yet come."
Another theory, developed by David Lewis-Williams and broadly based on ethnographic studies of contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, is that the paintings were made by paleolithic shamans. The shaman would retreat into the darkness of the caves, enter into a trance state, then paint images of their visions, perhaps with some notion of drawing out power from the cave walls themselves.
R. Dale Guthrie, who has studied both highly artistic and lower quality art and figurines, identifies a wide range of skill and age among the artists. He hypothesizes that the main themes in the paintings and other artifacts (powerful beasts, risky hunting scenes and the representation of nude women) are the work of adolescent males, who constituted a large portion of cave painters, based on surrounding hand print analysis. However, in analyzing hand prints and stencils in French and Spanish caves, Dean Snow of Pennsylvania State University has proposed that a proportion of them, including those around the spotted horses in Pech Merle, were of female hands.
Analysis in 2022, led by Bennett Bacon, an amateur archaeologist, along with a team of professional archeologists and psychologists at the University of Durham, including Paul Pettitt and Robert William Kentridge, suggested that lines and dots (and a commonly seen, if curious, "Y" symbol, which was proposed to mean "to give birth") on upper palaeolithic cave paintings correlated with the mating cycle of animals in a lunar calendar, potentially making them the earliest known evidence of a proto-writing system and explaining one object of many cave paintings.
== Paleolithic cave art by region ==
=== Europe ===
Well-known cave paintings include those of:
Cave of El Castillo, Spain (~40,000 y.o.)
Chauvet Cave, near Vallon-Pont-d'Arc, France (~35,000 y.o.)
Cave of La Pasiega, Cuevas de El Castillo, Cantabria, Spain (~30,000 y.o.?)
Caves of Arcy-sur-Cure, France (~28,200 y.o.)
Cosquer Cave, with an entrance below sea level near Marseille, France (~27,000 y.o.)
Caves of Gargas, France (~27,000 y.o.)
Grotte de Cussac, France (~25,000 y.o.)
Pech Merle, near Cabrerets, France (25,000 y.o.)
Kapova Cave, Bashkortostan, Russia (~18,000 y.o.), the first cave paintings publicized outside Western Europe
Lascaux, France (~17,000 y.o.)
Cave of Niaux, France (~17,000 y.o.)
Font-de-Gaume, in the Dordogne Valley, France (~17,000 y.o.)
Badanj Cave, Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina (~16,000 y.o., very few engravings are pigmented)
Cave of Altamira, near Santillana del Mar, Cantabria, Spain (~15,500 y.o.)
La Marche, in Lussac-les-Châteaux, France (~15,000 y.o.)
Les Combarelles, in Les Eyzies de Tayac, Dordogne, France (~13,600 y.o.)
Cave of the Trois-Frères, in Ariège, France (~13,000 y.o.)
Magura Cave, Bulgaria (~10,000 y.o.)
Solsem cave, Norway (~3,000 y.o.)
The Ignatievka Cave in the Ural Mountains, which contains the image of a mammoth and 160 other paintings, is supposed to be the northernmost Paleolithic cave painting site, but its dating is problematic. About 60 ochre images in a similar manner have been described from the nearby Serpievka-2 cave.
Sites discovered in the 21st century include Creswell Crags, Nottinghamshire, England (~14,500 ys old cave etchings and bas-reliefs, but no paintings discovered so far) and Peștera Coliboaia in Romania (~29,000 y.o. art?).
Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces; but fewer of those have survived because of erosion. One example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi (3,000–2,500 BC) in the Saimaa area of Finland.
When Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola first encountered the Magdalenian paintings of the Cave of Altamira in Cantabria, Spain in 1879, the academics of the time considered them hoaxes. Recent reappraisals and numerous additional discoveries have since demonstrated their authenticity, while at the same time stimulating interest in the artistry and symbolism of Upper Palaeolithic peoples.
=== East and Southeast Asia ===
In Indonesia the caves in the district of Maros in Sulawesi are famous for their hand prints. About 1,500 negative handprints have also been found in 30 painted caves in the Sangkulirang area of Kalimantan; preliminary dating analysis as of 2005 put their age in the range of 10,000 years old. A 2014 study based on uranium–thorium dating dated a Maros hand stencil to a minimum age of 39,900 years. A painting of a babirusa was dated to at least 35.4 ka, placing it among the oldest known figurative depictions worldwide.
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.
And more recently, in 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of cave art at least 45,500 years old in Leang Tedongnge cave, Indonesia. According to the journal Science Advances, the cave painting of a warty pig is the earliest evidence of human settlement of the region. It has been reported that it is rapidly deteriorating as a result of climate change in the region.
Originating in the Paleolithic period, the rock art found in Khoit Tsenkher Cave, Mongolia, includes symbols and animal forms painted from the walls up to the ceiling. Stags, buffalo, oxen, ibex, lions, Argali sheep, antelopes, camels, elephants, ostriches, and other animal pictorials are present, often forming a palimpsest of overlapping images. The paintings appear brown or red in color, and are stylistically similar to other Paleolithic rock art from around the world but are unlike any other examples in Mongolia.
The Padah-Lin Caves of Burma contain 11,000-year-old paintings and many rock tools.
=== India ===
The Ambadevi rock shelters have the oldest cave paintings in India, dating back to 25,000 years. The Bhimbetka rock shelters are dated to about 8,000 BC. Similar paintings are found in other parts of India as well. In Tamil Nadu, ancient Paleolithic Cave paintings are found in Kombaikadu, Kilvalai, Settavarai and Nehanurpatti. In Odisha they are found in Yogimatha and Gudahandi. In Karnataka, these paintings are found in Hiregudda near Badami. The most recent painting, consisting of geometric figures, date to the medieval period.
Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow, the paintings depict the lives and times of the people who lived in the caves, including scenes of childbirth, communal dancing and drinking, religious rites and burials, as well as indigenous animals.
=== Southern Africa ===
Cave paintings found at the Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia are estimated to date from approximately 25,500–27,500 years ago.
In 2011, archaeologists found a small rock fragment at Blombos Cave, about 300 km (190 mi) east of Cape Town on the southern cape coastline in South Africa, among spear points and other excavated material. After extensive testing for seven years, it was revealed that the lines drawn on the rock were handmade and from an ochre crayon dating back 73,000 years. This makes it the oldest known rock painting.
=== Australia ===
Significant early cave paintings, executed in ochre, have been found in Kimberley and Kakadu, Australia. Ochre is not an organic material, so carbon dating of these pictures is often impossible. The oldest so far dated at 17,300 years is an ochre painting of a kangaroo in the Kimberley region, which was dated by carbon dating wasp nest material underlying and overlying the painting. Sometimes the approximate date, or at least, an epoch, can be surmised from the painting content, contextual artifacts, or organic material intentionally or inadvertently mixed with the inorganic ochre paint, including torch soot.
A red ochre painting, discovered at the centre of the Arnhem Land Plateau, depicts two emu-like birds with their necks outstretched. They have been identified by a palaeontologist as depicting the megafauna species Genyornis, giant birds thought to have become extinct more than 40,000 years ago; however, this evidence is inconclusive for dating. It may suggest that Genyornis became extinct at a later date than previously determined.
Hook Island in the Whitsunday Islands is also home to a number of cave paintings created by the seafaring Ngaro people.
== Holocene cave art ==
=== Asia ===
In the Philippines at Tabon Caves the oldest artwork may be a relief of a shark above the cave entrance. It was partially disfigured by a later jar burial scene.
The Edakkal Caves of Kerala, India, contain drawings that range over periods from the Neolithic as early as 5,000 BC to 1,000 BC.
=== Horn of Africa ===
Rock art near Qohaito appears to indicate habitation in the area since the fifth millennium BC, while the town is known to have survived to the sixth century AD. Mount Emba Soira, Eritrea's highest mountain, lies near the site, as does a small successor village. Much of the rock art sites are found together with evidence of prehistoric stone tools, suggesting that the art could predate the widely presumed pastoralist and domestication events that occurred 5,000– 4,000 years ago.
In 2002, a French archaeological team discovered the Laas Geel cave paintings on the outskirts of Hargeisa in Somaliland. Dating back around 5,000 years, the paintings depict both wild animals and decorated cows. They also feature herders, who are believed to be the creators of the rock art. In 2008, Somali archaeologists announced the discovery of other cave paintings in Dhambalin region, which the researchers suggest includes one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is dated to 1000 to 3000 BC.
Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in Karinhegane is a site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old. Karihegane's rock art is in the same distinctive style as the Laas Geel and Dhambalin cave paintings. Around 25 miles from Las Khorey is found Gelweita, another key rock art site.
In Djibouti, rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho.
=== North Africa ===
Many cave paintings are found in the Tassili n'Ajjer mountains in southeast Algeria. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the rock art was first discovered in 1933 and has since yielded 15,000 engravings and drawings that keep a record of the various animal migrations, climatic shifts, and change in human inhabitation patterns in this part of the Sahara from 6000 BC to the late classical period. Other cave paintings are also found at the Akakus, Mesak Settafet and Tadrart in Libya and other Sahara regions including: Ayr mountains, Niger and Tibesti, Chad.
The Cave of Swimmers and the Cave of Beasts in southwest Egypt, near the border with Libya, in the mountainous Gilf Kebir region of the Sahara Desert. The Cave of Swimmers was discovered in October 1933 by the Hungarian explorer László Almásy. The site contains rock painting images of people swimming, which are estimated to have been created 10,000 years ago during the time of the most recent Ice Age.
In 2020, limestone cave decorated with scenes of animals such as donkeys, camels, deer, mule and mountain goats was uncovered in the area of Wadi Al-Zulma by the archaeological mission from the Tourism and Antiquities Ministry. Rock art cave is 15 meters deep and 20 meters high.
=== Southern Africa ===
At uKhahlamba / Drakensberg Park, South Africa, now thought to be some 3,000 years old, the paintings by the San people who settled in the area some 8,000 years ago depict animals and humans, and are thought to represent religious beliefs. Human figures are much more common in the rock art of Africa than in Europe.
=== North America ===
Distinctive monochrome and polychrome cave paintings and murals exist in the mid-peninsula regions of southern Baja California and northern Baja California Sur, consisting of Pre-Columbian paintings of humans, land animals, sea creatures, and abstract designs. These paintings are mostly confined to the sierras of this region, but can also be found in outlying mesas and rock shelters. According to recent radiocarbon studies of the area, of materials recovered from archaeological deposits in the rock shelters and on materials in the paintings themselves, suggest that the Great Murals may have a time range extending as far back as 7,500 years ago.
California
Native artists in the Chumash tribes created cave paintings that are located in present-day Santa Barbara, Ventura, and San Luis Obispo Counties in Southern California in the United States. They include examples at Burro Flats Painted Cave and Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park.
There are also Native American pictogram examples in caves of the Southwestern United States. Cave art that is 6,000 years old was found in the Cumberland Plateau region of Tennessee.
Native American tribes have contributed to the makings of Californian cave art, whether it be in Northern or Baja California. The Chumash people of Southern and Baja California made paintings in Swordfish Cave. It was given its name after the swordfish that are painted on its walls and is a sacred site for religious and cultural practices of the Chumash tribe. It was under attack of demolition, which prompted the start of its conservation with cooperation between the Vandenberg Air Force Base and the Tribal Elders Council of the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash. These two parties were able to stabilize and conserve the cave and its art. When previously studied, there were many conclusions about how the paintings were made but not a lot of conclusions about the symbolic value of the rock art and what its meaning to the Chumash tribe. The excavation of the inside of the cave became a viewing area for archaeologists and anthropologists, specifically Clayton Lebow, Douglas Harrow, and Rebecca McKim, to find out the symbolic meaning of the art. Some of the tools that were used to make the pictographs were found in the site and were connected to the two early occupations that were in the area. This pushed back the general knowledge of understood antiquity of rock art on California's Central Coast by more than 2,000 years.
==== Northern and Baja California ====
The National Institution of Anthropology and History (INAH) established in Mexico recorded over 1,500 rock art related archaeological monuments in Baja California. A little under 300 of the sites were connected to Native American Tribes. Throughout these 300 sites, 65% have paintings, 24% have petroglyphs, 10% have both paintings and petroglyphs, and 1% have geoglyphs. Five of these sites located in Baja California show hand designs or paintings, and they all spread out in that area. These sites include Milagro de Guadalupe (23 imprints), Corral de Queno (6 imprints), Rancho Viejo (1 drawing), Piedras Gordas (5 imprints), and finally Valle Seco (3 imprints).
=== South America ===
Serra da Capivara National Park is a national park in the north east of Brazil with many prehistoric paintings; the park was created to protect the prehistoric artifacts and paintings found there. It became a World Heritage Site in 1991. Its best known archaeological site is Pedra Furada.
It is located in northeast state of Piauí, between latitudes 8° 26' 50" and 8° 54' 23" south and longitudes 42° 19' 47" and 42° 45' 51" west. It falls within the municipal areas of São Raimundo Nonato, São João do Piauí, Coronel José Dias and Canto do Buriti. It has an area of 1291.4 square kilometres (319,000 acres). The area has the largest concentration of prehistoric small farms on the American continents. Scientific studies confirm that the Capivara mountain range was densely populated in prehistoric periods.
Cueva de las Manos (Spanish for "Cave of the Hands") is a cave located in the province of Santa Cruz, Argentina, 163 km (101 mi) south of the town of Perito Moreno, within the borders of the Francisco P. Moreno National Park, which includes many sites of archaeological and paleontological importance.
The hand images are often negative (stencilled). Besides these there are also depictions of human beings, guanacos, rheas, felines and other animals, as well as geometric shapes, zigzag patterns, representations of the sun, and hunting scenes. Similar paintings, though in smaller numbers, can be found in nearby caves. There are also red dots on the ceilings, probably made by submerging their hunting bolas in ink, and then throwing them up. The colours of the paintings vary from red (made from hematite) to white, black or yellow. The negative hand impressions date to around 550 BC, the positive impressions from 180 BC, while the hunting drawings are calculated to more than 10,000 years old. Most of the hands are "left hands" (that is, with thumb on the right, even though this pattern can be obtained as easily with both right and left hands, depending on whether the back or front is used) which has been used as an argument to suggest that painters held the spraying pipe with their right hand.
=== Southeast Asia ===
There are rock paintings in caves in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Burma. In Thailand, caves and scarps along the Thai-Burmese border, in the Petchabun Range of Central Thailand, and overlooking the Mekong River in Nakorn Sawan Province, all contain galleries of rock paintings. In Malaysia, the Tambun rock art is dated at 2000 years, and those in the Painted Cave at Niah Caves National Park are 1200 years old. The anthropologist Ivor Hugh Norman Evans visited Malaysia in the early 1920s and found that some of the tribes (especially Negritos) were still producing cave paintings and had added depictions of modern objects including what are believed to be automobiles. (See prehistoric Malaysia.)
In Indonesia, rock paintings can be found in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Flores, Timor, Maluku and Papua.
== See also ==
List of Stone Age art
15,000 BC in art
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Dubowski, Mark (2010). Discovery in the Cave (Children's early reader). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-85893-2.
Fage, Luc-Henri; Chazine, Jean-Michel (2010). Borneo – Memory of the Caves. Le Kalimanthrope. ISBN 978-2-9536616-1-3.
Heyd, Thomas; Clegg, John, eds. (2005). Aesthetics and Rock Art. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-3924-X.
Curtis, Gregory (2006). The Cave Painters: Probing the Mysteries of the World's First Artists. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4348-4.
Nechvatal, Joseph (2005). "Immersive Excess in the Apse of Lascaux". Technonoetic Arts. 3 (3): 181–192. doi:10.1386/tear.3.3.181/1.
== External links ==
Bradshaw Foundation The recording of cave paintings around the world
EuroPreArt database of European Prehistoric Art
American Rock Art Research Association
Tour of Afghan cave paintings from BBC News.
Le Kalimanthrope Rock art of Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia)
Journey through Art History, an outline of prehistoric art with emphasis on cave paintings from around the world.
Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa | Ecstasy of Saint Teresa | The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (also known as Saint Teresa in Ecstasy; Italian: L'Estasi di Santa Teresa or Santa Teresa in estasi) is a sculptural altarpiece group in white marble set in an elevated aedicule in the Cornaro Chapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. It was designed and carved by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, the leading sculptor of his day, who also designed the setting of the chapel in marble, stucco and paint. The commission was completed in 1652.
The ensemble includes at the sides two sets of donor portraits of members of the Cornaro family, who watch the main central group as though in boxes in a theatre. The group is generally considered to be one of the sculptural masterpieces of the High Roman Baroque. The sculpture over the altar shows Saint Teresa of Ávila, a Spanish Carmelite nun (1515–1582), swooning in a state of religious ecstasy, while an angel holding a spear stands over her, following her own account of a vision she had.
== Commission ==
The entire ensemble was overseen and completed by a mature Bernini during the Pamphili papacy of Innocent X. When Innocent acceded to the papal throne, he shunned Bernini's artistic services; the sculptor had been the favourite artist of the previous and profligate Barberini pope, Urban VIII. Without papal patronage, the services of Bernini's studio were therefore available to a patron such as the Venetian Cardinal Federico Cornaro (1579–1653).
Cornaro had chosen the hitherto unremarkable church of the Discalced Carmelites for his burial chapel. The selected site for the chapel was the left transept that had previously held an image of 'St. Paul in Ecstasy', which was replaced by Bernini's dramatization of a religious experience undergone and related by the first Discalced Carmelite saint, who had been canonised not long before, in 1622. It was completed in 1652 for the then princely sum of 12,000 scudi.
A small format terracotta model of about 47 cm (19 in) was created between 1644 and 1647. The sculpture represents the first embodiment of the project, with traces of Bernini's fingerprints still visible. The model belongs to the Hermitage Museum's collection.
== Sculptural group and its setting ==
The two central sculptural figures of the swooning nun and the angel with the spear derive from an episode described by Teresa of Avila, a mystical cloistered Discalced Carmelite reformer and nun, in her autobiography, The Life of Teresa of Jesus. Her experience of religious ecstasy in her encounter with the angel is described as follows:
I saw in his hand a long spear of gold, and at the iron's point there seemed to be a little fire. He appeared to me to be thrusting it at times into my heart, and to pierce my very entrails; when he drew it out, he seemed to draw them out also, and to leave me all on fire with a great love of God. The pain was so great, that it made me moan; and yet so surpassing was the sweetness of this excessive pain, that I could not wish to be rid of it. The soul is satisfied now with nothing less than God. The pain is not bodily, but spiritual; though the body has its share in it. It is a caressing of love so sweet which now takes place between the soul and God, that I pray God of His goodness to make him experience it who may think that I am lying.
The group is illuminated by natural light which filters through a hidden window in the dome of the surrounding aedicule, and underscored by gilded stucco rays. Teresa is shown lying on a cloud indicating that this is intended to be a divine apparition we are witnessing. Other witnesses appear on the side walls; life-size high-relief donor portraits of male members of the Cornaro family, e.g. Cardinal Federico Cornaro and Doge Giovanni I Cornaro, are present and shown discussing the event in boxes as if at the theatre. Although the figures are executed in white marble, the aedicule, wall panels and theatre boxes are made from coloured marbles. Above, the vault of the chapel is frescoed with an illusionistic cherub-filled sky with the descending light of the Holy Ghost allegorized as a dove.
The art historian Rudolf Wittkower wrote:
In spite of the pictorial character of the design as a whole, Bernini differentiated between various degrees of reality, the members of the Cornaro Chapel seem to be alive like ourselves. They belong to our space and our world. The supernatural event of Teresa's vision is raised to a sphere of its own, removed from that of the beholder mainly by virtue of the isolating canopy and the heavenly light.
== Interpretations ==
The effects are theatrical, the Cornaro family seeming to observe the scene from their boxes, and the chapel illustrates a moment where divinity intrudes on an earthly body. Caroline Babcock speaks of Bernini's melding of sensual and spiritual pleasure as both intentional and influential on artists and writers of the day. Irving Lavin said "the transverberation becomes a point of contact between earth and heaven, between matter and spirit". As Bernini biographer Franco Mormando points out, although Bernini's point of departure for his depiction of Teresa's mystical experience was her own description, there were many details about the experience that she never specifies (e.g., the position of her body) and that Bernini simply supplied from his own artistic imagination, all with an aim of increasing the nearly transgressively sensual charge of the episode: "Certainly no other artist, in rendering the scene, before or after Bernini, dared as much in transforming the saint's appearance."
== Criticism ==
Some scholars argue that there are sexual implications of the work. It has been called "decidely (sic) risqué"; "the most astounding peep show in art"; and "the grossest and most offensive example of Baroque art." Some authors have argued that its popularity "has a lot to do with sex." And by placing the sculpture in a theatrical setting, Bernini is accused of turning "a private moment into a very public
spectacle." Victorian art critic Anna Jameson wanted it destroyed: "even those least prudish in matters of art, would here willingly throw the first stone." Regarding arguments against sexual implications, Franco Mormando has said "none of these defenses are completely accurate." and Simon Schama, has argued: "Critics and scholars tie themselves in knots, trying to avoid stating the obvious."
Other scholars argue that there is no sexual content in the statue, saying:
Bernini faithfully followed Teresa's description of the experience.
The Church accepted that mystical union often involved erotic elements.
There is no nudity in the statue.
== Similar works by Bernini ==
See also entry titled Bernini's Cornaro chapel found in the Baroque section.
Death of the Blessed Ludovica Albertoni (1671–1674)—San Francesco a Ripa, Rome.
Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (1614–15)
Truth Unveiled by Time (1646–1652) – Galleria Borghese, Rome.
== Influencing or influenced works ==
Stefano Maderno's sculpture of St Cecilia in namesake church (1600).
Melchiorre Caffà's Santa Rose of Lima (1665) and his Assumption of St Catherine.
Francisco Aprile and Ercole Ferrata's Sant'Anastasia in her namesake church in Rome.
The most internationally successful Czech underground group the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa named themselves after the sculpture.
Angels & Demons, the novel by Dan Brown which lists the sculpture as the third "Altar of Science" of the fictionalized Illuminati. Brown's book incorrectly states that the sculpture was moved from the Vatican to its current location, and that Pope Urban VIII (who was already deceased when Bernini worked on the sculpture) found the statue too sexually explicit.
The sculpture is the subject of the song "The Lie" from Peter Hammill's album The Silent Corner and the Empty Stage.
In Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace, the sculpture plays a role in the filmography of James O. Incandenza Jr. Wallace also alludes to it in three additional scenes involving Joelle.
Street artist Banksy used the image of Saint Teresa in one of his works, though he removed the angelic figure and added a fast food meal.
The sculpture and its image are frequently referred to in the novel Cutting for Stone by Abraham Verghese.
In the psychoanalytic theories of Jacques Lacan, the statue plays an important role due to a central reference in his book Seminar XX: Encore. Lacan believes the statue helps convey his theory of the possibility of a female enjoyment that is infinite and unknowable, while masculine enjoyment is defined by finitude and failure. Some book covers of Seminar XX have a picture of the statue on the front.
== See also ==
List of works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini
== References ==
Notes
Citations
Sources
Hibbard, Howard (22 January 1971). Bernini. [Baltimore] Penguin Books.
Robert Harbison (2000). "The Case for Disruption". Reflections on Baroque. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–32.
Boucher, Bruce (1998). Thames & Hudson, World of Art (ed.). Italian Baroque Sculpture. pp. 134–143. Archived from the original on 28 December 2005.
Bernini biography (click on Ecstasy of St Teresa)
Cocke, Richard (August 1972). "A Drawing by Bernini for the Cornaro Chapel, S. Maria della Vittoria". The Burlington Magazine. 114 (833). The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd.: 550–553. JSTOR 877068.
== External links ==
Media related to Ecstasy of Saint Theresa of Avila by Bernini at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_World_Rugby_Nations_Cup | 2016 World Rugby Nations Cup | The 2016 World Rugby Cup of Nations was the eleventh edition of the World Rugby Nations Cup rugby union tournament, created by World Rugby (formerly IRB). As with the previous nine tournaments, the competition took place in the Stadionul Naţional de Rugby in Bucharest, Romania.
Due to Georgia's tour of the Pacific Islands in June, the World Rugby Tbilisi Cup did not take place. Instead, this tournament featured six teams split in two pools of three, where the three European teams played the other three teams. This format was last used in 2012. Hosts Romania won the title, for the fourth time in five years. Romania finished with 13 points after beating the Argentina XV in the decisive match.
== Teams ==
Argentina XV
Emerging Italy
Namibia
Romania
Spain
Uruguay
== Standings ==
=== Pool A ===
=== Pool B ===
== Fixtures ==
=== Matchday 1 ===
=== Matchday 2 ===
=== Week 3 (place games) ===
== See also ==
World Rugby Tbilisi Cup
World Rugby Nations Cup
== External links ==
Official Site
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaj_Doab#:~:text=The%20Chaj%20doab%20includes%20the,fringes%20of%20the%20Kashmir%20valley. | Chaj Doab | Chaj Doab (Punjabi: چَج دوآب), also known as the Jech Doab, is one of the main regions of the Punjab province in Pakistan. Punjab historically has been divided into regions based on its various rivers, since the name Punjab itself is based on the region's five main rivers. The Chaj Doab includes the area between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, thus also known as Jech Doab. It lies on the southern fringes of the Kashmir valley. The Chaj Doab is smaller in area compared to the other doabs, such as the Rechna, and it has a moderately high population density. Its principal city is Sargodha.
== Geography ==
The upper part of the doab has high-elevation. The middle and lower sections of the doab is not very conductive to agriculture when compared with Rechna Doab.
== Districts ==
This doab covers Gujrat District, Bhimber District, Mirpur District, Mandi Bahauddin District, Sargodha District, Lalian Tehsil of Chiniot District and some areas of Jhang Tehsil of Jhang District. However, the main districts are Gujrat, Mandi Bahauddin, and Sargodha.
== See also ==
Sindh Sagar Doab
Rachna Doab
Bari Doab
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACS_Award_in_Pure_Chemistry | ACS Award in Pure Chemistry | The American Chemical Society Award in Pure Chemistry is awarded annually by the American Chemical Society (ACS) "to recognize and encourage fundamental research in pure chemistry carried out in North America by young men and women." "Young" means born within 35 years of the awarding of the Award, which takes place at the Spring meeting of the ACS. To be eligible, a nominee "must have accomplished research of unusual merit for an individual on the threshold of her or his career. Special consideration is given to independence of thought and originality in the research...." The award was first awarded in 1931, with Linus Pauling the inaugural recipient. It is sponsored by Alpha Chi Sigma fraternity and the Alpha Chi Sigma Educational Foundation.
== List of recipients ==
Source: American Chemical Society
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
American Chemical Society Pure Chemistry Award Page |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_number | Vampire number | In recreational mathematics, a vampire number (or true vampire number) is a composite natural number with an even number of digits, that can be factored into two natural numbers each with half as many digits as the original number, where the two factors contain precisely all the digits of the original number, in any order, counting multiplicity. The two factors cannot both have trailing zeroes. The first vampire number is 1260 = 21 × 60.
== Definition ==
Let
N
{\displaystyle N}
be a natural number with
2
k
{\displaystyle 2k}
digits:
N
=
n
2
k
n
2
k
−
1
.
.
.
n
1
{\displaystyle N={n_{2k}}{n_{2k-1}}...{n_{1}}}
Then
N
{\displaystyle N}
is a vampire number if and only if there exist two natural numbers
A
{\displaystyle A}
and
B
{\displaystyle B}
, each with
k
{\displaystyle k}
digits:
A
=
a
k
a
k
−
1
.
.
.
a
1
{\displaystyle A={a_{k}}{a_{k-1}}...{a_{1}}}
B
=
b
k
b
k
−
1
.
.
.
b
1
{\displaystyle B={b_{k}}{b_{k-1}}...{b_{1}}}
such that
A
×
B
=
N
{\displaystyle A\times B=N}
,
a
1
{\displaystyle a_{1}}
and
b
1
{\displaystyle b_{1}}
are not both zero, and the
2
k
{\displaystyle 2k}
digits of the concatenation of
A
{\displaystyle A}
and
B
{\displaystyle B}
(
a
k
a
k
−
1
.
.
.
a
2
a
1
b
k
b
k
−
1
.
.
.
b
2
b
1
)
{\displaystyle ({a_{k}}{a_{k-1}}...{a_{2}}{a_{1}}{b_{k}}{b_{k-1}}...{b_{2}}{b_{1}})}
are a permutation of the
2
k
{\displaystyle 2k}
digits of
N
{\displaystyle N}
. The two numbers
A
{\displaystyle A}
and
B
{\displaystyle B}
are called the fangs of
N
{\displaystyle N}
.
Vampire numbers were first described in a 1994 post by Clifford A. Pickover to the Usenet group sci.math, and the article he later wrote was published in chapter 30 of his book Keys to Infinity.
== Examples ==
1260 is a vampire number, with 21 and 60 as fangs, since 21 × 60 = 1260 and the digits of the concatenation of the two factors (2160) are a permutation of the digits of the original number (1260).
However, 126000 (which can be expressed as 21 × 6000 or 210 × 600) is not a vampire number, since although 126000 = 21 × 6000 and the digits (216000) are a permutation of the original number, the two factors 21 and 6000 do not have the correct number of digits. Furthermore, although 126000 = 210 × 600, both factors 210 and 600 have trailing zeroes.
The first few vampire numbers are:
1260 = 21 × 60
1395 = 15 × 93
1435 = 35 × 41
1530 = 30 × 51
1827 = 21 × 87
2187 = 27 × 81
6880 = 80 × 86
102510 = 201 × 510
104260 = 260 × 401
105210 = 210 × 501
The sequence of vampire numbers is:
1260, 1395, 1435, 1530, 1827, 2187, 6880, 102510, 104260, 105210, 105264, 105750, 108135, 110758, 115672, 116725, 117067, 118440, 120600, 123354, 124483, 125248, 125433, 125460, 125500, ... (sequence A014575 in the OEIS)
There are many known sequences of infinitely many vampire numbers following a pattern, such as:
1530 = 30 × 51, 150300 = 300 × 501, 15003000 = 3000 × 5001, ...
Al Sweigart calculated all the vampire numbers that have at most 10 digits.
== Multiple fang pairs ==
A vampire number can have multiple distinct pairs of fangs. The first of infinitely many vampire numbers with 2 pairs of fangs:
125460 = 204 × 615 = 246 × 510
The first with 3 pairs of fangs:
13078260 = 1620 × 8073 = 1863 × 7020 = 2070 × 6318
The first with 4 pairs of fangs:
16758243290880 = 1982736 × 8452080 = 2123856 × 7890480 = 2751840 × 6089832 = 2817360 × 5948208
The first with 5 pairs of fangs:
24959017348650 = 2947050 × 8469153 = 2949705 × 8461530 = 4125870 × 6049395 = 4129587 × 6043950 = 4230765 × 5899410
== Other bases ==
Vampire numbers also exist for bases other than base 10. For example, a vampire number in base 12 is 10392BA45768 = 105628 × BA3974, where A means ten and B means eleven. Another example in the same base is a vampire number with three fangs, 572164B9A830 = 8752 × 9346 × A0B1. An example with four fangs is 3715A6B89420 = 763 × 824 × 905 × B1A. In these examples, all 12 digits are used exactly once.
== See also ==
Friedman number
== References ==
== External links ==
Sweigart, Al. Vampire Numbers Visualized
Grime, James; Copeland, Ed. "Vampire numbers". Numberphile. Brady Haran. Archived from the original on 2017-10-14. Retrieved 2013-04-08. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Brother_1_(American_season)#:~:text=That%20night%2C%20it%20was%20revealed%20that%20Brittany%20had%20become%20the,the%20end%20of%20the%20week. | Big Brother 1 (American season) | Big Brother 2000 (retroactively known as Big Brother 1 following season 7) is the debut season of the American reality television series Big Brother. It was based upon the Netherlands series of the same name, which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000. The series premiered on July 5, 2000, and lasted for a total of 88 days. The season concluded after 88 days with Eddie McGee being crowned the winner, and Josh Souza the runner-up.
The premise of the series drastically differed from future installments of the series. The series revolved around ten strangers living in a house together with no communication with the outside world. They were constantly filmed during their time in the house, and were not permitted to communicate with those filming them. Every other week, each contestant, referred to as "Houseguests", chose two people who they wished to leave the house. The two or more people with the most votes were “marked for banishment.” The viewers then decided which of the nominees should leave with the selected person leaving during a live show. This process continued until only three HouseGuests remained, at which time the viewers would decide which of them would win the $500,000 grand prize. This format contrasts the future editions of the show, in which the HouseGuests themselves would vote each other out each week, with the ultimate winner being decided by eliminated HouseGuests.
== Format ==
Big Brother is a game show in which a group of contestants, referred to as HouseGuests, lived in a custom built "house", constantly under video surveillance. While in the house, the contestants were completely isolated from the outside world, meaning no phone, television, internet, magazines, newspaper, or contact with those not in the house. This rule could be broken, however, in the event of a family emergency or passing. During their time in the house, the HouseGuests were required to nominate two of their fellow contestants for potential banishment, and the two with the most votes would be nominated. Should multiple HouseGuests receive the most nominations, then all of the HouseGuests were marked for banishment. This process was mandatory for all HouseGuests, and failure to comply could result in expulsion from the house. The public, through a vote conducted by phone, would vote to banish one of the nominated HouseGuests from the house, and the HouseGuest with the most votes from the viewers would be banished from the house. When only three HouseGuests remained, the viewers would vote for which of them should win the series, and the HouseGuest with the most votes would become the winner. The HouseGuests were competing for a $500,000 cash prize, though the Runner-Up of the series would receive $100,000 and the second Runner-Up would receive $50,000.
During their time in the house, HouseGuests were given weekly tasks to perform. The HouseGuests would wager a portion of their weekly shopping budget on the task, and would either win double their wagered fund or lose the wagered fund depending on their performance in the task. The HouseGuests were required to work as a group to complete the task, with the format of the tasks varying based on the amount of remaining HouseGuests. Should the HouseGuests run out of the food provided for them, an emergency ration was available to them. HouseGuests were also required to make visits to the Red Room during their stay in the house, where they were able to share their thoughts and feelings on their fellow HouseGuests and the game. The format of the series was mainly seen as a social experiment, and required HouseGuests to interact with others who may have differing ideals, beliefs, and prejudices. While a competition, the series allows viewers to witness the relationships formed in the house and the behavior of the HouseGuests. Nina Tassler, president of entertainment at CBS, stated "You're talking about people from very disparate walks of life and confining them in a house for a finite period of time [...] you have to recognize yes, this is that show. It is a social experiment." Though locked in the house, the HouseGuests were free to quit the game, though would not be allowed entry back into the house. Should a HouseGuest break the rules of the game, they could be expelled from the house, and unable to return.
== HouseGuests ==
The first season of Big Brother featured ten HouseGuests, each of whom were complete strangers.
=== Future appearances ===
George Boswell returned for Big Brother: All-Stars and later on Big Brother 10 to host a food competition along with other Big Brother alumni.
== Summary ==
On Day 1, Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, Karen, George, Jamie, Jordan, Josh, and William entered the house. On Day 2, they were given their first task to complete. They were required to solve a word puzzle, which would inform them of the location to find money for groceries. They were successful and earned $100 as a group. On Day 3, HouseGuests were given the task of building a clock out of potatoes in the house. Should they fail this task, they would not know the time in the house; they passed the task. On Day 4, HouseGuests were given the task of making plaster masks of themselves. On Day 5, one of the chickens in the backyard was injured. It was removed from the house and brought back later to be nursed back to health. On Day 7, HouseGuests were given their first weekly task. They were given the names of dozens of celebrities and had to state whether they were dead or alive. They were given days to attempt to recall the correct answers and would be quizzed about it at a later date. They wagered 20% of their weekly budget on this task, which they ultimately failed. William intentionally failed his portion of the challenge, upsetting many HouseGuests. On Day 9, the HouseGuests participated in their first round of nominations. William and Jordan were announced as the nominees this week, with William receiving six nominations and Jordan receiving five. Josh, Jamie, George, and Cassandra all received no nominations this week. HouseGuests were later given their new task, which required them to ride a stationary exercise bike to achieve a total distance of 1,000 miles. They wagered 50% of their weekly budget on this task, which they passed. HouseGuests were later given another task, in which they were required to imitate another HouseGuest in the Red Room. On Day 17, William became the first HouseGuest to be banished from the house when he received 73% of the public vote.
On Day 20, HouseGuests are given their new weekly challenge, in which they had days to practice making a set of dominoes fall down in a single session. They had to set up 12,100 dominoes to form the series logo and then make them all fall by knocking only one domino over. The group passed this task, which they wagered 20% on. The HouseGuests later held a fake trial dealing with the issue of flag burning, with Karen as the judge, Jordan being on trial, Brittany being a witness, Curtis and Cassandra as lawyers, and the other HouseGuests as members of the jury. On Day 22, HouseGuests participated in the second round of nominations. Curtis and Jordan became the second set of nominated HouseGuests this season, with Curtis receiving six nominations and Jordan receiving five nominations. Josh, Jamie, Cassandra, and Brittany received no nominations this week, making it the second time in a row that Josh, Jamie, and Cassandra had received no nominations from their fellow HouseGuests. HouseGuests were later given their new weekly task, which required them to ride a stationary bike for a total of one thousand miles. They wagered 50% of their shopping budget on the task, which they passed. The HouseGuests were later given another task, which required them to split into three teams and attempt to toss water balloons to their teammates from across the pool. The team of Eddie, Cassandra, and George won, though there was no reward. On Day 28, the HouseGuests held a roast for Curtis and Jordan as they were marked for banishment. On Day 30, Jordan became the second HouseGuest to be banished from the house when she received 78% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to write a poem pertaining to the game. They would then have to jump rope together while the rope holders recited the poem. They had one chance to correctly complete the poem, and failure to do so would result in the group failing the task. They wagered 30% of their shopping budget on the task, which they failed. HouseGuests were later given the task of hosting their own daytime talk show. On Day 36, HouseGuests participated in a live challenge in which they had to vote for one HouseGuest to receive a phone call from home; they voted for George. That night, it was revealed that Cassandra, Josh, and Karen had been marked for banishment due to a tie in the voting process. George was the only HouseGuest to receive no nominations this week. That same night, the HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to take care of a pug named Chiquita. In the days following her nomination, Karen began to ask the viewers to banish her from the house as she missed her children. HouseGuests were later given their new weekly task, in which they were required to make eight raspberry and eight blueberry pies, and split into teams named after the various pies. The first team to eat all eight of their pies would choose how the weekly allowance was spent. On Day 44, HouseGuests participated in a live challenge in which they were tempted with a reward in exchange for watching the nominations process. They ultimately chose not to watch the nominations, thus were not given a prize. That night, Karen became the third HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 76% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to memorize all of the major highways in the country. They would then be required to state what highways would get them from one city to another. The group wagered 20% of their shopping budget on this task, which they passed. The group was later given a new task in which they were required to paint each other like animals. In another task for the week, HouseGuests competed in a sumo wrestling competition in an attempt to win a luxury massage. Eddie was the winner, with former HouseGuest William secretly giving him a bad massage. For their next weekly task, the HouseGuests were required to have two HouseGuests dancing at all times. When cued, all HouseGuests would be required to dance at the same time. They passed this task, which they wagered 20% of their weekly budget on. On Day 50, the HouseGuests participated in their fourth round of nominations. Due to a tie in the voting, Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, George, and Josh were all marked for banishment. For the first time, all of the HouseGuests received at least one nomination from their fellow HouseGuests. That same night, Jamie won a two-minute conversation with a casting director due to winning a task earlier in the week. HouseGuests were later given a task in which they had to name a "Mr. and Miss Big Brother 2000", with Eddie, Brittany, and Cassandra being given the title; they won a dinner with the meal of their choice. On Day 58, Jamie was given a live task in which she was able to co-host the episode with Julie Chen, including announce who had been banished from the house. That night, it was revealed that Brittany had become the fourth HouseGuest to be banished from the house when she received 34% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to build a puzzle that featured 4,928 pieces by the end of the week. The group wagered 50% of their weekly shopping budget on this task, which they failed. The HouseGuests were later given the task of discussing whether or not they would be willing to split the total prize money. On Day 64, it was revealed that Cassandra, Curtis, and Eddie had been marked for banishment. Much like the previous round of nominations, all of the HouseGuests received at least one nomination from their fellow HouseGuests. Following this, the six remaining HouseGuests were offered $20,000 to walk from the game, with this offer later rising to $50,000. Should one of the HouseGuests accept the offer, a new HouseGuest named Beth Thieme was set to enter the house and the nominations would be voided. Ultimately, none of the HouseGuests took the offer, thus Beth did not enter the game. That same night, Brittany was able to talk to Josh as part of a task. HouseGuests were later given a new task in which they had to estimate the price of a luxury item requested by another HouseGuest. If they came within one dollar of the correct price, they would earn that luxury. For their new weekly task, the HouseGuests had to train Chiquita to go through an obstacle course. The group passed this task, which they wagered 20% of their weekly budget on. During a luxury competition, Curtis won the reward of going to the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards. On Day 72, HouseGuests were given the live task of writing a message to be flown on a banner plane above the house. That same night, Cassandra became the fifth HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 46% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required at least one HouseGuest to be juggling at all times. They were not permitted to drop more than two balls, or they would fail the task. The group wagered 50% on the task, which they ultimately failed. On Day 74, the HouseGuests were given another live task in which they had five minutes to make a phone call to a loved one. The timer did not stop while the HouseGuests were dialing. That same night, the group made their nominations live for the first time. It was revealed that Curtis, Eddie, George, and Jamie were marked for banishment. Josh received no nominations this week, and was the only HouseGuest not to be marked for banishment. HouseGuests were later given a new task in which they had to write lyrics for the show's theme song, and were later required to record their song in the Red Room. In another task for the week, the HouseGuests attempted to find Chiquita in the house, with the winner being able to present the weather from inside the house; Josh was the winner. On Day 79, the five remaining HouseGuests were asked to select one of the previously banished HouseGuests to return to the house in a matter of days; they chose Cassandra. That night, George became the sixth HouseGuest to be banished from the house as he had received 51% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, in which they were required to determine whether or not specific news articles had actually appeared in the news or not. The group wagered 50% of their weekly shopping budget on the task, which they passed. The group was later given another task in which they played the Big Brother board game. On Day 81, the HouseGuests participated in their second round of live nominations. Due to a tie in the voting, all four of the remaining HouseGuests were marked for banishment. This was the final round of nominations for the season. Former HouseGuest Cassandra entered the house as a guest that same night, as the HouseGuests had selected her to return days prior. Due to a new task, Josh was selected to become a saboteur in the house, and performed tasks such as setting time back on the potato clock. If one of the other three HouseGuests correctly guessed that Josh was the saboteur, they would win a new flat screen television; Curtis won this prize. On Day 86, Jamie became the seventh HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 31% of the public vote. Chiquita also exited the house that night, and was adopted by a couple upon her exit. On Day 88, it was revealed that Curtis became the last HouseGuest to be banished from the house, receiving 14% of the public vote to win. Minutes later, it was revealed that Josh had come in second place with 27% of the public vote, meaning Eddie had been crowned the winner and come in first place with a total of 59% of the public vote.
== Episodes ==
== Nominations table ==
Color key:
== Production ==
=== Development ===
The series first launched in the Netherlands, with editions in countries such as Germany proving to be hits with the public. Following the international success of the series, a bidding war for the rights to series engaged between CBS, ABC, and a cable network, with the series initially set to last 100 days. Mark Itkin, the senior vice president of William Morris, was quoted as saying, "I had no idea the bidding would be so hot. But the show has so many elements, from being on 100 days in a row to an Internet component that is especially attractive to networks." Ultimately, it was confirmed that the show had been picked up by CBS for an estimated $20 million. It was later reported that production costs added to an estimated $200,000 per episode. Paul Romer, co-creator of the original series, served as the Executive Producer for the series. On the concept, Romer stated "The show is all about human interactions. It's people who are, loving each other, hating each other. They fight, they cry, they laugh -- all emotions, we'll see in the house." In a later interview, Romer added "The first thing people think of when they hear the Big Brother idea are the sexual things, the nudity, the sexual activity in the house [...] That's not what the show is about." The series was one of the first reality shows to air, and required a crew of over 150 people.
The first season of Big Brother featured two hosts, Julie Chen as the main host and Ian O'Malley as a co-host. On earning the job, O'Malley stated "I didn’t really know what it was. This is the ground floor of reality television. [But] SAG went on strike [and it was] a very lengthy and very painful strike for many folks." O'Malley was later released from his contract after only one month on the series; he was bought out of his contract, which he later cited as a "relief". Chen, who hoped to be a part of 60 Minutes in the future, initially turned down the offer to host the series as she did not want to be in the entertainment division of the network. Upon declining the offer, CBS News president Andrew Heyward told Chen that refusal to do the series could be seen as "insubordination". Chen clarified "They said they needed someone who knows how to ask questions on live TV and I asked ‘Am I forever sealing the door on 60 Minutes?’ and [Heyward] said ‘yes,’”. Dr. Drew Pinsky and AOL Online Advisor Regina Lewis appeared once per week on the series to discuss the events in the house. The cast for the series was revealed during the premiere. HouseGuest William was revealed to be a member of the New Black Panther Party, while Jamie was crowned Miss Washington USA the year prior to her participation on the show. HouseGuests Curtis and Josh had done modeling prior to entering the house. Jean Jordan had been an exotic dancer before entering the house, while Karen and George were married and had children. Cassandra and William were both African-American. Series creator John de Mol later stated "The 10 people in our house, you can relate to them. It's the girl next door, it's the guy in the grocery store [...] It's ordinary people, and I think that Big Brother proves ordinary people can be interesting."
The first season of Big Brother premiered on July 5, 2000. The premiere was filmed on July 4, 2000. The series initially aired five nights per week, though a sixth episode was later added into the schedule. The addition of a sixth episode per week caused the live banishment episode to move to Wednesday instead of Thursday. Four of these episodes were half-hour daily recap episodes, while one episode was an hourly-long weekly recap; the sixth episode was the live banishment. During the live banishment, the HouseGuest who exits the house was subject to an interview with host Julie Chen. The first season had a total of 70 episodes, the most for any season to date. This season lasted for a total of 88 days. The theme song for the series, known as "Live", was performed by Jonathan Clarke. It was played during the closing credits of each episode, and segments of the theme were played throughout the show. Viewers of the series could also watch the live feeds in the house, which were available for free on the official website. The feed was edited for music copyrights and to protect the privacy of some contestants. The feeds also featured a disclaimer for users under the age of 21, due to unedited aspect to the feeds.
=== House ===
The house used for the first season was a one-story house with two bedrooms, a kitchen and dining room, and one bathroom. The house was an estimated 1,800 square feet, and was located at the CBS Studio Center in Los Angeles, California. Throughout the house, there are a total of 28 cameras making all areas of the house visible to the cameras, and 60 microphones. During their stay in the house, the HouseGuests were required to wear microphones at all times, ensuring everything they said in the house was heard. Throughout the house the walls are lined with two way mirrors, with a production team filming behind them. The bedrooms featured infrared imaging cameras, allowing the cameras to continue filming while the rooms were dark. The design of the house included bad feng shui, clashing colors and positioning. The house featured bright colors as part of its theme, with the kitchen being a bright blue and the living room yellow. The two bedrooms in the house were identical, with both featuring a bunk bed and three single beds. The bathroom featured one toilet, one shower, a washboard and a washtub. The Red Room was where HouseGuests were required to share their thoughts on the events in the house, and were often given tasks. The backyard of the house featured a patio area where the HouseGuests could sit outside. The backyard also featured a chicken coop, and the HouseGuests were able to use the eggs from the chickens as food.
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
Big Brother 1 premiered on July 5, 2000, in the US, with the season premiere having over 22 million viewers. Despite the high premiere, ratings for the series quickly began to decline, and the series quickly dropped out of the Top 10 slot in terms of viewers. Ratings began to decline even more following the banishments of Will "Mega" and Jordan, who were both seen as colorful characters in the game. Big Brother 1 was noted as having its highest ratings on Wednesdays, when it aired after the hugely successful Survivor: Borneo. The Saturday, July 8 episode was beaten out by an episode of the reality series Cops. This episode saw ratings lower from the previous episode. Ratings continued to drop, with at one point the series had fallen behind re-runs of shows such as Friends. The Monday, September 4 episode only achieved 5.5. Cassandra's banishment episode did see an increase in ratings, however, receiving 12.5 million viewers. The finale garnered 11.13 million viewers, beating out the Olympics. Despite the decline in ratings, the series' official website did receive a large amount of traffic, due to the live feed being available there. It was also noted that as the ratings decreased, traffic onto the main site increased. The online aspect of the series "changed both the dynamic in the house and the TV show’s content" according to the LA Daily News. It was also reported that the official website for the series was one of the most popular new websites for the month of July.
=== Public reaction ===
Big Brother 1 has typically been cited as "boring" by critics and fans of the series. John Carman of The San Francisco Chronicle stated "Wondering 'Will Karen run out of Kleenex?' is about the most interesting thing about Big Brother." Comedian Kathy Griffin (who has since become a fan of the series, making guest appearances in Big Brother 16 and Big Brother 17) mocked the series, stating "Do you guys [watch] those 'tards on Big Brother?" Joyce Millman of Salon.com felt that ratings for the series dropped due to the "boring" cast. The New York Times later reported that CBS was disappointed with the series. Les Moonves, CBS chief, stated that the "casting sucked" for the series, leading to its disappointing run. He later stated "there were more provocative storylines that could have been followed that were dropped." John de Mol, the creator of the series and owner of Endemol, blamed not only the casting but the changes made to the show and format to suit American audiences. Executive producer Paul Romer felt that the group of HouseGuests were "too aware of the cameras" and were concerned with "how they'd look on TV." Former co-host Ian O'Malley claimed he predicted the series would be panned, stating "I knew the critics were probably going to go bananas because of the voyeuristic aspect."
Upon its announcement, the series has come under fire for both controversy and criticism. After the premiere of the first season, Chicago attorney Marvin Rosenblum filed a lawsuit against CBS, then corporate parent Viacom, and the production company Orwell Productions for alleged copyright infringement. Rosenblum, a producer of the film 1984, owns the film and TV rights to the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four and claimed the show "illegally borrows from it." Rosenblum accused the network of illegally using the Big Brother moniker from the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four and "deceiving the public into thinking the author's classic novel was the origin of the show." CBS, Viacom, and Orwell Productions filed a motion to dismiss the $20 million lawsuit. The dismissal was denied on January 4, 2001. In 2001 Rosenblum, CBS and Viacom settled the lawsuit under undisclosed terms. The decision to select Chen as the host of the series caused much debate, mainly due to her role on the talk show The Early Show. Andy Rooney of 60 Minutes said Chen's participation in the series was "a further deterioration of news standards", and further controversy arose when it was revealed some of Chen's lines had been scripted.
Numerous events occurred during the game that sparked controversy as well. The show's security was breached early in the series when two publicity-seeking screenwriters threw a tennis ball stuffed with fake news stories – including one in which then President of the United States, Bill Clinton, purportedly called Big Brother a "national disgrace" - into the house's garden after finding it was unguarded. The HouseGuests were also communicated with by a plane towing a banner reading: "Big Brother is worse than you think. Get out now." The show also came under criticism after HouseGuest George Boswell's wife and family began campaigning for viewers to vote out some of the more popular HouseGuests to keep George in the game. Recently evicted HouseGuest Brittany, who was permitted to talk to Josh for a certain amount of time, informed Josh of this news. Various "anti-George" banners were flown over the house, leading Josh to inform them of the news. Various other points in the game led to the HouseGuests feeling they were being portrayed poorly, and they would often be required to do acts they didn't necessarily feel like doing. George then decided he would walk from the game, and attempted to convince the other HouseGuests to walk with him as well during a live episode. Ultimately, none of the HouseGuests chose to leave the game. There was speculation that CBS had hired for the banners to be flown over the house, though this was never confirmed.
=== Renewal ===
Despite the lack of strong ratings and numerous controversies surrounding the series, Big Brother did help earn CBS a 17% increase for its time slot, and was ultimately renewed in September 2000 for a second season. It was then confirmed, however, that there would be numerous changes to the format of the series.
== References ==
"Brother raises manipulation to a fine art" By Lynn Elber, CANOE JAM! Television. July 24, 2000.
== External links ==
Big Brother – official American site (Archived)
Big Brother at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrita_Sher-Gil | Amrita Sher-Gil | Amrita Sher-Gil (30 January 1913 – 5 December 1941) was a Hungarian–Indian painter. She has been called "one of the greatest avant-garde women artists of the early 20th century" and a pioneer in modern Indian art. Drawn to painting from an early age, Sher-Gil started formal lessons at the age of eight. She first gained recognition at the age of 19, for her 1932 oil painting Young Girls. Sher-Gil depicted everyday life of the people in her paintings.
Sher-Gil traveled throughout her life to various countries including Turkey, France, and India, deriving heavily from precolonial Indian art styles as well as contemporary culture. Sher-Gil is considered an important painter of 20th-century India, whose legacy stands on a level with that of the pioneers from the Bengal Renaissance. She was also an avid reader and a pianist. Sher-Gil's paintings are among the most expensive by Indian women painters today, although few acknowledged her work when she was alive.
== Early life and education ==
Amrita Sher-Gil was born Dalma-Amrita on 30 January 1913, at 4 Szilágyi Dezső square, Budapest, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Her father was Umrao Singh Sher-Gil Majithia, a Punjabi Indian Jat Sikh aristocrat from the Majithia family and a scholar in Sanskrit and Persian, and her mother was Marie Antoinette Gottesman, a Hungarian-Jewish opera singer who came from an affluent bourgeois family. Her parents first met in 1912, while Marie Antoinette was visiting Lahore. Her mother came to India as a companion of Princess Bamba Sutherland, the granddaughter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Sher-Gil was the elder of two daughters; her younger sister was Indira Sundaram (née Sher-Gil; born in March 1914), mother of the contemporary artist Vivan Sundaram. The family were obliged to remain in Budapest until after the First World War. She was the niece of Indologist Ervin Baktay. Baktay noticed Sher-Gil's artistic talents during his visit to Shimla in 1926 and was an advocate of Sher-Gil pursuing art. He guided her by critiquing her work and gave her an academic foundation to grow on. When she was a young girl she would paint the servants in her house, and get them to model for her. The memories of these models would eventually lead to her return to India.
Her family faced financial problems in Hungary. In 1921, her family moved to Summer Hill, Shimla, India, and Sher-Gil soon began learning piano and violin. By age nine she, along with her younger sister Indira, was giving concerts and acting in plays at Shimla's Gaiety Theatre at Mall Road, Shimla. Though she had already been painting since the age of five, she started studying painting formally at age eight. Sher-Gil received formal lessons in art from Major Whitmarsh, who was later replaced by Hal Bevan-Petman. In Shimla, Sher-Gil lived a relatively privileged lifestyle. As a child, she was expelled from her Catholic school Convent of Jesus and Mary for declaring herself an atheist.
In 1923, Marie came to know an Italian sculptor, who was living in Shimla at the time. In 1924, when he returned to Italy, she too moved there, along with Amrita, and got her enrolled at Santa Annunziata, an art school in Florence. Though Amrita did not stay at this school for long and returned to India in 1924, it was here that she was exposed to works of Italian masters.
At sixteen, Sher-Gil sailed to Europe with her mother to train as a painter in Paris, first at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière under Pierre Vaillent and Lucien Simon (where she met Boris Taslitzky) and later at the École des Beaux-Arts (1930–1934). She drew inspiration from European painters such as Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin and Amedeo Modigliani, while working under the influence of her teacher Lucien Simon and through the company of artist friends and lovers like Taslitzky. While in Paris, she is said to have painted with a conviction and maturity rarely seen in a 16-year old.
In 1931, Sher-Gil was briefly engaged to Yusuf Ali Khan, but rumours spread that she was also having an affair with her first cousin and later husband Viktor Egan. Her letters reveal same-sex affairs.
== 1932–1936: Early career, European and Western styles ==
Sher-Gil's early paintings display a significant influence of the Western modes of painting, more specifically, the Post-Impressionism style. She practiced a lot in the Bohemian circles of Paris in the early 1930s. Her 1932 oil painting, Young Girls, came as a breakthrough for her; the work won her accolades, including a gold medal and election as an Associate of the Grand Salon in Paris in 1933. She was the youngest ever member, and the only Asian to have received this recognition. Her work during this time include a number of self-portraits, as well as life in Paris, nude studies, still life studies, and portraits of friends and fellow students. The National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi describes the self-portraits she made while in Paris as "[capturing] the artist in her many moods – somber, pensive, and joyous – while revealing a narcissistic streak in her personality".
When she was in Paris, one of her professors said that judging by the richness of her colouring Sher-Gil was not in her element in the west, and that her artistic personality would find its true atmosphere in the east. In 1933, Sher-Gil "began to be haunted by an intense longing to return to India feeling in some strange way that there lay her destiny as a painter". She returned to India at the end of 1934. In May 1935, Sher-Gil met the English journalist Malcolm Muggeridge, then working as assistant editor and leader writer for The Calcutta Statesman. Both Muggeridge and Sher-Gil stayed at the family home at Summer Hill, Shimla and a short intense affair took place during which she painted a casual portrait of her new lover, the painting now with the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. By September 1935 Amrita saw Muggeridge off as he traveled back to England for new employment. She left herself for travel in 1936 at the behest of art collector and critic Karl Khandalavala, who encouraged her to pursue her passion for discovering her Indian roots. In India, she began a quest for the rediscovery of the traditions of Indian art which was to continue till her death. She was greatly impressed and influenced by the Mughal and Pahari schools of painting and the cave paintings at Ajanta.
== 1937–1941: Later career, influence of Indian art ==
Later in 1937, Sher-Gil toured South India and produced her South Indian trilogy of paintings Bride's Toilet, Brahmacharis, and South Indian Villagers Going to Market following her visit to the Ajanta Caves, when she made a conscious attempt to return to classical Indian art. These paintings reveal her passionate sense of colour and empathy for her Indian subjects, who are often depicted in their poverty and despair. By now the transformation in her work was complete and she had found her 'artistic mission' which was, according to her, to express the life of Indian people through her canvas. While in Saraya, Sher-Gil wrote to a friend: "I can only paint in India. Europe belongs to Picasso, Matisse, Braque.... India belongs only to me." Her stay in India marks the beginning of a new phase in her artistic development, one that was distinct from the European phase of the interwar years when her work showed an engagement with the works of Hungarian painters, especially the Nagybánya school of painting.
Sher-Gil married her Hungarian first cousin, Viktor Egan when she was 25. He had helped Sher-Gil obtain abortions on at least two occasions prior to their marriage. She moved with him to India to stay at her paternal family's home in Saraya, Sardar nagar, Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. Thus began her second phase of painting, whose impact on Indian art rivals that of Rabindranath Tagore and Jamini Roy of the Bengal school of art. The 'Calcutta Group' of artists, which transformed the Indian art scene, was to start only in 1943, and the 'Progressive Artist's Group', with Francis Newton Souza, Ara, Bakre, Gade, M. F. Husain and S. H. Raza among its founders, lay further ahead in 1948. Sher-Gil's art was strongly influenced by the paintings of the two Tagores, Rabindranath and Abanindranath who were pioneers of the Bengal School of painting. Her portraits of women resemble works by Rabindranath while the use of 'chiaroscuro' and bright colours reflect the influence of Abanindranath.
During her stay at Saraya, Sher-Gil painted the Village Scene, In the Ladies' Enclosure, and Siesta, all of which portray the leisurely rhythms of life in rural India. Siesta and In the Ladies' Enclosure reflect her experimentation with the miniature school of painting while Village Scene reflects influences of the Pahari school of painting. Although acclaimed by art critics Karl Khandalavala in Bombay and Charles Fabri in Lahore as the greatest painter of the century, Sher-Gil's paintings found few buyers. She travelled across India with her paintings but the Nawab Salar Jung of Hyderabad returned them and the Maharaja of Mysore chose Raja Ravi Varma's paintings over hers.
Although from a family that was closely tied to the British Raj, Sher-Gil was a Congress sympathiser. She was attracted to the poor, distressed and the deprived and her paintings of Indian villagers and women are a meditative reflection of their condition. She was also attracted by Gandhi's philosophy and lifestyle. Nehru was charmed by her beauty and talent and when he went to Gorakhpur in October 1940, he visited her at Saraya. Her paintings were at one stage even considered for use in the Congress propaganda for village reconstruction. Despite befriending Nehru, she never drew his portrait, supposedly because she thought he was "too good looking". Nehru attended her exhibition held in New Delhi in February 1937. Sher-Gil exchanged letters with Nehru for a time, but those letters were burned by her parents when she was away getting married in Budapest.
In September 1941, Egan and Sher-Gil moved to Lahore, then in undivided India and a major cultural and artistic centre. She lived and painted at 23 Ganga Ram Mansions, The Mall, Lahore where her studio was on the top floor of the townhouse she inhabited. Sher-Gil was known for her many affairs with both men and women, and she also painted many of the latter. Her work Two Women is thought to be a painting of herself and her lover Marie Louise. Some of her later works include Tahitian (1937), Red Brick House (1938), Hill Scene (1938), and The Bride (1940) among others. Her last work was left unfinished just prior to her death in December 1941.
== Illness and death ==
In 1941, at age 28, just days before the opening of her first major solo show in Lahore, Sher-Gil became seriously ill and slipped into a coma. She later died around midnight on 5 December 1941, leaving behind a large volume of work. The reason for her death has never been ascertained. A failed abortion and subsequent peritonitis have been suggested as possible causes for her death. Her mother accused her doctor husband Egan of having murdered her. The day after her death, Britain declared war on Hungary and Egan was interned as an enemy alien. Sher-Gil was cremated on 7 December 1941 in Lahore.
== Artistic and cultural legacies ==
Sher-Gil's art has influenced generations of Indian artists from Sayed Haider Raza to Arpita Singh and her depiction of the plight of women has made her art a beacon for women at large both in India and abroad. The Government of India has declared her works as National Art Treasures, and most of them are housed in the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. Some of her paintings also hang at the Lahore Museum. A postage stamp depicting her painting Hill Women was released in 1978 by India Post, and the Amrita Shergil Marg is a road in Lutyens' Delhi named after her. Sher-Gil was able to prove to western societies that Indians were able to make fine art. Her work is deemed to be so important to Indian culture that when it is sold in India, the Indian government has stipulated that the art must stay in the country – fewer than ten of her works have been sold globally. In 2006, her painting Village Scene sold for ₹6.9 crores at an auction in New Delhi which was at the time the highest amount ever paid for a painting in India.
The Indian cultural centre in Budapest is named the Amrita Sher-Gil Cultural Centre. Contemporary artists in India have recreated and reinterpreted her works.
Amrita Sher-Gil (1969) is a documentary film about the artist, directed by Bhagwan Das Garga and produced by the Government of India's Films Division. It won the National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film.
Besides remaining an inspiration to many a contemporary Indian artists, in 1993, she also became the inspiration behind the Urdu play Tumhari Amrita.
UNESCO announced 2013, the 100th anniversary of Sher-Gil's birth, to be the international year of Amrita Sher-Gil.
Sher-Gil's work is a key theme in the contemporary Indian novel Faking It by Amrita Chowdhury.
Aurora Zogoiby, a character in Salman Rushdie's 1995 novel The Moor's Last Sigh, was inspired by Sher-Gil.
Claire Kohda refers repeatedly to Amrita Sher-Gil and to her painting the Three Girls in her 2022 novel Woman, Eating, which features a British main character of mixed Malaysian and Japanese origin. Struggling with alienation and with living between worlds as the vampire offspring of a vampire mother and human father, the protagonist, Lydia, identifies with the Three Girls and speculates that they were vampires: "I'm pretty sure that all of Sher-Gil's subjects were vampires and that maybe she was one, too..."
Sher-Gil was sometimes known as India's Frida Kahlo because of the "revolutionary" way she blended Western and traditional art forms.
On 30 January 2016, Google celebrated her 103rd birthday with a Google Doodle. In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her. That year, at a Sotheby's auction in Mumbai, her painting The Little Girl in Blue was sold at auction for a record-breaking 18.69 crores. It is a portrait of her cousin Babit, a resident of Shimla and was painted in 1934, when the subject was eight years old.
In 2021, Sher-Gil's painting Portrait of Denyse was put up for auction by Christie's with an estimated value to be between $1.8-2.8 million. The 1932 portrait features Denyse Proutaux, a Parisian art critic, whom Sher-Gil met in 1931. Proutaux was featured in other Sher-Gil paintings, including Young Girls and Denise Proutaux, which were both included in the exhibition "Amrita Shergil: The Passionate Quest" at the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi.
On 18 September 2023, Sher-Gil's 1937 painting The Story Teller fetched $7.4 million (Rs 61.8 crore) at a recent auction, setting a record for the highest price achieved by an Indian artist. SaffronArt, the auction house, organised the sale on Saturday night. This came just 10 days after modernist Syed Haider Raza's painting, Gestation, fetched ₹ 51.7 crore at Pundole auction house. In a page dedicated to the artwork, SaffronArt said the legendary artist sought to explore the realm of domestic life in The Story Teller.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of paintings by Amrita Sher-Gil
Amrita Sher-Gil's paintings at Lahore (1937)
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. Gurugram: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342026-2.
Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 1–417. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1.
Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 2. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 418–821. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1.
== Further reading ==
Ananth, Deepak (2007). Amrita Sher-Gil: An Indian Artist Family of the Twentieth Century. Munich: Schirmer/Mosel. ISBN 978-3-8296-0270-9. OCLC 166903259.
Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013) [2006]. Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-81-8475-921-1. OCLC 973928579 – via OverDrive.
Doctor, Geeta (2002). Amrita Sher Gil: A Painted Life. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-7167-688-0. OCLC 50728719.
Khandalavala, Karl J. (1945). Amrita Sher-Gil. Bombay: New Book Co. OCLC 2605226.
Gupta, Indra (2004) [2003]. India's 50 Most Illustrious Women (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Icon Publications. ISBN 978-81-88086-19-1. OCLC 858639936.
JRF, Dileep (22 November 2019). "अमृता शेरगिल 1913-1941" [Amrita Shergill 1913-1941] (in Hindi). History of Fine Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
NGMA. "Virtual Galleries - Amrita Sher-Gil". New Delhi: National Gallery of Modern Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
Sharma, Mahima (15 March 2022). "Amrita Sher Gil: A Bisexual Artist Who Even Spellbound Nehru". Simplykalaa Homepage.
Kapur, Geeta (2020) [2000]. When was Modernism: Essays on Contemporary Cultural Practice in India. New Delhi, India: Tulika Books. ISBN 978-81-89487-24-9. OCLC 1129791065.
Nandan, Kanhaiyalal; Shergil, Amrita (1987). Amrita Shergil (in Hindi). Delhi: Parag. OCLC 59068198.
Rahman, Maseeh (6 October 2014). "In the shadow of death". The Arts. India Today. 39 (40): 68–69.
Salim, Ahmad (1987). Amrita Sher-Gil: a personal view. Karachi: Istaʹarah Publications. OCLC 21297600.
Śarmā, Vishwamitra (2008). "Amirita Shergil, Maestro of Modern Art (1913–1941)". Famous Indians of the 20th Century. New Delhi: Pustak Mahal. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-81-920796-8-4. OCLC 800734508 – via Internet Archive.
Sen, Geeti (2002). "Chapter II: Woman Resting on a Charpoy". Feminine Fables: Imaging the Indian Woman in Painting, Photography and Cinema. Ahmedabad & Middletown, NJ: Mapin Pub. Grantha Corp. pp. 10, 14–16, 61–100, 136. ISBN 978-81-85822-88-4. OCLC 988874350 – via Internet Archive.
Sher-Gil, Amrita (1943). The art of Amrita Sher-Gil (ten coloured plates). Roerich Centre of Art and Culture. Allahabad: Allahabad Block Works. OCLC 699310.
Sher-Gil, Amrita; Appasamy, Jaya; Dhingra, Baldoon (1965). Sher-Gil. New Delhi: Lalit Kala Akademi. OCLC 837971308.
Singh, Narayan Iqbal (1984). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Biography. New Delhi: Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-2474-9. OCLC 12810037.
Sundaram, Vivan (1972). Amrita Sher-Gil; essays. Bombay: Marg Publications; sole distributors: India Book Centre, New Delhi. OCLC 643542124.
Sundaram, Vivan; Sher-Gil, Umrao Singh (2001). Re-Take of Amrita : Digital Photomontages Based on Photographs by Umrao Singh Sher-Gil (1870-1954) and Photographs from the Sher-Gil Family Archive. New Delhi: Tulika. ISBN 978-81-85229-49-2. OCLC 50004509.
Wojtilla, Gyula; Sher-Gil, Amrita (1981). Amrita Sher-Gil and Hungary. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. OCLC 793843789.
== External links ==
Media related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikiquote |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clint_Ballard_Jr. | Clint Ballard Jr. | Clinton Conger Ballard Jr. (May 24, 1931 – December 23, 2008) was an American songwriter, singer, and pianist. He wrote two Billboard Hot 100 number one hits. The first was "Game of Love" by Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders in 1965. The second was the 1975 hit, "You're No Good" by Linda Ronstadt (first sung by Dee Dee Warwick, covered by The Swinging Blue Jeans, Betty Everett and later recorded by Van Halen). He wrote two UK number one singles, recorded by Jimmy Jones ("Good Timin'", 1960) and The Hollies ("I'm Alive", 1965).
Ballard also pursued a solo singing career. With minor success he recorded under his own name, as well as under the pseudonym Buddy Clinton.
== Biography ==
When Ballard was three years old, he played the piano for KTSM, an El Paso radio station. When he was 11, he attended a musical program for gifted students at the University of North Texas. After serving in the US Army, he moved to New York and became a songwriter and a composer of musicals, including Come Back Little Sheba. His song, "Hey, Little Baby", was recorded by band leader Mitch Miller and became the theme of the 1958 World's Fair in Belgium.
Earlier in his career in 1957, Ballard 'discovered' the Kalin Twins and became their manager. Ballard wrote the Kalins' Decca debut single, "Jumpin' Jack". The follow-up, "When" made the US Top Ten and number one on the UK Singles Chart. After leaving the Kalins, in 1958, he wrote "Ev'ry Hour, Ev'ry Day of My Life", a hit for Malcolm Vaughan, and Frankie Avalon's Top Ten hit "Ginger Bread".
Ballard's own recording career was less successful. In addition to recording several singles under his own name without much success, in 1960 he adopted the alias Buddy Clinton to cut a two-sided single featuring the songs "Take Me to Your Ladder (I'll See Your Leader Later)" and "Joanie's Forever", both co-written by then-unknown composer Burt Bacharach with his writing partner Bob Hilliard.
Ballard wrote one of his most successful songs in 1963, "You're No Good", which was first recorded by Dee Dee Warwick. A competing version recorded by Betty Everett appeared weeks later and was a bigger hit, reaching the Top Ten of the US Billboard R&B chart. A year later, the British group The Swinging Blue Jeans also recorded "You're No Good". Linda Ronstadt's version hit number one on the Billboard chart in 1975.
Ballard's songs were often recorded by artists of the British Invasion. The Swinging Blue Jeans recorded "It Isn't There". In 1966, the Zombies recorded his "Gotta Get a Hold of Myself". Ballard wrote "I'm Alive" for The Hollies, which was number one in the UK Singles Chart in 1965. One of Ballard's best-known songs, "The Game of Love", was recorded by Manchester-based Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders in 1965. The single went hit number one in the US and peaked at number two in the UK. Ballard also wrote the subsequent Mindbenders' chart singles "It's Just a Little Bit Too Late" and "She Needs Love".
Ballard later wrote songs for the Ricky Nelson film, Love and Kisses. He also wrote a series of commercial jingles, including a theme for Greyhound Lines.
He died in Denton, Texas, in December 2008, two years after suffering a stroke.
He is not to be confused with fellow songwriters Russ Ballard, Glen Ballard or Hank Ballard.
== Songwriting credits ==
"A Cold, Cold Winter" – Walter Jackson
"A Miracle" – Gene McDaniels
"A Very Good Year for Girls" – Johnny Tillotson, Brian Poole & The Tremeloes
"Come Back Little Sheba" – Original cast of Little Sheba
"Come Out Dancin'" – Ricky Nelson
"Don't You Even Care (What's Gonna Happen to Me) – The Hollies
"Fiddle Around" – Jan and Dean
"Game of Love" – Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders, Montrose
"Ginger Bread" – Frankie Avalon
"Good Timin'" – Jimmy Jones
"Gotta Get a Hold of Myself" – Michael Haslam, Dee Dee Warwick, The Zombies
"Hey Lulu" – Shane Fenton
"I'm Alive" – The Hollies, Syndicate of Sound, Gamma
"In The Rain" – Billy Eckstine
"In A Long White Room" (lyrics by Marty Charnin) (Nancy Wilson on 1969 Capitol album Nancy)
"It Isn't There" – The Swinging Blue Jeans, Johnny Burnette, George Maharis
"It's Better Than Nothing At All" – Louis Prima
"It's Just a Little Bit Too Late" – Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders, The Druids
"It Would Still Be Worth It" – Connie Francis
"Je Revis" – Frank Alamo
"Journey's End" – Frankie Laine
"The Ladder of Love" - The Flamingos, Johnny Nash
"Little Bitty Girl" – Bobby Rydell
"My Precious Angel" – Jimmy Jones
"Now That You've Got Me (You Don't Seem to Want Me)" – The Swinging Blue Jeans
"Oh No!" – The Browns
"One of Us (Will Weep Tonight)" – Patti Page
"She Needs Love" – Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders
"Speak Her Name" – David and Jonathan, Walter Jackson
"Stop Crying, Little Girl" – Arthur Prysock
"Sufferer" – Patti Drew
"There's Not a Minute" – Ricky Nelson
"You Ain't Right" – The Frost
"You're No Good" – Dee Dee Warwick, Betty Everett, The Swinging Blue Jeans, Linda Ronstadt, Wild Orchid, Weyes Blood, Van Halen, Michael Bolton
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoticon#:~:text=In%202004%2C%20the%20Trillian%20chat,video%20equivalent%20of%20an%20emoticon%22. | Emoticon | An emoticon (, ə-MOH-tə-kon, rarely , ih-MOTT-ih-kon), portmanteau of emotion and icon, is a pictorial representation of a facial expression using characters—usually punctuation marks, numbers and letters—to express a person's feelings, mood or reaction, without needing to describe it in detail.
ASCII emoticons can be traced back hundreds of years with various one-off uses. The protocol as a way to use them to communicate emotion in conversations is credited to computer scientist Scott Fahlman, who proposed what came to be known as "smileys"—:-) and :-(—in a message on the bulletin board system (BBS) of Carnegie Mellon University in 1982. In Western countries, emoticons are usually written at a right angle to the direction of the text. Users from Japan popularized a kind of emoticon called kaomoji, using Japanese's larger character sets. This style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. They are also known as verticons (from vertical emoticon) due to their readability without rotations. This is often seen as the 1st generation of emoticons.
The second generation began when computing became more common in the west, and people began replacing the previous ASCII art with actual emoticon icons or designs. One term used to define these types of emoticons compared to ASCII was portrait emoticons, as portrait emoticons are meant to resemble a face from the front like a portrait painting. The use of these emoticons became prevalent when SMS mobile text messaging and the Internet became widespread in the late 1990s, emoticons became increasingly popular and were commonly used in texting, Internet forums and emails. Over time, the designs became more elaborate and emoticons such as 🙂 by Unicode became commonly referred to as Emoticons. They have played a significant role in communication as technology for communication purposes advanced and increased in use. Emoticons today convey non-verbal cues of language, such as facial expressions but also hand gestures, with The Smiley Company stating in interviews that emoticons now allow for greater emotional understanding in writing when emoticons are used. Emoticons were the precursors to modern emojis not just for facial expressions, but also replacing categories like weather, sports and animals.
== History ==
=== ASCII art and faces (pre-1981) ===
In 1648, poet Robert Herrick wrote, "Tumble me down, and I will sit Upon my ruins, (smiling yet:)." Herrick's work predated any other recorded use of brackets as a smiling face by around 200 years. However, experts doubted the inclusion of the colon in the poem was deliberate and if it was meant to represent a smiling face. English professor Alan Jacobs argued that "punctuation, in general, was unsettled in the seventeenth century ... Herrick was unlikely to have consistent punctuational practices himself, and even if he did he couldn't expect either his printers or his readers to share them." 17th century typography practice often placed colons and semicolons within parentheses, including 14 instances of ":)" in Richard Baxter's 1653 Plain Scripture Proof of Infants Church-membership and Baptism.
Precursors to modern emoticons have existed since the 19th century. The National Telegraphic Review and Operators Guide in April 1857 documented the use of the number 73 in Morse code to express "love and kisses" (later reduced to the more formal "best regards"). Dodge's Manual in 1908 documented the reintroduction of "love and kisses" as the number 88. New Zealand academics Joan Gajadhar and John Green comment that both Morse code abbreviations are more succinct than modern abbreviations such as LOL.
The transcript of one of Abraham Lincoln's speeches in 1862 recorded the audience's reaction as: "(applause and laughter ;)". There has been some debate whether the glyph in Lincoln's speech was a typo, a legitimate punctuation construct or the first emoticon. Linguist Philip Seargeant argues that it was a simple typesetting error.
Before March 1881, the examples of "typographical art" appeared in at least three newspaper articles, including Kurjer warszawski (published in Warsaw) from March 5, 1881, using punctuation to represent the emotions of joy, melancholy, indifference and astonishment.
In a 1912 essay titled "For Brevity and Clarity", American author Ambrose Bierce suggested facetiously that a bracket could be used to represent a smiling face, proposing "an improvement in punctuation" with which writers could convey cachinnation, loud or immoderate laughter: "it is written thus ‿ and presents a smiling mouth. It is to be appended, with the full stop, to every jocular or ironical sentence". In a 1936 Harvard Lampoon article, writer Alan Gregg proposed combining brackets with various other punctuation marks to represent various moods. Brackets were used for the sides of the mouth or cheeks, with other punctuation used between the brackets to display various emotions: (-) for a smile, (--) (showing more "teeth") for laughter, (#) for a frown and (*) for a wink. An instance of text characters representing a sideways smiling and frowning face could be found in the New York Herald Tribune on March 10, 1953, promoting the film Lili starring Leslie Caron.
The September 1962 issue of MAD magazine included an article titled "Typewri-toons". The piece, featuring typewriter-generated artwork credited to "Royal Portable", was entirely made up of repurposed typography, including a capital letter P having a bigger 'bust' than a capital I, a lowercase b and d discussing their pregnancies, an asterisk on top of a letter to indicate the letter had just come inside from snowfall, and a classroom of lowercase n's interrupted by a lowercase h "raising its hand". A further example attributed to a Baltimore Sunday Sun columnist appeared in a 1967 article in Reader's Digest, using a dash and right bracket to represent a tongue in one's cheek: —). Prefiguring the modern "smiley" emoticon, writer Vladimir Nabokov told an interviewer from The New York Times in 1969, "I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile—some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket, which I would now like to trace in reply to your question."
In the 1970s, the PLATO IV computer system was launched. It was one of the first computers used throughout educational and professional institutions, but rarely used in a residential setting. On the computer system, a student at the University of Illinois developed pictograms that resembled different smiling faces. Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope stated this likely took place in 1972, and they claimed these to be the first emoticons.
=== ASCII emoticons - First generation (1982–mid-1990s) ===
In 1982, Carnegie Mellon computer scientist Scott Fahlman is generally credited with the protocol of communicating and portraying emotion in written text. The use of ASCII symbols, a standard set of codes representing typographical marks, was essential to allow the symbols to be displayed on any computer. In Carnegie Mellon's bulletin board system, Fahlman proposed colon–hyphen–right bracket :-) as a label for "attempted humor" to try to solve the difficulty of conveying humor or sarcasm in plain text. Fahlman sent the following message after an incident where a humorous warning about a mercury spill in an elevator was misunderstood as serious:
19-Sep-82 11:44 Scott E Fahlman :-)
From: Scott E Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c>
I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers:
:-)
Read it sideways. Actually, it is probably more economical to mark
things that are NOT jokes, given current trends. For this, use
:-(
Within a few months, the smiley had spread to the ARPANET and Usenet. Other suggestions on the forum included an asterisk * and an ampersand &, the latter meant to represent a person doubled over in laughter, as well as a percent sign % and a pound sign #. Scott Fahlman suggested that not only could his emoticon communicate emotion, but also replace language. Since the 1990s, emoticons (colon, hyphen and bracket) have become integral to digital communications, and have inspired a variety of other emoticons, including the "winking" face using a semicolon ;-), XD, a representation of the Face with Tears of Joy emoji and the acronym "LOL".
In 1996, The Smiley Company was established by Nicolas Loufrani and his father Franklin as a way of commercializing the smiley trademark. As part of this, The Smiley Dictionary website was launched and had a focus on ASCII emoticons, where available emoticons were catalogued. In total more than 500 were recorded. Notably this catalog removed the dash ( - ) for a nose and just had eyes and a mouth. The reasoning behind this was to make the ASCII emoticons more like the smiley, which resulted in :) instead of :-). The shortening or redesign of ASCII emoticons has not been covered in enough depth to know where the shorter versions originated, but The Smiley Dictionary could have as a minimum influenced the way ASCII emoticons are used today. Many other people did similar to Loufrani from 1995 onwards, including David Sanderson creating the book Smileys in 1997. James Marshall also hosted an online collection of ASCII emoticons that he completed in 2008. In 1998, the book Le Dico Smiley was also published.
A researcher at Stanford University surveyed the emoticons used in four million Twitter messages and found that the smiling emoticon without a hyphen "nose" :) was much more common than the original version with the hyphen :-). Linguist Vyvyan Evans argues that this represents a shift in usage by younger users as a form of covert prestige: rejecting a standard usage in order to demonstrate in-group membership.
=== Portrait emoticons - Second generation (1990s–present) ===
Nicolas Loufrani began to use the basic text designs and turned them into graphical representations, which are now known as portrait emoticons. His designs were registered at the United States Copyright Office in 1997 and appeared online as GIF files in 1998. For ASCII emoticons that did not exist to convert into graphical form, Loufrani also backward engineered new ASCII emoticons from the graphical versions he created. These were the first graphical representations of ASCII emoticons. Not only did these portrait emoticons portray existing and new ASCII emoticons, but also new features were added, such as hand gestures in the form of white gloves. These have since become standalone emojis along with other emojis that have replaced words in text communication. In 2001, he published his emoticon set online on the Smiley Dictionary. This dictionary included 640 different smiley icons and was published as a book called Dico Smileys in 2002. In 2017, British magazine The Drum referred to Loufrani as the "godfather of the emoji" for his work in the field.
The first American company to take notice of emojis was Google beginning in 2007. In August 2007, a team made up of Mark Davis and his colleagues Kat Momoi and Markus Scherer began petitioning the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) in an attempt to standardise the emoji. The UTC, having previously deemed emoji to be out of scope for Unicode, made the decision to broaden its scope to enable compatibility with the Japanese cellular carrier formats which were becoming more widespread. Peter Edberg and Yasuo Kida joined the collaborative effort from Apple Inc. shortly after, and their official UTC proposal came in January 2009 with 625 new emoji characters. Notably the move included a large set of emoticons, designed in an emoji-style but representing different emotions.
In recent times, emoticons, emojis and smileys have often become intertwined and confused. Emojis represent the largest set of graphical communication, but they often include portrait emoticons. In fact, the majority of the most commonly used Emoji are emoticons (because they represent an emotion). In 2024, the BBC reported that 2 of the top 3 emojis were portrait emoticons.
On September 23, 2021, it was announced that Scott Fahlman was holding an auction for the original emoticons he created in 1982. The auction was held in Dallas, United States, and sold the two designs as non-fungible tokens (NFT). The online auction ended later that month, with the originals selling for US$237,500. A year later in 2022, The Smiley Company auctioned off an NFT of 42 original graphical emoticon on World Emoji Day. The proceeds of the sale went to the company's non-profit arm, Smiley Movement.
In some programming languages, certain operators are known informally by their emoticon-like appearance. This includes the Spaceship operator <=> (a comparison), the Diamond operator <> (for type hinting) and the Elvis operator ?: (a shortened ternary operator).
== Styles ==
=== Western ===
Usually, emoticons in Western style have the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and the mouth. It is commonly placed at the end of a sentence, replacing the full stop. The two-character version :), which omits the nose, is very popular. The most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but some can be rotated (making them tiny ambigrams). There are also some variations to emoticons to get new definitions, like changing a character to express another feeling. For example, :( equals sad and :(( equals very sad. Weeping can be written as :'(. A blush can be expressed as :">. Others include wink ;), a grin :D, :P for tongue out, and smug :->; they can be used to denote a flirting or joking tone, or may be implying a second meaning in the sentence preceding it. ;P, such as when blowing a raspberry. An often used combination is also <3 for a heart and </3 for a broken heart. :O is also sometimes used to depict shock. :/ is used to depict melancholy, disappointment or disapproval. :| may be used to depict a neutral face.
A broad grin is sometimes shown with crinkled eyes to express further amusement; XD and the addition of further "D" letters can suggest laughter or extreme amusement, e.g., XDDDD. The "3" in X3 and :3 represents an animal's mouth. An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, seen as =). It has become more acceptable to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes. One linguistic study has indicated that the use of a nose in an emoticon may be related to the user's age, with younger people less likely to use a nose.
Some variants are also more common in certain countries due to keyboard layouts. For example, the smiley =) may occur in Scandinavia. Diacritical marks are sometimes used. The letters Ö and Ü can be seen as emoticons, as the upright versions of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is very happy), respectively. In countries where the Cyrillic alphabet is used, the right parenthesis ) is used as a smiley. Multiple parentheses )))) are used to express greater happiness, amusement or laughter. The colon is omitted due to being in a lesser-known position on the ЙЦУКЕН keyboard layout. The 'shrug' emoticon, ¯\_(ツ)_/¯, uses the glyph ツ from the Japanese katakana writing system.
=== Kaomoji (Japan ASCII movement) ===
Kaomoji are often seen as the Japanese development of emoticons that is separate to the Scott Fahlman movement, which started in 1982. In 1986, a designer began to use brackets and other ASCII text characters to form faces. Over time, they became more often differentiated from each other, although both use ASCII characters. However, more westernised Kaomojis have dropped the brackets, such as owo, uwu and TwT, popularised in internet subcultures such as the anime and furry communities.
=== 2channel ===
Users of the Japanese discussion board 2channel, in particular, have developed a variety emoticons using characters from various scripts, such as Kannada, as in ಠ_ಠ (for a look of disapproval, disbelief or confusion). Similarly, the letter ರೃ was used in emoticons to represent a monocle and ಥ to represent a tearing eye. They were picked up by 4chan and spread to other Western sites soon after. Some have become characters in their own right like Monā.
=== Korean ===
In South Korea, emoticons use Korean Hangul letters, and the Western style is rarely used. The structures of Korean and Japanese emoticons are somewhat similar, but they have some differences. Korean style contains Korean jamo (letters) instead of other characters.
The consonant jamos ㅅ, ㅁ or ㅂ can be used as the mouth or nose component and ㅇ, ㅎ or ㅍ for the eyes. Using quotation marks " and apostrophes ' are also commonly used combinations. Vowel jamos such as ㅜ and ㅠ can depict a crying face. Example: ㅜㅜ, (same function as T in Western style). Sometimes ㅡ (not an em-dash "—", but a vowel jamo), a comma (,) or an underscore (_) is added, and the two character sets can be mixed together, as in ㅠ.ㅡ, ㅡ^ㅜ and ㅜㅇㅡ. Also, semicolons and carets are commonly used in Korean emoticons; semicolons can mean sweating, examples of it are -;/, --^ and -_-;;.
=== Chinese ideographic ===
The character 囧 (U+56E7), which means 'bright', may be combined with the posture emoticon Orz, such as 囧rz. The character existed in Oracle bone script but was rarely used until its use as an emoticon, documented as early as January 20, 2005.
Other variants of 囧 include 崮 (king 囧), 莔 (queen 囧), 商 (囧 with a hat), 囧興 (turtle) and 卣 (Bomberman). The character 槑 (U+69D1), a variant of 梅 'plum', is used to represent a double of 呆 'dull' or further magnitude of dullness. In Chinese, normally full characters (as opposed to the stylistic use of 槑) might be duplicated to express emphasis.
== Posture emoticons ==
=== Orz ===
Orz (other forms include: Or2, on_, OTZ, OTL, STO, JTO, _no, _冂○ and 囧rz) is an emoticon representing a kneeling or bowing person (the Japanese version of which is called dogeza), with the "o" being the head, the "r" being the arms and part of the body, and the "z" being part of the body and the legs. This stick figure can represent respect or kowtowing, but commonly appears along a range of responses, including "frustration, despair, sarcasm, or grudging respect".
It was first used in late 2002 at the forum on Techside, a Japanese personal website. At the "Techside FAQ Forum" (TECHSIDE教えて君BBS(教えてBBS)), a poster asked about a cable cover, typing "_|￣|○" to show a cable and its cover. Others commented that it looked like a kneeling person, and the symbol became popular. These comments were soon deleted as they were considered off-topic. By 2005, Orz spawned a subculture: blogs have been devoted to the emoticon, and URL shortening services have been named after it. In Taiwan, Orz is associated with the concept of nice guys.
=== o7 ===
o7, or O7, is an emoticon that depicts a person saluting, with the o being the head and the 7 being its arm.
== Multimedia variations ==
A portmanteau of emotion and sound, an emotisound is a brief sound transmitted and played back during the viewing of a message, typically an IM message or email message. The sound is intended to communicate an emotional subtext. Some services, such as MuzIcons, combine emoticons and music players in an Adobe Flash-based widget. In 2004, the Trillian chat application introduced a feature called "emotiblips", which allows Trillian users to stream files to their instant message recipients "as the voice and video equivalent of an emoticon".
In 2007, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment promoted the "emoticlip" as a form of viral marketing for the second season of the show The Hills. The emoticlips were twelve short snippets of dialogue from the show, uploaded to YouTube. The emoticlip concept is credited to the Bradley & Montgomery advertising firm, which wrote that they hoped it would be widely adopted as "greeting cards that just happen to be selling something".
== Intellectual property rights ==
In 2000, Despair, Inc. obtained a U.S. trademark registration for the "frowny" emoticon :-( when used on "greeting cards, posters and art prints". In 2001, they issued a satirical press release, announcing that they would sue Internet users who typed the frowny; the company received protests when its mock release was posted on technology news website Slashdot.
A number of patent applications have been filed on inventions that assist in communicating with emoticons. A few of these have been issued as US patents. US 6987991, for example, discloses a method developed in 2001 to send emoticons over a cell phone using a drop-down menu. The stated advantage was that it eases entering emoticons.
The emoticon :-) was also filed in 2006 and registered in 2008 as a European Community Trademark (CTM). In Finland, the Supreme Administrative Court ruled in 2012 that the emoticon cannot be trademarked, thus repealing a 2006 administrative decision trademarking the emoticons :-), =), =(, :) and :(. In 2005, a Russian court rejected a legal claim against Siemens by a man who claimed to hold a trademark on the ;-) emoticon. In 2008, Russian entrepreneur Oleg Teterin claimed to have been granted the trademark on the ;-) emoticon. A license would not "cost that much—tens of thousands of dollars" for companies but would be free of charge for individuals.
== Unicode ==
A different, but related, use of the term "emoticon" is found in the Unicode Standard, referring to a subset of emoji that display facial expressions. The standard explains this usage with reference to existing systems, which provided functionality for substituting certain textual emoticons with images or emoji of the expressions in question.
Some smiley faces were present in Unicode since 1.1, including a white frowning face, a white smiling face and a black smiling face ("black" refers to a glyph which is filled, "white" refers to a glyph which is unfilled).
The Emoticons block was introduced in Unicode Standard version 6.0 (published in October 2010) and extended by 7.0. It covers Unicode range from U+1F600 to U+1F64F fully.
After that block had been filled, Unicode 8.0 (2015), 9.0 (2016) and 10.0 (2017) added additional emoticons in the range from U+1F910 to U+1F9FF. Currently, U+1F90C – U+1F90F, U+1F93F, U+1F94D – U+1F94F, U+1F96C – U+1F97F, U+1F998 – U+1F9CF (excluding U+1F9C0 which contains the 🧀 emoji) and U+1F9E7 – U+1F9FF do not contain any emoticons since Unicode 10.0.
For historic and compatibility reasons, some other heads and figures, which mostly represent different aspects like genders, activities, and professions instead of emotions, are also found in Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs (especially U+1F466 – U+1F487) and Transport and Map Symbols. Body parts, mostly hands, are also encoded in the Dingbat and Miscellaneous Symbols blocks.
== See also ==
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Asteroff, Janet (1988) [1987]. "Appendix C: Face Symbols and ASCII Character Set". Paralanguage in Electronic Mail: A Case Study (PhD thesis). New York: Columbia University Teachers College. pp. 221–228. OCLC 757048921. 8721076 – via University Microfilms International.
Bódi, Zoltán, and Veszelszki, Ágnes (2006). Emotikonok. Érzelemkifejezés az internetes kommunikációban (Emoticons: Expressing Emotions in the Internet Communication). Budapest: Magyar Szemiotikai Társaság.
Churches, Owen; Nicholls, Mike; Thiessen, Myra; Kohler, Mark; Keage, Hannah (January 6, 2014) [2013-07-17, 2013-12-05]. "Emoticons in mind: An event-related potential study". Social Neuroscience. 9 (2): 196–202. doi:10.1080/17470919.2013.873737. PMID 24387045.
Dresner, Eli, and Herring, Susan C. (2010). "Functions of the Non-verbal in CMC: Emoticons and Illocutionary Force" (preprint copy). Communication Theory 20: 249–268.
Edwards, Benj (November 20, 2025). "In 1982, a physics joke gone wrong sparked the invention of the emoticon". Ars Technica. Retrieved November 20, 2025.
Savage, Jon (February 21, 2009). "A Design for Life". Design. The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024. Retrieved March 30, 2024.
Veszelszki, Ágnes (2012). Connections of Image and Text in Digital and Handwritten Documents. In: Benedek, András, and Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): The Iconic Turn in Education. Series Visual Learning Vol. 2. Frankfurt am Main et al.: Peter Lang, pp. 97−110.
Veszelszki, Ágnes (2015). "Emoticons vs. Reaction-Gifs: Non-Verbal Communication on the Internet from the Aspects of Visuality, Verbality and Time". In: Benedek, András; Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): Beyond Words: Pictures, Parables, Paradoxes (series Visual Learning, vol. 5). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 131–145.
Walther, J. B.; D'Addario, K. P. (2001). "The impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in computer-mediated communication". Social Science Computer Review. 19 (3): 323–345. doi:10.1177/089443930101900307. ISSN 0894-4393. S2CID 16179750.
Wolf, Alecia (October 2000). "Emotional Expression Online: Gender Differences in Emoticon Use". CyberPsychology & Behavior 3(5): 827–833. doi:10.1089/109493100501918 (subscription required); doi:10.1089/10949310050191809..
== External links ==
Media related to Emoticon (category) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WION#Lawsuit_against_former_anchor_Palki_Sharma | WION | WION (, WEE-ahn; World is One News) is an Indian English language news channel headquartered in Noida, India. WION is owned by the Essel Group and is a part of the Zee Media network of channels, whose majority owner is Subhash Chandra and family. As of 2021, WION had presence in over 190 countries.
It has faced scrutiny from multiple foreign countries including China and Canada over its coverage, and in 2022 was blocked from YouTube for a period of time for broadcasting a speech by Sergey Lavrov, the head of Russia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The channel's former Pakistan bureau chief was forced into exile after a failed kidnapping attempt in Islamabad. The channel has been accused of promoting misinformation regarding COVID-19.
== History ==
Zee Media hired Rohit Gandhi as the founder and first editor-in-chief to establish the channel in August 2015. Its simulcast was launched on its website in many countries as a free-to-air satellite service on 15 June 2016. The television channel began airing on 15 August 2016. The channel was made available on Google Assistant in 2020. Sudhir Chaudhary served as its editor-in-chief after Gandhi until he left in 2021. Before switching to CNN-News18, Palki Sharma Upadhyay served for 4 years and resigned in September 2022. Past team includes Naveen Kapoor and Kartikeya Sharma.
In 2021, the appointment of M.J. Akbar, an Indian journalist and politician who has been accused of sexual assault by women, to WION as an "editorial consultant" was met with controversy, with more than 150 journalists signing a statement demanding that Akbar be removed by WION and Zee News.
== Staff ==
The current team includes Sidhant Sibal of DD News, who joined the media corporation on 1 April 2018. Madhu Soman joined as a chief business officer in 2022 but left in 2024. Rohit Banerjee looks after the branded content. While Molly Gambhir replaces Palki Sharma's position on Gravitas and Gravitas Plus to become the leading anchor of the WION channel, other associated journalists include Digvijay Singh Deo, Shivan Chanana, Rabin Sharma, Ieshan Wani, Esha Hanspal, Priyanka Sharma and Alyson le Grange.
The channel's Pakistan bureau chief, Taha Siddiqui, was forced into exile after a failed kidnapping attempt in Islamabad. He was replaced by Anas Mallick. Anas Mallick resigned in July 2025.
== Content and responses ==
=== Conflicts with China ===
In 2020, the Chinese Embassy in India lodged a formal protest against WION for its interview with Joseph Wu, head of Taiwan's foreign relations. The embassy criticized WION for promoting what it called "Taiwan Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) separatist activities", claiming it contradicted India's adherence to the One-China policy. The embassy stated that Taiwan is an inalienable part of China, as recognized by UN resolutions, and urged WION to respect India's official position. It warned that any challenge to China's territorial integrity regarding Taiwan would be strongly opposed.
In the same year, the Chinese government blocked access to the WION website, as confirmed by GreatFire.org, a Chinese internet monitoring watchdog. Earlier WION has faced criticism from the Chinese government for a coverage on what it described as a "cover-up" of COVID-19 pandemic situation in China. In March, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Zhao Lijian blocked WION on Twitter. Chinese diplomats in India also critiqued its reporting. In June, the Global Times, linked to the Chinese Communist Party, named WION in an article, advising it to think "independently".
=== Ban in Nepal ===
In July 2020, cable operators in Nepal ceased broadcasting several Indian news channels, including WION, in response to airing of a video that was deemed to be disrespectful to K. P. Sharma Oli, the prime minister of Nepal and a leader of Nepal Communist Party. After a month, some cable operators decided to lift the ban following public backlash from Nepali viewers.
=== 2022 YouTube block ===
On 22 March 2022, WION was blocked from YouTube for "violating YouTube's community guidelines". YouTube had taken objection to a video posted on 10 March, broadcasting a speech by Sergey Lavrov, the head of Russia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, denying the Russian invasion of Ukraine. YouTube unblocked the channel on 26 March after a social media campaign by WION.
=== Alleged interference in Canadian issues ===
WION was cited in a September 2024 report from RRM Canada on "Potential Foreign Information Manipulation, and Interference following PM Statement on Killing of Hardeep Singh Nijjar". The report examined content from popular Indian State-aligned media outlets and influencers, including WION, finding that "Modi-aligned outlets amplified several state-supported narratives about Prime Minister Trudeau, "Canada's High Commissioner to India, Canada's national security agencies, Canada's Punjabi Sikh diaspora, and Hardeep Singh Nijjar's political beliefs." The report also noted the “massive digital footprint” of some of these media outlets in comparison to Canadian media outlets, and the likely reach they had to global and Canadian audiences.
== Litigation ==
After the former anchor Palki Sharma Upadhyay announced her retirement from WION and the creation of a new talk show in CNN News18, WION filed a lawsuit against Upadhyay, saying that "confidential and proprietary Zee information" was taken by Upadhyay, and demanded that Upadhyay should continue to work for WION until December 2022 and pay for damages worth ₹2 crores. However, the Delhi High Court refused WION's appeal, and the next hearing of the case was delayed until March 2023.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_UEFA_Champions_League_knockout_phase#Semi-finals | 2021–22 UEFA Champions League knockout phase | The 2021–22 UEFA Champions League knockout phase began on 15 February with the round of 16 and ended on 28 May 2022 with the final at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, France, to decide the champions of the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League. A total of 16 teams competed in the knockout phase.
Times are CET/CEST, as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).
== Qualified teams ==
The knockout phase involved the 16 teams which qualified as winners and runners-up of each of the eight groups in the group stage.
== Format ==
Each tie in the knockout phase, apart from the final, was played over two legs, with each team playing one leg at home. The team that scored more goals on aggregate over the two legs advanced to the next round. If the aggregate score was level, then 30 minutes of extra time was played (the away goals rule was not applied). If the score was still level at the end of extra time, the winners were decided by a penalty shoot-out. In the final, which was played as a single match, if the score was level at the end of normal time, extra time was played, followed by a penalty shoot-out if the score was still level.
The mechanism of the draws for each round was as follows:
In the draw for the round of 16, the eight group winners were seeded, and the eight group runners-up were unseeded. The seeded teams were drawn against the unseeded teams, with the seeded teams hosting the second leg. Teams from the same group or the same association could not be drawn against each other.
In the draws for the quarter-finals onwards, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association could be drawn against each other. As the draws for the quarter-finals onwards were held together before the quarter-finals were played, the identity of the quarter-final winners was not known at the time of the semi-final draw. A draw was also held to determine which semi-final winner was designated as the "home" team for the final (for administrative purposes as it was played at a neutral venue).
== Schedule ==
The schedule was as follows (all draws were held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland).
== Bracket ==
== Round of 16 ==
The draw for the round of 16 was held on 13 December 2021, originally at 12:00 CET. The draw featured multiple irregularities: Manchester United were mistakenly included in the draw for Villarreal's opponent (both were in Group F), and subsequently were selected; another ball was then drawn, with Manchester City chosen instead. In the following tie, Liverpool were mistakenly included in the draw for Atlético Madrid's opponent (both were in Group B), while Manchester United were incorrectly excluded. Later that day, UEFA voided the original draw due to a "technical problem" with the draw computer, and it was entirely redone at 15:00 CET.
The round of 16 ties were initially drawn (and later voided) as follows:
Benfica – Real Madrid
Villarreal – Manchester City
Atlético Madrid – Bayern Munich
Red Bull Salzburg – Liverpool
Inter Milan – Ajax
Sporting CP – Juventus
Chelsea – Lille
Paris Saint-Germain – Manchester United
=== Summary ===
The first legs were played on 15, 16, 22 and 23 February, and the second legs were played on 8, 9, 15 and 16 March 2022.
=== Matches ===
Bayern Munich won 8–2 on aggregate.
Manchester City won 5–0 on aggregate.
Benfica won 3–2 on aggregate.
Chelsea won 4–1 on aggregate.
Atlético Madrid won 2–1 on aggregate.
Villarreal won 4–1 on aggregate.
Liverpool won 2–1 on aggregate.
Real Madrid won 3–2 on aggregate.
== Quarter-finals ==
The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 18 March 2022, 12:00 CET.
=== Summary ===
The first legs were played on 5 and 6 April, and the second legs were played on 12 and 13 April 2022.
=== Matches ===
Real Madrid won 5–4 on aggregate.
Manchester City won 1–0 on aggregate.
Villarreal won 2–1 on aggregate.
Liverpool won 6–4 on aggregate.
== Semi-finals ==
The draw for the semi-finals was held on 18 March 2022, 12:00 CET, after the quarter-final draw.
=== Summary ===
The first legs were played on 26 and 27 April, and the second legs were played on 3 and 4 May 2022.
=== Matches ===
Real Madrid won 6–5 on aggregate.
Liverpool won 5–2 on aggregate.
== Final ==
The final was played on 28 May 2022 at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis. A draw was held on 18 March 2022, after the quarter-final and semi-final draws, to determine the "home" team for administrative purposes.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Echandi_Jim%C3%A9nez#:~:text=Mario%20Jos%C3%A9%20Echandi%20Jim%C3%A9nez%20(17,serving%20from%201958%20to%201962. | Mario Echandi Jiménez | Mario José Echandi Jiménez (17 June 1915 – 30 July 2011) was the 33rd President of Costa Rica, serving from 1958 to 1962.
== As diplomat ==
Mario Echandi was a career diplomat.
Prior to his election, he had served as Costa Rica's ambassador to the United States and as the country's representative to both the United Nations and the Organization of American States (1949–1950).
He also served as the minister of foreign affairs (1950–1952) under President Otilio Ulate and in the Legislative Assembly during President José Figueres's second term in office (1953–1958).
== His presidency ==
President Echandi won the 1958 election by 102.851 votes as candidate of the National Union Party. Francisco J. Orlich was candidate of National Liberation Party with 94.778 and Jorge Rossi had 23.910 votes with the Independent Party. . During his administration some important laws were passed. The "Ley de Aguinaldo" law gave an extra yearly salary to all workers. A law that created the national service for clean water was approved. The law that created a national institute for land reform and colonization. (ITCO law). The first national plan for transit and roads was created, to build a network of highways and roads in the country.
== National reconciliation ==
During his administration some political figures were allowed to return from exile, like the former president Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia. His followers were allowed to return to the country and organize politically.
== After his presidency ==
He ran for the presidency on two further occasions – 1970 and 1982 – but was defeated on both.
== Death ==
Echandi died on 30 July 2011 at the age of 96 from pneumonia after a heart attack. His wife died in 2001.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downey,_California | Downey, California | Downey is a city in southeastern Los Angeles County, California, United States, 13 mi (21 km) southeast of Downtown Los Angeles. It is considered part of the Gateway Cities. The city is the birthplace of the Apollo space program and Taco Bell. It is also the home of the oldest operating McDonald's restaurant in the world. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 114,355.
== History ==
=== 18th century to World War II ===
Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was initially founded on September 8, 1771, near settlements of the Tongva people. It was located in the Whittier Narrows on a bluff overlooking the Rio Hondo, near the modern intersection of San Gabriel Blvd and Lincoln Avenue. After five years, flooding forced the relocation of the mission to its present site in San Gabriel.
In 1784, Governor Pedro Fages granted to former soldier Manuel Nieto (1734–1804) the largest of the land concessions made in what was then Alta California, a province of New Spain. Its 300,000 acres (120,000 hectares) stretched from the Santa Ana River on the east to the Old San Gabriel River (now the Rio Hondo and Los Angeles River) on the west, and from the mission highway (approximately Whittier Boulevard) on the north to the ocean on the south. Its acreage was slightly reduced later at the insistence of Mission San Gabriel on whose lands it infringed. The Spanish concessions, of which 25 were made in California, were unlike the later Mexican land grants in that title was not transferred but were similar to grazing permits with the title remaining with the Spanish crown.
The Rancho Los Nietos passed to Manuel Nieto's four children upon his death and remained intact until 1833 when his heirs petitioned Mexican Governor José Figueroa to partition the property. The northwestern portion of the original rancho, comprising the Downey-Norwalk area, was granted as Rancho Santa Gertrudes to Josefa Cota, the widow of Manuel Nieto's son, Antonio Nieto. At approximately 21,000 acres (8,500 hectares), Santa Gertrudes was itself a sizable rancho and contained the old Nietos homestead, which was a center of social life east of the pueblo of Los Angeles.
Dairy was a major industry in Downey. The Central Milk Agency marketed the milk for "seven hundred dairymen whose dairy herds range from thirty to two thousand head" with the value of the products marketed in excess of $1,000,000 per month.
Some of Downey's settlers came from Ireland. Downey was founded by and named for the former and youngest ever governor of California, John Gately Downey, who was born in Ireland. Although he was an Irish Democrat, he supported the Republican Lincoln in his efforts to keep the Union intact during the American Civil War. He pioneered the modern subdivision with land he acquired between the Rio Hondo and the San Gabriel River, in about 1865. Downey was convinced that oranges would flourish in Southern California, importing several varieties, which would result in oranges becoming one of the state's biggest cash crops.
=== Gallatin ===
Two small settlements were established along the Rio Hondo River - College Settlement and Gallatin, near where the modern Paramount Boulevard and Florence Avenue cross. In the late 1860s, the Gallatin residents built a small school known as the "Little Red Gallatin School House". By 1871, it was not large enough and a two-story school was built. Gallatin School moved in 1893 to its present site. Later, Alameda School and Downey School were built. By 1883, College Settlement, Gallatin and Downey joined and with the help of Governor Downey convinced the Southern Pacific Railroad to route through and stop in Downey. The new center of activity migrated to the depot area and this became the center of a new larger Downey, uniting the three previous settlements.
=== After World War II ===
Farmers in the area grew grain, corn, castor beans, and fruit, and by 1935 Downey was characterized as an "orange-grove town".
Downey was incorporated in 1956 and instituted a charter form of government in 1964. Suburban homes and factories replaced the farms after World War II.
==== Aerospace ====
Vultee Aircraft was Downey's largest employer during World War II producing 15% of all of America's military aircraft by 1941. The company was a pioneer in the use of women in manufacturing positions and was the first aircraft company to build airplanes on a powered assembly line. After World War 2, the plant was mostly idle from 1945 until 1948, when North American Aviation (later North American Rockwell, then Rockwell International which was then bought by the Boeing company) occupied the facility. In 1961, the facilities were transferred from the US Air Force ownership to NASA and became the birthplace of the systems for the Apollo Space Program as well as the Space Shuttle. For over 70 years, Downey's Rockwell NASA plant produced and tested many of the 20th century's greatest aviation, missile, and space endeavors.
The seventy-year history of airplane and space vehicle manufacturing in Downey came to an end when the Rockwell plant closed in 1999. The plant was demolished and replaced by the Columbia Memorial Space Center, Downey Landing shopping center, Promenade at Downey shopping center (the former movie studio site of Downey Studios), a Kaiser Permanente hospital, and a city recreation fields park.
==== Other landmarks ====
Near the center of the city lies what was in the 1960s one of the busiest intersections in California, the intersection of Lakewood Boulevard (State Route 19) and Firestone Boulevard (former State Route 42). Route 19 was a major thoroughfare between Pasadena and the port at Long Beach and Route 42 was along part of the old Spanish El Camino Real trail that connected the Pueblo de Los Angeles to San Diego.
In the 1960s, the town's Downey Records achieved some notoriety with recordings such as The Chantays' surfing instrumental "Pipeline"; nearly two decades later, Downey's local music scene led to the founding of The Blasters and Dark Angel.
Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center, the main public rehabilitation hospital for Los Angeles County, is located in Downey. Rancho Los Amigos is renowned worldwide for its innovative contributions to the care of spinal cord injuries and post-polio syndrome.
Downey was featured in the 2008 American action-comedy film Pineapple Express. Many of the buildings along Florence Avenue are seen in a driving sequence early in the film.
Downey is home to the world's oldest existing McDonald's Restaurant, the so-called Speedee McDonald's Store, which opened in 1953 at the southwest corner of Florence Avenue and Lakewood Boulevard. Damaged in the 1994 Northridge Earthquake, the store reopened in 1996 along with a museum and gift shop.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau the city has a total area of 12.6 square miles (33 km2). 12.4 square miles (32 km2) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.52 km2) of it is water.
The cities of South Gate and Bell Gardens are adjacent to the west and northwest, Pico Rivera lies to the northeast, Santa Fe Springs and Norwalk to the east, and Paramount and Bellflower are to the south.
=== Climate ===
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Downey has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated BSk on climate maps.
=== Surrounding areas ===
== Demographics ==
Downey first appeared as a city in the 1960 U.S. census as part of the Downey-Norwalk census county division (pop. 272.729 in 1960).
=== 2020 ===
The 2020 United States census reported that Downey had a population of 114,355. The population density was 9,215.5 inhabitants per square mile (3,558.1/km2). The racial makeup of Downey was 23.4% White, 3.7% African American, 2.1% Native American, 6.7% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 40.0% from other races, and 23.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 75.1% of the population.
The census reported that 99.0% of the population lived in households, 0.5% lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0.5% were institutionalized.
There were 35,017 households, out of which 40.1% included children under the age of 18, 48.4% were married-couple households, 7.9% were cohabiting couple households, 27.2% had a female householder with no partner present, and 16.4% had a male householder with no partner present. 16.7% of households were one person, and 6.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.23. There were 27,251 families (77.8% of all households).
The age distribution was 22.2% under the age of 18, 10.2% aged 18 to 24, 28.9% aged 25 to 44, 25.4% aged 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males.
There were 36,087 housing units at an average density of 2,908.1 units per square mile (1,122.8 units/km2), of which 35,017 (97.0%) were occupied. Of these, 50.0% were owner-occupied, and 50.0% were occupied by renters.
In 2023, the US Census Bureau estimated that the median household income was $87,400, and the per capita income was $37,122. About 7.0% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line.
=== 2010 ===
The 2010 United States census reported that Downey had a population of 111,772. The population density was 8,893.3 inhabitants per square mile (3,433.7/km2). The racial makeup of Downey was 63,255 (56.6%) White, 19,784 (17.7%) Non-Hispanic White, 7,804 (7.0%) Asian (2.2% Korean, 2.2% Filipino, 0.6% Indian, 0.5% Chinese, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.3% Japanese, 0.2% Thai, 0.1% Cambodian, 0.1% Pakistani), 4,329 (3.9%) African American, 820 (0.7%) Native American, 221 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 30,797 (27.6%) from other races, and 4,546 (4.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 78,996 persons (70.7%); 54.0% of Downey residents are of Mexican ancestry, 3.9% Salvadoran, 2.0% Cuban, 2.0% Guatemalan, 1.1% Peruvian, and 1.0% Nicaraguan ancestry.
The Census reported that 111,089 people (99.4% of the population) lived in households, 122 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 561 (0.5%) were institutionalized.
There were 33,936 households, out of which 15,697 (46.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 17,405 (51.3%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 6,289 (18.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,796 (8.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,357 (6.9%) POSSLQ, and 225 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 5,721 households (16.9%) were made up of individuals, and 2,211 (6.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.27. There were 26,490 families (78.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.68.
The population was spread out, with 29,972 people (26.8%) under the age of 18, 12,108 people (10.8%) aged 18 to 24, 33,056 people (29.6%) aged 25 to 44, 25,057 people (22.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 11,579 people (10.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 90.4 males.
There were 35,601 housing units at an average density of 2,832.7 units per square mile (1,093.7 units/km2), of which 17,135 (50.5%) were owner-occupied, and 16,801 (49.5%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.9%. 59,555 people (53.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 51,534 people (46.1%) lived in rental housing units. Approximately 30–40 homeless reside in the area.
According to the 2010 United States census, Downey had a median household income of $60,939, with 11.8% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
=== Mapping L.A. ===
According to Mapping L.A., Mexican and German were the most common ancestries in Downey in 2000. Mexico and Korea were the most common foreign places of birth.
=== Homelessness ===
In 2022, Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority's Greater Los Angeles Homeless Count counted 218 homeless individuals in Downey.
== Crime ==
While reports of robberies, aggravated assaults, and petty thefts in Downey dropped in 2008, auto thefts reached a 10-year high. In 2008, 1,231 vehicles were reported stolen in Downey. Other crimes recorded by the FBI Crime Index for the year 2008 include 252 robberies, 172 aggravated assaults, 24 rapes, 711 burglaries, and 2,038 acts of larceny/thefts.
=== Anti-gang activities ===
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Downey saw an increase in gang activity. Today there is still gang activity going in the south area of Downey. In response, Downey formed GOOD (Gangs Out Of Downey), a community-based organization that helps encourage young people between the ages of 10–20 to stay away from gangs. GOOD is also responsible for organizing many community events and programs such as various sports, after-school care, scholarship programs for at-risk students looking to attend college, and counseling for both young people and their parents. GOOD has kept a close partnership with the Downey Police Department.
== Economy ==
=== Most Business-Friendly Award ===
In 2017, the City of Downey was recognized as L.A. County's "Most Business-Friendly City" by the Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation for cities with a population greater than 68,000.
=== Largest employers ===
According to the city's 2024 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
== Government ==
In the California State Legislature, Downey is in the 30th senatorial district, represented by Democrat Bob Archuleta, and in the 64th Assembly district, represented by Democrat Blanca Pacheco.
In the United States House of Representatives, Downey is in California's 42nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Robert Garcia.
== Culture ==
The author Tom Wolfe wrote about Downey. His article "The Hair Boys" was about Harvey's Drive-in and the fashions that the hair boys wore. He claimed that Harvey's was one of the great unacknowledged centers of fashion in the world. The essay appears in his 1968 book "The Pump House Gang." His drawing of one of the hair boys appears in his book "In Our Time."
In 1955, Downey was featured in newspapers worldwide when truck driver George Di Peso lived at 7739 Alderdale Street and had a gopher problem. He tried to solve it by putting a hose down a gopher hole and turning on the water to drown it, but could not get the hose out afterwards. He then noticed that the hose was slowly being pulled down the hole. Wire services found out about this, and the mysterious phenomenon was reported in newspapers worldwide. According to a July 3, 1955, front-page article in the Los Angeles Times ("Tokyo Awaits Arrival of Downey Hose"), "A message received from Tokyo at the United Press office here read 'Tell Di Peso in Downey the other end of his hose has not turned up here, but we're all still looking.'" There was a great deal of speculation about the cause of the disappearing hose. Eventually the hose vanished completely. The most likely explanation was that there was an underground river that pulled at the hose.
In the early 1960s, it was widely reported that the Downey City Library had banned Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan books because Tarzan was not married to Jane when they conceived Boy. Evidence for the rumor's staying power is in articles in the Los Angeles Times that were published in the 1970s (for example, "Downey Sends L.A. Back to the Bush League," Jack Smith, May 8, 1970). The rumor about Tarzan was, however, an exaggeration. According to "Zane Grey Also Safe: Tarzan’s Marital Status No Issue as Downey School Ban Is Denied" (Los Angeles Times December 28, 1961), a rumor spread that one of Downey's elementary schools had removed Edgar Rice Burroughs and Zane Grey books from its library because "1—There was no indication that Tarzan and his mate, Jane, were ever married before they took up housekeeping in the treetops," and "2—Grey was known to put such expletives as 'damn!’ and 'hell' in the mouths of his western cowhands." It turns out that there was no "ban." What happened was that in one elementary school, a parent had put two Zane Grey books "out of site in a desk drawer." No Tarzan books were involved. The Zane Grey books were put back on the shelves.
== Education ==
=== Primary and secondary schools ===
Most of Downey is within the Downey Unified School District. Downey's two main public high schools are named for Governor John G. Downey and Governor and Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren.
Downey has three public high schools: Downey, Warren, and Columbus High School. Other public schools include:
Small sections are within the Montebello Unified School District. Another portion is in Little Lake City Elementary School District and Whittier Union High School District.
Private schools include:
Calvary Chapel Christian School: pre-K–12
St. Pius X-Matthias Academy: 9–12
Our Lady of Perpetual Help School: TK-K–8
Saint Raymond's Catholic School: pre-K–8
Saint Mark's Episcopal School: pre-K–8
Roman Catholic schools are under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
=== Public libraries ===
The Downey City Library serves the city. The first library in Downey was established in 1901 by a women's social club that was founded in 1898. The County of Los Angeles Public Library opened a branch in Downey in September 1915. The county branch moved several times; its final location was in the County Civic Center. In 1958 the Downey City Council voted to establish its own library and withdraw from the county system. The city library services were originally provided out of the back of a bookstore. The city library opened in the former cafeteria of the former Downey Elementary School, then being used as the city hall and police station, on July 1, 1958. A permanent library building was built on December 7, 1959. It had almost 16,000 square feet (1,500 m2) and it was built for $186,200, costing $11.97 per square foot. It was dedicated on December 17 and opened on December 18. In February 1984 an addition of almost 12,000 square feet (1,100 m2) was completed and dedicated.
In March 2019, the city announced that it would be using Measure S funds to begin remodeling on the city library. The remodeling was initially supposed to last 15 months, but the COVID-19 pandemic caused delays in the project. The remodeled city library opened on May 3, 2021, with notable updates including mobile app support for checkouts and a multi-use community space.
In addition, the headquarters of the County of Los Angeles Public Library are located in Downey.
== Infrastructure ==
=== Health care ===
The Los Angeles County Department of Public Health operates the Whittier Health Center in Whittier, serving Downey.
=== Post office ===
The United States Postal Service operates the Downey Post Office at 8111 Firestone Boulevard, the North Downey Post Office at 10409 Lakewood Boulevard, and the South Downey Post Office at 7911 Imperial Highway. Los Cerritos Community News serves the city.
=== Transportation ===
Any of four freeways can conveniently reach the city: I-105 and the Metro C Line passes through the southern part of the city, I-5 passes through the northern region, I-605 passes along the eastern side, and I-710 passes just west of the city.
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) provides bus services to the city and is served by Lakewood Boulevard station on the C Line. The city also operates a local bus service called DowneyLINK.
== Notable people ==
Dave Alvin, musician, founder of Downey-based rockabilly band The Blasters with brother Phil
Bob Bennett, contemporary Christian musician, singer-songwriter, recording artist, was born in Downey
Paul Bigsby, father of the modern electric solid-body guitar, built in 1948, and creator of the Bigsby vibrato
William Bonin, serial killer; was Downey resident during his crime spree
The Carpenters (singer-musicians Karen and Richard) moved to Downey in 1963, originally to an apartment complex called the Shoji on 12020 Downey Ave, later moving to a house that still stands on Newville Avenue which can be seen on the cover of their album, Now & Then; after the duo's success, they built two apartment buildings still located on 5th St.
Miranda Cosgrove, actress and singer, star of iCarly
Art Cruz, musician and songwriter, current drummer of Lamb of God
Joslyn Davis, host of Clevver TV and YouTube personality, was raised in Downey
Rosario DeSimone (1873–1946), Downey-based crime boss
Walt Faulkner, Indy car driver, first rookie to win pole position at Indianapolis 500
Ed Fiori, professional golfer
Terry Forcum, 1983 World Champion professional long drive golfer was born in Downey
Ty France, professional baseball player
Donavon Frankenreiter, surfer and musician
Kevin Gross, former Major League Baseball pitcher for Los Angeles Dodgers and Anaheim Angels
Dan Henderson, mixed martial artist
Demos Shakarian, businessman and founder of Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International
Brian Haner, Musician/Comedian
James Hetfield, Metallica frontman
Leon Hooten, former baseball player for Oakland Athletics
Robert Illes, Emmy-winning TV writer and producer
Allison Iraheta, musician, American Idol Season 8 contestant
Kerry King, Slayer guitarist
Evan Longoria, an All-Star third baseman for the Tampa Bay Rays, San Francisco Giants and Arizona Diamondbacks, was born in Downey
Darren McCaughan, professional baseball player for the Seattle Mariners, was raised in Downey.
Ira J. McDonald, Los Angeles City Council member, 1941–43, Downey civic leader
Ron McGovney, original Metallica bassist, spent school years in Downey
Bob Meusel, baseball star for New York Yankees who played with Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, lived and died in Downey
Riki R. Nelson, oil painter
Tom Nieto, professional baseball player
George Pajon Jr., Grammy Award-winning recording and performing artist
Lena Park, South Korean singer
Wayne Rainey, former American Grand Prix motorcycle racer, was born in Downey
Kimmy Robertson, actress best known for her role as Lucy Moran in Twin Peaks
Rich Rodriguez, Major League Baseball pitcher 1990–2003
Paul Ruffner, pro basketball player
Kenneth Shelley, figure skater, U.S. champion and Olympian, was born in Downey
Dennis Sproul, NFL player
JoJo Starbuck, figure skater, U.S. champion and Olympian, grew up in Downey
Aimee Teegarden, actress (Friday Night Lights) and fashion model
Alanna Ubach, actress
Joan Weston, queen of Roller Derby, grew up in Downey
"Weird Al" Yankovic, musician and parody artist, was born in Downey
Andrew Robert Young, U.S. Ambassador to Burkina Faso (appointed 2016), was born in Downey.
Stephanie Zavala, professional bowler, 2021 PWBA Rookie of the Year, resides in Downey.
== Sister cities ==
Downey's sister cities are:
== Media ==
The Downey Patriot is a weekly community newspaper serving the Downey community. The Los Angeles Times and the Press-Telegram are the daily newspapers that provide daily local coverage in Los Angeles County and the Gateway Cities region.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Reynolds#:~:text=In%201962%2C%20Dennis%20Weaver%20wanted,the%20show%20%22until%20it%20ends. | Burt Reynolds | Burton Leon Reynolds Jr. (February 11, 1936 – September 6, 2018) was an American actor most famous during the 1970s and '80s. He became well known in television series such as Gunsmoke (1962–1965), Hawk (1966) and Dan August (1970–1971). He had leading roles in films such as Navajo Joe (1966), and 100 Rifles (1969), and his breakthrough role was as Lewis Medlock in Deliverance (1972).
Reynolds played leading roles in financial successes such as White Lightning (1973), The Longest Yard (1974), Smokey and the Bandit (1977) (which started a seven-year box-office reign), Semi-Tough (1977), The End (1978), Hooper (1978), Starting Over (1979), Smokey and the Bandit II (1980), The Cannonball Run (1981), Sharky's Machine (1981), The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982), Smokey and the Bandit III (1983), and Cannonball Run II (1984), several of which he directed. He was nominated twice for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy.
Reynolds was voted the world's number-one movie actor from 1978 to 1982 in the annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll, a six-year record he shares with Bing Crosby. After a number of box-office failures, Reynolds returned to television, featuring in the situation comedy Evening Shade (1990–1994), which won a Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. His performance as high-minded pornographer Jack Horner in Paul Thomas Anderson's Boogie Nights (1997) brought him renewed critical attention, earning the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture, with nominations for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and a BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor.
== Early life ==
Burton Leon Reynolds Jr. was born on February 11, 1936, to Burton Milo Reynolds Sr. and Harriet Fernette "Fern" (née Miller). His family descended from Dutch, English, Scots-Irish and Scottish ancestry. Reynolds also claimed some Cherokee and Italian ancestry.
During his career, Reynolds often claimed to have been born in Waycross, Georgia, although in 2015, he stated that he was actually born in Lansing, Michigan. In his autobiography, he stated that Lansing is where his family lived when his father was drafted into the United States Army.
Reynolds, his mother, and his sister joined his father at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, where they subsequently lived for two years. When his father was sent to Europe, the family relocated to Lake City, Michigan, where his mother had been raised. In 1946, the family relocated to Riviera Beach, Florida, where in sixth grade, Reynolds began a lifelong close friendship with Dick Howser. Reynolds's father eventually became chief of police of Riviera Beach, which is adjacent to the north end of West Palm Beach, Florida.
His nickname in Riviera Beach was "Buddy". (The childhood nicknames of Marlon Brando, the superstar actor whom Reynolds was said to resemble and with whom he feuded, were "Bud" and "Buddy".)
At Palm Beach High School, Reynolds lettered in football and track and was named a first-team All-State fullback in 1953 and an honorable-mention selection to the 34th annual All-Southern team. He was initially offered a college football scholarship by University of Miami head coach Andy Gustafson, but eventually chose to play for head coach Tom Nugent at Florida State University.
=== College ===
While at Florida State, Reynolds roomed with future college football coach, broadcaster, and analyst Lee Corso, and also became a brother of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity.
He earned his first start of the 1954 football season at right halfback in FSU's inaugural victory of the season against the University of Louisville. Reynolds tallied a one-yard touchdown in the game. Despite suffering a separated shoulder in the middle of the season, Reynolds finished his freshman season with 16 carries for 134 rushing yards and two touchdowns. He also caught four passes for 76 yards, returned five punts, and had an interception on defense.
In 1955, Reynolds was slated to start in the backfield for the Seminoles (8–4 in 1954), but suffered torn cartilage in his right knee during preseason workouts. After testing the injured knee in a "B" game versus Georgia Tech, Reynolds realized he could not make cuts like he once did and left school. "I knew then I was finished as a football player," he told The Palm Beach Post. A week later, Reynolds underwent a knee operation at St. Mary's Hospital in West Palm Beach. His surgeon predicted he could resume his playing career the following year.
Two months later, Reynolds, then 19, was critically injured in an automobile accident on State Road A1A, suffering internal injuries, including a ruptured spleen, after colliding with a stalled truck. The driver of the truck fled the scene, according to the newspaper report. Reynolds said he lost a prized wristwatch from the 1955 Sun Bowl game in the crash, which left his vehicle totaled.
Reynolds did not return to the Florida State campus for almost two years. To keep up with his studies, he enrolled at Palm Beach Junior College (PBJC) in neighboring Lake Park in early 1956. When Reynolds returned to Florida State in 1957, he rejoined the football team as a backup halfback, but was hampered by lingering injuries from the car accident. In an away game against Boston College in late September, Reynolds averaged four yards on three carries and caught two passes. He was blamed, fairly or not, for the team's loss to North Carolina State University on October 12, 1957. Immediately after the game, he told his teammates that he was done with football. Convinced that his playing days were over, Reynolds returned home and got engaged to Jean Hayden, a former beauty queen from Jacksonville, Florida, who was attending FSU. The couple never wed. Hayden, a speech major in college, wed FSU grad and Navy veteran Edwin Watson Richardson Jr., a car dealer in Tallahassee, in 1959.
=== Early acting ===
During his spring term at PBJC in 1956, Reynolds enrolled in an English class taught by Watson B. Duncan III. Duncan encouraged Reynolds to try out for a school play he was directing, Outward Bound. He cast Reynolds in a main role based on having heard him read Shakespeare in class. Reynolds' performance earned him a best actor award at the 1956 PBJC Drama Awards. "I read two words and they gave me a lead," he later said. In his autobiography, he referred to Duncan as his mentor and the most influential person of his life.
== Career ==
=== Theater ===
The drama award Reynolds won in junior college included a scholarship to the Hyde Park Playhouse, a summer stock theater in Hyde Park, New York. Reynolds considered the opportunity as an agreeable alternative to more physically demanding summer jobs, but did not yet consider acting as a possible career. While working there, Reynolds met Joanne Woodward, who helped him find an agent.
"I don't think I ever actually saw him perform," said Woodward. "I knew him as this cute, shy, attractive boy. He had the kind of lovely personality that made you want to do something for him." He was cast in Tea and Sympathy at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City. After his Broadway debut in Look, We've Come Through, he received favorable reviews for his performance and went on tour with the cast, driving the bus as well as appearing on stage. After the tour, Reynolds returned to New York City and enrolled in acting classes, along with Frank Gifford, Carol Lawrence, Red Buttons, and Jan Murray. "I was a working actor for two years before I finally took my first real acting class (with Wynn Handman at the Neighborhood Playhouse)," he said. "It was a lot of technique, truth, moment-to-moment, how to listen, improv."
After a botched improvisation in acting class, Reynolds briefly considered returning to Florida, but in December 1956, he was cast in a supporting role in a revival of Mister Roberts at the New York City Center, in which Charlton Heston played the starring role and Orson Bean played Ensign Pulver. After the play closed, director John Forsythe arranged a movie audition with Joshua Logan for Reynolds. The movie was Sayonara (1957). Reynolds was told that he could not be in the movie because he looked too much like Marlon Brando. Logan advised Reynolds to go to Hollywood, although Reynolds did not feel confident enough to do so. (Another source says that Reynolds did a screen test after studio talent agent Lew Wasserman saw the effect that Reynolds had on secretaries in his office, but the test was unsuccessful.)
Reynolds worked in a variety of jobs, such as waiting tables, washing dishes, driving a delivery truck, and as a bouncer at the Roseland Ballroom. He wrote that while working as a dockworker, he was offered $150 to jump through a glass window on a live television show.
=== Early television and Riverboat ===
Reynolds began acting for television during the late 1950s, with guest roles on shows such as Flight, M Squad, Schlitz Playhouse, The Lawless Years, and Pony Express. He signed a seven-year contract with Universal Studios. "I don't care whether he can act or not," said Wasserman. "Anyone who has this effect on women deserves a break."
Reynolds's first big opportunity came when he was cast alongside Darren McGavin, who was the main actor of the television series Riverboat (1959–61), playing Ben Frazer, the boat's pilot. According to a contemporary report, Reynolds was considered "a double for Marlon Brando". The show played for two seasons, but Reynolds quit after only 20 episodes, claiming that he got along with neither McGavin nor the executive producer, and that he had "a stupid part". Reynolds subsequently said that he "couldn't get a job. I didn't have a very good reputation. You just don't walk out on a network television series."
Reynolds returned to guest-featuring in television shows. As he put it, "I played heavies in every series in town," appearing in episodes of Playhouse 90, Johnny Ringo, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Lock Up, The Blue Angels, Michael Shayne, Zane Grey Theater, The Aquanauts, and The Brothers Brannagan. "They were depressing years," he later said.
Reynolds starred in the low-budget film Angel Baby (1961). He followed it with a role in a war film Armored Command (1961). "It was the one picture that Howard Keel didn't sing on," reminisced Reynolds. "That was a terrible mistake."
In 1961, he returned to Broadway to appear in Look, We've Come Through, directed by José Quintero, but it lasted only five performances.
Reynolds continued to guest-star on episodes of Naked City, Ripcord, Everglades, Route 66, Perry Mason, and The Twilight Zone ("The Bard", an hour-long send-up of Reynolds's look-alike Marlon Brando). He later said, "I learned more about my craft in these guest shots than I did standing around and looking virile on Riverboat."
=== Gunsmoke ===
In 1962, Dennis Weaver wanted to quit the cast of Gunsmoke, one of the top-rated shows in the country. The producers developed a new character, "half-breed" blacksmith Quint Asper. Reynolds was cast, chosen over 300 other contenders. He announced that he would stay on the show "until it ends. I think it's a terrible mistake for an actor to leave a series in the middle of it." Reynolds left Gunsmoke in 1965. He later said that being in that show was "the happiest period of my life. I hated to leave that show, but I felt I had served my apprenticeship and there wasn't room for two leading men."
He was cast in his first lead role in a movie, the low-budget action movie Operation C.I.A. (1965). He also guest-starred on the television series Flipper, The F.B.I., and 12 O'Clock High.
=== Hawk and leading roles in films ===
Reynolds was given the title role of a TV series, Hawk (1966–67), playing Native American detective John Hawk. It ran for 17 episodes before being cancelled.
He played another Native American in the spaghetti Western film Navajo Joe (1966), which was filmed in Spain. He said, "It wasn't my favorite picture." He later said, "I had two expressions—mad and madder."
He guest-starred in Gentle Ben, and made a pilot for a TV series, Lassiter, in which he would have played a magazine journalist. It did not develop into a series.
Reynolds made a series of movies in quick succession: Shark! (1969), filmed in Mexico, was directed by Sam Fuller, who removed his name from it, after which its release was held up for a number of years. Reynolds described Fade In as "the best thing I've ever done", but it was not released for a number of years, and off of which director Jud Taylor took his name. Impasse (1969) was a war movie filmed in the Philippines. Reynolds plays the title role in Sam Whiskey (1969), a comic Western written by William W. Norton, which Reynolds later said was "way ahead of its time. I was playing light comedy and nobody cared."
Reynolds starred with Jim Brown and Raquel Welch in another Western, 100 Rifles (1969). He said, "I spent the entire time refereeing fights between Jim Brown and Raquel Welch."
In a 1969 interview, Reynolds expressed interest in playing roles like the John Garfield part in The Postman Always Rings Twice, but no one gave him the opportunity. "Instead, the producer hands me a script and says 'I know it's not there now kid, but I know we can make it work.'"
Reynolds declined the leading role for the film M*A*S*H (1970), which went to Elliott Gould. He starred in the film Skullduggery (1970), filmed in Jamaica. He joked that after making "those wonderful, forgettable pictures... I suddenly realized I was as hot as Leo Gorcey."
Reynolds featured in two television films: Hunters Are for Killing (1970) and Run, Simon, Run (1970). In the former, his character was originally a Native American, but Reynolds requested that this element be changed, feeling that he had played the persona too many times already, and that it was not needed for the character, anyway.
=== Dan August and talk shows ===
Reynolds played the title character in the police television drama Dan August (1970–71), produced by Quinn Martin. Reynolds had previously guest-starred in two episodes of Martin's production The F.B.I. The series was given a full-season order of 26 episodes, based on the reputation of Martin and Reynolds, but it struggled in the ratings against Hawaii Five-0 and was not renewed.
Albert R. Broccoli asked Reynolds to play James Bond after Sean Connery, but Reynolds declined the role, saying, "An American can't play James Bond. It just can't be done."
After the cancelation of the series, Reynolds appeared in his first stage play in six years; a production of The Tender Trap at Arlington Park Theatre. He was offered other TV pilots, but was reluctant to play a detective again.
Around this time, he had become well known as a charismatic talk-show guest, starting with an appearance on The Merv Griffin Show. He made jokes at his own expense, calling himself America's most "well-known unknown", who made the kind of movies "they show in airplanes or prisons or anywhere else the people can't get out". He proved enormously popular and was frequently asked back by Griffin and Johnny Carson; he even guest-hosted The Tonight Show. He was so popular as a guest that he was offered his own talk show, but he wanted to continue as an actor.
He later said that his talk-show appearances were "the best thing that ever happened to me. They changed everything drastically overnight. I spent 10 years looking virile, saying, 'Put up your hands.' After the Carson, Griffin, Frost, Dinah's show, suddenly I have a personality."
"I realized that people liked me, that I was enough," said Reynolds. "So if I could transfer that character—the irreverent, self-deprecating side of me, my favorite side of me—onto the screen, I could have a big career."
=== The Godfather and Marlon Brando feud ===
Reynolds was considered for the role of Sonny Corleone in The Godfather, but Francis Ford Coppola's desire to cast James Caan in the part prevailed. Talk arose that Reynolds's participation was vetoed by Marlon Brando, who had a lack of respect for him. Brando denied that he played a role in thwarting the casting of Reynolds, saying in a January 1979 Playboy interview that Coppola would not have cast Reynolds in the part.
Reynolds later claimed that he declined the role of Sonny. (The Godfather producer Albert S. Ruddy later produced The Cannonball Run and Cannonball Run II, two Reynolds movie successes during the 1980s.)
The Brando-Reynolds feud became Hollywood legend. Reynolds said that he could not understand Brando's enmity toward him. In a 2015 interview with The Guardian, Reynolds said, "He was a strange man. He didn't like me at all." He did not consciously imitate Brando, nor act like him, nor try to look like him; he even grew a mustache so that people would stop saying that he looked like Brando.
When he was finally introduced to Brando, Reynolds said that he told him that he was the finest actor in the world. Brando replied, "I wish I could say the same for you."
=== Deliverance and Cosmopolitan centerfold ===
Reynolds had a major role in the movie Deliverance, directed by John Boorman, who cast him on the basis of a talk-show appearance. "It's the first time I haven't had a script with Paul Newman and Robert Redford's fingerprints all over it," Reynolds joked. "The producers actually came to me first."
"I've waited 15 years to do a really good movie," he said in 1972. "I made so many bad pictures. I was never able to turn anyone down. The greatest curse in Hollywood is to be a well-known unknown."
Around this time, Reynolds also gained notoriety when he began a well-publicized relationship with Dinah Shore, who was 20 years his senior, and after he posed nude in the April 1972 issue of Cosmopolitan. Reynolds said that he posed for Cosmopolitan for "a kick. I have a strange sense of humor," and because he knew that Deliverance was about to be released. He later expressed regret for posing for Cosmopolitan. Deliverance was a commercial and critical success, which along with talk-show appearances, helped establish Reynolds as a major movie actor. "The night of the Academy Awards, I counted a half-dozen Burt Reynolds jokes," he later said. "I had become a household name, the most talked-about star at the award show."
Reynolds was subsequently in Fuzz (1972), reuniting with Welch, and also made a cameo in Woody Allen's film Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask) (1972). He also returned to the stage, appearing in The Rainmaker at the Arlington.
Reynolds had the title role of Shamus (1973), playing a private detective. The movie drew lackluster reviews, but nonetheless became a box-office success. Reynolds described it as "not a bad film, kind of cute". He also was in The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing (1973), co-featuring Sarah Miles. The film was a minor success, perhaps best remembered for the scandal of Miles's lover, an aspiring screenwriter, dying by suicide during the filming.
Reynolds meant to reunite with Boorman in Zardoz, but fell ill and was replaced by Sean Connery.
=== White Lightning and Southern movies ===
Another turning point in Reynolds's career came when he made the light-hearted car-chase film written by William W. Norton, White Lightning (1973). Reynolds later called it "the beginning of a whole series of films made in the South, about the South, and for the South... you could make back the cost of the negative just in Memphis alone. Anything outside of that was just gravy." Car-chase movies became Reynolds's most profitable genre. At the end of 1973, Reynolds was voted into the list of the 10 most-popular movie actors in the US at number four. He stayed on that list until 1984.
He made a sports comedy with Robert Aldrich, The Longest Yard (1974), which was popular. Aldrich later said, "I think that on occasion, he's a much better actor than he's given credit for. Not always; sometimes he acts like a caricature of himself."
Reynolds starred in two big-budget fiascos: At Long Last Love (1975), a musical for Peter Bogdanovich, and Lucky Lady (1975), with Gene Hackman and Liza Minnelli. More popular was another light-hearted car-chase film, W.W. and the Dixie Dancekings (1975), and a police drama with Aldrich, Hustle (1975). He also had a cameo appearance in Mel Brooks's Silent Movie (1976).
Toward the end of his life, Reynolds revealed that he declined the role of Han Solo in Star Wars. Reynolds told Business Insider in 2016, "I just didn't want to play that kind of role at the time. ...Now I regret it. I wish I would have done it."
=== Directorial work ===
Reynolds made his directorial debut in 1976 with Gator, the sequel to White Lightning, written by Norton. "I waited 20 years to do it [directing] and I enjoyed it more than anything I've ever done in this business," he said after filming. "And I happen to think it's what I do best."
He was reunited with Bogdanovich for the comedy Nickelodeon (1976), which was a commercial disappointment. Aldrich later commented, "Bogdanovich can get him to do the telephone book! Anybody else has to persuade him to do something. He's fascinated by Bogdanovich. I can't understand it." He turned down the part of Clark Gable in Gable and Lombard.
=== Smokey and the Bandit and career peak ===
Reynolds had the biggest success of his career with the car-chase film Smokey and the Bandit (1977), directed by Hal Needham and co-starring Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, and Sally Field. He followed it with a comedy about football players, Semi-Tough (1977), featuring Jill Clayburgh and Kris Kristofferson, and produced by David Merrick. He directed his second film The End (1978), a dark comedy, playing a role originally written for Woody Allen. More popular was a comedy that he made with Needham and Field, Hooper (1978), in which he played an aging stunt man.
"My ability as an actor gets a little better every time," he said about this time. "I'm very prolific in the amount of films I make—two-and-a-half or three a year—and when I look at any picture I do now compared to Deliverance, it's miles above what I was doing then. But when you're doing films that are somewhat similar to each other, as I've been doing, people take it for granted."
For California Suite (1978), Reynolds declined a leading role, which went to Alan Alda. Reynolds said:
"I'd rather direct than act. I'd rather do that than anything. It's the second-best sensation I've ever had." He added that David Merrick had offered to produce two movies that Reynolds would direct without having to act in them.
Reynolds tried a change of pace with Starting Over (1979), a romantic comedy, co-starring Jill Clayburgh and Candice Bergen. The film is co-written and produced by James L. Brooks. Reynolds plays a jewel thief in Rough Cut (1980) produced by Merrick, who fired and rehired director Don Siegel during filming.
Reynolds had two huge successes with more car films directed by Needham: Smokey and the Bandit II (1980) and The Cannonball Run (1981). He starred in David Steinberg's film Paternity (1981) and directed himself in an action film, Sharky's Machine (1981).
Reynolds wanted to try a musical again, and agreed to do The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982). It was a box-office success, as was Best Friends (1982) with Goldie Hawn. In 1982, Reynolds was voted the most popular actor in the US for the fifth year in a row.
Around that time, he stated:
The only thing I really enjoy is this business, and I think my audience knows that. I've never been able to figure out exactly who that audience is. I know there have been a few pictures even my mother didn't go see, but there's always been an audience for them. I guess it is because they always know that I give it 100 percent, and good or bad, there's going to be quite a lot of me in that picture. That's what they're looking for. I don't have any pretensions about wanting to be Hamlet. I would just like to be the best Burt Reynolds around.
=== Career decline ===
James L. Brooks wrote the role of astronaut Garrett Breedlove in Terms of Endearment (1983) with Reynolds in mind. However, Reynolds refused the role, and instead starred in another car-chase comedy Stroker Ace (1983), directed by Needham. The Endearment part went to Jack Nicholson, who won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Reynolds said in 1987, "I felt I owed Hal more than I owed Jim," but Stroker Ace failed. Reynolds admitted that refusing the role was a mistake.
I regret that one most of all because it was a real acting part.... I wish I would have done it, and thinking back now, it was really a stupid decision, but I made a lot of stupid decisions in that period. It must have been my stupid period.
In 1983, an unnamed producer said that while Reynolds's salaries would not decrease because of Stroker Ace's failure, "if two or three more such pictures don't work, people will just stop putting him in that kind of movie and that's the kind of film for which he gets paid the most". Reynolds felt that it was a turning point in his career from which he never recovered. "That's where I lost them," he said of his fans.
For director Blake Edwards, Reynolds starred in The Man Who Loved Women (1983), a remake in English of François Truffaut's 1977 film L'Homme qui aimait les femmes, but it also failed. In an interview at about this time, he said:
Getting to the top has turned out to be a hell of a lot more fun than staying there. I've got Tom Selleck crawling up my back. I'm in my late 40s. I realize I have four or five more years where I can play certain kinds of parts and get away with it. That's why I'm leaning more and more toward directing and producing. I don't want to be stumbling around town doing Gabby Hayes parts a few years from now. I'd like to pick and choose and maybe go work for a perfume factory like Mr. Cary Grant, and look wonderful with everybody saying, 'Gee, I wish he hadn't retired'.
Cannonball Run II (1984), directed by Needham, brought in some money, but only half of the original. City Heat (1984), which teamed Reynolds and Clint Eastwood, was mildly popular, but was considered a major critical and box-office disappointment. Reynolds was injured badly during filming when he was hit in the jaw with a real chair instead of a breakaway prop, causing him excruciating chronic pain, as well as a sharp weight loss that resulted in rumors circulating for years that he had AIDS.
Reynolds returned to directing with Stick (1985), from an Elmore Leonard novel, but it was both a critical and commercial failure. So, too, were three other action movies that he made: Heat (1986), based on a novel by William Goldman, Malone (1987), and Rent-a-Cop (1987) with Liza Minnelli. He later said that he did Heat and Malone "because there were so many rumors about me [having AIDS]. I had to get out and be seen."
In 1987, Reynolds teamed with Bert Convy to co-produce the game show Win, Lose or Draw for their production company Burt and Bert Productions. The show was based on "sketch pad charades", a game that he often played with his friends in his living room in Jupiter. Vicki Lawrence hosted the daytime version for NBC, while Convy hosted the syndicated version until 1989, when he quit to host 3rd Degree, also created by Reynolds and Convy.
Reynolds starred in Switching Channels (1988), a remake of the comedy The Front Page. It was a box-office bomb. Even more poorly received was Physical Evidence (1989), directed by Michael Crichton. Reynolds received excellent reviews for the caper comedy Breaking In (1989), but the commercial reception was poor. The moderately successful animated film All Dogs Go to Heaven (1989), in which Reynolds voiced Charlie B. Barkin, was one of his few successes at the time.
"When I was doing very well," he said at the time, "I wasn't conscious I was doing very well, but I became very conscious when I wasn't doing very well. The atmosphere changed."
=== Return to TV: B.L. Stryker and Evening Shade ===
Reynolds returned to television with the detective series with B.L. Stryker (1989–90). It ran two seasons, during which time Reynolds played a supporting part in Modern Love (1990).
Reynolds starred in the situation comedy television series, Evening Shade (1990–94) as former Pittsburgh Steelers player Woodward "Wood" Newton. The series was a considerable success, with 98 episodes over four seasons. This role earned him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. Reynolds credited this role for his membership in Steeler Nation. During his tenure on Evening Shade, Reynolds played in other projects, starting with a cameo in The Player (1992) (playing himself complaining about people in Hollywood).
Reynolds starred in the crime film Cop and a Half (1993). On August 25, the Randy Travis television special Wind in the Wire first aired; Reynolds was among the guests. On October 15, CBS first broadcast the television movie The Man from Left Field, co-featuring Reba McEntire. Reynolds starred and directed.
=== Character actor ===
After Evening Shade ended in 1994, Reynolds played the lead in a horror movie, The Maddening (1995). He gradually became more of a character actor, though; he had major support roles in Citizen Ruth (1996), an early work from Alexander Payne, and Striptease (1996) with Demi Moore. Reynolds had to audition for Striptease. The movie's producer later said, "To be honest, we were not enthusiastic at first. There was the hair and his reputation, but we were curious... At the first audition, on the first day, Burt had to take off his toupee in front of six or seven people. It was tough for him, but he did it. It was a very, very humbling thing to do, but by the end of the audition, it was really clear that Burt was the guy." "I knew I could play him," said Reynolds. "I could make him likable and dangerous. There are very few people who can do that. I always played likable and dangerous. I had a persona. Unfortunately, my persona became bigger than my acting." Reynolds accepted a salary of $350,000; lower than what he had been paid earlier in his career." Reynolds got the role and earned some strong reviews for his performance, and the film was successful at the box office although it was panned by critics. Reynolds based his performance as Congressman Dilbeck on politicians he knew from his youth, as his father was a police chief and prominent local Republican.
Reynolds was a supporting actor in Frankenstein and Me (1996), Mad Dog Time (1996), The Cherokee Kid (1996), Meet Wally Sparks (1997) with Rodney Dangerfield, and Bean (1997) with Rowan Atkinson. He had the lead in Raven (1996), a straight-to-video action movie. About this time, he claimed he was depleted financially, having spent $13 million.
In 1996, Reynolds' agent said "Regarding Burt, there's a split between the executives in town who are under 40 and those who are over 40. The younger executives are more open to Burt because they grew up loving Deliverance. But the older executives remember how crazy he was, and they are less receptive." He also hosted segments for the Encore Action premium cable network during the late 1990s and 2000s.
=== Boogie Nights and career revival ===
Reynolds played a porn film director in the successful film Boogie Nights (1997), which was considered a comeback role for him. He received 12 acting awards and three nominations for the role, including a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Reynolds' first and only nomination for the award. Despite the acclaim, Reynolds disliked working on the film, particularly not getting along with writer-director Paul Thomas Anderson, and reportedly dismissed his agent for recommending it. Boogie Nights co-star William H. Macy stated in an interview that Reynolds was clueless about the film and had become out of touch with the film industry due to his age.
Reynolds was offered a role in Anderson's third film, Magnolia (1999), but he declined it. In 2012, he clarified he did not hate Boogie Nights itself and called it "extraordinary", saying his opinion of the film has nothing to do with his relationship with Anderson. In his second autobiography, But Enough About Me (2015), Reynolds attempted to come to terms with his difficult nature. In a 2015 GQ interview, he said that his problem with Anderson was a matter of their differing personalities:
I think mostly because he was young and full of himself. Every shot we did, it was like the first time [that shot had ever been done]. I remember the first shot we did in Boogie Nights, where I drive the car to Grauman's Theater. After he said, "Isn't that amazing?" And I named five pictures that had the same kind of shot. It wasn't original. But if you have to steal, steal from the best.
Despite his Oscar nomination for Boogie Nights and a new appreciation of his acting talent by movie critics, Reynolds failed to return to the A list; while work was plentiful, prestige projects were lacking.
He had the lead in Big City Blues (1997) and supporting roles in Universal Soldier II: Brothers in Arms (1998) and Universal Soldier III: Unfinished Business (1998).
Reynolds returned to directing with Hard Time (1998), an action TV movie featuring himself. It resulted in two sequels, which he did not direct, Hard Time: The Premonition (1999) and Hard Time: Hostage Hotel (1999) (the latter directed by Hal Needham).
He featured in the straight-to-video The Hunter's Moon (1999), Stringer (1999), and Waterproof (2000). He played supporting roles in Pups (1999) and Mystery, Alaska (1999), and had the lead in The Crew (2000) alongside Richard Dreyfuss.
Reynolds directed The Last Producer (2000), featuring himself, and was second-billed in Renny Harlin's Driven (2001), featuring Sylvester Stallone. He was also in Tempted (2001), Hotel (2001) (directed by Mike Figgis), and The Hollywood Sign (2001).
He voiced Avery Carrington in Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, released in 2002.
Reynolds was top-billed in Snapshots with Julie Christie, an $11 million Anglo-Dutch-American picture that failed to find a wide release. He also featured in Time of the Wolf (2002) and Hard Ground (2003), and had supporting roles in Johnson County War (2002) with Tom Berenger, and Miss Lettie and Me (2003) with Mary Tyler Moore.
He was in a series of supporting roles that referred to earlier performances: Without a Paddle (2004), a riff on his role in Deliverance, The Longest Yard (2005), a remake of his 1974 success with Adam Sandler playing Reynolds' old role (while Reynolds played the Michael Conrad part from the original); and The Dukes of Hazzard (2005) as Boss Hogg as a reference to his performances in 1970s car-chase movies.
Reynolds continued to play lead roles in movies such as Cloud 9 (2006), Forget About It (2006), Deal (2008), and A Bunch of Amateurs (2008), and supporting parts in End Game (2006), Grilled (2006), Broken Bridges (2006), In the Name of the King (2007), Not Another Not Another Movie (2011), and Reel Love (2011).
He had a guest role in an episode of Burn Notice, "Past and Future Tense" (2010). Reynolds voiced himself as the mayor of Steelport in Saints Row: The Third, released in 2011. Players can recruit Reynolds as a "homie", depending on their in-game choices. Reynolds also voiced himself in the animated series Archer, in the episode "The Man from Jupiter" (2012). The character of Sterling Archer was largely inspired by Burt Reynolds.
He was top billed in Category 5 (2014) and Elbow Grease (2016) and could be seen in key roles in Pocket Listing (2016), and Hollow Creek (2015). He returned to a regular role on TV in Hitting the Breaks (2016), but it only ran for 10 episodes. He was in Apple of My Eye (2016) and took the lead in The Last Movie Star (2017).
In May 2018, Reynolds joined the cast of Quentin Tarantino's movie Once Upon a Time in Hollywood as George Spahn (an 80-year-old blind man who rented out his ranch to Charles Manson), but he died before filming his scenes and was replaced by Bruce Dern.
=== Posthumous releases ===
Reynolds appeared posthumously in the 2020 movie Defining Moments, which includes his final performance.
=== Other ventures ===
Reynolds was credited as the author of a 1972 mass-market paperback book Hot Line: The Letters I Get...And Write! that featured seminude "beefcake" photos of the actor, playing up his image as a male sex symbol. He also published two autobiographies, My Life in 1994 and But Enough About Me in 2015.
Reynolds co-authored the 1997 children's book, Barkley Unleashed: A Pirate's Tail, a "whimsical tale [that] illustrates the importance of perseverance, the wonders of friendship and the power of imagination".
In 1973, Reynolds released the country/easy listening album Ask Me What I Am. He also sang in two movie musicals: At Long Last Love (1975) and The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982).
== Personal life ==
Reynolds in college "was so good-looking, I used him as bait," college roommate Lee Corso recalled. "He'd walk across campus and bring back two girls, one beautiful and one ugly; I got the ugly girl. His ugly girlfriends were better than anyone I could get on my own."
=== Marriages and long-term relationships ===
Reynolds was married to English actress Judy Carne from 1963 to 1965. He lived with actress Miko Mayama from 1968 to 1971. American singer-actress Dinah Shore (20 years his senior) and he were in a relationship from early 1971 until 1975. In the mid-1970s, Reynolds briefly dated singer Tammy Wynette.
He had a relationship from 1976 to 1980 (then off-and-on until 1982) with American actress Sally Field, during which time they appeared together in four films. In 2016, he regarded Field as the love of his life.
Reynolds was married to American actress Loni Anderson from 1988 to 1994. They had an adopted son, Quinton. Anderson and he separated after he became infatuated with a cocktail waitress, Pam Seals, with whom he later traded lawsuits, which were settled out of court.
=== Business endeavors ===
==== Professional sports ====
A lifelong fan of American football, he once told Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show he would rather have played in the NFL than win an Oscar. Reynolds was a minority owner of the Tampa Bay Bandits of the USFL from 1982 to 1986. The team's name was inspired by the Smokey and the Bandit trilogy and Skoal Bandit, a primary sponsor for the team as a result of also sponsoring Reynolds' motor-racing team.
Reynolds co-owned a NASCAR Winston Cup Series team, Mach 1 Racing, with Hal Needham, which ran the No. 33 Skoal Bandit car with driver Harry Gant.
==== Restaurants and dinner theater ====
During the late 1970s, Reynolds opened Burt's Place, a nightclub restaurant in the Omni International Complex in Atlanta in the Hotel District of downtown Atlanta. The establishment closed after a year. ("Burt's Place" also was the name of a building that was part of the guesthouse complex at Reynolds' Tequesta, Florida, estate in Palm Beach County, Florida.)
He also owned the Burt Reynolds Dinner Theatre in Jupiter, Florida, with an emphasis on training young performers trying to enter show business. The theater opened in 1979 and was later renamed the Burt Reynolds Jupiter Theater. Reynolds operated it until 1989 and leased it until 1996. It had a series of ownership changes until becoming the Maltz Jupiter Theatre in 2004.
In 1984, he opened a restaurant in Fort Lauderdale, named Burt & Jacks, which he co-owned with Jack Jackson. The restaurant was defunct at the time of his death.
Partnering with Killen Music Group owner Buddy Killen, Reynolds invested in Po' Folks, a chain of country-cooking, family-style restaurants located in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. The chain, which was named after a Bill Anderson song, along with subsequent Killen-Reynolds investment in another Southern restaurant chain, failed.
=== Personal bankruptcy ===
During the height of his movie career, Reynolds made as much as $10 million a year (roughly equivalent to $48,200,000 in 2024), but he proved to be a poor businessman. Along with music industry executive Buddy Killen, who produced his 1973 country and western/easy listening album Ask Me What I Am, Reynolds invested in Po' Folks, a Southern regional restaurant chain named after a Bill Anderson song. As Po' Folks failed, Reynolds and Killen invested in another regional chain, Daisy's Diner, which also failed. Reynolds had invested the capital as an individual, not as a corporate investment, and was responsible personally for the liabilities when Po' Folks and the Daisy's Diner failed. In all, his investments in the restaurant industry resulted in losses of $20 million.
Reynolds suffered a steep decrease of his career earnings after the cancellation of Evening Shade, as his popularity waned due to bad publicity from his divorce from Loni Anderson, which became tabloid fodder. His decrease of earnings as an actor plus the great expense of his divorce settlement, child support, and alimony payments to Anderson caused a cash depletion by the mid-1990s.
CBS, the network that produced Evening Shade and managed the program's syndication, sued him for failing to repay a $3.7 million loan in 1996. Subsequently, he filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, due in part to an extravagant lifestyle, a divorce from Anderson, and failed investments in restaurant chains. Reynolds emerged from bankruptcy two years later. During his bankruptcy proceedings, Reynolds listed $6.65 million in assets against debts totaling $11.2 million.
On August 16, 2011, Merrill Lynch Credit Corporation filed foreclosure papers, claiming Reynolds owed US$1.2 million on his home in Hobe Sound, Florida.
Until its sale during bankruptcy, he owned the Burt Reynolds Ranch, where scenes for Smokey and the Bandit were filmed and which once had a petting zoo. In April 2014, the 153-acre (62 ha) rural property was rezoned for residential use and the Palm Beach County school system was empowered to sell it, which it did to residential developer K. Hovnanian Homes.
=== Health problems ===
Reynolds suffered from hypoglycemia, which he discussed publicly on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. During his numerous appearances on The Tonight Show, Reynolds also told Johnny Carson that he suffered from anxiety.
The Stuntmen's Association of Motion Pictures awarded the Richard "Diamond" Farnsworth Award to Reynolds in 2015. Richard Farnsworth was a stunt man who made the transition into a successful acting career. Having performed stunts early during his career, the debilitating health problems of an aging stunt man was central to the storyline of Reynolds' 1978 movie Hooper, which is subtitled on the poster "The Greatest Stuntman Alive." Reynolds, who said he was a card-carrying member of the stunt performers guild, often performed his own stunts in movies, such as the fall over the waterfall in Deliverance, where he injured his coccyx. He also had to be operated on for a hernia that resulted from a fight scene in The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing.
His worst on-set injury occurred while filming City Heat in 1984; Reynolds was struck in the face with a metal chair on the first day of filming, which resulted in temporomandibular joint dysfunction. He was restricted to a liquid diet and lost 30 pounds from not eating. The painkillers he was prescribed resulted in addiction, which lasted several years.
He underwent back surgery in 2009 and a quintuple coronary artery bypass surgery in February 2010.
== Death and tributes ==
Reynolds died of a heart attack at the Jupiter Medical Center in Jupiter, Florida, on September 6, 2018, at the age of 82. His ex-wife Loni Anderson and their son Quinton held a private memorial service for Reynolds at a funeral home in North Palm Beach, Florida, on September 20. Those in attendance included Sally Field, FSU coach Bobby Bowden, friend Lee Corso, and quarterback Doug Flutie. Reynolds' body was cremated and his ashes were given to his niece, Nancy Lee Brown Hess. He was subsequently interred at Hollywood Forever Cemetery on February 11, 2021. In September of that year, a bronze bust of Reynolds was placed at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery.
On the day of Reynolds' death, Antenna TV, which broadcasts The Tonight Show nightly, broadcast an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from February 11, 1982, featuring an interview and a This Is Your Life-style skit with Reynolds. The local media in Atlanta and elsewhere in the state noted on their television news programs that evening that he was the first to make major movies in Georgia, all of which were successful, which helped make the state one of the top filming locations in the country. The Florida State football team honored Reynolds with helmet decals reading "BAN ONE", in the design and style of the license plate of the Trans Am from Smokey and the Bandit, plus Reynolds' signature, worn for the rest of the 2018 season. His niece, Nancy Lee Hess, produced a 2020 biography and documentary about Reynolds titled I Am Burt Reynolds.
== Legacy and appraisal ==
During the height of his career, Reynolds was considered a male sex symbol and icon of American masculinity. Stephen Dalton wrote in The Hollywood Reporter that Reynolds "always seemed to embody an uncomplicated, undiluted, effortlessly likable strain of American masculinity that was driven much more by sunny mischief than angsty machismo." Reynolds's roles were often defined by his larger-than-life physicality and masculinity, contrasted with juvenile but self-aware humor. Though he was not considered a serious dramatic actor during his heyday, his later career was defined by performances that often referenced his own reputation, creating what Dalton called "sophisticated, soulful performances".
Michael Chiklis has credited Reynolds for rescuing his acting career when Reynolds hired him for a role in B.L. Stryker after Chiklis was "blackballed" for his involvement in portraying John Belushi in the movie Wired (1989). Chiklis said that Reynolds knew what Chiklis was going through because he "grew up during the McCarthy era and didn't believe in blackballing."
== Accolades ==
Reynolds was nominated twice for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series in 1991 and 1992 for Evening Shade, winning in 1991 and losing to Craig T. Nelson in Coach the next year.
He was nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Oscar in 1998, losing out to Robin Williams in Good Will Hunting.
Reynolds won Golden Globe Awards for Best Actor in a Television Series-Musical or Comedy for Evening Shade in 1992, and as Best Supporting Actor in Boogie Nights in 1998. He also was nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Actor in a Television Series-Drama for Dan August in 1971, as Best Actor in a Motion Picture-Musical or Comedy for The Longest Yard in 1975 and as Best Actor in a Motion Picture-Musical/Comedy for Starting Over in 1980. He also received Best Actor in a TV series nominations for Evening Shade in 1991 and 1993.
Reynolds won four People's Choice Awards, as Favorite Motion Picture Actor and Favorite All-Around Male in 1983, as Favorite Motion Picture Actor (tied with Clint Eastwood) in 1984, and as Favorite Male Performer in a New TV Series in 1991.
In 2015, the Stuntmen's Association of Motion Pictures awarded Reynolds the Richard "Diamond" Farnsworth Award, named after Richard Farnsworth, the career stunt man who made the transition into a successful acting career.
He was awarded an honorary doctorate from Florida State University in 1981 and later endorsed the construction of a new performing arts facility in Sarasota, Florida.
There is a Burt Reynolds Park in Jupiter, Florida, maintained by Palm Beach County.
== Filmography ==
== Bibliography ==
== Discography ==
Ask Me What I Am (1973)
=== Singles ===
== See also ==
Sasha Gabor, adult film star who was a lookalike of Burt Reynolds (as well as of Sean Connery), portraying him (respectively both) in numerous pornographic parody films, including Tracey and the Bandit (1987) and Boogie Knights (1998). (Gabor's first credited acting gig was in a non-pornographic role, playing the character "Burt Reynolds" in the Harper Valley PTA episode "Svengali of the Valley" during Season 2 of the TV series in 1982.)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Anderson, Loni. (1997) My Life in High Heels. Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-72854-1
Field, Sally (2018). In Pieces. New York City: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-6302-5.
"Show Business: Frog Prince". Time (August 21, 1972).
Zeman, Ned (December 2015). "Burt Reynolds Isn't Broke, but He's Got a Few Regrets". Vanity Fair. Interview and photographs.
== External links ==
Burt Reynolds at IMDb
Burt Reynolds at the TCM Movie Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimchi_temples | Krimchi temples | Krimchi temples is a complex of seven ancient Hindu temples in the Udhampur District of the Jammu Division in Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is located on bank of a stream Birunala in village Krimachi, 12 km from Udhampur. This group of temples is locally known as the Pandava Temples.
== History ==
According to the Archaeological Survey of India these temples were constructed during 8 to 9 century AD. The temples were constructed in stages. It appears that temples No. 6 and 7 were damaged several centuries ago.
Local belief holds that they go back to the protagonists of the Mahabharata War, or a late Pandava dynasty that ruled in Jammu and Kashmir (speculated by Alexander Cunningham). According to legendary accounts, Raja Kichak was said to be creator of the town Krimchi and the kingdom. It is also said pandavas in exile remained there for a long period. As the temples were built in 8th century, these temple complex reflect the profoundness of Indo-Greek architecture.
== Complex ==
The complex consists of four large and three small temples. The main temple is 50 feet tall and is dedicated to Hindu deities including Shiva, Ganesha, Vishnu and Parvati. The architecture resembles classical Kashmiri temples of India.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Krimchi Mansar Temple - Ancient Pandav Mandir - Udhampur Jammu - North India". YouTube. 15 March 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ey%C3%BE%C3%B3r_Ing%C3%B3lfsson_Melste%C3%B0 | Eyþór Ingólfsson Melsteð | Eyþór Ingólfsson Melsteð (transliterated as Eythor Ingolfsson Melsted in English, born 16 February 1994) is an Icelandic professional strongman from Reykjavík and a multiple entrant to the World's Strongest Man competition.
== Career ==
Eyþór began his sporting career as an amateur bodybuilder. Upon realizing his strength, and coached by World's Strongest Man athlete Stefán Sölvi Pétursson he decided to try strongman following the traditional Icelandic strength roots.
In his 2018 strongman debut, Eyþór managed to emerge runner-up behind Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson in the Iceland's Strongest Man competition, which paved the way for him to enter the international strongman circuit. In 2019 he made his international debut at the Strongman Champions League Norway, and proceeded to qualify for the World's Strongest Man finals on two consecutive occasions in 2021 and 2022. He also secured podium finishes in both the 2021 and 2022 Magnús Ver Magnússon Strongman Classic, the 2020 Pasaulio Taurė, and was a finalist at the World's Ultimate Strongman, Rogue Invitational and Europe's Strongest Man competitions.
In the National circuit, Eyþór is a two-time winner of the Strongest Man in Iceland competition, winner of the 2020 Iceland's Strongest Viking competition and a three-time runner-up of the main national title, Iceland's Strongest Man. His personal best log press of 190 kg (419 lb) is the 4th heaviest by an Icelander, only behind Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson, Sigfús Fossdal and Benedikt Magnússon.
== Personal life ==
Eyþór is married to Ásrún Ösp Vilmundardóttir, an Icelandic IFBB professional women's figure competitor. Together they have a daughter, and they reside in Reykjavík.
== Personal records ==
Deadlift (raw) – 380 kg (838 lb) (in training)
Squat (raw) – 350 kg (772 lb) (in training)
Log press – 185 kg (408 lb) (2021 World's Strongest Man, and 2022 Europe's Strongest Man)
→ Eyþór has also pressed 190 kg (419 lb) in training
Flintstone barbell push press (behind the neck) – 190 kg (419 lb) (2022 World's Strongest Man)
Stone press – 138 kg (304 lb) (2022 Magnús Ver Magnússon Strongman Classic)
Húsafell Stone carry (around the pen) – 186 kg (410 lb) for 48.90 metres (160 ft 5 in) (around 1.4 revolutions) (2022 Magnús Ver Magnússon Classic)
→ Eyþór has also carried the stone in the linear path for 70.26 metres (230 ft 6 in) during 2020 Iceland's Strongest Man
Inver Stones – 5 Stones weighing 125–191 kg (276–421 lb) in 66.43 seconds (2022 Rogue Invitational)
Keg toss – 15 kg (33 lb) over 6.75 metres (22 ft 2 in) (2021 World's Strongest Man)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArcTanGent_Festival | ArcTanGent Festival | ArcTanGent Festival (also known as ATG) is a three-day British rock festival held annually at Fernhill Farm in Somerset, England since 2013. It is the most popular British summer festival for math rock, post rock, progressive metal and experimental music. The festival is named after the Earthtone9 album arc'tan'gent (2000).
Previous performers include Heilung, Mogwai, Meshuggah, Devin Townsend, Explosions in the Sky, Coheed & Cambria, Opeth, Glassjaw, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, Sleep Token, Polyphia, Converge, Karnivool, Animals As Leaders, Shellac, American football, TesseracT, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Russian Circles, Wardruna, Electric Wizard, Carpenter Brut, Igorrr, Alcest, Cult of Luna, Battles, Public Service Broadcasting, Empire State Bastard, Deafheaven, And So I Watch You from Afar, 65daysofstatic and Fuck Buttons.
The festival features five stages, silent disco after the live performances have finished, a selection of bars and food vendors, and weekend camping and VIP options.
== 2013 ==
The 2013 edition of the festival was the first to be held. It has since returned annually, albeit now one week earlier each year.
The Yohkai stage was curated by Damnation Festival on the Friday.
== 2014 ==
The PX3 stage was relocated from the campsite to the main arena for the 2014 edition and every year since.
== 2015 ==
Where the 2013–14 editions were held on the last weekend in August, the 2015 edition moved a week earlier in August where it has remained since.
The 2015 edition was the first time the PX3 stage hosted performances on all three days of the festival, with the Thursday PX3 program curated by BBC Introducing. This edition of the festival also included a Sargent House takeover, with several of their artists performing including Deafheaven, Emma Ruth Rundle, Marriages, Helms Alee and Mylets.
Cult of Luna were originally scheduled to perform on the Arc stage before Deafheaven, however they instead headlined the Yohkai stage after flight delays.
== 2016 ==
The Bixler stage was relocated from the campsite to the main arena for the 2016 edition and every year since. All four stages are now situated in the main arena.
Cleft performed their final ever show at the 2016 edition of the festival. The set was recorded and the movie posthumously screened across seven UK shows in December 2018 as part of One More Tour: In Memory of Dan Wild-Beesley.
== 2017 ==
== 2018 ==
The 2018 event was the first year in which the Arc stage featured bands performing on all three days.
The Thursday Yohkai and PX3 lineups were curated in part by Big Scary Monsters vs Holy Roar respectively.
Gallops were the first band to play a live set as part of the silent disco, performing fully electric on the Thursday night.
Chiyoda Ku replaced Mugstar on the Yohkai stage. Jo Quail joined Takaakira 'Taka' Goto for the Behind The Shadow Drops performance.
The festival marked Giraffes? Giraffes! first ever performance outside of North America since their formation in 2001.
== 2019 ==
On 6 September 2018 Meshuggah was announced as the first headliner.
The 2019 event featured an expanded site footprint and an additional campsite, albeit the layout remained largely unchanged. There was also the introduction of the Bar Stage, located in the centre of the site.
Friday night once again featured live sets as part of the silent disco, including The Algorithm and GosT. There were also silent disco sets from John Stanier and Effigy across the weekend.
The main stage was opened by The Beft; a Tribute to Dan Wild-Beesley of Cleft and featured guest musicians including Mike Vennart. Black Peaks set featured Jamie Lenman on vocals due to the absence of the band's singer Will Gardner. And So I Watch You From Afar performed their debut album in full for an unannounced special guest slot on the Arc stage.
== 2020–21 cancellations due to COVID-19 ==
On 5 May 2020, ArcTanGent was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 21 May 2021, ArcTanGent was cancelled again due to the COVID-19 pandemic, citing the lack of a government insurance scheme to cover COVID-19-related cancellations of music festivals (especially due to increasing spread of Lineage B.1.617 in the UK amid its lifting of restrictions).
== 2022 ==
ArcTanGent returned after two years of cancellations, with the festival taking place over 16–20 August 2022. The headliners were Cult of Luna, TesseracT and Opeth. The site had a new layout, with the Elephant in the Bar Room stage significantly larger than 2019, which hosted the Wednesday night line-up curated by Effigy, followed by a full line-up across all five stages across the weekend:
== 2023 ==
ArcTanGent 2023 was headlined by Converge, Heilung and Devin Townsend, and took place on 16–19 August 2023. Deafheaven's set was playing their 2013 album Sunbather in full. The Ocean also performed a surprise Silent Disco set. The full line-up was:
== 2024 ==
On November 6, 2023, ArcTanGent announced the first wave of bands for the 2024 festival, their 10th birthday bash. The festival is scheduled to take place 14–17 August 2024, featuring a final farewell show from Three Trapped Tigers and a Wednesday headlining set voted for by fans from And So I Watch You From Afar. On November 16, ATG announced Meshuggah as the Friday night headliner, alongside Animals as Leaders. On January 25, ATG announced "pretty much ALL the bands for ATG #10", adding another 50+ bands to the lineup including the Thursday headliner Explosions in the Sky and Saturday's headliner Mogwai. On February 27, the organisers announced the final 23 bands for this year's lineup.
On April 19, the festival released the stage times and clashfinder for this year's lineup. Clown Core was originally scheduled to play on the Thursday but had to drop out due to health issues, and were replaced with Spiritualized.
== 2025 ==
The 2025 festival was headlined by Godspeed You! Black Emperor, Karnivool, TesseracT and Wardruna. The Wednesday lineup was expanded from previous years with bands playing across two stages, with Wardruna headlining on the main stage, while the festival's fifth stage Elephant was nixed this year. Ithaca played their final ever show at ArcTanGent, while Maybeshewill and Rolo Tomassi's sets both celebrated their 20th anniversary as bands. Both Between the Buried and Me and We Lost the Sea played two sets on separate days, one playing an album in full (Colors and Departure Songs, respectively) and one of other material. Anciients were originally announced for the festival but later dropped out, replaced by Dimscûa.
== 2026 ==
The 2026 festival is scheduled for 19–22 August 2026.
== Awards ==
During 2013–2014, the festival was shortlisted for several awards including, Best New Festival, Best Grassroots Festival and Best Small Festival at the UK Festival Awards as well as Best Independent Music Festival at the AIM Awards.
In 2013, the festival won the award for Best Toilets at the UK Festival Awards. In 2016, the festival was shortlisted for Best Headline Performance of the Year for American football and Line Up of the Year at the UK Festival Awards. In 2018, the festival won the award for Best Small Festival at the UK Festival Awards.
== Annual warm-up ==
The festival has hosted an official annual warm-up party each year in Bristol, England in collaboration with promoters Effigy, ForFans ofBands and ArtScare. The event takes place in May each year and has featured mainstays and favourites of the festival including Gallops, The Physics House Band, Cleft, Talons, Toska, Alpha Male Tea Party, Memory of Elephants, Chiyoda Ku, Sœur and Jo Quail
== References ==
== External links ==
ArcTanGent official site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Monsters#Season_4_(2012) | River Monsters | River Monsters is a British wildlife documentary television series produced for Animal Planet by Icon Films of Bristol, United Kingdom. It is hosted by angler and biologist Jeremy Wade, who travels around the globe in search of large and dangerous fish.
River Monsters premiered on ITV in Great Britain and became one of the most-watched programmes in Animal Planet's history. It is also one of the most-viewed series on Discovery Channel in the American market.
== Overview ==
River Monsters follows the worldwide adventures of Suffolk-born British host, biologist, adventurer and extreme angler Jeremy Wade. He explores rivers and lakes to uncover the creatures behind local folklore and harrowing tales of monster fish. The show has taken viewers to
England, Scotland, Cambodia, Canada, Germany, Spain, Colombia, Bolivia, Iceland, Norway, Greenland, Argentina, Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, India, Japan, France, Russia, Suriname, Brazil, Guyana, The Solomon Islands, Indonesia, Zambia, Malaysia, Nepal, The Bahamas, The Cayman Islands, Mexico, Peru, Uganda, South Africa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nicaragua, Mongolia, Ukraine, Botswana, and the U.S. states of Alaska, Florida, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, Washington, Illinois, Oregon, and Vermont.
In the first season, Wade's weekly quest had him in search of piranha, goonch catfish (during his investigation of the Kali River goonch attacks), alligator gar, wels catfish, arapaima, piraíba, and the bull shark. All of them are potentially deadly creatures poorly understood by humans. The show also focuses on explaining the creatures' feeding habits, behaviour and conservation status. Rebroadcasts of the episodes with captions showing behind the scenes commentary from the host about the particular episode can also be seen on both Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. These episodes are going by the title River Monsters: Unhooked.
The second season of River Monsters began airing on 24 April 2010, although the first episode, titled "Demon Fish" first appeared on Discovery Channel on 28 March 2010. This season consisted of 7 episodes and took viewers to the River Congo and other distant locations. In the episode "Death Ray," Wade caught a pregnant giant freshwater stingray, the largest fish he ever landed. She later gave birth to two pups while being examined by Wade and a team of biologists. This season featured the white sturgeon, Wade's second largest catch.
The ninth season of River Monsters was announced as the final season.
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2009) ===
=== Season 2 (2010) ===
=== Season 3 (2011) ===
=== Season 4 (2012) ===
=== Season 5 (2013) ===
=== Season 6 (2014) ===
=== Season 7 (2015) ===
=== Season 8 (2016) ===
Promoted as a special season under the title River Monsters: Mysteries of the Ocean, this season sees Jeremy Wade shift his focus from freshwater to oceanic fish.
=== Season 9 (2017) ===
This season was dubbed "the final season", as it is the last season of River Monsters.
=== Season 10 (2017) ===
This season only had one episode, "Jeremy's Monster Story".
== Additional episodes: The Lost Reels ==
== Ratings ==
River Monsters had the best series premiere in Animal Planet's network history by delivering 1.3 million viewers. It was also its most watched regularly airing primetime telecast in over six years. The second episode of Animal Planet's River Monsters delivered a 39% boost in total viewers (1.866 million) compared to the series premiere. Those numbers made it the best performing regularly scheduled primetime telecast in Animal Planet's history. The first season of River Monsters made it the best performing show in Animal Planet's history with every episode averaging over 1 million households. The season finale delivered about 1.47 million households.
The second season premiere episode became the network's best season premiere ever. It drew in 1.7 million total viewers.
== See also ==
Kali River goonch attacks
Fish Warrior
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Review of River Monsters, Leicester Mercury Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
River Monsters at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bonham | John Bonham | John Henry Bonham (31 May 1948 – 25 September 1980) was an English musician who was the drummer of the rock band Led Zeppelin. Noted for his speed, power, fast single-footed kick drumming, distinctive sound, and feel for groove, he is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential drummers in history.
Bonham was born in 1948 in Redditch, Worcestershire, and took up drums at age 5, receiving a snare drum at age 10 and a full drum set at age 15. He played with multiple local bands both at school and following school, eventually playing in two different bands with Robert Plant. Following the demise of the Yardbirds in 1968, Bonham joined Plant, guitarist Jimmy Page and bass guitarist John Paul Jones to form Led Zeppelin.
Bonham showcased a hard-hitting hard rock style, but also handled funk and Latin-influenced grooves in later Led Zeppelin releases. Like Keith Moon of the Who, Bonham's drum set grew in size following the band's 1969 concert tours, including congas or timpani and a gong. His drum solo "Moby Dick" was featured on the group's second album and was a staple of their concerts, often lasting just over 20 minutes. Outside of Led Zeppelin, Bonham played drums for other artists, including the Family Dogg, Screaming Lord Sutch, Lulu, Jimmy Stevens and Wings. Bonham played with Led Zeppelin until his sudden death at age 32, in September 1980 following a day of heavy drinking. The surviving members disbanded the group out of respect for Bonham.
A mostly self-taught drummer, Bonham was influenced by Max Roach, Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich. While he was primarily known for his hard-rock style during his lifetime, his reputation as a drummer has grown beyond that genre following his death. He has influenced various drummers, including Dave Grohl, Neil Peart, Chad Smith and Dave Lombardo. He was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 as a member of Led Zeppelin. In 2016, Rolling Stone named him the greatest drummer of all time.
== Early life ==
John Henry Bonham was born on 31 May 1948, in Redditch, Worcestershire, England, to Joan and Jack Bonham. He began learning to play drums at age five, making a kit of containers and coffee tins, imitating his idols Max Roach, Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich. His mother gave him a snare drum when he was 10. He received his first drum kit, a Premier Percussion set, from his father at age 15. Bonham never took formal drum lessons, although he received advice from other Redditch drummers. While at school, between 1962 and 1963, Bonham joined the Blue Star Trio and Gerry Levene & the Avengers.
Bonham attended Lodge Farm Secondary Modern School, where his headmaster wrote in his report that he would "either end up a dustman or a millionaire." After leaving school in 1964, he worked for his father as an apprentice carpenter between drumming for local bands. In 1964, Bonham joined his first semi-professional band, Terry Webb and the Spiders, and met his future wife, Pat Phillips, around the same time. He played in other Birmingham bands such as The Nicky James Movement and The Senators, with whom he made a single, "She's a Mod", in 1964, at Hollick and Taylor Studios in Birmingham. Bonham took up drumming full-time. Two years later, he joined A Way of Life. After the band's demise, Bonham joined a blues group called Crawling King Snakes, whose lead singer was Robert Plant.
In 1967, Bonham agreed to return to A Way of Life while keeping in touch with Plant. Plant formed Band of Joy and chose Bonham as the drummer. The band recorded demos but no album. In 1968, American singer Tim Rose toured Britain and asked Band of Joy to open his concerts. When Rose returned months later, Bonham joined Rose's band. Bonham may have played on the April 1968 recording of Donovan's "Hurdy Gurdy Man" although this is disputed.
== Career ==
=== Led Zeppelin ===
After the breakup of the Yardbirds in July 1968, guitarist Jimmy Page formed another band and recruited Plant, who in turn suggested Bonham. Page's choices for drummer included Procol Harum's B. J. Wilson and Paul Francis. However, on seeing Bonham drum for Tim Rose at a club in Hampstead, north London, in July 1968, Page and manager Peter Grant were convinced he was perfect for the project, first known as the New Yardbirds and later as Led Zeppelin. Bonham was initially reluctant. Plant sent eight telegrams to Bonham's pub, the "Three Men in a Boat", in Walsall, which were followed by 40 telegrams from Grant. Bonham was also receiving more lucrative offers from Joe Cocker and Chris Farlowe but he accepted Grant's offer. He recalled, "I decided I liked their music better than Cocker's or Farlowe's."
During Led Zeppelin's first tour of the United States in December 1968, Bonham became friends with Vanilla Fudge's drummer, Carmine Appice. Appice introduced him to Ludwig drums, which he then used for the rest of his career. His hard hitting was evident on many Led Zeppelin songs, including "Moby Dick" (Led Zeppelin II), "Immigrant Song" (Led Zeppelin III), "When the Levee Breaks" (Led Zeppelin IV), "Kashmir" (Physical Graffiti), "The Ocean" (Houses of the Holy), and "Achilles Last Stand" (Presence). Page let Bonham use a double bass drum in an early demo of "Communication Breakdown" but scratched the track because of Bonham's "over-use" of it. The studio recording of "Misty Mountain Hop" captures his dynamics, similarly exhibited on "No Quarter". On cuts from later albums, Bonham handled funk and Latin-influenced drumming. Songs like "Royal Orleans" and "Fool in the Rain" are examples, respectively displaying a New Orleans shuffle and a half-time shuffle.
His drum solo, first entitled "Pat's Delight", later "Moby Dick", often lasted 20 minutes. In some sections, he used his bare hands on his drums to imitate the sound of a phased hand drum. Bonham's sequence for the film The Song Remains the Same featured him in a drag race at Santa Pod Raceway to the sound of his solo, "Moby Dick". In Led Zeppelin tours after 1969, Bonham included congas, orchestral timpani and a symphonic gong.
=== Other projects ===
In 1969, Bonham appeared on The Family Dogg's A Way of Life, with Page and Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones. Bonham also played for Screaming Lord Sutch on Lord Sutch and Heavy Friends in 1970. He played on Lulu's 1971 single "Everybody Clap", written by Maurice Gibb and Billy Lawrie. In 1972, he played on a Maurice Gibb-produced album by Jimmy Stevens called Don't Freak Me Out in the UK and Paid My Dues in the US, credited as "Gemini" (his star sign). He drummed for his Birmingham friend, Roy Wood, on "Keep Your Hands on the Wheel", a single subsequently released on his 1979 album, On the Road Again, and on Wings' album Back to the Egg on the tracks "Rockestra Theme" and "So Glad to See You Here". He was also featured on Paul McCartney & Wings' "Beware My Love" demo version first recorded in 1975; it remained unreleased until 2014 with the release of the album Wings at the Speed of Sound boxset. Bonham was the best man of Black Sabbath's Tony Iommi at his wedding ceremony.
In 1974, Bonham appeared in the film Son of Dracula, playing drums in Count Downe's (Harry Nilsson) band. Bonham appeared in a drum line-up including Keith Moon and Ringo Starr on the soundtrack album.
== Personal life ==
Bonham had a younger brother, Mick Bonham (1950–2000), a disc jockey, author and photographer, and a younger sister, Deborah Bonham (born 1962), a singer-songwriter. Bonham's mother, Joan, died aged 85–86 on 10 February 2011. She sang for the Zimmers, a 40-member band set up as a result of a BBC documentary on the treatment of the elderly.
Bonham was married to Pat Phillips, and the couple had two children. Zoë Bonham (born 10 June 1975) is a singer-songwriter who appears at Led Zeppelin conventions. Jason Bonham (born 15 July 1966) is a drummer who has recorded or toured with Sammy Hagar and the Circle, Black Country Communion, UFO, Foreigner, and Bonham. A 1973 film clip of seven-year-old Jason playing drums appears in the Led Zeppelin film The Song Remains the Same. Jason played with Led Zeppelin at their Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary reunion show on 15 May 1988 and again on 10 December 2007 at the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert. He also played in the band that performed "Stairway to Heaven" at Led Zeppelin's 2012 Kennedy Center Honors award ceremony. Zoë and Jason appeared at the induction ceremony for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 with the surviving members of Led Zeppelin.
== Death ==
On 24 September 1980, Bonham was picked up by Led Zeppelin assistant Rex King to attend rehearsals at Bray Studios for a tour of North America, to begin on 17 October in Montreal; it was the band's first American tour since 1977. During the journey, Bonham asked to stop for breakfast, where he drank four quadruple vodka screwdrivers (16 shots, totalling between 400 and 560 ml). He continued to drink heavily at rehearsals. The band stopped rehearsing late in the evening and then went to Page's house, the Old Mill House in Clewer, Windsor. After midnight, Bonham fell asleep; someone took him to bed and placed him on his side. Jones and the tour manager Benji LeFevre found Bonham unresponsive the following afternoon. He was pronounced dead at 32 years old.
The inquest on 27 October 1980 showed that in 24 hours, Bonham had consumed around 40 shots (1–1.4 litres) of 40% ABV vodka, after which he vomited and choked, a condition known as pulmonary aspiration. The finding was accidental death. A post-mortem found no other recreational drugs in Bonham's body. According to Rolling Stone, Bonham had recently overcome a heroin problem and was taking an unspecified medication for anxiety and depression at the time of his death.
Bonham's remains were cremated and his ashes interred on 12 October 1980 in the graveyard at St Michael’s Church, Rushock, Worcestershire. Rather than replace Bonham, Led Zeppelin chose to disband. They said in a press release on 4 December 1980: "We wish it to be known that the loss of our dear friend and the deep respect we have for his family, together with the sense of undivided harmony felt by ourselves and our manager, have led us to decide that we could not continue as we were."
== Artistry ==
=== Equipment ===
Bonham initially used Premier drums, but in the late 1960s was introduced to Ludwig drums by Carmine Appice. Throughout the remainder of his career, Bonham endorsed Ludwig. At times, Bonham's kick drum pedal squeaked. Jimmy Page later commented:
The only real problem I can remember encountering was when we were putting the first boxed set together. There was an awfully squeaky bass drum pedal on "Since I've Been Loving You". It sounds louder and louder every time I hear it! [laughs]. That was something that was obviously sadly overlooked at the time.
In 2005, Ludwig reissued Bonham drum kits in several styles and, in 2007, stainless steel kits similar to those Bonham used on the last Led Zeppelin tours in the 1970s.
Bonham used Paiste cymbals and Remo drumheads. His hardware was a mixture of Rogers and Ludwig, including the Ludwig Speed King pedal and Rogers Swiv-O-Matic series of hardware. Initially augmenting his kit in live performances with timbales and congas as well as the cowbell, he soon settled on his trademark timpani, gong and ching-ring mounted on his hi-hat stand as the percussion in his setup in addition to the aforementioned cowbell.
Bonham drum solos would often feature playing floor toms and cymbals with his bare hands. He started using this technique as well as developing a finger-control style, influenced from hearing jazz recordings by drummer Joe Morello, during the early 1960s with his first band the Blue Star Trio.
== Legacy ==
=== Reception ===
For music critics who were not receptive to the hard rock aspects of Led Zeppelin's sound, Bonham's playing was sometimes characterized (along with the other elements of Led Zeppelin's music) as bombastic and lacking a sense of swing. While reviewing 1975's Physical Graffiti, Rolling Stone's Jim Miller wrote: "Bonham ... is a steak-and-potatoes percussionist, handpicked, one assumes, for his ability to supply a plodding, stolid, rock-solid bottom—no one has ever accused Led Zeppelin of swinging." In the 2012 documentary Beware of Mr. Baker, Eric Clapton reinforced the idea that Bonham's playing lacked subtlety, and that Bonham and his contemporary Keith Moon of the Who were not equals in terms of musicianship to Ginger Baker, Clapton's drummer in the 1960s rock band Cream. "No, no, no, no, [scoffs]. Ginger was nothing like those players. His musical capabilities are full spectrum. He can write and compose and arrange, and he has an ear, and he is harmonic. He is a fully formed musician."
Since his death, Bonham's reputation has continued to grow beyond the world of hard rock, and his playing is now commonly recognised by critics and musicians as worthy of close study. Modern Drummer said of Bonham in 2010: "Like nearly every British rock musician in the mid-'60s, the members of Led Zeppelin played in groups specializing in amped-up versions of black American music like the blues, R&B, jazz, and soul. To play that music convincingly, you had to swing, and few drummers in any genre have swung with as much swagger as John Bonham ... Despite all the deserved attention paid to his brilliant soloing ideas, his rhythmic sophistication, or his bass drum prowess, John Bonham was, above all else, a groover."
=== Influence ===
Rock drummers influenced by Bonham include Roger Taylor, Joey Kramer, Lee Kerslake, Neil Peart, Dave Grohl, Tommy Lee, Peter Criss, Chad Smith, Dave Lombardo, Brad Wilk, John Dolmayan, Ian Mosley, Yoshiki, and Shinya. Phil Collins, who became a drummer for Plant's solo career, told Plant he wanted to play with him because he "loved" Bonham's drumming.
Grohl said: "John Bonham played the drums like someone who didn't know what was going to happen next—like he was teetering on the edge of a cliff. No one has come close to that since, and I don't think anybody ever will. I think he will forever be the greatest drummer of all time." Smith remarked: "To me, hands down, John Bonham was the best rock drummer ever. The style and the sound was so identifiable to one person. Any drum set that he would play, it sounded like him." Mike Portnoy said: "He was one of the all-time greats. He was just rock solid, and one of a kind. His swing and his feel is unparalleled. Nobody played like John Bonham, and still to this day, nobody really can play like John Bonham – as much as everybody tries. He will forever be one of the greatest rock drummers in the history of music. And he deserves it." Other musicians also paid tribute. John Paul Jones said Bonham was a "bass player's dream". Page has commented: "One of the marvellous things about John Bonham which made things very easy [for a producer] was that he really knew how to tune his drums, and I tell you what, that was pretty rare in drummers in those days. He really knew how to make the instrument sing, and because of that, he could just get so much volume out of it by just playing with his wrists. It was just an astonishing technique that was sort of pretty holistic if you know what I mean."
Bonham's drumming has been widely sampled in hip hop music; for example, the Beastie Boys sampled "Moby Dick", "The Ocean", and "When the Levee Breaks" on their debut album Licensed to Ill. The drum beat of the popular song "Return to Innocence" by Enigma was sampled from the Led Zeppelin song "When the Levee Breaks".
=== Awards and tributes ===
Bonham has been described by AllMusic as one of the most important, well-known, and influential drummers in rock. Bonham was ranked No. 1 on Classic Rock's 2005 list of 50 Greatest Drummers in Rock, and Modern Drummer describes him as "the greatest rock 'n' roll drummer in history." Adam Budofsky, managing editor of Modern Drummer, writes: "If the king of rock 'n' roll was Elvis Presley, then the king of rock drumming was certainly John Bonham."
In 2007, Stylus magazine rated Bonham number one of 50 great rock drummers, as did Gigwise in 2008, and in September 2008, Bonham topped Blabbermouth.net's list of "Rockers fans want brought back to life", ahead of Elvis Presley and Freddie Mercury. Rhythm magazine voted him the greatest drummer ever, topping a readers' poll to determine the "50 greatest drummers of all time" in October 2009. At the end of the BBC Two series I'm in a Rock 'n' Roll Band! on 5 June 2010, Bonham was named best drummer of all time.
"Bonz: The Groove Remains the Same—A Night in Honor of John Henry Bonham" was produced by Whitesnake drummer Brian Tichy in Los Angeles on 25 September 2010 – the 30th anniversary of his death. Notable drummers that appeared at the tribute included Steven Adler, Vinny Appice, Kenny Aronoff, Frankie Banali, Fred Coury, Jimmy D'Anda, James Kottak, Chris Slade, Chad Smith, Joe Travers, Simon Wright, and John's son, Jason Bonham. Carmine Appice performed via video. In 1988, the Pulitzer laureate Christopher Rouse composed "Bonham" in tribute.
A Rolling Stone reader's poll where he "led the list by a significant margin" in 2011, and in 2016, the same magazine ranked him as the greatest drummer of all time in a list of 100 Greatest Drummers of all time. According to the Los Angeles Times, even after all these years, Bonham still ranks as the best drummer of all time, mentioning that "[his] beat still bangs like a mofo ... Nobody else has brought quite that balance of muscle, groove and showmanship."
The surviving members of Led Zeppelin reunited to play Live Aid in 1985 and employed two drummers, Phil Collins and Tony Thompson, to take his place. In June 2017, John Bonham's childhood home received a blue plaque in his honour.
On 31 May 2018, on what would have been Bonham's 70th birthday, a statue was unveiled in his hometown of Redditch, England, to commemorate him. The work of sculptor Mark Richards, the bronze sculpture weighs around 2.5 tonnes and was installed in Mercian Square. It is covered in anti-graffiti paint and is emblazoned with the words: "The most outstanding and original drummer of his time, John Bonham's popularity and influence continue to resonate with the world of music and beyond."
Following the installation of the bronze memorial on Church Green, a special music event was organised to celebrate Bonham's birthday.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bonham, Mick (2003). Bonham by Bonham: My Brother John. Solihull: Icarus Publications. ISBN 0-9545717-0-3.
Bonham, Mick (2005). John Bonham: The Powerhouse Behind Led Zeppelin. Southbank Publishing. ISBN 1-904915-11-6.
Lewis, Dave (1990). Led Zeppelin: A Celebration. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-711-92416-1.
Kushins, C. M. (2021). Beast: John Bonham and the Rise of Led Zeppelin. Hachette Books. ISBN 978-0306846687.
Paul McCartney & Wings. Wings at the Speed of Sound Archived 10 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine (box set).
Power, Michael (2016). No Quarter: The Three Lives of Jimmy Page. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-1-4683-1214-0.
Prato, Greg (2020). BONZO: 30 Rock Drummers Remember the Legendary John Bonham. Independently published. ISBN 979-8-645-37000-8.
Welch, Chris & Nicholls, Geoff (2001). John Bonham: A Thunder of Drums. San Francisco: Backbeat Books. ISBN 0-87930-658-0.
== External links ==
Led Zeppelin official site
JohnBonham.co.uk
The 23 John Henry Bonham Drum Outtakes
John Bonham at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_satellites | List of Indian satellites | This list covers most artificial satellites built and operated by the Republic of India. India has been successfully launching satellites of various types from 1975. Apart from Indian rockets, these satellites have been launched from various vehicles, including American, Russian, and European rockets sometimes as well. The organization responsible for India's space programme is ISRO and it shoulders the bulk of the responsibility of designing, building, launching, and operating these satellites.
== Legend ==
This is a list of Indian (wholly or partially owned, wholly or partially designed and/or manufactured) satellites and orbital space crafts, both operated by the Indian government (ISRO, Indian defence forces, other government agencies) or private (educational and research) entities. All satellite launches marked successful have completed at least one full orbital flight (no sub-orbital flights have been included in this list).
== 1970s ==
Indian space missions began in the 1970s, with Soviet assistance in launching the first two satellites.
† In case of discrepancy in data between sources, N2YO and NASA NSSDCA is taken as the source of truth.
‡ Orbital Longitude is applicable only for Geostationary and Geosynchronous satellites.
== 1980s ==
India had three continuous successful satellite launches from its first generation rocket SLV. ISRO had two running projects for next generation rockets based on SLV:
ASLV to study and develop technologies to transfer satellites into geostationary orbit.
PSLV to transfer higher payloads into polar and Sun synchronous orbits.
ISRO did not have enough funds to run both projects simultaneously. Initial setbacks complexity led ISRO to terminate ASLV in just initial flights and focus on PSLV. Technologies to launch geostationary satellites arrived only in 2000s.
† In case of discrepancy in data between sources, N2YO and NASA NSSDCA is taken as the source of truth.
‡ Orbital Longitude is applicable only for Geostationary and Geosynchronous satellites.
== 1990s ==
From this decade on, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) arrived that allowed India to become self-reliant in launching most of its remote sensing satellites. However, for heavy geostationary systems, India continued to remain dependent on Europe entirely. Capability to launch geostationary satellites will arrive in next decade.
† In case of discrepancy in data between sources, N2YO and NASA NSSDCA is taken as the source of truth.
‡ Orbital Longitude is applicable only for Geostationary and Geosynchronous satellites.
== 2000s ==
ISRO's workhorse, the PSLV, became the mainstay for successful launches of indigenous satellites from India during this decade. India successfully launched 11 geostationary or geosynchronous satellites during this period, which was equal to the total number of similar launches in the previous 2 decades put together. India's first extra terrestrial mission was also successfully executed during this period.
† In case of discrepancy in data between sources, N2YO and NASA NSSDCA is taken as the source of truth.
‡ Orbital Longitude is applicable only for Geostationary and Geosynchronous satellites.
§ All orbital data related to Chandrayaan-1 is for its lunar orbit only.
== 2010s ==
While India had to face failure in launching relatively heavier satellites early on in the decade, it did end up launching 27 geosynchronous/geostationary satellites (17 with indigenous, and 10 with European launchers). In 2010s, it managed to launch most of its geosynchronous/geostationary satellites successfully on its own. This period also saw India enter the exclusive club of nations capable of launching probes to Mars. ISRO also improved upon its student/university outreach by launching multiple pico-, nano- and mini-satellites from various Indian universities. This period was also marked by multiple bilateral collaborations with foreign universities and research organizations. The same decade saw completion of NAVIC, India's regional navigation system.
Increased subcontracting to private vendors across the nation improved launch frequency by a factor of more than 2. India was able to fix glitches and operationalise its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle with an indigenous upper stage and operationalise next generation launch vehicle LVM3 with nearly double payload capacity, enabled the country to launch nearly all of its communication satellites. India launched its delayed Moon mission Chandrayaan-2 in 2019 which however failed to conduct soft landing on lunar surface. India also demonstrated capability to destroy "enemy" satellites in orbit. Increased application of India's space capabilities in strengthening its national security was observed.
Substantial increase in budget over the decade, increased payload capacity with increased reliability, increased launch frequency and many "firsts" in this decade had made Indian space program far more visible to world with significant coverage from international media and its hyphenation with leading spacefaring nations. The last launch of the decade marked with completion of 50 launches of PSLV rocket.
† In case of discrepancy in data between sources, N2YO and NASA NSSDCA is taken as the source of truth.
‡ Orbital Longitude is applicable only for Geostationary and Geosynchronous satellites.
§ All orbital data related to Mangalyaan-1 is for its Martian orbit only.
§ All orbital data related to Chandrayaan-2 is for its lunar orbit only.
== 2020s ==
ISRO aims to increase the launch frequency to 12+ a year, ISRO launched two extraterrestrial exploration missions in 2023 - Aditya L1 amd Chandrayaan-3, while it has planned several others including Chandrayaan-4, Lunar Polar Exploration Mission, Shukrayaan-1 and Mars Lander Mission for this decade. A mission to Jupiter after Shukrayaan and a mission to explore beyond Solar System have also been proposed. PSLV is expected to undergo its 100th flight mission in middle of the decade. India's new low cost Small Satellite Launch Vehicle made its maiden flight (SSLV-D1) on August 7, 2022, which unfortunately ended in a failure. SSLV-D2, launched on February 10, 2023, became the first SSLV to launch satellites successfully. The SCE-200 rocket engine, expected to be the powerplant of India's upcoming heavy and super heavy launch systems, is expected to make first flight sometimes in middle of the decade. Conducting an orbital human spaceflight is the highest priority for the agency while the long-term goals of the programme include human-occupied space stations and crewed lunar landing.
== Forthcoming ==
Following table lists Indian satellites in development and due for launch in near future.
== Launch statistics ==
Following statistics are on the basis of number of satellites launched that were built-in or were to be operated by India. It does not account number of launch vehicles used or special orbital missions like re-entry that aren't taken into account as satellites. It also does not account foreign satellites launched by India.
=== Decade wise ===
The following bar chart lists number of Indian satellites launched decade-wise.
=== Country wise ===
The following bar chart lists the number of satellites launched based on the origin of the launch vehicle
== Other orbital and suborbital spacecraft ==
== ISRO satellites launched by foreign agencies ==
ISRO satellites which have been launched by foreign space agencies (of Europe, USSR / Russia, and United States) are enlisted in the given tables below.
ISRO satellites that were launched by foreign agencies, are listed in the table below.
== See also ==
Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRSP)
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)
GSAT
List of foreign satellites launched by India
List of ISRO missions
Space industry of India
== References ==
== External links ==
Indian Space Research Organization: Spacecraft Archived 6 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_(DC_Comics)#Stan_Silver | Ray (DC Comics) | The Ray is the name of four superheroes in the DC Comics Universe. All versions of the character have the superpower of manipulating visible light in some manner.
The first Ray was Langford "Happy" Terrill, a Quality Comics character. When DC Comics later purchased Quality Comics, Happy Terrill was retconned as a member of the Freedom Fighters on Earth-X. The character, created by artist Lou Fine, first appeared in Smash Comics #14 (Sept 1940) and continued in the book until issue #40 (Feb 1943).
Following DC altering much of its continuity and history in the storyline Crisis on Infinite Earths, Happy Terrill was now an inhabitant of the mainstream DC Comics universe and his son Ray Terrill became the second Ray. Later, the character Stan Silver briefly operated as the third hero called the Ray.
In 2011's New 52 relaunch of DC Comics, where fictional history was again restructured, a new character called Lucien Gates was introduced as the Ray. Although historically he is the fourth superhero character to use this name, in The Ray #1 (2012), set in a rebooted continuity, he refers to the origin of Happy Terrill as a story he had heard as a child.
== Fictional character biography ==
=== Langford "Happy" Terrill ===
Prior to the Crisis on Infinite Earths reboot, Langford "Happy" Terrill is originally described as having been exposed to lightning and sunlight at the same time while ballooning and gains energy-based superpowers. He is able to emit energy from his body and use it to fly through the air.
According to Jess Nevins' Encyclopedia of Golden Age Superheroes, "The Ray fights the Hindu mystic Bela Jat, Cadava the Crumbler, the Mongol warrior Khan, and the pied piper of crime, Stradivarius".
His Post-Crisis origin is more involved. Before World War II, the government established a secret group known as RONOL (Research on the Nature of Light). One RONOL member, Dr. Dayzl, theorized that the light that originated millennia ago where Earth now orbits would eventually circumnavigate the universe and return as a dangerous, conscious entity.
The only way to stop the "Light Entity", Dayzl believed, was to talk to it. Tricking a reporter named "Happy" Terrill into joining them, Dayzl and his assistants staged an upper atmosphere ballooning "accident", making certain Happy was exposed to a genetic "light bomb". Dayzl calculated that Happy's offspring would be a unification of human and light energy, a potential liaison to the Light Entity. Unaware of the truth, Happy used his resulting powers to become the superhero the Ray. Simultaneously, RONOL lost government backing due to Dayzl's unorthodox beliefs. Dayzl's fate remains unknown. In 1950, after learning the truth, Happy vowed to quit his Ray identity.
In February 1946, Happy Terrill and his first wife, Gayle, had a child named Joshua. For a time, Joshua accompanied the Ray on missions as his sidekick Spitfire. However, Joshua was prone to violent outbursts. After accidentally killing his mother in a fit of rage on his birthday in February 1954, Joshua was placed in suspended animation by his father, only to wake up again in the future, still only 8 years old.
After a brief association with his old team the Freedom Fighters in the 1970s, Happy Terrill married a woman named Nadine and settled down. Everything seemed normal until Happy saw his newborn son, Raymond, glowing with crackling energy in the hospital nursery. Happy was convinced Dayzl's theories were correct. He now knew his son would one day have the power to confront the Light Entity. Not wanting to put his wife through torment, Happy told her that the baby had died and then set up his son with a foster father (his brother Thomas).
In the 2008 Freedom Fighters series, Happy is asked by Uncle Sam to ask Neon the Unknown for help. When Neon, completely detached from humanity, refuses, Happy drinks from the waters of his oasis, becoming a new Neon the Unknown, known simply as "Neon".
=== Ray Terrill ===
Ray Terrill was told he was hypersensitive to light and exposure to sunlight would kill him. Privately tutored in his window-darkened home, Ray's most earnest wish was for normalcy. The media called him Night Boy. His only friend during his formative years was his neighbor, Jennifer Jurden. When he was 18, at his supposed father's deathbed, Ray learned his life was a lie. He was not allergic to light, nor did he have to live in darkness. Most disturbing of all, he discovered his true father was the 1940s war-time super-hero, the Golden Age Ray.
=== Stan Silver ===
The reformed Freedom Fighters have a member called the Ray who has similar powers to the Terrills. The new Ray is Stan Silver, and he was described by Justin Gray as being "capable of turning his body into a living laser light" and "the playboy of the group". Stan likes to show off in front of the media.
Working as a foreign correspondent for the Washington Sun, Silver was exposed to upper atmosphere radiation while covering a story, thus gaining power over various forms of light. Recruited by S.H.A.D.E., Silver begins using his powers in the service of his government. He is, however, something of a womanizing egomaniac in his civilian persona. Silver later defects from S.H.A.D.E. to join Uncle Sam's new group of Freedom Fighters.
In Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters #6, Silver reveals that he is a double agent still loyal to S.H.A.D.E. He turns on his teammates and kills the Invisible Hood. Immediately after, the colors of his "costume" were inverted, becoming blue instead of yellow.
In Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters #7, he battles his former teammates and is defeated by Ray Terrill, and is sent back to Father Time. He is later seen outside the White House with S.H.A.D.E.'s other super-soldiers, who join Father Time in the timestream after the battle ends.
=== Lucien Gates ===
In The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity launched in 2011, a character named Lucien Gates was introduced as the Ray in a miniseries titled The Ray, written by Palmiotti and Gray with art duties by Jamal Igle. It did not feature any of the previous incarnations of the Ray, but instead centered around a new character by the name of Lucien Gates. Remarks made by Lucien referencing Langford's origin and his use of the Ray title in his debut issue indicate that he is not the first hero to be called the Ray as far as the newly rebooted DC universe is concerned. The miniseries debuted in December that year.
Lucien Gates is a Korean-American San Diego County lifeguard who, while on duty, was caught in the path of a particle beam. The beam, accidentally fired from a solar energy cannon commissioned by an unnamed government agency, mutated a number of living organisms before striking Gates. The resulting energy transforms him into an energy manipulator, able to fly at superhuman speed, fire various energy beams, and create illusions. Gates is also a Korean-American adoptee.
Distinctively, Gates cannot direct his flight as is common for airborne superheroes, instead traveling in a straight line as a literal ray of light. To change direction, he must strike a reflective surface, though it does not appear he is bound by the normal mechanics of specular reflection and can "reflect" at any angle (perhaps more akin to a swimmer kicking off from the edge of a pool than true reflection). When necessary, he can reduce his speed and even hover.
== Powers and abilities ==
All versions of the Ray can absorb, store, and process pure light and use the energy to fly and create dazzlingly strong and powerful bursts of light. In his Golden Age appearances, Happy Terrill was able to manipulate other forms of energy such as electricity and magnetism.
The Terrills were also capable of manipulating and controlling light externally to create illusions and even solid light constructs, as well as render themselves invisible.
Later in Happy's career (while mentoring/antagonizing his son), he was shown to have a greater mastery of his abilities. For example, by using "solid light vibrations", essentially resonating the target's inner ear, he was able to approximate telepathic communication.
Ray Terrill is capable of converting his body completely into light energy. No physical harm can come to him in this form.
Stan Silver's full abilities and powers are largely undocumented. As noted above, he is apparently "capable of turning his body into a living laser light".
Lucien Gates can not become immaterial; rather the light forms a protective armor. To fly, Gates bounces off of reflective surfaces. His thought processes calculate hundreds of options, allowing him to redirect his path at light speed.
== Other versions ==
In the final issue of 52, a new Multiverse is revealed, originally consisting of 52 identical realities. Among the parallel realities shown is one designated "Earth-10". As a result of Mister Mind "eating" aspects of this reality, it takes on visual aspects similar to the Pre-Crisis Earth-X, including the Quality characters. The names of the characters and the team are not mentioned in the panel in which they appear, but a character visually similar to the "Happy" Terrill version of the Ray appears. Based on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the Pre-Crisis Earth-X.
The 2007 series Countdown: Arena introduces several alternate versions of the Ray. On Earth-6, the former Atom (Ray Palmer) has become his world's Ray, a Nazi Ray exists on "Earth-10" and his closest Earth-50 parallel is prominent Wildstorm Universe character Apollo, a Superman pastiche who debuted in the early 1990s. Ray's Freedom Fighters are supposed to be the opposition of the fascist JL-Axis (the fascist Ray's costume matches Ray Terril's new uniform), and Apollo is more commonly viewed as a parallel version of Superman (he is placed with the Rays apparently due to his light-based powers).
A version of the Ray appears in the book Kingdom Come as one of the heroes loyal to Superman. He is also mentioned in being instrumental in stripping the radiation out of the Kansas soil both for the construction of the Gulag and Superman's reclamation of the land at the end of the story. It is not specified which incarnation of the Ray this is, although in promo art he is referred to as Ray II. In the final issue of 52, the setting of Kingdom Come was designated Earth-22 in the new Multiverse.
New Super-Man, set in China of the mainstream DC Universe, features a character called the Sunbeam (a Chinese counterpart of the Ray).
== Reception ==
In American Comic Book Chronicles: 1940-1944, comics historian Kurt Mitchell writes that the Golden Age strip "showcased Fine's growing mastery of lighting effects, as well as the wild fight scenes and memorably ugly villains that had by now become trademarks of his style".
== In other media ==
=== Television ===
An unidentified Ray makes non-speaking background appearances in Justice League Unlimited as a member of the Justice League.
The Langford Terrill incarnation of the Ray appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Cry Freedom Fighters!", voiced by Tom Kenny. This version is a member of the Freedom Fighters.
=== Arrowverse ===
The Ray Terrill incarnation of the Ray appears in the Arrowverse crossover event "Crisis on Earth-X" and the CW Seed animated series Freedom Fighters: The Ray along with an uncredited appearance in the crossover "Crisis on Infinite Earths", portrayed by Russell Tovey.
=== Film ===
An unidentified Ray appears in Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths - Part One.
=== Miscellaneous ===
The Langford and Ray Terrill incarnations of the Ray appear in issue #17 of the Justice League Unlimited tie-in comic. The former is a member of the Freedom Fighters.
An unidentified Ray makes background appearances in DC Super Hero Girls as a student of Super Hero High.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ray I Index
Ray I Profile
DCU Guide: Langford Terrill
DCU Guide: Raymond Terrill
Toonopedia: Ray profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elder_Scrolls_V:_Skyrim_%E2%80%93_Dragonborn | The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim – Dragonborn | The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim – Dragonborn is the third and final add-on for the action role-playing open world video game The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. It was developed by Bethesda Game Studios and released by Bethesda Softworks on the Xbox Live Marketplace on December 4, 2012. The Microsoft Windows version was released on February 5, 2013, and the PlayStation 3 version was released on February 12, 2013.
Dragonborn involves the player character (the current Dragonborn) coming into contact with the first Dragonborn, Miraak. The expansion takes place on the island of Solstheim, previously featured in the Bloodmoon expansion for The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind.
== Gameplay ==
Dragonborn follows the same gameplay style as Skyrim, with the player free to explore the island of Solstheim at will, pursuing quests at their leisure. New armors, weapons, locations, and enemies have been introduced. A new feature in Dragonborn is the ability to tame and ride dragons. The player can use a dragon to target and attack enemies, but does not have complete control of the flight. New dragon shouts have also been introduced.
== Setting ==
The expansion is set on the island of Solstheim, located off the north coast of Morrowind. Solstheim was a territory that once belonged to Skyrim until the High King gave the island to Morrowind to serve as a refuge for the Dunmer fleeing Morrowind after the eruption of the Red Mountain volcano. Geographically, half of Solstheim is similar to northern Skyrim, covered in icy glaciers and snow. The other half is barren, and covered in ash following the Red Mountain disaster. The island's settlements and buildings also reflect the differing cultures, with the Nordic half of the land featuring architecture similar to Skyrim's. The rest of the island follows a Dunmeri (Dark Elves) architectural style, even containing a giant mushroom transformed into a house. The island's main settlement, Raven Rock, is governed by House Redoran, one of five Great Houses who rule over Morrowind, and protected by their personal hold guards, the Redoran Guard.
== Plot ==
Dragonborn's main quest line is initiated following an attack on the player, the Last Dragonborn, by cultists worshipping someone named Miraak, who is also referred to as First Dragonborn. The player defeats the cultists and, upon investigating them, discovers a set of orders revealing their origins: the island of Solstheim. The player then journeys to Solstheim to confront Miraak and his followers by chartering a ship, the Northern Maiden, out of Windhelm to take them to Raven Rock.
After arriving on the island, the player begins interrogating the citizens of Solstheim about Miraak. It immediately becomes apparent that a majority of Solstheim's population has been unconsciously enslaved by Miraak and forced to work on several runic monoliths called "All-Maker Stones", scattered across the island. Among the unaffected observers is a Telvanni wizard, Neloth, who directs the player to the Temple of Miraak. The player reaches the Temple and encounters a Nord named Frea, who is immune to Miraak's control, attempting in vain to break his spell over her people, the Skaal. She accompanies the player into the Temple. Inside, the player discovers a "Black Book", and after reading it, is unwittingly transported into a realm of Oblivion called Apocrypha, where they witness Miraak planning his invasion of Tamriel. Miraak discovers their presence, incapacitates them, and dismisses the player as inferior before having a pair of Seekers, guardians of Apocrypha, return them to Solstheim.
Upon their return, the player visits Skaal Village and, advised by the Skaal shaman Storn, performs a special dragon shout on an All-Maker Stone, purifying the monolith and freeing the Skaal and the other denizens of the island from Miraak's control, while also having to contend with Lurkers, the other guardians of Apocrypha, sent by Miraak to reclaim the All-Maker Stones. Storn then sends the player to Neloth, who reveals that the Black Books are relics belonging to Hermaeus Mora, the Daedric Prince of Fate, Knowledge, and Memory, who is otherwise known as the "keeper of forbidden knowledge", and the source of Miraak's power.
Neloth accompanies the player to the Dwemer ruin of Nchardak to retrieve another Black Book sealed inside a complex container. They release the mechanism and learn of a shout called "Bend Will", which is believed to be instrumental in defeating Miraak. Through the Black Books, the player journeys into Apocrypha again, and personally encounters Hermaeus Mora. Mora explains that if the player wishes to defeat Miraak, he must gain the same knowledge that Miraak possesses. He agrees to impart such knowledge in exchange for the secrets of the Skaal, one of the few remaining pieces of knowledge kept from the Daedric prince to place in his vast library in Apocrypha. After encountering and killing the dragon Krosulhah outside Nchardak, sent by Miraak to eliminate the player, they return to Skaal Village and persuade Storn to surrender the tribe's secrets. If the Water, Earth, Wind, and Beast stones have been freed from Miraak’s control, Storn will agree. Despite Frea's protests, Storn communicates directly with Mora, who then proceeds to sap him of his knowledge, killing him in the process in front of the entire village. The player then learns the final word of "Bend Will", enabling them to defeat Miraak.
The player returns to Apocrypha and uses "Bend Will" to subdue Miraak's dragon, Sahrotaar, allowing them to mount him in flight. Sahrotaar flies the player to Miraak's tower, the Summit of Apocrypha. There, the player and Miraak battle, with Miraak sacrificing Sahrotaar and his other two dragons, Relonikiv and Kruziikrel, to replenish his strength until Hermaeus Mora intervenes, fatally impaling Miraak while expressing anger at his rebellion and betrayal of Mora's trust with the knowledge he was granted by the Daedric Prince. Mora transfers Miraak's soul and power to the player, who is then transported back to Solstheim. The Summit of Apocrypha becomes a place where the player can exchange dragon souls for recovering perk points to place on other skills, customizing their skills to their liking for other quests both in Solstheim and back in Skyrim.
== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack associated with Dragonborn includes music previously used in The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, as well as several new tracks composed by Jeremy Soule, who composed the soundtrack for several other games in The Elder Scrolls series.
== Release ==
Dragonborn was originally announced via a trailer on November 5, 2012. Dragonborn was released on the Xbox Live Marketplace on December 4, 2012. The Microsoft Windows version was released on February 5, 2013. The PlayStation 3 version was released on February 12, 2013 in North America, and February 13, 2013 in Europe.
== Reception ==
Dragonborn has received mainly positive critical reception. GamesRadar applauded the number of side quests, and the new weapons and dragon shouts, but dismissed the dragon riding feature as "gimmicky". Eurogamer gave the content 9 out of 10, praising the quests, new enemies and new location. Joystiq applauded the amount of content in Dragonborn, including the new settings and enemies, but felt that the narrative was too familiar.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnham | Alnham | Alnham (, ) is a hamlet and civil parish in Northumberland, England. It is about 14 miles (23 km) west of Alnwick, and is about 6 miles (10 km) from the Scottish border, on the south of a small tributary of the River Aln. The village stands on uneven ground, sloping from south to north, at the foot of the southern outliers of the Cheviot Hills. The River Aln flows eastward through the village from its source in the Cheviot Hills down to the coast. The layout of the village appears to have been dictated by the river. The estimated population taken at the 2011 Census was around 245.
There is evidence of human occupation in Alnham and the surrounding areas dating from prehistoric times. The remains of a medieval settlement, hillforts, and other historic buildings can still be found in the village today. Due to its location, Alnham often suffered in the Anglo-Scottish border conflict during its history. The economy of Alnham has been focused on agriculture throughout its existence as a settlement.
== Toponymy ==
The name "Alnham" derives from the Old English hām (homestead) and the Celtic river-name Aln or Alaunos, meaning "homestead on the River Aln". Variations of the name have been recorded over time, including: Alneham (1331), Elnam (1509), Ayneham (1557), and Ailnham (1663). Alnham has also historically been called "Yeldom", and in the Magna Brittannia of 1724 it is mentioned as being usually called "Yarwell".
== History ==
There is no direct evidence of Paleolithic or Mesolithic human occupation within Alnham, although it is possible that the Cheviot slopes to the west of Alnham provided a wooded area perfect for seasonal foraging parties. The only evidence of Neolithic habitation is a cup-marked stone found at Alnham Northfield. Bronze Age occupation of Alnham is more evident. A rare bronze spearhead has been found at High Bleakhope to the north-west of Alnham, possibly indicating occupation by an elite social class. The remote and elevated location of High Bleakhope suggests that the spearhead was placed there as an offering to a deity. A number of cairns have been discovered in the surrounding area which may have been constructed in the Bronze Age. Unenclosed settlements, common in the Cheviots through the Iron Age and Bronze Age, have also been found in the surrounding area. Two Iron Age palisaded enclosures have been discovered on High Knowes to the north-west of Alnham. Castle Hill in Alnham is an example of a Cheviot multivallate hillfort and is likely to have existed by the Iron Age. Remains of hut circles within the inner closure suggest that Castle Hill was a settlement with a small population. Evidence of the Romans in the Cheviots, which is situated beyond the Roman frontier, is difficult to detect and distinguish from the Iron Age due to their limited cultural influence. The closest settlement to Alnham which is considered to be Roman can be found on Castle Hill.
During the Middle Ages Alnham was an important location, as indicated by its ancient buildings, castle mound, and pele tower. There is evidence that it was a populous village and reached its peak of prosperity in the late 13th century. The Church of St Michaels was first recorded in an 1184 charter in which William de Vesci granted Alnham and its tithes to Alnwick Abbey. During the reigns of Henry III and Edward I, Alnham was part of the lordship and estate of William de Vesci (in 1242) and John de Vesci (in 1289). In 1293 William de Vesci claimed free Chase in Alnham, but with no male heirs, his property was passed to Antony Bek (Bishop of Durham) after his death. Bishop Bek sold the Barony of Alnwick, which included Alnham, to Henry de Percy, 1st Baron Percy. From that point onwards, Alnham remained in the same descent as the rest of the Percy estates.
The history of Alnham was often troubled, including by climatic deterioration and harvest failure in the early 14th century, and the Black Death. These events caused the population to reduce significantly. In 1352, after the Black Death, there were 34 holdings, half of which were unoccupied. The surviving residents of Alnham, however, may have benefitted somewhat from this reduction in population and secured better rights: the Inquisition for Henry de Percy in 1368 reveals that the bondages and cottages were held by "tenants-at-will", in comparison to earlier non-contractual tenancies which owed labour services to a lord. Being situated in a precarious position between the English and Scottish borders, Anglo-Scottish combat also caused disruption in Alnham. Alnham suffered at the hand of Scottish raids during the reign of Henry VIII. Two letters from the Earl of Northumberland to the King, dating from October and November 1532, describe how the Scots came across the borders and rampaged Alnham and surrounding towns. The tower at Alnham appears to have suffered damage from the Scottish raids as it was reported to have been in a bad condition by 1541. The dangerous position of Alnham between the English and Scottish borders is again revealed in a survey of the manor from 1615, which reads:
the toune and manor of Alneham is parcell of the Barony of Alnewicke. The soyle thereof is good and fertile but the tenants have been greatly impoverished and disabled by the Scots and often English thieves by reason that the said toune lieth open to the great wastes between the two realmes.
Alnham was a significant agricultural centre in the early 17th century. Robert Norton's map of the Duke of Northumberland's Alnham Estate from 1619 reveals Alnham's meadowland consisted of four large common fields, 70 acres of arable land, and 168 acres of "Alnham oxe pasture". From the 18th century onwards, Alnham underwent a period of decay and transformation. In 1724, the Magna Brittannia described Alnham as being "pretty large". However, an undated map from pre-1750 shows a dwindling number of cottages, Seymour's Survey of c. 1756 records five cottages, and in the Enclosure Award of 1776 the village is recorded as having only two farms and three cottages. This decay can be attributed to the 17th and 18th century policy of leasing tenement lands to a single tenant, resulting in the amalgamation of land formerly owned by tenants-at-will into larger farmholdings. Transformation came about later in the 18th century: Alnham Common was first recorded in a survey of 1702 and was divided and apportioned in 1776. The grounds were divided up into holdings along the east and southeast sides of the township and a new road was built through the village. The Duke of Northumberland secured the largest share of the land: 1,379 acres of infield ground and 6590 acres of common. Further divisions of the land were granted to Alexander Collingwood, Charles Byrne, Percival Clennel, and the Vicar of Alnham.
In the 19th century, the village of Alnham consisted of three farms, a church, a vicarage, a Church of England school (constructed in 1870), and six cottages. Farming continued to be the focus of economic activity. By the late 19th century, Alnham Parish covered around 12,000 acres with the township of Alnham being by far the largest at 9535 acres. The population of Alnham in 1801 was 233 and remained relatively stable throughout the century, dropping to 205 by 1891. The 1831 census revealed that the majority of male residents aged over 20 in Alnham Parish was labourers or servants (45 men). A smaller proportion were employers and professionals (8 men), or "middling sorts" (15 men), which included small farmers and skilled workers.
The village did not develop much during the 20th century. The only new building to be constructed in this period was the War Memorial Hall erected in 1921. The population gradually declined owing to mechanisation and reduction in farming incomes.
== Demography ==
Alnham falls within the North Core Strategy Delivery Area of Northumberland – one of the least populated areas of England with 26 residents per square km, compared to the county average of 63. In 2001, the parish of Whittingham and Alnham had a total usual population of 505. In 2011, Alnham Parish had an estimated population of 245. 20.4% of residents were aged 0–15 and 10.2% of residents were aged 65+. 100% of residents identified as white. The majority of residents (68.6%) were Christian with the remaining population either having an 'other' religion, no religion, or did not state religion. 81.3% of residents aged 16–74 were economically active with agriculture, forestry and fishing being the most common industry (25.7%).
== Governance ==
Throughout its history, Alnham has been incorporated in various territorial units. In the medieval period, Alnham formed one of the manors of the Barony of Alnwick held by the Vesci lineage beginning in the early 12th century and ending in 1310. The Barony was then sold to Henry de Percy and remains in the hands of the Percy family today. The Parish of Alnham in the 19th century contained the townships of Alnham, Prendwick, Scrainwood and Unthank. These townships were recorded as separate localities in the feudal aid of 1242.
In the UK Parliament, Alnham is part of the Berwick-upon-Tweed Parliament constituency which has been represented by Anne-Marie Trevelyan (Conservative) since May 2015. Prior to May 2015, the seat was represented by Alan Beith (Liberal Democrats). In local government, Alnham is part of the Rothbury Ward and is represented by Steven Christopher Bridgett (Independent). At the Parish council level, Alnham is part of Whittingham Parish Council which comprises the former three separate parishes of Alnham, Callaly and Whittingham.
== Landmarks ==
There are seven listed structures in Alnham, including old buildings, the Church, and a medieval settlement.
=== Church of St Michael and All Angels ===
The Church of St Michael and All Angels is a Grade I listed building and part of the Diocese of Newcastle. It is a Parish Church of Saxon foundation located to the west of the village centre. The Church was first recorded in an 1184 charter. After William de Vesci gave the Church to Alnwick Abbey, a new west front, south chapel, north aisle, and chancel arch were constructed. It is likely that the Church was damaged in the Anglo-Scottish border wars in the 13th century. By the mid-13th century, the north arcade was replaced by pointed arches and the north aisle was widened. There is evidence that the Church was in a state of ruin at least once by the later medieval period. It was restored with a rebuilt chancel and a new transept arch. A further restoration was recorded in 1664.
By the mid-19th century, the Church had again fallen into a poor state. The Builder described the state of Alnham Church in 1862:
Open the rickety church-door. The eye is met by a green flash from the damp, mildewed walls, and by streaks of sky seen through the unceiled slates. The western end, with its Early Traditional single light, has not been much disturbed; but the rest of the window opening have been modernized and filled with common sashes, which are rotten, and let in wind and rain. The east end has a small square sash, such as is ordinarily provided for a scullery or any inferior office. Three of the worm-eaten, mousy pews are square, with a table fixed in the centre of each: a fourth forms three sides of a quadrangle that is occupied by a stove. Fungi abound, and the pavement is sodden with damp. Ruin is imminent, unless precautions are taken to avert it.
F. R. Wilson, an architect from Alnwick, was responsible for the restoration of the building in 1870. All of the extant windows of the Church, other than those in the west end, are Wilson's. Further restoration work was carried out on the Church in 1953 by Gustav Adolph Renwick.
Around 20 yards (18 m) to the south of the Church is a medieval cross base which is a Grade II listed structure. It is a large stone, 2 feet (61 cm) high, with a socket cut into it to hold the shaft of a cross.
=== Tower House ===
Tower House, located near to the Church, is a Grade II listed building. It is also known as the vicar's pele and served as the vicarage of the Church for much of its existence. It was first recorded in Bowes and Ellerker's survey of 1541 and is listed as a "lytle toure". It was most likely constructed in the 15th or early 16th century. By the time of the 1541 survey, the Tower was in need of repairs, but there is no evidence to suggest it received the reparations required. The Tower collapsed in 1651 and a record of the building in 1715 reveals that its condition had still not improved. In 1828, Archdeacon Singleton noted that the Tower was uninhabited and uninhabitable. However, by 1844 the building was in use again. New battlements, corner turrets, window openings and a residential wing were constructed. Tower House was later used as a youth hostel and is now a private residence.
=== Medieval settlement ===
The medieval settlement at Alnham is a scheduled monument and is located to the south of St Michaels Church. The remains of this village exist as a series of earthworks between 0.3 metres (12 in) and 0.5 metres (20 in) high, a toft with an enclosure and two houses, a small hill, and a group of three houses and an enclosure. The settlement lies on two artificially-levelled sites. It is likely that the original medieval settlement was larger and more focussed on the Church.
=== Alnham Castle ===
Alnham Castle is a scheduled monument that includes the remains of a medieval tower house. It is located to the south of site of the medieval village. The tower has a rectangular plan, measuring 22 metres (72 ft) by 18 metres (59 ft) and standing up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. The tower was first mentioned in 1405 when it is recorded as one of Harry Hotspur's strongholds which was surrendered to Henry IV. It is in a good defensive position on the summit of a low ridge. The remains of a small, triangular annex can be found to the east and south. An outer enclosure which surrounded the tower is represented by a well-defined lynchet bank to the north. This enclosure most likely consisted of a garden and meadow associated with the manor as recorded in the Inquisition of Henry de Percy in 1368.
=== Farm buildings ===
The former farmhouses of Alnham castle, previously known as Castle Farm, can be found in the village today as the Pennywells – two Grade II listed cottages. Dating from around the early 18th century, they are built out of roughly-dressed stone. The garden wall attached to the front of the Pennywells, also built out of roughly-dressed stone, is another Grade II listed structure. There are adjacent farm buildings, around 9 metres (10 yd) from the Pennywells, consisting of byres, a stable and shelter sheds which were built around a courtyard between around 1830 and 1840. The farm buildings have a separate Grade II listing.
=== Castle Hill ===
Castle Hill is a rare example of an Iron Age multivallate hillfort. The hillfort has been designated as a scheduled monument and is located to the west of Alnham. It stands at a height of 289 metres (948 ft) above Ordnance Datum. It consists of a sub-circular enclosure within concentric ditches with ramparts which are built from earth and stone excavated from the site of the hillfort. The site also contains the remains of a Romano-British settlement. There are at least five hut circles within the interior of the hillfort. Three unenclosed huts on the north-west flanks of the hillfort, defined by a curving out bank, constitute the earliest of the remains, possibly dating from the Bronze Age. There were four possible phases of development of earthwork defences of the hillfort during the Iron Age. The first phase consisted of a univallate stone-walled enclosure, followed by the construction of the ramparts and ditches resulting in a bivallate hillfort (phase 2). Phases 3 and 4 saw Castle Hill become a multivallate hillfort.
Several trackways near Castle Hill potentially date from the prehistoric or Romano-British eras. There is also evidence of Bronze Age, Iron Age and Romano-British agricultural activity on the hill. Prehistoric cord rig was discovered on the north-west of the hilltop, and prehistoric or Romano-British ploughing has resulted in lynchets on the north-east side. There is evidence that medieval cultivation stretched from Alnham village and stopped at a boundary bank to the south-east face of the hill.
=== War Memorial Hall ===
The most significant structure to be built in Alnham in the 20th century is the War Memorial Hall, erected in 1920 as a testament to the impact of World War I on small rural communities like Alnham. It is a stone-built village hall with a stone incision above the porch door. There are no names inscribed on the memorial as there were no deaths in the village during the war.
== Transport ==
Alnham is an isolated rural community. The nearest main road is the A697, around 7.5 miles (12 km) away. The village is situated on a local road running north-south from Prendwick to Scrainwood; from a junction near the village centre another road heads northwest from Alnham, past Castle Hill, for about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to Ewartly Shank, where it ends.
There were plans in the mid-to-late 19th century for a Northumberland Central Railway line to run through Alnham. The proposed railway would have been located to the east of Pennylaws Cottage, but it was never built.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Where an abbreviation is used in the references this is indicated below in (brackets) at the end of the source name. When a source is available online, a link has been included.
Dixon, David Dippe (1895). Whittingham Vale, Northumberland: its history, traditions, and folk lore. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Robert Redpath.
Dodds, Madeleine Hope, ed. (1935). A history of Northumberland. Vol. XIV. Newcastle upon Tyne: Andrew Reid & Company, Limited; Simpkin Marshall, Limited. Retrieved 29 December 2021 – via Google Books.
Alnham Northumberland. An archaeological and historical study of a border township (PDF) (Report). The Archaeological Practice Ltd. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2021. (AN)
Ryder, Peter F. (2018). St Michael the Archangel, Alnham. Archaeological Assessment, including report on 2018 works (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 31 December 2021.
Pearson, Trevor; Lax, Amy; Ainsworth, Stewart (2001). An Iron Age hillfort and its environs on Castle Hill, Alnham, Northumberland (PDF) (Report). English Heritage. ISSN 1478-7008. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
== External links ==
Map sources for Alnham
GENUKI (accessed: 22 November 2008) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paola_Concia | Paola Concia | Anna Paola Concia (born 4 July 1963) is an Italian politician and LGBT rights activist.
== Biography ==
Concia was born in Avezzano, Province of L'Aquila, and she graduated in sports science from L'Aquila's Istituto Superiore di Educazione Fisica; following her graduation, she has worked as a physical education and tennis instructor. She first became involved with politics while at ISEF, and she was initially a member of the Italian Communist Party.
Concia moved to Rome in 1992 following the death of her mother and the collapse of her marriage. She worked as a parliamentary assistant before working as an adviser to Anna Finocchiaro, the minister responsible for equal opportunities. Concia later advised Giovanna Melandri after her promotion to Minister of Cultural Heritage and Activities in 1998. Following the 2001 general election, Concia left politics to pursue her work in tennis. She came out a year later.
Concia was named as the Democratic Party's spokesperson on homosexuality, and she used her position within the party to become a prominent activist for equal rights. She was first elected to the Chamber of Deputies in the 2008 general election.
In August 2011, she married her wife, Ricarda Trautmann, in Frankfurt.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_Pulis_Lathrop#:~:text=She%20was%20born%20on%20October,that%20became%20artists%2C%20Gertrude%20K. | Ida Pulis Lathrop | Ida F. Pulis Lathrop (1859–1937) was an American painter. She primarily worked on portraits, still life and landscapes as subjects. Lathrop was based in Albany, New York.
== About ==
She was born on October 27, 1859, as Ida F. Pulis in Troy, New York to Catherine (née Sheffér) and Abraham William Pulis. She married Cyprus Clark Lathrop in 1885. Together they had two daughters that became artists, Gertrude K. Lathrop, and Dorothy P. Lathrop. Ida Pullis Lathrop was a self-taught artist.
She died on September 7, 1937, in her home in Albany, she is buried in Albany Rural Cemetery.
Lathrop has work in the museum collection at Albany Institute of History and Art, Smithsonian American Art Museum, among others.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ida Pulis Lathrop at Find a Grave
Ida Pulis Lathrop on AskArt.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_foil | Fencing at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Men's foil | The men's foil event at the 2020 Summer Olympics took place on 26 July 2021 at the Makuhari Messe. 36 fencers from 18 nations competed in this event.
== Background ==
This was the 28th appearance of the event, which has been held at every Summer Olympics except 1908 (when there was a foil display only rather than a medal event).
The reigning Olympic champion was Daniele Garozzo of Italy. The reigning World Champion was Enzo Lefort of France.
== Qualification ==
A National Olympic Committee (NOC) could enter up to 3 qualified fencers in the men's foil. Nations were limited to three fencers each from 1928 to 2004. However, the 2008 Games introduced a rotation of men's team fencing events with one weapon left off each Games; the individual event without a corresponding team event had the number of fencers per nation reduced to two. Men's foil was the first event this applied to, so each nation could enter a maximum of two fencers in the event in 2008. Foil would have been affected by this system again in 2020, but the 2020 Games eliminated this rotation and all weapons had team events.
There are 34 dedicated quota spots for men's foil. The first 24 spots go to the 3 members of each of the 8 qualified teams in the team foil event. Next, 6 more men are selected from the world rankings based on continents: 2 from Europe, 1 from the Americas, 2 from Asia/Oceania, and 1 from Africa. Finally, 4 spots are allocated by continental qualifying events: 1 from Europe, 1 from the Americas, 1 from Asia/Oceania, and 1 from Africa. Each nation can earn only one spot through rankings or events.
Additionally, there are 8 host/invitational spots that can be spread throughout the various fencing events. Japan has used 2 host places to complete a men's foil team (it had 1 place through individual qualifying).
The COVID-19 pandemic delayed many of the events for qualifying for fencing, moving the close of the rankings period back to April 5, 2021, rather than the original April 4, 2020. All of the events that are considered for the men's team foil rankings had been finished before the pandemic caused postponements, however, so the men's teams were known over a year before the event. This meant that the NOCs qualifying 3 fencers for the individual event were known as well: the United States, France, Italy, Russia, Hong Kong, Egypt, Canada, and Germany. The remaining 10 spots based on rankings and continental events remain open until April 2020, as well as whether Japan will use host places in the men's foil (and how many).
== Competition format ==
The 1996 tournament had vastly simplified the competition format into a single-elimination bracket, with a bronze medal match. The 2020 tournament will continue to use that format. Fencing is done to 15 touches or to the completion of three three-minute rounds if neither fencer reaches 15 touches by then. At the end of time, the higher-scoring fencer is the winner; a tie results in an additional one-minute sudden-death time period. This sudden-death period is further modified by the selection of a draw-winner beforehand; if neither fencer scores a touch during the minute, the predetermined draw-winner wins the bout. Standard foil rules regarding target area, striking, and priority are used.
== Schedule ==
The competition is held over a single day, Monday, 26 July. The first session runs from 9 a.m. to approximately 4:20 p.m. (when the quarterfinals are expected to conclude), after which there is a break until 6 p.m. before the semifinals and medal bouts are held. Men's foil bouts alternate with the women's sabre event bouts.
All times are Japan Standard Time (UTC+9)
== Results ==
=== Finals ===
=== Top half ===
==== Piste Blue ====
==== Piste Yellow ====
=== Bottom half ===
==== Piste Green ====
==== Piste Red ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Draw Archived 2 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raquel_Meller#Death_and_legacy | Raquel Meller | Francisca Romana Marqués López (9 March 1888 – 26 July 1962), better known as Raquel Meller, was a Spanish diseuse, cuplé, and tonadilla singer and actress.
She was an international star in the 1920s and 1930s, appearing in several films and touring Europe and the Americas. A vaudeville performer, she sang the original versions of well known songs such as "La Violetera" and "El relicario", both written by José Padilla Sánchez.
== Early life and career ==
Meller was born in Tarazona, Zaragoza province, Aragón in the neighborhood of Cinto. Her father, Telésforo Marqués Ibañez, worked as a blacksmith and her mother, Isabel López Sainz, ran a grocery store.
Her family was one of the oldest in Aragón and were quite wealthy before becoming impoverished during the Carlist Wars. At the age of four, her family moved to Barcelona. Her father died when she was not yet 10 years old and she was placed under the care of her aunt, Sister María del Carmen, an abbess in the convent at Figueras. When her aunt asked her to become a nun, she escaped from the convent with the help of a gardener's ladder.
Meller moved back to Barcelona, where she worked as a seamstress, embroidering the robes of priests and bishops. She sang as she worked, eventually drawing crowds who would stand on the street outside of the dressmaker's shop. Aged 13, she sang at a small cabaret in Valencia. She later appeared in Madrid where she attracted the attention of the King and Queen of Spain.
Around that time she met a famous singer, Marta Oliver, a regular at the clothes shop. Under the tutelage of Oliver, the young singer made her debut in the lounge La Gran Peña in February 1908 under the name La Bella Rachel. Subsequently, she changed her name to Raquel Meller. On 16 September 1911, she made her grand debut at the Teatro Arnau in Barcelona.
In 1917, she met the Guatemalan journalist and diplomat Enrique Gómez Carrillo, whom she married in 1919. As Meller was unable to bear children, the couple adopted. The same year, Meller held her first concerts in Paris (Olympia), Argentina, Uruguay and Chile. Meller secured a divorce from Carrillo in 1922.
In 1919, Meller appeared in her first film, Los arlequines de seda y oro. In the next few years, she would star in her most successful and silent films Violettes impériales (1924) and Carmen (1926). She quickly became popular throughout the Western world and was a darling of the media. Meller was known to wear slender gold bracelets on her right wrist, each representing a significant step in her stage career.
Spanish senator Emilio Junoy alleged that Meller betrayed the spy Mata Hari to the French police in an apparent fit of jealousy over her husband Gómez Carrillo, who had penned a biography of Mata Hari. He denied the rumor, pointing out that Mata Hari was executed in 1917, two years before he married Meller.
The Russian firm Films Albatros conceived of the 1926 film Carmen as a star vehicle for Meller, whose portrayal of the main character was a great success despite being at odds with the vision of director Jacques Feyder. Though she rose to fame singing bawdy cuplés, Meller was known to be prudish. Feyder later recalled how Meller's attitude led to problems while filming:One morning, in the famous stone bullring of Ronda, pearl of Andalusia, we argued over a kiss she thought inappropriate just when we were about to shoot. Maybe because I felt for the 600 walk-ons waiting under a leaden sun, or maybe it was the sun's effect on me, unusually for me I raised my voice. She raised her arms to the sky, her bracelets tinkling, and cried out: "I don't give a fig about this Mr. Mérimée; anyway, where does he live, this Mérimée? I'll phone him!"
Meller was twice booked to perform in the United States but canceled both appearances. In 1926 she finally arrived under contract to theatrical producer E. Ray Goetz, who assured her appearance by requiring her to put up a bond of $100,000. Meller arrived via the SS Leviathan, on which she attempted to book a deluxe suite for her five Pekingese. She visited New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, Baltimore and Los Angeles.
The sight and sound of Meller were captured for the Fox Movietone sound system, first demonstrated to the public at the Sam H. Harris Theatre in New York City on 21 January 1927. The clip, not quite synchronized, was shown by a movie projector equipped to play sound-on-film, and preceded the feature film What Price Glory? originally released by Fox in November 1926.
On her 1926 visit to Los Angeles, Meller attracted the attention of Charlie Chaplin, who tried to secure her to costar with him. Though he was unsuccessful, Chaplin did incorporate the melody of the song "La Violetera" as a major theme in his 1931 film City Lights.
In 1932 Meller shot a second version of Violettes impériales for the talkies, and in 1936 began shooting Lola Triana, whose production was interrupted by the Spanish Civil War. In the 1930s Meller lived in France. She was friends with Maurice Chevalier and Sarah Bernhardt, who described Meller as the "greatest actress in Europe—after myself."
In 1937 Meller traveled to Argentina where she remained until 1939. After the Civil War she moved to Barcelona and again achieved popularity with the play of José Padilla's Violetera, and there remarried to French businessman Edmond Saiac.
== Later years ==
Meller faded from public view after the late 1930s. Her legend was rekindled with the films The Last Torch Song (1957) and The Violet Seller (1958), which starred Sara Montiel singing songs popularized by Meller.
Other notable "Queens of Cuplé" were La Chelito and La Fornarina.
== Death and legacy ==
In 1962, Meller suffered a heart attack. She died a month later on 26 July after falling into a coma, aged 74. Her funeral procession in Barcelona the following day numbered 100,000 people. She is interred in the Montjuïc Cemetery in Barcelona.
Meller's hometown of Tarazona houses a permanent museum exhibition for Meller in the Fine Arts Theater of the town hall.
== Filmography ==
La gitana blanca or Los arlequines de seda y oro (1919), as Gitana Blanca
Les opprimés (1922) by Henry Roussell, as Conception de la Playa Serra
Imperial Violets (1924)
The Night Watch (1925)
The Promised Land (1925)
Carmen (1926), as Carmen
Nocturne (1927)
La venenosa (1928)
Imperial Violets (1932)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Barreiro, Javier (1988). Gent Nostra: Raquel Meller (in Catalan). Edicions de Nou Art Thor. p. 50. ISBN 978-84-7327-186-8.
== External links ==
Raquel Meller profile at IMDb
Remembering Raquel Meller |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956_Summer_Olympics | 1956 Summer Olympics | The 1956 Summer Olympics, officially the Games of the XVI Olympiad and officially branded as Melbourne 1956, were an international multi-sport event held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, from 22 November to 8 December 1956, with the exception of the equestrian events, which were held in Stockholm, Sweden, in June 1956.
These Games were the first to be staged in the Southern Hemisphere and Oceania, as well as the first to be held outside Europe and North America. Melbourne is the most southerly city ever to host the Olympics. Due to the Southern Hemisphere's seasons being different from those in the Northern Hemisphere, the 1956 Games did not take place at the usual time of year, because of the need to hold the events during the warmer weather of the host's spring/summer (which corresponds to the Northern Hemisphere's autumn/winter), resulting in the only summer games ever to be held in November and December. Australia hosted the Games for a second time in 2000 in Sydney, New South Wales, and will host them again in 2032 in Brisbane, Queensland.
The Olympic equestrian events could not be held in Melbourne due to Australia's strict quarantine regulations, so they were held in Stockholm five months earlier. This was the second time the Olympics were not held entirely in one country, the first being the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, with some events taking place in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Despite uncertainties and various complications encountered during the preparations, the 1956 Games went ahead in Melbourne as planned and turned out to be a success. Started during the 1956 Games was the "Parade of Athletes" at the closing ceremonies.
Nine teams boycotted the Games for various reasons. Four teams (Egypt, Iraq, Cambodia and Lebanon) boycotted in response to the Suez Crisis, in which Egypt was invaded by Israel, France and the United Kingdom. Four teams (the Netherlands, Spain, Liechtenstein and Switzerland) boycotted in response to the Soviet invasion of Hungary, and the People's Republic of China's boycott was in response to a dispute with the Republic of China over the right to represent China. The Soviet Union won the most gold and overall medals at these Games.
One of the most notable events of the games was a controversial water polo match between the Soviet Union and the defending champions, Hungary. The Soviet Union had recently suppressed an anti-authoritarian revolution in Hungary and violence broke out between the teams during the match, resulting in numerous injuries. When Hungary's Ervin Zádor suffered bleeding after being punched by the Soviet Union's Valentin Prokopov, spectators attempted to join the violence, but they were blocked by police. The match was cancelled, with Hungary being declared the winner because they were in the lead.
== Host city selection ==
Melbourne was selected as the host city over bids from Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montreal, Los Angeles, Detroit, Chicago, Minneapolis, Philadelphia, and San Francisco at the 43rd IOC Session in Rome, Italy on 28 April 1949. Mexico City, Montreal and Los Angeles would eventually be selected to host the 1968, 1976 and 1984 Summer Olympics respectively.
== Prelude ==
Many members of the IOC were skeptical about Melbourne as an appropriate site. Its location in the Southern Hemisphere was a major concern since the reversal of seasons would mean the Games must be held during the northern winter. The November–December schedule was thought likely to inconvenience athletes from the Northern Hemisphere, who were accustomed to resting during their winter.
Notwithstanding these concerns, the field of candidates eventually narrowed to two Southern Hemisphere cities, these being Melbourne and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Melbourne was selected, in 1949, to host the 1956 Olympics by a one-vote margin. The first sign of trouble was the revelation that Australian equine quarantine would prevent the country from hosting the equestrian events. Stockholm was selected as the alternative site, so equestrian competition began on 10 June, five and a half months before the rest of the Olympic Games were to open.
The above problems of the Melbourne Games were compounded by bickering over financing among Australian politicians. Eventually, in March 1953, the State Government accepted a £2 million loan from the Commonwealth Government to build the Olympic Village, which would accommodate up to 6,000 people, in Heidelberg West. After the Olympics, the houses in the village were handed back to the Housing Commission for general public housing.
At one point, IOC President Avery Brundage suggested that Rome, which was to host the 1960 Games, was so far ahead of Melbourne in preparations that it might be ready as a replacement site in 1956. Constructing of the sporting venues was given priority over the athlete's village. The village was designed as a whole new suburb with semi-detached houses and flats, the first village that both sexes could cohabitate the same buildings instead of gender designated sections.
As late as April 1955, Brundage, who was presiding over the Olympics for the first time, was still doubtful about Melbourne and was not satisfied by an inspection trip to the city. Construction was well under way by then, thanks to a $4.5 million federal loan to Victoria, but it was behind schedule. He still held out the possibility that Rome might have to step in.
By the beginning of 1956, though, it was obvious that Melbourne would be ready for the Olympics.
== Participation and boycotts ==
Egypt, Iraq, Cambodia and Lebanon announced that they would not participate in the Olympics in response to the Suez Crisis when Egypt was invaded by Israel, the United Kingdom, and France.
The Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland and Liechtenstein boycotted the event in protest of the Soviet Union's crushing of the Hungarian Revolution.
The People's Republic of China chose to boycott the event because the Republic of China had been allowed to compete.
Athletes from both East and West Germany competed together as a combined team (a display of unity that was repeated in 1960 and 1964, but was then discontinued).
Although the number of countries participating (67) was almost the same as in 1952 (69), the number of athletes competing dropped sharply, from 4,925 to 3,342. (This figure does not include the 158 athletes from 29 countries who took part in the Stockholm equestrian competition.)
== Events ==
Once underway, the Games progressed smoothly, and came to be known as the "Friendly Games". Betty Cuthbert, an 18-year-old from Sydney, won the 100 and 200 metre sprint races and ran an exceptional final leg in the 4 x 100 metre relay to overcome Great Britain's lead and claim her third gold medal, becoming known as the "Golden Girl". The veteran Shirley Strickland repeated her 1952 win in the 80 metre hurdles and was also part of the winning 4 x 100 metre relay team, bringing her career Olympic medal total to seven: three golds, a silver, and three bronze medals.
Australia also triumphed in swimming. They won all of the freestyle races, men's and women's, and collected a total of eight gold, four silver and two bronze medals. Murray Rose became the first male swimmer to win two freestyle events(and a total three events) since Johnny Weissmuller in 1924, while Dawn Fraser won gold medals in the 100 metre freestyle and as the leadoff swimmer in the 4 x 100 metre relay team.
The men's track and field events were dominated by the United States. They not only won 15 of the 24 events, they swept four of them and took first and second place in five others. Bobby Morrow led the way with gold medals in the 100 and 200 metre sprints and the 4 x 100 metre relay. Tom Courtney barely overtook Great Britain's Derek Johnson in the 800 metre run, then collapsed from the exertion and needed medical attention.
Ireland's Ronnie Delany ran an outstanding 53.8 over the last 400 metres to win the 1,500 metre run(also Ireland's last gold medal in track events), in which favourite John Landy of Australia finished third.
There was a major upset, marred briefly by controversy, in the 3,000 metre steeplechase. Little-known Chris Brasher of Great Britain finished well ahead of the field, but the judges disqualified him for interfering with Norway's Ernst Larsen, and they announced Sándor Rozsnyói of Hungary as the winner. Brasher's appeal was supported by Larsen, Rozsnyói, and fourth-place finisher Heinz Laufer of Germany. Subsequently, the decision was reversed and Brasher became the first Briton to win a gold medal in track and field since 1936.
Soviet runner Vladimir Kuts won two golds by winning both the 5,000-metre and 10,000-metre events.
Only two world records were set in track and field. Mildred McDaniel, the first American woman to win gold in the sport, set a high jump record of 1.76 metres (5.8 ft), and Egil Danielsen of Norway overcame blustery conditions with a remarkable javelin throw of 85.71 metres (281.2 ft).
Throughout the Olympics, Hungarian athletes were cheered by fans from Australia and other countries. Many of them gathered in the boxing arena when thirty-year-old Laszlo Papp of Hungary won a record third gold medal by beating José Torres for the light-middleweight championship.
A few days later, the crowd was with the Hungarian water polo team in its hotly contested and emotionally charged match against the Soviet Union which took place against the background of the Soviet invasion of Hungary. The game became rough and, when a Hungarian was forced to leave the pool with a bleeding wound above his eye, a riot almost broke out. The police restored order and the game was called early, with Hungary leading 4–0, and the Hungarians went on to win the gold medal.
In a much publicized Olympic romance, American hammer throw champion Hal Connolly would marry Czechoslovak discus throw champion, Olga Fikotová. After moving to the United States, Olga wanted to continue representing Czechoslovakia, but the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee would not allow her to do so. Thereafter, as Olga Connolly, she took part in every Olympics until 1972 competing for the U.S. She was the flag bearer for the U.S. team at the 1972 Summer Olympics.
The India men's national field hockey team won its sixth consecutive Olympic gold.
Despite the international tensions of 1956—or perhaps because of them—a young Melburnian, John Ian Wing, came up with a new idea for the closing ceremony. Instead of marching as separate teams, behind their national flags, the athletes mingled together as they paraded into and around the arena for a final appearance before the spectators. It was the start of an Olympic tradition that has been followed ever since.
== Olympic torch relay ==
The Olympic flame was relayed to Melbourne after being lit at Olympia on 2 November 1956.
Greek runners took the flame from Olympia to Athens. The flame was then transferred to a miner's lamp, flown by a Qantas Super Constellation aircraft, "Southern Horizon" to Darwin, Northern Territory.
A Royal Australian Air Force English Electric Canberra jet bomber transported the flame to Cairns, Queensland, where it arrived on 9 November 1956 and the Mayor of Cairns, Alderman W.J. Fulton, lit the first torch with the torch design was identical to the one used for the 1948 London Games (except for the engraved city name and year).
The first runner was Con Verevis, a local man of Greek parentage. The flame was relayed down the east coast of Australia using die cast aluminium torches weighing about 3 pounds (1.8 kg).
The flame arrived in Melbourne on 22 November 1956, the day of the opening ceremony and The flame was lit at the Olympic stadium by Ron Clarke, who accidentally burned his arm in the process.
While the Olympic flame was being carried to Sydney, an Australian veterinary student named Barry Larkin carried a fake Olympic Flame and fooled the mayor of Sydney.
== Olympic Arts Festival ==
The Melbourne Olympic Arts Festival was an arts festival held in conjunction with the Olympics.
== Television ==
The Olympics were first televised during the 1936 games to a domestic audience in Berlin. The 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo were broadcast internationally with the organising committee giving the television rights gratis. While there was much interest in the games overseas, no international television or newsreel rights were awarded, as the Melbourne organising committee requested licensing payments for the broadcasting rights. However, domestic rights to the games were hastily agreed by the then three Melbourne stations, GTV9, HSV7 and ABV2, only a week before the opening ceremony. The three Sydney stations, TCN9, ATN7 and ABN2, syndicated the Melbourne coverage. Television in Australia was new, having its beginnings in September 1956. For many Australians, their first glimpse of television were Olympic broadcasts. Around five thousand television sets were in Australia by the time of the Games, so the domestic audience largely watched the games at community halls and at Ampol petrol stations.
== Sports ==
The 1956 Summer Olympics featured 17 different sports encompassing 23 disciplines, and medals were awarded in 151 events (145 events in Melbourne and 6 equestrian events in Stockholm). In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
=== Demonstration sports ===
Australian football (1)
Baseball (1)
== Venues ==
Ballarat
Lake Wendouree – Canoeing, Rowing
Melbourne
Broadmeadows – Cycling (road)
Hockey Field – Field hockey
Melbourne Cricket Ground – Athletics, Field hockey (final), Football (final)
Oaklands Hunt Club – Modern pentathlon (riding, running)
Olympic Park Stadium – Football
Port Phillip Bay – Sailing
Royal Australian Air Force, Laverton Air Base – Shooting (shotgun)
Royal Exhibition Building – Basketball (final), Modern pentathlon (fencing), Weightlifting, Wrestling
St Kilda Town Hall – Fencing
Swimming/Diving Stadium (Olympic Pool) – Diving, Modern pentathlon (swimming), Swimming, Water polo
Velodrome – Cycling (track)
West Melbourne Stadium – Basketball, Boxing, Gymnastics
Williamstown – Modern pentathlon (shooting), Shooting (pistol, rifle)
Stockholm
Lill-Jansskogen – Equestrian (eventing)
Olympic Stadium – Equestrian (dressage, eventing, jumping)
Ulriksdal – Equestrian (eventing)
== Participating National Olympic Committees ==
A total of 67 nations competed in the 1956 Olympics. Eight countries made their Olympic debuts: Cambodia (only competed in the equestrian events in Stockholm), Ethiopia, Fiji, Kenya, Liberia, Malaya, North Borneo (modern-day Sabah of Malaysia), and Uganda. Athletes from East Germany and West Germany competed together as the United Team of Germany, an arrangement that would last until 1968.
For the first time, the team of Republic of China effectively represented only Taiwan.
Five nations competed in the equestrian events in Stockholm, but did not attend the Games in Melbourne. Cambodia, Egypt and Lebanon did not compete in Melbourne due to a boycott regarding the Suez Crisis, whilst the Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland all boycotted the Melbourne Olympics in protest at the Soviet invasion of Hungary.
Nations that returned to the games in this edition included Afghanistan and Colombia.
Nations that participated in the previous games in Helsinki 1952 but was absent in Melbourne 1956 included the People's Republic of China, Liechtenstein, Netherlands Antilles, and Saar. Saar joined West Germany in 1957.
Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and commonwealth of the United States. Bahamas, Bermuda, Fiji, Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), Hong Kong, Jamaica, Kenya, Nigeria, Malaya, North Borneo, Singapore, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda and British Guyana was all part of the British Empire.
=== Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees ===
== Medal count ==
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1956 Games.
Key
* Host nation (Australia). John Ian Wing of Australia was also presented with a bronze medal, not included in the above table, for suggesting the closing ceremony have athletes as one nation.
== See also ==
1956 Winter Olympics
Olympic Games held in Australia
1956 Summer Olympics – Melbourne
2000 Summer Olympics – Sydney
2032 Summer Olympics – Brisbane
List of IOC country codes
2005 Summer Deaflympics
2006 Commonwealth Games
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
"Melbourne - Stockholm 1956". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield_Doughnut#History | Springfield Doughnut | The Springfield Doughnut is a sculpture of a pink doughnut with sprinkles located in Springfield, New Zealand. It is based on the doughnut frequently featured in the American animated sitcom The Simpsons, which is set in a city also named Springfield. It was presented to the town by 20th Century Fox to promote the 2007 film The Simpsons Movie. The sculpture has a diameter of 3.5 metres (11 ft) and weighs 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons).
== History ==
The original sculpture, constructed from polystyrene encased in fibreglass, was first presented to the town of Springfield in July 2007 by 20th Century Fox in efforts to promote the 2007 film The Simpsons Movie. It was given a resource consent that said the doughnut would only be in place for six weeks. In September 2009, an arsonist lit the doughnut on fire, which destroyed it. As this occurred on the same day as the consent hearings discussing whether the sculpture should remain permanently, there was suspicion that the perpetrator was an opponent of the doughnut who saw it as a degradation of the landscape or believed that the town should "not associate with American cartoons about dysfunctional families". Afterwards, Springfield locals painted a tractor tyre pink and tan, removed a "bite" from it and adorned it with sprinkles to take the place of the destroyed sculpture.
On the afternoon of 1 July 2012, a replacement sculpture was unveiled. This sculpture is made from concrete, has a diameter of 3.5 metres (11 ft) and weighs 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons). It is fireproof and has steps that allow people to take pictures with their heads poking through the middle. Between 2020 and 2023, after the paintwork began flaking and falling off, the sculpture was repainted four times, costing $17,864.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Ficquelmont#Minister-President_of_the_Austrian_Empire | Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont | Karl Ludwig, Count of Ficquelmont (German: [ˈfɪkɛlˌmɔnt]; French: Charles-Louis comte de Ficquelmont; 23 March 1777 – 7 April 1857) was an Austrian aristocrat, statesman and General of the cavalry of the Austrian Imperial army of French noble origin.
== Biography ==
=== French nobleman ===
He was born Gabriel-Charles-Louis-Bonnaventure, Count de Ficquelmont at the Castle of Dieuze, in his family's estate in the present-day French département of Moselle. A member of a noble family from Lorraine dating back to the 14th century (House of Ficquelmont), he was introduced to King Louis XVI at Versailles in 1789.
Only a few months later, the French Revolution started. His family, as aristocrats, were targeted by the Revolution; several of his relatives were beheaded and many of their estates were confiscated during the Terreur era. Ficquelmont chose to join the "Army of the Princes" fighting against revolutionary France.
=== Austrian military ===
He eventually entered the military service of the Habsburg monarchy in 1793. Ficquelmont participated in all Austrian campaigns in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was regarded as a brilliant military officer. In 1809, he rose to the rank of Oberst and was appointed chief of staff of Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este. In 1811 and 1812, he led troops in Spain, where his victories attracted the attention of Emperor Napoleon I, who unsuccessfully tried to recruit him. He was then elevated to the rank of Generalmajor in 1814 and received the capitulation of Lyon a few months later.
In the following decades, Ficquelmont continued his rise in the imperial Austrian military, achieving the following promotions:
1830: Feldmarschallleutnant
1831: General of the Dragoons
1840-1848: Minister of the State and conferences, in charge of the Imperial Army
1843: General of the cavalry
=== Austrian diplomat ===
In 1815, thanks to his credentials as a gifted military officer loyal to the Habsburgs, Ficquelmont was approached to represent Austria as a diplomat.
As the War of the Sixth Coalition ended, he was sent to Stockholm as the Austrian Ambassador Extraordinary to Sweden. His mission was to smooth relations between Austria and the newly elected heir to the Swedish throne and former French General Bernadotte in order to maintain him within the coalition during the progressing towards the Congress of Vienna. The mission was a success, launching Ficquelmont's diplomatic career.
After the fall of Napoleon, Italy was once again the key sphere of influence of the Austrian Empire, which intended to exert control over its many states. In 1820, Ficquelmont was appointed Ambassador to Tuscany and Lucca, in order to increase Austrian influence over Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany. He met his future wife, Russian countess Dorothea von Tiesenhaussen, while in Florence.
In 1821 he was appointed ambassador plenipotentiary to the Naples in the midst of the political crisis that followed the 1820 Carbonari Revolution. In July 1820 a military revolt broke out in Naples, forcing their king into signing a constitution based on the model of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Holy Alliance feared the revolt might spread to other Italian states and turn into a general European conflagration, so Austria sent an army to march into Naples to restore order. The Austrians defeated the Neapolitans at Rieti (7 March 1821) and entered Naples. Ficquelmont was sent to manage the following occupation. He soon gained enormous influence over king Ferdinand I and Neapolitan elites and practically administrated the kingdom, ensuring Austria's grasp over its domestic and foreign policies. While in Naples, Ficquelmont was recognized as Austria's main diplomatic asset for his political subtlety as well as his social skills, "Count de Ficquelmont's personality is made of Germanic seriousness, Italian subtlety but, above all, it is made of the prodigious 18th century French nobility's wit"
In 1829, Ficquelmont was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to Russia. Ficquelmont's wife, countess Dorothea von Tiesenhausen, was the heiress of the prominent Tiesenhausen family as well as the granddaughter of Prince Kutuzov and became influential on the politics of Emperor Nicholas I. The Saltykov Mansion that was the Austrian Embassy had been described as a "place of wisdom and intelligence" and as "(...) the setting the two most illustrious salon of the period (1830s), reigned over by Ficquelmont's wife". Ficquelmont's and Dorothea's influence in Russia was long-lasting and as a sign of his appreciation, Emperor Nicolas I awarded him the Orders of St. Andrew, St. Alexander Nevsky, St. Vladimir, and St. Anna.
=== Austrian statesman ===
In 1839, Ficquelmont was recalled to Vienna to assume the duties of the Foreign Office during the absence of Prince Metternich.
In 1840, he was appointed Minister of the State and Conferences and chief of staff of the Imperial Army. Ficquelmont was not only Prince Metternich's right-hand man but officially the second most senior statesmen of the Empire, "Count de Ficquelmont stands just behind or next to Prince Metternich (..) Every conference starts with Count de Ficquelmont and ends with Prince Metternich".
Back in Vienna, the Ficquelmonts were some of the most prominent social figures of the Imperial court, "Count de Ficquelmont's salon is the most sophisticated, the most erudite, the most mindful, and the most beloved of Vienna". In 1841, Ficquelmont's daughter, countess Elizabeth Alexandrine, married Prince Edmund von Clary-und-Aldringen, heir to one of the Empire's most prominent princely family.
In 1847, Ficquelmont was sent to Milan as acting Chancellor of Lombardy–Venetia and senior advisor of its viceroy, Archduke Rainer Joseph of Austria. Resentment against Austrian rule was growing and Ficquelmont was appointed to restore it while taking over Northern Italy's administration. After just a few months, he was recalled to Vienna to assume the leadership of the Council of War as the Revolutions of 1848 started.
=== Minister-President of the Austrian Empire ===
As the Revolutions of 1848 continued, Ficquelmont played an instrumental role. From early 1848 to 13 March, he led the Austrian Council of War. On 13 March Prince Metternich gave his resignation and fled the country. Ficquelmont then assumed his duties until 17 March, when Count Franz Anton von Kolowrat was appointed Minister-President. From 17 March until the fall of the Kolowrat cabinet on 3 April, Ficquelmont took charge of the Department of Foreign Affairs and the War Ministry.
On 4 April Ficquelmont became Minister-President of the Empire. However, due to his close ties with the "Metternich System" and the Russian tsar, popular feeling against him compelled him to resign on 4 May. It was a violent period, his wife Countess Dolly, who was at their Venice's palace at the time, was arrested twice by the Venetian guarda civil and finally had to flee the city on board an English ship with her daughter, son-in-law, and grandchildren. Moreover, Ficquelmont's kinsman in the War Ministry, count Theodor Franz Baillet von Latour, was lynched during the Vienna Uprising of October 1848.
=== Later life ===
After the end of the revolutions, Ficquelmont refused to return to politics to dedicated himself to the writing and publishing of several political essays that gained wide recognition throughout Europe.
Germany, Austria and Prussia published in Vienna in 1851
Lord Palmerston, England and the Continent published in Vienna in 1852
The Religious Side of the Eastern Question and Politics of Russia and the Danubian Principalitie published in Vienna in 1854
The Peace to Come: A Matter of Conscience published in Vienna in 1856
Moral and Political thoughts of the Count de Ficquelmont, State Minister of Austria, published posthumously in Paris in 1859
In 1852, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria made Ficquelmont a Knight of the Golden Fleece, the most prestigious order of the Empire.
In his later years, Ficquelmont retired first to his palace of Vienna and later to his Venetian palace, where he died in 1857 at the age of 81.
== Family ==
As a consequence of the French Revolution, the Ficquelmont family spread across Europe. Beyond Austria and France, members of the family settled in Italy, Hungary, England and the Netherlands, where one of Charles-Louis's uncle, Count Antoine-Charles de Ficquelmont (1753−1833), recreated the title Count de Ficquelmont in the Dutch nobility (16 July 1822).
Charles-Louis had five siblings of which only one had issue, one girl and one boy. His niece was Clotilde de Vaux (Paris 1815–Paris 1846), who gave philosopher Auguste Comte the inspiration for the Religion of Humanity organized around the public veneration of Humanity through a Goddess made after her.
In 1821, Ficquelmont, 44, married countess Dorothea von Tiesenhausen (St. Petersburg 1804 − Venice 1863), 17, granddaughter of Prince Kutuzov. Countess Dorothea de Ficquelmont was famous for her beauty, while living in Naples a famous Neapolitan proverb was diverted to praise her looks « Vedi Napoli, la Ficquelmont e poi muori ! » (« To see Naples, the countess Ficquelmont, and die ! »). Countess Dolly was also famous for her letter-writing and diary (the former was published in Italian and Russian in 1950) telling of her life as a high society's aristocrat in 19th-century Europe.
The couple had only one daughter, Elisabeth-Alexandrine-Marie-Thérèse de Ficquelmont (Naples 1825 − Venice 1878), Countess de Ficquelmont by birth and Princess Clary und Aldringen by her marriage to Edmund, 4th Prince of Clary-Aldringen. Through Elisabeth, he was a grandfather of Prince Siegfried von Clary-Aldringen (Teplitz 1848 − Teplitz 1929) and Count Manfred von Clary-Aldringen (Vienna 1852 − Salzburg 1928).
== Decorations ==
Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Januarius
== Works ==
Aufklärungen über die Zeit vom 20 März bis zum 4 Mai, 1848 (second edition, 1850)
Die religiöse Seite der orientalischen Frage (second edition, 1854)
Deutschland, Österreich und Preußen (1851)
Lord Palmerston, England und der Kontinent (2 volumes, 1852)
Die religiöse Seite der orientalischen Frage (1854)
Russlands Politik und die Donaufürstentümer (1854)
Zum künftigen Frieden: e. Gewissensfrage (1856)
Pensées et réflexions morales et politiques du Comte de Ficquelmont, ministre d'état en Autriche (1859)
== References ==
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_One_with_the_Jellyfish | The One with the Jellyfish | The fourth season of the American television sitcom Friends aired on NBC from September 25, 1997 to May 7, 1998.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main cast ===
Jennifer Aniston as Rachel Green
Courteney Cox as Monica Geller
Lisa Kudrow as Phoebe Buffay
Matt LeBlanc as Joey Tribbiani
Matthew Perry as Chandler Bing
David Schwimmer as Ross Geller
=== Recurring cast ===
Helen Baxendale as Emily Waltham
Tate Donovan as Joshua Burgin
Giovanni Ribisi as Frank Buffay, Jr.
Debra Jo Rupp as Alice Knight
Alison La Placa as Joanna
Michael G. Hagerty as Mr. Treeger
James Michael Tyler as Gunther
Teri Garr as Phoebe Abbott
Paxton Whitehead as Mr. Waltham
Laura Dean as Sophie
Paget Brewster as Kathy
=== Guest stars ===
Maggie Wheeler as Janice Litman
Elliott Gould as Jack Geller
Christina Pickles as Judy Geller
Jane Sibbett as Carol Willick
Jessica Hecht as Susan Bunch
Penn Jillette as Encyclopedia Salesman
Dan Gauthier as Chip Matthews
Rebecca Romijn as Cheryl
Taylor Negron as Alessandro
Sherri Shepherd as Rhonda, the tour guide
Tom Conti as Steven Waltham
Jennifer Saunders as Andrea Waltham
June Whitfield as the housekeeper
Olivia Williams as Felicity
Jane Carr as the ticket agent
Hugh Laurie as The Gentleman on the Plane
Richard Branson as souvenir seller
== Episodes ==
== Home media ==
The fourth season was officially released on DVD in region 1 on July 15, 2003 by Warner Home Video, as a 4-disc DVD Box Set. The release includes the extended versions of every episode with footage not seen on their original NBC broadcast. Special Features include 3 audio commentaries with executive producers Kevin S. Bright, Marta Kaufmann and David Crane, a video guide to season four's guest stars, a full-length documentary exploring the Friends phenomenon in other countries, a trivia quiz and video character bios. For region 2, the release included the original NBC broadcast version of the episodes, and not the extended versions unlike the region 1 release.
Season 4 was released on Blu-ray altogether with the rest of the series on the Complete Series releases; in this releases the episodes are presented in their original NBC broadcast versions and does not include the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included in the DVD version. Additional audio and subtitle tracks are also included with this releases.
== Reception ==
Collider ranked the season Number 8 on their ranking of all ten Friends seasons, and named "The One with the Embryos" as its standout episode.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Friends at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Supreme_Federal_Court | President of the Supreme Federal Court | The President of the Supreme Federal Court is the highest-ranking officer of the Brazilian judiciary branch. The holder is also president of the National Council of Justice (CNJ). Among their responsibilities are representing both the Court and the council before other branches of government and authorities, presiding over plenary sessions of both institutions, enforcing the bylaws of the Court and Council, deciding points of order in their respective sessions, making decisions on injunctions during recess or vacation, and swearing in justices of the Supreme Court and councillors of the CNJ. The President of the Supreme Federal Court is fourth in the Brazilian presidential line of succession and presides all impeachment trials at the federal level.
The President and Vice President of the Supreme Court are elected by their peers through a secret ballot, requiring a minimum quorum of eight justices. The election follows a two-round system, and the offices are held for a single, non-renewable two-year term. For most of Brazil’s republican history, the process has followed a tradition of rotation: the most senior justice who has not yet served becomes President, and the second-most senior is elected Vice President. This practice is not established by law but upheld as a long-standing custom of the Court.
The self-governance and self-determination of the Supreme Federal Court regarding the choice of its president did not exist in two historical periods. During the monarchy, the Emperor of Brazil appointed the President of the Supreme Court of Justice for a renewable three-year term. Under the Constitution of 1937, the President of Brazil appointed the President of the Court from among the justices of the current composition for an indefinite term.
The longest presidency was held by Hermínio do Espírito Santo for 13 years and 312 days, while the shortest was held by Leoni Ramos for 23 days. The current President is Justice Edson Fachin, who has held the position since 29 September 2025.
== Presidents of the Supreme Court of Justice (1829–1891) ==
== Presidents of the Supreme Federal Court (1891–present) ==
== Timeline ==
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Kathmandu | Mayor of Kathmandu | The mayor of Kathmandu is the head of the municipal executive of Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The officeholder is elected for a five-year term and limited to serving no more than two terms. The role was first created in 1932 during the Rana regime.
The current mayor is Balendra Shah, who was elected in the 2022 election and took office on 30 May 2022. The position has been held by fifteen people in a permanent capacity since its creation.
The city of Kathmandu is scrutinized by the Kathmandu Metropolitan City Municipal Assembly and the mayor is supported by the Municipal Executive which consists of ward chairs of all 32 wards of Kathmandu.
== History ==
Kathmandu was first declared as a municipality in 1932 after the formulation of the Kathmandu Municipality Sabal act. It was founded as a waste management department and Singh Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was appointed as the first 'Mayor Man' of Kathmandu municipality in the same year by the government of Chandra Shumsher.
In 1947, the first municipal elections were held in Kathmandu. Gehendra Shumsher Thapa was appointed as the chairman of Kathmandu by the Rana regime and Shankar Dev Pant was elected as his deputy from the common people.
In the first democratic elections since the fall of the Rana regime in 1953, Janak Man Shrestha was elected as mayor of Kathmandu by the council in an indirect election and became the city's first elected mayor. After King Mahendra's coup d'teat in 1960, the position of mayor was abolished and the Pradhan Panch (Council Head) would be the elected head of Kathmandu municipality.
Kathmandu municipality was declared as a metropolitan city by mayor Prem Lal Singh in 1995 and Keshav Sthapit was elected as the first mayor of the metropolitan city in 1997.
== Power and functions ==
Local government in Nepal has authority over the local units pursuant to Schedule 8 of the Constitution of Nepal. The mayor derives its power from the Local Government Operation Act, 2017.
The main functions of the mayor are:
Summon and chair meetings of the municipal assembly and the municipal executive.
Table agendas and proposals to the municipal assembly and the municipal executive.
Prepare and present the annual programme and budget.
Enforce the decisions of the assembly and the executive.
Oversee the work of committees and sub-committees of the municipality and ward committees.
The mayor of Kathmandu is also a member of the Kathmandu District Assembly, and an ex-officio member of the Pashupati Area Development Trust, the Boudhanath Area Development Committee, the senate of the National Academy of Medical Sciences and the chairman of the Valley Municipal Forum.
== List of mayors ==
=== Rana regime (1932–51) ===
=== Transition period (1953–60) ===
=== Panchayat era (1966–90) ===
=== Constitutional monarchy era (1990–2008) ===
=== Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (2017–present) ===
== See also ==
History of Kathmandu
Mayor of Pokhara
Mayor of Dharan
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile | Nile | The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is an important river in Africa that flows northwards into the Mediterranean Sea. At roughly 6,650 km (4,130 mi) long, it is among the longest rivers in the world. Its drainage basin covers eleven countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt. It plays an important economic role in the economy of these nations, and it is the primary water source for South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt.
The Nile has two major tributaries: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The White Nile, being the longer, is traditionally considered to be the headwaters, while the Blue Nile actually contributes 80% of the water and silt below the confluence of the two. The White Nile begins at Lake Victoria and flows through Uganda and South Sudan, while the Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.
After Khartoum the river flows north, almost entirely through the Nubian Desert, to Cairo and its large delta, joining the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria. Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river and its annual flooding since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of the Aswan Dam. Nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt developed and are found along river banks. The Nile is, with the Rhône and Po, one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest water discharge.
== Etymology ==
In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥꜥpy (Hapy) or Jtrw (Iteru), meaning "river". In Coptic, the word ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲟ, pronounced piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic), means "the river" (lit. p(h).iar-o "the-canal-great"), and comes from the same ancient name. In Nobiin, the river is called Áman Dawū, meaning "the great water". In Luganda, the river is called Kiira or Kiyira. In Runyoro, it is called Kihiira. In Egyptian Arabic, the Nile is called en-Nīl, while in Standard Arabic it is called an-Nīl. In Biblical Hebrew, it is הַיְאוֹר, Ha-Ye'or or הַשִׁיחוֹר, Ha-Shiḥor.
The English name Nile and the Arabic names en-Nîl and an-Nîl both derive from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος. Beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed. Homer called the river Αἴγυπτος, Aiguptos, but in subsequent periods, Greek authors referred to its lower course as Neilos; this term later became generalized for the entire river system. Thus, the name may derive from Ancient Egyptian expression nꜣ rꜣw-ḥꜣw(t) (lit. 'the mouths of the front parts'), which referred specifically to the branches of the Nile transversing the Delta, and would have been pronounced ni-lo-he in the area around Memphis in the 8th century BCE. Hesiod at his Theogony refers to Nilus (Νεῖλος) as one of the river gods, son of Oceanus and Tethys. The name may also derive from the Semitic term naḥal, meaning "river". Another derivation of Nile might be related to the term Nil (Sanskrit: नील, romanized: nila; Egyptian Arabic: نيلة), which refers to Indigofera tinctoria, one of the original sources of indigo dye. Another may be Nymphaea caerulea, known as "The Sacred Blue Lily of the Nile", which was found scattered over Tutankhamun's corpse when it was excavated in 1922. Old Libyan has the term lilu, meaning water (in modern Berber ilel ⵉⵍⴻⵍ means sea).
== Courses ==
With a total length of about 6,650 km (4,130 mi) between the region of Lake Victoria and the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile is among the longest rivers on Earth. The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometers (1,256,591 sq mi), about 10% of the area of Africa. Compared to other major rivers, though, the Nile carries little water (5% of that of the Congo River, for example). The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the main stem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation and evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow.
Upstream from Khartoum (to the south), the river is known as the White Nile, a term also used in a limited sense to describe the section between Lake No and Khartoum. At Khartoum, the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift.
=== Sources ===
The source of the Blue Nile is Lake Tana in the Gish Abay region in the Ethiopian Highlands.
The source of the White Nile, even after centuries of exploration, remains in dispute. The most remote source that is indisputably a source for the White Nile is of the Kagera River; however, the Kagera has multiple tributaries that are in contention for the farthest source of the White Nile. Two start in Burundi: the Ruvyironza River (also known as the Luvironza) and the Rurubu River. In addition, in 2010, an exploration party in Rwanda went to a place described as the source of the Rukarara tributary, and by hacking a path up steep jungle-choked mountain slopes in the Nyungwe Forest found (in the dry season) an appreciable incoming surface flow for many kilometres upstream, thence finding a new source, giving the Nile a length of 6,758 km (4,199 mi).
=== In Uganda ===
The White Nile leaves Lake Victoria at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the "Victoria Nile." It flows north for some 130 kilometers (81 mi) to Lake Kyoga. The last part of the approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) river section starts from the western shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of Masindi Port, where the river turns north, then makes a great half circle to the east and north to Karuma Falls. For the remaining part, it flows westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta. Lake Albert is on the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the Nile is not a border river at this point. After leaving Lake Albert, the river continues north through Uganda and is known as the Albert Nile.
=== In South Sudan ===
The White Nile flows into South Sudan just south of Nimule, where it is known as the Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain River"). Just south of the town is the confluence with the Achwa River. The Bahr al Ghazal, 716 kilometers (445 mi) long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called Lake No, after which the Nile becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the whitish clay suspended in its waters. When the Nile floods it leaves a rich silty deposit which fertilizes the soil. The Nile no longer floods in Egypt since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1970. An anabranch river, the Bahr el Zeraf, flows out of the Nile's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile.
The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at Mongalla is almost constant throughout the year and averages 1,048 m3/s (37,000 cu ft/s). After Mongalla, the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region. More than half of the Nile's water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration. The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about 510 m3/s (18,000 cu ft/s). From here it meets with the Sobat River at Malakal. On an annual basis, the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about 15% of the total outflow of the Nile.
The average flow of the White Nile at Lake Kawaki Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is 924 m3/s (32,600 cu ft/s); the peak flow is approximately 1,218 m3/s (43,000 cu ft/s) in October and minimum flow is about 609 m3/s (21,500 cu ft/s) in April. This fluctuation is caused by the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat, which has a minimum flow of about 99 m3/s (3,500 cu ft/s) in March and a peak flow of over 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s) in October. During the dry season (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70% and 90% of the total discharge from the Nile.
=== In Sudan ===
Below Renk, the White Nile enters Sudan and flows north to Khartoum, where it joins the Blue Nile.
The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over six groups of cataracts, from the sixth at Sabaloka just north of Khartoum northward to Abu Hamad. The tectonic uplift of the Nubian Swell diverts the river south-west for over 300 km, following the structure of the Central African Shear Zone embracing the Bayuda Desert. At Al Dabbah it resumes its northward course towards the first cataract at Aswan forming the S-shaped Great Bend of the Nile mentioned by Eratosthenes.
In the north of Sudan, the river enters Lake Nasser (known in Sudan as Lake Nubia), the larger part of which is in Egypt.
=== In Egypt ===
Below the Aswan Dam, at the northern limit of Lake Nasser, the Nile resumes its historic course. North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch (an anglicized version of the name Rashid) to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta.
=== Sediment transport ===
The annual sediment transport by the Nile in Egypt has been quantified.
At Aswan: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 28% of bedload
At Beni Sweif: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 20% of bedload
At Qena: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 27% of bedload
At Sohag: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 13% of bedload
== Tributaries ==
=== Atbarah River ===
Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the Atbarah River, also known as the Red Nile. Roughly halfway to the sea, it originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) long. The Atbarah flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it typically dries up north of Khartoum.
=== Blue Nile ===
The Blue Nile (Amharic: ዓባይ, ʿĀbay) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the Nile. Ninety percent of the water and ninety-six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile come from the Atbarah and Blue Nile, both of which originate in Ethiopia, with fifty-nine percent of the water coming from the Blue Nile. The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season when rainfall is especially high in the Ethiopian Highlands; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts, the Blue Nile dries out completely.
The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the dry season the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as 113 m3/s (4,000 cu ft/s), although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the wet season, the peak flow of the Blue Nile often exceeds 5,663 m3/s (200,000 cu ft/s) in late August (a difference of a factor of 50).
Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over 8,212 m3/s (290,000 cu ft/s) occurred during late August and early September, and minimum flows of about 552 m3/s (19,500 cu ft/s) occurred during late April and early May.
=== Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat River ===
The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of discharge.
The Bahr al Ghazal's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile's sub-basins, measuring 520,000 square kilometers (200,000 sq mi) in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about 2 m3/s (71 cu ft/s) annually, because tremendous volumes of water are lost in the Sudd wetlands.
The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land, 225,000 km2 (86,900 sq mi), but contributes 412 cubic meters per second (14,500 cu ft/s) annually to the Nile. When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile's color.
=== Yellow Nile ===
The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the Ouaddaï highlands of eastern Chad to the Nile River Valley c. 8000 to c. 1000 BCE. Its remains are known as the Wadi Howar. The wadi passes through Gharb Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend.
== History ==
The Nile has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt developing along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in Libya and flow into the Gulf of Sidra. As the sea level rose at the end of the most recent ice age, the stream which is now the northern Nile captured the ancestral Nile near Asyut. This change in climate also led to the current extents of the Sahara desert, around 3400 BCE.
=== Khufu branch ===
The Giza pyramid complex originally overlooked a branch of the Nile that no longer exists. This branch was highest during the African Humid Period.
=== Ancient Niles ===
The existing Nile has five earlier phases:
i) the Upper Miocenian Eonile, of about 6 million years BP;
ii) the Upper Pliocenian Paleonile, commencing about 3.32 million years BP, and during the Pleistocene;
iii) The Nile phases, including the Proto-Nile, commencing about 600,000 years BP;
iv) Pre-Nile;
v) transitioning at about 400,000 years BP to the Neo-Nile.
Flowing north from the Ethiopian Highlands, satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. A canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents the Eonile that flowed during 23–5.3 million years before present. The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean; several natural gas fields have been discovered within these sediments.
During the late-Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred metres below world ocean level at Aswan and 2,400 m (7,900 ft) below Cairo. This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment after the Mediterranean was recreated. At some point the sediments raised the riverbed sufficiently for the river to overflow westward into a depression to create Lake Moeris.
Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern Zambia. The currently existing Nile first flowed during the former parts of the Würm glaciation period.
Affad 23 is an archaeological site located in alluvial deposits formed by an ancient channel of the Nile in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach, Sudan.
=== Integrated Nile ===
There are two theories about the age of the integrated Nile. One is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Rushdi Said postulates that Egypt supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.
The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile, the Atbara and the Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times.
R. B. Salama suggests that a series of separate closed continental basins each occupied one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System that during the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million to 2.588 million years ago): Mellut rift, White Nile rift, Blue Nile rift, Atbara rift and Sag El Naam rift.
The Mellut Basin is nearly 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) deep at its central part. This rift could possibly be still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamp which forms the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift system, although shallower than the Bahr el Arab rift, is about 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5–9 kilometers (3.1–5.6 mi). These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill and connect them.
The Egyptian Nile connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial headwaters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift systems. The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The Atbarah overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods that occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile connected to the main Nile during the 70,000–80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago during the African humid period.
=== Role in the founding of Egyptian civilization ===
The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that "Egypt was the gift of the Nile". An unending source of sustenance, it played a crucial role in the development of Egyptian civilization. Because the river overflowed its banks annually and deposited new layers of silt, the surrounding land was very fertile. The Ancient Egyptians cultivated and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine-plagued Middle East. This trading system secured Egypt's diplomatic relationships with other countries and contributed to economic stability. Far-reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times. A tune, Hymn to the Nile, was created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization.
Water buffalo were introduced from Asia, and the Assyrians introduced camels in the 7th century BCE. These animals were raised for meat and were domesticated and used for ploughing—or in the camels' case, carriage. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods.
The Nile was also an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Hapi was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.
As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the three cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each, were called Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth. Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.
=== European search for the source ===
To the ancient Greeks and Romans, the upper reaches of the White Nile remained largely unknown, as they failed to penetrate the Sudd wetlands of South Sudan. Vitruvius thought that source of the Nile was in Mauritania, on the "other" (south) side of the Atlas Mountains. Various expeditions failed to determine the river's source. Agatharchides records that in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian Highlands, but no European of antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana. The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in 1154.
Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 14th century when the Pope sent monks as emissaries to Mongolia who passed India, the Middle East and Africa, and described being told of the source of the Nile in Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Later in the 15th and 16th centuries, travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Supposedly, Paolo Trevisani (c. 1452–1483), a Venetian traveller in Ethiopia, wrote a journal of his travels to the origin of the Nile that has since been lost.
James Bruce claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters.
Modern writers give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez. Páez's account of the source of the Nile is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. It was published in full only in the early 20th century, but was featured in works of Páez's contemporaries, like Baltazar Téllez, Athanasius Kircher and Johann Michael Vansleb.
Europeans had been resident in Ethiopia since the late 15th century and one of them may have visited the headwaters even earlier without leaving a written trace. The Portuguese João Bermudes published the first description of the Tis Issat Falls in his 1565 memoirs, compared them to the Nile Falls alluded to in Cicero's De Republica. Jerónimo Lobo describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. Telles also uses his account.
The White Nile was even less understood. The ancients mistakenly believed that the Niger River represented the upper reaches of the White Nile. For example, Pliny the Elder writes that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower Mauretania", flowed above ground for "many days" distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the Masaesyli, then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians."
Modern exploration of the Nile basin began with the conquest of the northern and central Sudan by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and his sons from 1821 onward. As a result of this, the Blue Nile was known as far as its exit from the Ethiopian foothills and the White Nile as far as the mouth of the Sobat River. Three expeditions under a Turkish officer, Selim Bimbashi, were made between 1839 and 1842, and two got to the point about 30 kilometres (20 miles) beyond the present port of Juba, where the country rises and rapids make navigation very difficult.
Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when British explorer John Hanning Speke reached its southern shore while traveling with Richard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the great lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water" for the first time, Speke named the lake after Queen Victoria. Burton, recovering from illness and resting further south on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was outraged that Speke claimed to have proven his discovery to be the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A quarrel ensued which sparked intense debate within the scientific community and interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke's discovery. British explorer and missionary David Livingstone pushed too far west and entered the Congo River system instead. It was ultimately Welsh-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley who confirmed Speke's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at Ripon Falls on the lake's northern shore.
=== Since 1950 ===
The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river using sails and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The river's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile which form an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impedes water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to build the Jonglei Canal to bypass the swamp.
Nile cities include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the Giza – Cairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan, north of the Aswan Dam. This part of the river is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.
A computer simulation study to plan the economic development of the Nile was directed by H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, for the Ministry of Hydro-power of Sudan, during 1955–57 Morrice was their hydrological adviser, and Allan his predecessor. The calculations were enabled by accurate monthly inflow data collected for 50 years. The underlying principle was the use of over-year storage, to conserve water from rainy years for use in dry years. Irrigation, navigation and other needs were considered. Each computer run postulated a set of reservoirs and operating equations for the release of water as a function of the month and the levels upstream. The behavior that would have resulted given the inflow data was modeled. Over 600 models were run. Recommendations were made to the Sudanese authorities. The calculations were run on an IBM 650 computer. Simulation studies to design water resources are discussed further in the article on hydrology transport models, which have been used since the 1980s to analyze water quality.
Despite the development of many reservoirs, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan, but Egypt was nourished by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Drought has proven to be a major cause of fatality in the Nile river basin. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, droughts in the last century have affected around 170 million people and killed half a million people. From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.
== Water sharing dispute ==
The Nile waters have affected the populations, cultures, economies, and politics of Northeast Africa and the Nile Basin for many decades. The most recent water sharing dispute is the dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the $4.5 billion Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which has become a national preoccupation in both countries, stoking patriotism, deep-seated fears and even murmurs of war. In both Egypt and Ethiopia the Nile and the Grand Ethiopian Renaisance Dam are parts of the national identity. In Ethiopia it is seen as a path towards increased development, whereas in Egypt fears of drought and water shortage prevail. For Egypt, to justify its excessive access to Nile waters, three treaties signed in 1902, 1929, and 1959 are used, which are however criticized. The 1902 and 1929 treaties were heavily influenced by colonialism as the British Empire made African colonies make concessions on Nile waters to the benefit of British Egypt. With the end of colonialism and the emergence of postcolonialism, these treaties are seen as colonial products, which have lost their validity. The distribution of Nile waters in the treaties also sets the foundation for the alliance of Sudan and Egypt in the Nile Basin. Both states distributed practically all Nile waters between them in the 1959 agreement and still align their politics regarding the Nile waters. After the announcement of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Sudan and Egypt conducted three military exercises together.
Already before the plans for the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam were published in 2014, several attempts have been made to establish new agreements between the countries sharing the Nile waters. Countries including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about Egyptian domination of its water resources and the 1999 Nile Basin Initiative promoted a peaceful cooperation among those states. On 14 May 2010 at Entebbe, Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Tanzania signed a new agreement on sharing the Nile waters even though this agreement raised strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan. Ideally, such international agreements should promote equitable and efficient usage of the Nile basin's water resources. Without a better understanding about the availability of the future water resources of the Nile, it is possible that conflicts could arise between these countries relying on the Nile for their water supply, economic and social developments. The conflicting priorities of the Nile riparian countries according to different domestic factors such as socioeconomic status, level of development, or climatic conditions severely affect the stance of Egypt and Ethiopia in negotiations. In the several rounds of negotiations since 2014 especially the filling and operation of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in times of water scarcity appeared to be a critical topic where no consensus was found. The talks about the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam are almost exclusively between Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia, however some rounds of negotiations were accompanied and led by other actors such as the United States, the African Union, or the European Union. The failure of the several rounds of negotiations has led some to argue that the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam dispute might develop into a water war. Especially after the failed negotiations led by the United States, this risk was discussed as president Trump threatened that Egypt might "blow up the dam". Nevertheless, a water war is thus far considered unlikely, given the serious consequences this would have for the countries involved and the region. Also, given the high protection of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam it is unclear if the Egyptian military would be successful in an attack.
== Modern achievements and exploration ==
=== White Nile ===
In 1951, American John Goddard together with two French explorers became the first to successfully navigate the entire Nile from its source in Burundi at the potential headsprings of the Kagera River in Burundi to its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea, a journey of approximately 6,800 km (4,200 mi). Their 9-month journey is described in the book Kayaks down the Nile.
The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendrik Coetzee, navigated the White Nile's entire length of approximately 3,700 kilometres (2,300 mi). The expedition began at the White Nile's beginning at Lake Victoria in Uganda, on 17 January 2004 and arrived at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, four and a half months later.
=== Blue Nile ===
The Blue Nile Expedition, led by geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first known people to descend the entire Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Their approximately 5,230-kilometre (3,250 mi) journey took 114 days, from 25 December 2003 to 28 April 2004. Though their expedition included others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to complete the entire journey. Although they descended whitewater manually, the team used outboard motors for much of their journey.
On 29 January 2005, Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner completed the first human-powered transit of Ethiopia's Blue Nile. Their journey of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) took five months. They recount that they paddled through two war zones, regions notorious for bandits, and were arrested at gunpoint.
== Dangers ==
Inland flood events cause the highest number of casualties among all natural catastrophes - including the devastation of harvest, starvation, sickness and famine in the aftermath of floods. Millions of people have died in consequence of single flood events before. An estimated 2- 4 million people perished in consequence of the Yangtze–Huai River flood of 1931 including famine and epidemics in the following years.
A flood in Egypt, caused by overtopping of AHD and the subsequent eroding of the dam, can be 20 times worse than the historic flood in China. Nasser Lake contains a water-volume that defies imagination and it would increase to 209 cubic kilometers
during the events described in this study. Moreover, the flood caused by a dam breach is concentrated to plus/minus one day, instead of a seasonal flood distributed over 4 months. The short flood is much more violent. Millions of homes would be destroyed. Nationwide irrigation infrastructure would be covered by a layer of contaminated sediment that becomes hard as stone after a short while. After Nasser lake has disappeared (emptied), agricultural production would fall back to pre-AHD levels causing widespread famine for years.
== Crossings ==
=== Crossings from Khartoum to the Mediterranean Sea ===
The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North:
Mac Nimir Bridge
Blue Nile Road & Railway Bridge
Burri Bridge
Elmansheya Bridge
Soba Bridge
The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman:
White Nile Bridge
Victory Bridge, also known as El Fitihab Bridge
The following bridges cross from Omdurman to Khartoum North:
Hafaya Bridge
The following bridges cross to Tuti from Khartoum state's three cities:
Tuti Bridge (previously known as the Khartoum North-Tuti bridge)
Other bridges:
Shandi Bridge, Shendi
Atbarah Bridge, Atbarah
Merowe Dam, Merowe
Merowe Bridge, Merowe
Aswan Bridge, Aswan
Luxor Bridge, Luxor
Suhag Bridge, Suhag
Assiut Bridge, Assiut
Al Minya Bridge, Minya
Al Marazeek Bridge, Helwan
First Ring Road Bridge (Moneeb Crossing), Cairo
Abbas Bridge, Cairo
University Bridge, Cairo
Qasr al-Nil Bridge, Cairo
6th October Bridge, Cairo
Abu El Ela Bridge, Cairo (removed in 1998)
New Abu El Ela Bridge, Cairo
Imbaba Bridge, Cairo
Rod Elfarag Bridge, Cairo
Second Ring Road Bridge, Cairo
Banha Bridge, Banha
Samanoud Bridge, Samanoud
Mansoura 2 Bridges, Mansoura
Talkha Bridge, Talkha
Shirbine high Bridge
Shirbine Bridge
Kafr Sad – Farscor Bridge
International Coastal Road Bridge
Damietta high Bridge, Damietta
Damietta Bridge, Damietta
Kafr El Zayat Bridges, Kafr El Zayat
Zefta Bridge, Zefta
=== Crossings from Jinja, Uganda to Khartoum ===
Source of the Nile Bridge, Jinja, Uganda
River Nile Railway Bridge, Jinja, Uganda
Nalubaale Bridge, Jinja, Uganda (Formerly Owen Falls Bridge)
Karuma Bridge, Karuma, Uganda
Pakwach Bridge, Uganda
== See also ==
== Notes and references ==
Notes
References
Sources
Garstin, William E.; Cana, Frank R. (1911). "Nile" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 692–699.
== Further reading ==
Grogan, Ewart S. (1905). "The Nile as I saw it" . The Empire and the century. London: John Murray. pp. 809–16.
Jeal, Tim (2011). Explorers of the Nile: The Triumph and Tragedy of a Great Victorian Adventure. ISBN 978-0-300-14935-7
Moorehead, Alan, "The White Nile" (Hamish Hamilton, 1960; revised and illustrated edition, 1971). Abridged illustrated edition, as The Story of the White Nile (Harper & Row, 1967)
Moorehead, Alan, "The Blue Nile" (Hamish Hamilton, 1962; revised and illustrated edition, 1972). Abridged illustrated edition, as The Story of the Blue Nile (Harper & Row, 1966)
Tvedt, Terje, ed. The River Nile in the Post-Colonial Age: Conflict and Cooperation Among the Nile Basin Countries (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 293 pages; studies of the river's finite resources as shared by multiple nations in the post-colonial era; includes research by scholars from Burundi, Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.
Tvedt, Terje, (2004) "The Nile: An Annotated Bibliography", London/New York, ISBN 978-1860648793
== External links ==
A Struggle Over the Nile – slideshow by The New York Times
Thesis Analyzing Nile River Negotiations (archived 10 January 2016)
Geographic data related to Nile at OpenStreetMap
Old maps of the Nile, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Chemistry_Award#:~:text=feedstock.%5B8%5D-,2016%3A%20Paul%20Anastas,-(Yale%20University | Green Chemistry Award | First awarded in 2001, the Green Chemistry Award was presented every two years by the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) for advances in environmentally focused chemistry. In addition to a prize of £2000, winners of the award complete a UK based lecture tour. The award was discontinued in 2020.
== Winners ==
2001 (2001): Keith Smith
2003 (2003): Varinder Aggarwal (University of Bristol)
2006 (2006): Andrew P Abbott (University of Leicester)
2010 (2010): Roger Sheldon (Delft University of Technology) for his work in the field of catalysis
2012 (2012): Edman Tsang (University of Oxford) for development of nanoparticulate catalysts for use in manufacturing
2014 (2014): Michael North, University of York for his work on Carbon Dioxide as a chemical feedstock.
2016 (2016): Paul Anastas (Yale University) for his seminal work in developing innovative methods in molecular design, leading to products and processes that reduce environmental impacts.
2018 (2018): James Clark, University of York, for the promotion of applied, market-driven green chemistry.
2020: Paul Dyson, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
List of environmental awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangolin | Pangolin | Pangolins, sometimes known as scaly anteaters, are mammals of the order Pholidota (). The one extant family, the Manidae, has three genera: Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia. Manis comprises four species found in Asia, while Phataginus and Smutsia include two species each, all found in sub-Saharan Africa. These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). Several extinct pangolin species are also known. In September 2023, nine species were reported.
Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales, similar in material to fingernails and toenails, covering their skin. Depending on the species, they live in hollow trees or burrows. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring, which they raise for about two years.
Pangolins are threatened by poaching (for their meat and scales, which are used in traditional medicine) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and are the most trafficked mammals in the world. As of January 2020, there are eight species of pangolin whose conservation status is listed in the threatened tier. Three (Manis culionensis, M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are critically endangered, three (Phataginus tricuspis, Manis crassicaudata and Smutsia gigantea) are endangered and two (Phataginus tetradactyla and Smutsia temminckii) are vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
== Etymology ==
The name of order Pholidota comes from Ancient Greek Φολιδωτός – "clad in scales" from φολίς pholís "scale".
The name "pangolin" comes from the Malay word pengguling meaning "one who rolls up" from guling or giling "to roll"; it was used for the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica). However, the modern name is tenggiling. In Javanese, it is terenggiling; and in the Philippine languages, it is goling, tanggiling, or balintong (with the same meaning).
In ancient India, according to Aelian, it was known as the phattáges (φαττάγης).
== Description ==
The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping, plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures. They are made of keratin, the same material from which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made, and are structurally and compositionally very different from the scales of reptiles. The pangolin's scaled body is comparable in appearance to a pine cone. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators. Despite their appearance, they are not closely related to armadillos, having both evolved scales by convergent evolution.
Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk. They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into ant and termite mounds and for climbing.
The tongues of pangolins are extremely long, and like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat, the root of the tongue is not attached to the hyoid bone but is in the thorax between the sternum and the trachea. Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only about 0.5 cm (1⁄5 in).
== Behaviour ==
Most pangolins are nocturnal animals which use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball ("volvation").
Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of 3.5 m (11 ft).
Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behavior, and may walk a few steps bipedally. Pangolins are also good swimmers.
=== Diet ===
Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available. A pangolin can consume 140–200 g (5–7 oz) of insects per day. Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats.
Pangolins have very poor vision. They also lack teeth. They rely heavily on smell and hearing, and they have other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites. Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they have strong front legs used for tearing into termite mounds. They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, soil, and vegetation to find prey, then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and to retrieve their prey.
The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects. Their saliva is sticky, causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels. Without teeth, pangolins also cannot chew; but while foraging, they ingest small stones (gastroliths), which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants. This part of their stomach is called the gizzard, and it is also covered in keratinous spines. These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin's prey.
Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.
=== Reproduction ===
Pangolins are solitary and meet only to reproduce, with mating typically taking place at night after the male and female pangolin meet near a watering hole. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While the mating season is not defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females find them. If competition over a female occurs, the males use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.
Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days. African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three. Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2+3⁄4 to 15+3⁄4 oz), and the average length is 150 mm (6 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although, in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around three months of age, when the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.
== Classification and phylogeny ==
=== Taxonomy ===
Order: Pholidota Weber, 1904
Genus: †Euromanis Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: †Eurotamanduidae Szalay & Schrenk, 1994
Suborder: Eupholidota Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Superfamily: Manoidea Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: Manidae Gray, 1821
Family: †Patriomanidae Szalay & Schrenk 1998 [sensu Gaudin, Emry & Pogue, 2006]
Incertae sedis
Genus: †Necromanis Filhol, 1893
Superfamily: †Eomanoidea Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: †Eomanidae Storch, 2003
=== Phylogeny ===
==== Among placentals ====
The order Pholidota was long considered to be the sister taxon to Xenarthra (neotropical anteaters, sloths, and armadillos), but recent genetic evidence indicates their closest living relatives are the carnivorans, with which they form a clade, the Ferae. Palaeanodonts are even closer relatives to pangolins, being classified with pangolins in the clade Pholidotamorpha. The split between carnivorans and pangolins is estimated to have occurred 79.47 Ma (million years) ago.
==== Among Manidae ====
The first dichotomy in the phylogeny of extant Manidae separates Asian pangolins (Manis) from African pangolins (Smutsia and Phataginus). Within the former, Manis pentadactyla is the sister group to a clade comprising M. crassicaudata and M. javanica. Within the latter, a split separates the large terrestrial African pangolins of the genus Smutsia from the small arboreal African pangolins of the genus Phataginus.
Asian and African pangolins are thought to have diverged about 41.37 Ma ago. Moreover, the basal position of Manis within Pholidota suggests the group originated in Eurasia, consistent with their laurasiatherian phylogeny.
== Threats ==
Pangolins are in high demand in southern China and Vietnam because their scales are believed to have medicinal properties in traditional Chinese and Vietnamese medicine. Their meat is also considered a delicacy. 100,000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam, amounting to over one million over the past decade. This makes them the most trafficked animal in the world. This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.
In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of evolutionarily distinct and endangered mammals. All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the IUCN, while three are classified as critically endangered. All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-commercial purposes and a permit has been granted.
China had been the main destination country for pangolins until 2018, where it was surpassed by Vietnam. In 2019, Vietnam was reported to have seized the largest volumes of pangolin scales, surpassing Nigeria that year.
Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine. A 2025 study in Nature Ecology & Evolution found that opportunistic hunting for meat, rather than hunting for scales used in traditional medicine, is the primary driver of pangolin population declines in Nigeria.
Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma. In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia. In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kg (22,000 pounds) of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines. In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property. The same threat is reported in Nigeria, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation. The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation caused by timber harvesting. The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption.
== Virology ==
=== COVID-19 infection ===
The nucleic acid sequence of a specific receptor-binding domain of the spike protein belonging to coronaviruses taken from pangolins was found to be a 99% match with SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus which causes COVID-19 and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Researchers in Guangzhou, China, hypothesized that SARS-CoV-2 had originated in bats, and prior to infecting humans, was circulating among pangolins. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins for use in traditional Chinese medicine was suggested as a vector for human transmission. However, whole-genome comparison found that the pangolin and human coronaviruses share only up to 92% of their RNA. Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering them further, which was similar to what happened to Asian palm civets during the SARS outbreak. It was later proved that the testing which suggested that pangolins were a potential host for the virus was flawed, when genetic analysis showed that the spike protein and its binding to receptors in pangolins had minimal effect from the virus, and therefore were not likely mechanisms for COVID-19 infections in humans.
=== Pestivirus and Coltivirus ===
In 2020, two novel RNA viruses distantly related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses have been detected in the genomes of dead Manis javanica and Manis pentadactyla. To refer to both sampling site and hosts, they were named Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV). The DYPV pestivirus was also identified in Amblyomma javanense nymph ticks from a diseased pangolin.
In addition to pestiviruses and coltiviruses, genomic surveys of healthy pangolins have revealed the presence of multiple potentially zoonotic viruses, including coronaviruses, flaviviruses, and circoviruses, indicating that pangolins naturally harbor diverse viral communities without showing disease symptoms.
== Folk medicine ==
Pangolin scales and flesh are used as ingredients for various traditional Chinese medicine preparations. While no scientific evidence exists for the efficacy of those practices, and they have no logical mechanism of action, their popularity still drives the black market for animal body parts, despite concerns about toxicity, transmission of diseases from animals to humans, and species extermination. The ongoing demand for parts as ingredients continues to fuel pangolin poaching, hunting and trading.
The first record of pangolin scales occurs in Ben Cao Jinji Zhu ("Variorum of Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica", 500 CE), which recommends pangolin scales for protection against ant bites; burning the scales as a cure for people crying hysterically during the night. During the Tang dynasty, a recipe for expelling evil spirits with a formulation of scales, herbs, and minerals appeared in 682, and in 752 CE the idea that pangolin scales could also stimulate milk secretion in lactating women, one of the main uses today, was recommended in the Wai Tai Mi Yao ("Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library"). In the Song dynasty, the notion of penetrating and clearing blockages was emphasized in the Taiping sheng hui fan ("Formulas from Benevolent Sages Compiled During the Era of Peace and Tranquility"), compiled by Wang Huaiyin in 992.
In the 21st century, the main uses of pangolin scales are quackery practices based on unproven claims the scales dissolve blood clots, promote blood circulation, or help lactating women secrete milk. The supposed health effects of pangolin meat and scales claimed by folk medicine practitioners are based on their consumption of ants, long tongues, and protective scales. The Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China included Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine formulations. Pangolins were removed from the Pharmacopoeia starting from the first half of 2020. Although pangolin scales have been removed from the list of raw ingredients, the scales are still listed as a key ingredient in various medicines.
Pangolin parts are also used for medicinal purposes in other Asian countries such as India, Nepal and Pakistan. In some parts of India and Nepal, locals believe that wearing the scales of a pangolin can help prevent pneumonia. Pangolin scales have also been used for medicinal purposes in Malaysia, Indonesia and northern Myanmar. Indigenous people in southern Palawan, Philippines, have held the belief that elders could avoid prostate illnesses by wearing belts made with the scales.
== Conservation ==
As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years. As of January 2020, the IUCN considered all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species as threatened. The IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed "Scaling up Pangolin Conservation", in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal while educating communities on its importance.
Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin (and general wildlife) trafficking consists in "following the money" rather than "the animal", which aims to disrupt smugglers' profits by interrupting money flows. Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool in protecting these animals, although this opportunity is often overlooked. In 2018, a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement, calling for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking. Wildlife conservation group TRAFFIC has identified 159 smuggling routes used by pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down.
Many attempts have been made to breed pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful. Pangolins have significantly decreased immune responses due to a genetic dysfunction, making them extremely fragile. They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications that can lead to an early death. In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.
The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the number being illegally trafficked is being explored with little success. The third Saturday in February is promoted as World Pangolin Day by the conservation NPO Annamiticus. World Pangolin Day has been noted for its effectiveness in generating awareness about pangolins.
In 2017, Jackie Chan made a public service announcement called WildAid: Jackie Chan & Pangolins (Kung Fu Pangolin).
In December 2020, a study found that it is "not too late" to establish conservation efforts for Philippine pangolins (Manis culionensis), a species that is only found on the island province of Palawan.
=== Taiwan ===
Taiwan is one of the few conservation grounds for pangolins in the world after the country enacted the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act. The introduction of Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers in places like Luanshan (Yanping Township) in Taitung and Xiulin townships in Hualien became important communities for protecting pangolins and their habitats and has greatly improved the survival of pangolins. These centers work with local aboriginal tribes and forest police in the National Police Agency to prevent poaching, trafficking, and smuggling of pangolins, especially to black markets in China. These centers have also helped to reveal the causes of death and injury among Taiwan's pangolin population. Today, Taiwan has the highest population density of pangolins in the world.
== See also ==
Mammal classification
Pholidotamorpha
== References ==
== External links ==
ZSL Pangolin Conservation
Pangolin: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
Tree of Life of Pholidota Archived 29 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
National Geographic video of a pangolin Archived 23 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Proceedings of the Workshop on Trade and Conservation of Pangolins Native to South and Southeast Asia (PDF)
The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
Bromley, Victoria (Director/Producer), Young, Nora (Narrator/Host), Diekmann, Maria (2018). Nature: The World's Most Wanted Animal. United States: PBS.
Coronavirus: Revenge of the Pangolins? The New York Times, 6 March 2020. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1#Symbols | Bogotá | Bogotá (, also UK: , US: , Spanish pronunciation: [boɣoˈta] ), officially Bogotá, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogotá, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogotá (Spanish: [ˌsanta ˈfe ðe βoɣoˈta]; lit. 'Holy Faith of Bogotá') during the Spanish Imperial period and between 1991 and 2000, is the capital and largest city of Colombia. The city is administered as the Capital District, as well as the capital of, though not politically part of, the surrounding department of Cundinamarca. Bogotá is a territorial entity of the first order, with the same administrative status as the departments of Colombia. It is the main political, economic, administrative, industrial, cultural, aeronautical, technological, scientific, medical and educational center of the country and northern South America.
Bogotá was founded as the capital of the New Kingdom of Granada on 6 August 1538 by Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada after a harsh expedition into the Andes conquering the Muisca, the indigenous inhabitants of the Altiplano. Santafé (its name after 1540) became the seat of the government of the Spanish Royal Audiencia of the New Kingdom of Granada (created in 1550), and then after 1717 it was the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. After the Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819, Bogotá became the capital of the independent nation of Gran Colombia. It was Simón Bolívar who rebaptized the city with the name of Bogotá, as a way of honoring the Muisca people and as an emancipation act towards the Spanish crown. Hence, since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire and during the formation of present-day Colombia, Bogotá has remained the capital of this territory.
The city is located in the center of Colombia, on a high plateau known as the Bogotá savanna, part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense located in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes. Its altitude averages 2,640 meters (8,660 ft) above sea level, making it the third highest capital city in the world. Subdivided into 20 localities, Bogotá covers an area of 1,587 square kilometers (613 square miles) and enjoys a consistently cool climate throughout the year.
The city is home to central offices of the executive branch (Office of the President), the legislative branch (Congress of Colombia) and the judicial branch (Supreme Court of Justice, Constitutional Court, Council of State and the Superior Council of Judicature) of the Colombian government. Bogotá stands out for its economic strength and associated financial maturity, its attractiveness to global companies and the quality of human capital. It is the financial and commercial heart of Colombia, with the most business activity of any city in the country. The capital hosts the main financial market in Colombia and the Andean natural region, and is the leading destination for new foreign direct investment projects coming into Latin America and Colombia. It has the highest nominal GDP in the country, responsible for almost a quarter of the nation's total (24.7%).
The city's airport, El Dorado International Airport, named after the mythical El Dorado, handles the largest cargo volume in Latin America, and is third in number of passengers. Bogotá is home to the largest number of universities and research centers in the country, and is an important cultural center, with many theaters, libraries (Virgilio Barco, Tintal, and Tunal of BibloRed, BLAA, National Library, among more than 1000) and museums. Bogotá ranks 52nd on the Global Cities Index 2014, and is considered a global city type "Alpha-" by GaWC.
== Toponymy ==
The name of Bogotá corresponds to the Spanish pronunciation of the Chibcha Bacatá (or Muyquytá) which was the name of a neighboring settlement located between the modern towns of Funza and Cota. There are different opinions about the meaning of the word Muyquytá, the most accepted being that it means "walling of the farmland" in the Chibcha language. Another popular translation argues that it means "The Lady of the Andes". Others suggest that Bacatá was the name of the Muisca cacique who governed the land before the Spaniards arrived. Jiménez de Quesada gave the settlement the name of "Our Lady of Hope" but the Spanish crown gave it the name of Santafé (Holy Faith) in 1540 when it was appointed as a city. The Muisca, the indigenous inhabitants of the region, called the place on which the city was founded "Thybzaca" or "Old Town".
== History ==
The area of modern Bogotá was first populated by groups of indigenous people who migrated south based on the relation with the other Chibcha languages; the Bogotá savanna was the southernmost Chibcha-speaking group that exists from Nicaragua to the Andes in Colombia. The civilization built by the Muisca, who settled in the valleys and fertile highlands of and surrounding the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (modern-day departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá and small parts of Santander), was one of the great civilizations in the Americas. The name Muisca Confederation has been given to a loose egalitarian society of various chiefs (caciques) who lived in small settlements of maximum 100 bohíos. The agriculture and salt-based society of the people was rich in goldworking, trade and mummification. The religion of the Muisca consisted of various gods, mostly related to natural phenomena as the Sun (Sué) and his wife, the Moon; Chía, rain Chibchacum, rainbow Cuchavira and with building and feasting (Nencatacoa) and wisdom (Bochica). Their complex luni-solar calendar, deciphered by Manuel Izquierdo based on work by Duquesne, followed three different sets of years, where the sidereal and synodic months were represented. Their astronomical knowledge is represented in one of the few extant landmarks of the architecture of the Muisca in El Infiernito outside Villa de Leyva to the north of Bogotá.
=== Pre-Columbian era ===
The first populations inhabiting the present-day Metropolitan Area of Bogotá were hunter-gatherers in the late Pleistocene. Dating to around 12,500 BP, the oldest evidence of human activity was discovered in El Abra, north of Zipaquirá. Other excavations in a rock shelter southwest of the city in Soacha provided ages of ~11,000 BP; Tequendama. Since roughly 0 AD, the local Muisca people domesticated guinea pigs as a source of dietary meat. The people inhabiting the Bogotá savanna in the late 15th century were the Muisca, speaking Muysccubun, a member of the Chibcha language family. Muisca means "people" or "person", making "Muisca people", how they are called, a tautology. At the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, the Muisca population was estimated to be half a million indigenous people on the Bogotá savanna, and up to two million in the Muisca Confederation. They occupied the highland and mild climate flanks between the Sumapaz Mountains to the southwest and Cocuy's snowy peak to the northeast, covering an approximate area of 25,000 km2 (9,653 sq mi), comprising Bogotá's high plain, a large portion of the modern-day department of Boyacá department portion and a small area in the Santander region.
Trade was the most important activity of the Muisca with other Chibcha-speaking neighbours, such as the Guane, Lache and U'wa and with Cariban-speaking groups such as the Muzo or "Emerald People". Their knowledge of salt production from brines, a task devoted exclusively to Muisca women, gave them the name of "Salt People". Tropical fruits that did not grow on the cool highlands, as well as coca, cotton and gold were all traded at markets that took place every Muisca week; every four days. At these frequent markets, the Muisca obtained various luxury goods that appear worthless in a modern sense, as well as precious metals and gemstones that seem valuable to us and which became abundant and were used for various purposes. The Muisca warrior elite were allowed to wear feathered crowns, from parrots and macaws whose habitat was to the east of the Andes; the Arawakan-speaking Guayupe, Tegua and Achagua.
The Muisca cuisine consisted of a stable and varied diet of tubers, potatoes and fruits. Maize was the main ingredient of the Muisca, cultivated on elevated and irrigated terraces. Many words exist in Muysccubun for maize, corn and the various types and forms of it. The product was also the base for chicha; the alcoholic beverage of the people, still sold in central Bogotá today. It was the beverage used to celebrate the construction of houses, harvests and sowing, ritual practices around the various sacred sites of the Altiplano, music and dances, trade at special fairs with farther away trading indigenous groups of Colombia and to inaugurate the new highest regarded member of the community; zipas, zaques, caciques and the religious ruler iraca from Sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi.
=== Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition and Spanish conquest ===
From 1533, a belief persisted that the Río Grande de la Magdalena was the trail to the South Sea, to Peru, legendary El Dorado. Such was the target of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the Granadanian conquistador who left Santa Marta on 6 April 1536 with 800 soldiers, heading towards the interior of current Colombia. The expedition divided into two groups, one under Quesada's command to move on land, and the other commanded by Diego de Urbino would go upriver in four brigantine ships to eventually meet Quesada's troops at the site named Tora de las Barrancas Bermejas. When they arrived, they heard news about Indians inhabiting the south and making large salt cakes used to trade for wild cotton and fish. Jiménez de Quesada decided to abandon the route to Peru and cross the mountain in search of salt villages. They saw crops, trails, white salt cakes and then huts where they found corn, yucca and beans. From Tora, the expedition went up the Opón River and found indigenous people wearing very finely painted cotton mantles. When they arrived in Muisca territories in the Andean Plateau, on 9 March 1537, of the expedition leaving Santa Marta, only 162 men were left.
The zipa at the moment of Spanish conquest was Tisquesusa. His main bohío was in a small village called Bacatá with others in Funza and Cajicá, giving name to the present day capital of Colombia. Bacatá was actually located near to the modern location of the city of Funza. A prophecy in his life came true; he would be dying, bathing in his own blood. Defending Funza with a reduced army of guecha warriors against the heavily exhausted but heavily armed strangers, his reign fell in the hands of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and his younger brother Hernán Pérez on 20 April 1537. Upon his death, his brother Sagipa became the last zipa, against the inheritance tradition of the Muisca. Sagipa used to be a main captain for Tisquesusa but quickly submitted to the Spanish rulers. The first encomenderos asked high prices in valuable products and agricultural production from the indigenous people. On top of that epidemics of European viruses razed through the population, of which in current Boyacá 65–85 % of the Muisca were killed within 100 years.
Jiménez de Quesada decided to establish a military campament in the area in 1538, in the site today known as the Chorro de Quevedo square. The foundation was performed by the construction of 12 houses of reed, referring to the Twelve Apostles, and the construction of a preliminary church, also of reed. With the celebration of the first mass in the campament, celebrated by Dominican friar Domingo de las Casas the city was founded with the name of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza (Our Lady of Hope) on 6 August 1538. Quesada placed his right foot on the bare earth and said simply, "I take possession of this land in the name of the most sovereign emperor, Charles V."
This founding, however, was irregular as no town council was formed nor were town officials appointed, as well as lacking some other juridical requirements for an official founding. As a consequence, the official founding only occurred about eight months later, on 27 April 1539, in a site close to one of the recreational lands of the zipa, called Theusa or Theusaquillo. This official founding involved an official ceremony appointing a council and officials, and the demarcation of streets and lands, and in it fellow conquistadores Sebastián de Belalcázar and Nikolaus Federmann were present. While this was the official date of founding, traditionally it is the 6 August 1538 that is considered the date of the actual foundation.
The village obtained the title of City by way of a decree from Charles V on 27 July 1540, which changed the name of the city from Our Lady of Hope to Santa Fe (Holy Faith), after the name of a town nearby Granada where Jiménez de Quesada grew up. Jiménez de Quesada and conquerors De Belalcázar and Federmann left for Spain in April 1539, founding Guataquí together on 6 April 1539. The rule over the newly created New Kingdom of Granada was left to Jiménez de Quesada's brother, Hernán Pérez de Quesada. The first mayors of the city were captains Pedro de Arévalo and Jerónimo de Inzar. The city obtained the Title of Muy Noble y Muy Leal (Very Noble and Loyal) on 17 August 1575 by a decree from Phillip II. Bogotá, then called Santa Fe, later became the capital of the later Viceroyalty of New Granada.
=== Spanish colonization ===
The city mayor and the chapter formed by two councilmen, assisted by the constable and the police chief, governed the city. For better administration of these domains, in April 1550, the Audiencia of Santafé was organized. Santa Fe (or Santafé) became the seat of the government of the New Kingdom of Granada . Fourteen years later in 1564, the Spanish Crown designated the first Royal Audiencia chairman, Andrés Díaz Venero de Leyva. The Chapter and the Royal Audience were located on the other side of what is today the Plaza de Bolívar (then called, Plaza Mayor or Major Square). The street connecting the Major Square and the Square of Herbs— now Santander Park— was named Calle Real (Royal Street), now Carrera Séptima (or "Seventh Street"; counted from the mountains to the east of the city). After 1717 Santafé became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
Formed by Europeans, mestizos, indigenous people, and slaves, from the second half of the 16th century, the population began to grow rapidly. The 1789 census recorded 18,161 inhabitants, and by 1819 the city population reached 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 195 blocks. Importance grew when the diocese was established.
=== Nineteenth century ===
Political unease over the Spanish monarchy and the rights of citizens born in the Americas had been felt throughout the Spanish colonies in America, and it was expressed in New Granada in many different ways, accelerating the movement to independence. One of the most transcendent was the Insurrection of the Comuneros, a riot by the locals that started in Villa del Socorro —current Department of Santander—in March 1781. Spanish authorities suppressed the riot, and José Antonio Galán, the leader, was executed. He left an imprint, though. One of the soldiers witnessing his execution was an intellectually curious, noble teenager named Antonio Nariño, who was deeply impressed by both the insurrection and the execution. Nariño went on to become a politician in Santafé, and he became acquainted with the liberal ideas in vogue in Europe. He started organizing clandestine meetings with other intellectuals and politicians to discuss and promote the independence of the American colonies from the Spanish crown. In 1794, Nariño clandestinely translated and published in Santa Fe the Declaration of the Rights of Men and of the Citizen, and copies of his translation were distributed all over the continent and started creating a stirring in the political mentalities of the time. The Spanish government had banned the distribution of the pamphlet and soon discovered the material and burned any copy that they could find. Nariño was arrested on 29 August 1794, and sentenced to ten years of imprisonment and to have all of his properties confiscated, and was sent to exile the year after. Those suspected of being part of Nariño's intellectual circle were also persecuted, but his ideas had become widespread.
In 1807, following the French invasion of Spain and the subsequent abdication of the House of Bourbon in Spain, pressed by Napoleon to give the crown to his brother Joseph, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish administration, many in Spain and in the American colonies created local resistance governments called Juntas. The dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta, following a series of military defeats in the Spanish troops, promoted the creation of local juntas all throughout Latin America, which very soon consolidated the independentist ideas already in vogue. After the establishment of a junta in Cartagena de Indias on 22 May 1810, and in many other cities throughout the Viceroyalty, the Junta de Santa Fe was established on 20 July 1810, in what is often called the Colombian Declaration of Independence. The Junta adopted the name of "Supreme Junta of the New Kingdom of Granada", and first swore allegiance to Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón, and appointed him as president, but then he was deposed and arrested five days later. After declaring independence from Spain the different juntas attempted to establish a congress of provinces, but they were unable to do so and military conflicts soon emerged.
The period between 1810 and 1816 was marked by intense conflict between federalist and centralist factions over the nature of the new government of the recently emancipated juntas, a period that has become known as la Patria Boba. The Province of Santafé became the Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca, which soon became embroiled in a civil war against other local juntas which banded together to form the United Provinces of New Granada and advocated for a federalist government system. Following a failed military campaign against Quito, General Simón Bolívar of the United Provinces led a campaign that led to the surrender of the Cundinamarca province in December 1814.
In Spain, the war had ended and the Spanish monarchy was restored on 11 December 1813. King Ferdinand VII declared the uprisings in the colonies illegal and sent a large army to quell the rebellions and reconquer the lost colonies, for which he appointed General Pablo Morillo. Morillo led a successful military campaign that culminated in the capture of Santafé on 6 May 1816.
In 1819, Bolívar initiated his campaign to liberate New Granada. Following a series of battles, the last of which was the Battle of Boyacá, the republican army led by Bolívar cleared its way to Santafé, where he arrived victorious on 10 August 1819. It was Simón Bolívar who rebaptized the city with the name of Bogotá, to honor the Muisca people and to emphasize the emancipation from Spain. Bogotá then became the capital of the Gran Colombia.
Between 1819 and 1849, there were no fundamental structural changes from the colonial period. By the mid-19th century, a series of fundamental reforms were enacted, some of the most important being slavery abolition and religious, teaching, print and speech industry and trade freedom, among others. During the decade of the 70s, radicalism accelerated reforms and state and social institutions were substantially modified. However, during the second half of the century, the country faced permanent pronouncements, declarations of rebellions between states, and factions which resulted in civil wars: the last and bloodiest was the Thousand Days' War from 1899 to 1902.
In 1823, a few years after the formation of Gran Colombia, the Public Library, now the National Library, was enlarged and modernized with new volumes and better facilities. The National Museum was founded. Those institutions were of great importance to the new republic's cultural development. The Central University was the first State school, precursor of the current National University, founded in 1867 and domiciled in Bogotá.
=== Regeneration ===
President Rafael Núñez declared the end of Federalism, and in 1886 the country became a centralist republic ruled by the constitution in force – save some amendments – up to 1991. In the middle of political and administration avatars, Bogotá continued as the capital and principal political center of the country.
From a base of only 20,000 people in 1793, the city grew to approximately 117,000 people in 1912. Population growth was rapid after 1870, largely because of emigration from the eastern highlands.
=== Twentieth century ===
Early in the 20th century, Colombia had to face devastating consequences from the Thousand Days' War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902, and the loss of Panama. Between 1904 and 1909, the lawfulness of the liberal party was re-established and President Rafael Reyes endeavored to implement a national government. Peace and state reorganization generated the increase of economic activities. Bogotá started deep architectural and urban transformation with significant industrial and artisan production increases. In 1910, the Industrial Exposition of the Century took place at Park of Independence. Stands built evidenced industrial, artisan work, beaux arts, electricity and machinery progress achieved. The period from 1910 to 1930 is designated conservative hegemony. Between 1924 and 1928, hard union struggles began, with oil fields and banana zone workers' strikes, leaving numerous people dead.
Bogotá had practically no industry. Production was basically artisan work grouped in specific places, similar to commercial sectors. Plaza de Bolívar and surroundings lodged hat stores, at Calle del Comercio –current Carrera Seventh– and Calle Florián –now Carrera Eight– luxurious stores selling imported products opened their doors; at Pasaje Hernández, tailor's shops provided their services, and between 1870 and 1883, four main banks opened their doors: Bogotá, Colombia, Popular and Mortgage Credit banks.
Following the 1928 Banana Massacre of fruit pickers and conservative party division, Enrique Olaya Herrera took office in 1930. The liberal party reformed during 16 years of the so-called Liberal Republic, agricultural, social, political, labor, educational, economic and administrative sectors. Unionism strengthened and education coverage expanded.
The celebration produced a large number of infrastructure works, new construction and work sources. In 1948 liberal leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was assassinated, and subsequent riots in an event called El Bogotazo resulted in Bogotá's downtown being virtually destroyed. From then, Bogotá's urban, architectural and population sectors were substantially reorganized. The violence sparked civil conflict, La Violencia, that lasted ten years.
=== Twenty-first century ===
The city began the 21st century with important changes in its urban space and public transport, looking to plan demographic and economic growth, that would position it as a strategic hub for international business in Latin America. Some of the main interventions initiated looked to develop projects contained in the Plan of Territorial Ordering (POT), which aims to guide the development of the city for the next two centuries.
One of the most important interventions in the city was in its transportation system. In 1967, there were 2,679 urban buses in Bogotá that transported, on average, 1,630,000 passengers per day. The city had about 1 million inhabitants and 80 km2 of area, the service was relatively reasonable. But as the city grew and reached more than five million and an area greater than 300 km2, not only did the car fleet increase substantially to more than 20,000 vehicles, but traffic complexity increased, as well as pollution and the inefficiency of the only existing transportation system.
By the end of the 20th century, the situation was difficult. There was no real urban public transport system that would serve as an alternative to the private vehicle – which further incentivized its use – and the city had low levels of competitiveness in Latin America, as well as an unsatisfactory quality of life for the vast majority of its inhabitants. The administrations of mayors Andrés Pastrana (1988–90) and Jaime Castro (1992–94), in addition to the first of Antanas Mockus (1995–97), formulated proposals to solve the problem of public transport, with limited results. It was during the mayoralty of the latter when there was talk about the possibility of establishing a mass transportation system that would help remedy the problem of mobility.
Under the second administration of Antanas Mockus, Bogotá opened a 'zone of tolerancia' which legalized prostitution in a large swath of the center of the city in the Santa Fe neighborhood.
Mayor Enrique Peñalosa (whose first term was 1998–2000) included in his program as a priority a solution to public transport. Consequently, in the execution of the development plan "For the Bogotá we Want" in terms of mobility and in a mass transportation system project, the construction of special infrastructure exclusively for its operation was determined. This system would include specialized bus corridors, equipped with single-use lanes, stations, bridges, bike paths and special pedestrian access platforms, designed to facilitate the user's experience in the system. However, Peñalosa became infamous for his campaign against the poor, saying he would rather see robbers on the streets, than people selling candies. Peñalosa served a second term (2016–19).
After being elected in 2011, Mayor Gustavo Petro clashed with the conservative political establishment after remunicipalization of the city's garbage collection system. The inspector general Alejandro Ordoñez deposed Petro for alleged constitutional overreach when he tried to replace the city's private trash collectors. Petro was reinstated weeks later after a Bogotá court ruled that Ordoñez had overstepped his authority.
The TransMilenio system of articulated buses opened its first phase in 2000 and has since grown to 12 lines. As the city's population increased, the buses are often crowded, leading to the development of Bogotá Metro, construction on which began in 2021.
For its part, the cultural equipment plan of Bogotá has yielded significant results, including the construction of three large public libraries in different sectors. These libraries have not only expanded access to existing library resources but also serve as some of the 150 hubs for BibloRed - Bogotá's Public Libraries Network, including the Bogota Digital Library The new libraries were located in sectors that allow a wide coverage, have easy access by public transport and bike paths; and their projects were commissioned to distinguished architects of the city. They are those of El Tunal, in the south, projected by the architect Suely Vargas; of El Tintal, in the west, the work of the architect Daniel Bermúdez; and the Virgilio Barco Vargas library, located in the Simón Bolívar park in the central area, work of the architect Rogelio Salmona. Out of the city's 150 libraries, these three, with their outstanding architecture, provide public and open-access spaces for the educational and cultural development of the citizens of Bogotá.
As for 2019, the city's distribution is composed of nine main business centers (Av. El Dorado Business Corridor, Centro Internacional, Parque de la 93, El Lago, North Point, Calle 100, Santa Barbara Business Center, Zona Industrial Montevideo & Parque Industrial Zona Franca). Grittier sides sit south and southwest, where working-class barrios continue to battle their reputations for drugs and crime. In the ritzier north there are boutique hotels, corporate offices and well-heeled locals piling into chic entertainment districts such as the Zona Rosa and Zona G.
Protests against police brutality started in Bogotá following the death of Javier Ordóñez while in police custody on 9 September 2020. The National Police killed 13 people and injured over 400 in their response to the protests.
== Geography ==
Bogotá is located in the southeastern part of the Bogotá savanna (Sabana de Bogotá) at an average altitude of 2,640 meters (8,660 ft) above sea level. The Bogotá savanna is popularly called "savannah" (sabana), but constitutes actually a high plateau in the Andes mountains, part of an extended region known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, which literally means "high plateau of Cundinamarca and Boyacá". Bogotá is the largest city in the world at its elevation; there is no urban area that is both higher and more populous than Bogotá.
In the extreme south of Bogotá's District, the world's largest continuous paramo ecosystem can be found; Sumapaz Páramo in the locality Sumapaz. The Bogotá River running NE-SW crosses the sabana, forming Tequendama Falls (Salto del Tequendama) to the south. Tributary rivers form valleys with villages, whose economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising and artisanal production.
The sabana is bordered to the east by the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes mountain range. The Eastern Hills, which limit city growth, run from south to north, forming east of the downtown the Guadalupe and Monserrate mountains. The western city limit is Bogotá River. The Sumapaz Paramo (moorland) borders the south and to the north Bogotá extends over the plateau up to the towns of Chía and Sopó.
Most of the wetlands in the Bogotá region have disappeared. They covered nearly 50,000 hectares in the 1960s, compared to only 727 in 2019, for a disappearance rate of 98%.
=== Climate ===
Bogotá features a subtropical highland climate with uniform precipitation (Köppen: Cfb, Trewartha: Cfll). The average temperature is 14.5 °C (58 °F), varying from 6 to 19 °C (43 to 66 °F) on sunny days to 10 to 18 °C (50 to 64 °F) on rainy days. Dry and rainy seasons alternate throughout the year. The driest months are December, January, July and August. The warmest month is March, bringing a maximum of 19.7 °C (67.5 °F). The coolest nights occur in January, with an average of 7.6 °C (45.7 °F) in the city; fog is very usual in early morning, 220 days per year, whilst clear sky sunny full days are quite unusual.
The official highest temperature recorded within the city limits is 30.0 °C (86 °F), and the lowest temperature recorded is −7.1 °C (19 °F), both at the Guaymaral Airport.
The rainiest months are April, May, September, October, and November, in which typical days are mostly overcast, with low clouds and some winds, bringing maximum temperatures of 18 °C (64 °F) and lows of 7 °C (45 °F).
=== Urban layout and nomenclature ===
The colonial city, from 1539 to 1810, barely changed its urban layout and culture. Santafe was slowly leaving behind the colonialism after the independence revolution from 1810 to 1819. Entering the 19th century, the city of Bogotá was still the political and demographic core of Nueva Granada but remained a small city as compared with similar cities, such as Lima and Buenos Aires. At the year of 1801, the city had 173 blocks and 21,394 inhabitants marking a slow population growth during the 18th century. In the beginning of the 19th century, city life was marked by the lack of cultural activity and public services as well as by the excessive Catholic religiosity in its inhabitants, which almost controlled the whole life of people, as a journalist traveler wrote in 1822 (Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2 ).
The city's urban shape remained the same in the 19th century as the 1557 urban landscape as a checkerboard with the Plaza as its core. In other words, the city grew in area adding new square blocks but kept the same urban fabric. Buildings were low rise, as a traveler wrote in 1830 (Bibliotheca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2), where most city buildings had one floor, and a few had no more than two. One special characteristic of those houses with two floors, which were the houses of the wealthiest families of Bogotá, were their balconies. The building facades of Bogotá were very simplistic without ornaments, meaning no more than a wall with windows and the entry door. However, due to the poor street conditions because of the potholes and waste, in addition to the lack of cultural and social activity at night, the ornaments were reserved to indoors where Bogotanos spent most of their time. One of the few outdoor activities of the people of Bogotá during the first half of the 19th century was going to the Plaza or the "altozano" as the locals called it. The Plaza was the social core of the city, where fresh fruits were sold and where inhabitants from all socioeconomic backgrounds converged (Bibliotheca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2).
The landscape of Bogotá was very similar from the 16th century to 19th century. Nonetheless, after the milestone fact of the independence from the Spanish, which was a process that lasted at least ten years from 1810 to 1819, some changes started to happen. Those changes were happening slowly while the new republican order was getting power. Trying to make a difference from the colonial ages, the new Republic began changing the name of the plazas, streets and even the name of the city, from Santafe to Bogotá. The names of colonial streets were changed to numbers and the name of plazas were changed to the founding fathers of Colombia. Thereafter, the empty plazas of the colonial ages turned into ornamented plazas with plenty of trees and civic statues. For instance, the first civil statue placed in a plaza in Colombia was the figure of Bolivar, the main founding father of Colombia. The statue of Bolivar was unveiled on July 20, 1846, which is the Independence Day of Colombia, trying to strengthen the patriotism of the new republic in people of Bogotá and Colombia.
The last quarter of the 19th century, from 1870 to 1900, more clearly marked a new urban landscape of Bogotá. The constant rural migration to Bogotá had been one of the most important factors that allowed the city to maintain its influential power in the region both during the colonial ages and during the republic. In 1847, the city governor and the council tried to expand the urban area of Bogotá beyond the colonial limits, whereas, only until the 1860s was that expansion encouraged by the president of Colombia Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera. The Mosquera plan included lotting the western part of Bogotá, building bridges and wider roads and plazas, but that plan was only partially implemented. In the following decade, other urban initiatives emerged but this time from the private sector. A group of businessmen, tired of the city's slow growth and development, proposed the construction of sewars, theaters, electric systems and new roads in order to hasten the development of Bogotá. Because of the 1876 civil war, the plan could not be implemented, but from that initiative, the council adopted the first urban code of Bogotá in 1875. These initiatives tried to update the undeveloped city to the new technologies of the 1800s; however, the pace remained slow, and only after 1882, when the train and the trolley came to Bogotá, some urban development projects progressed more quickly.
Today Bogotá has 20 localities, or districts, forming an extensive network of neighborhoods. Areas of higher economic status tend to be located in the north, close to the Eastern Hills in the districts of Chapinero, Usaquén and the east of Suba. The lower middle class inhabit the central, western and northwestern parts of the city.. The working-class neighborhoods are located in the south, some of them squatter areas.
The urban layout in the center of the city is based on the focal point of a square or plaza, typical of Spanish-founded settlements, but the layout gradually becomes more modern in outlying neighborhoods. The types of roads are classified as Calles (streets), which run from west to east horizontally, with street numbers increasing towards the north, and also towards the south (with the suffix "Sur") from Calle 0 down south. Carreras (roads) run from north to south vertically, with numbering increasing from east to west. (with the suffix "Este" for roads east of Carrera 0). At the southeast of the city, the addresses are logically sur-este. Other types of roads more common in newer parts of the city may be termed Eje (Axis), Diagonal or Transversal.
The numbering system for street addresses recently changed, and numbers are assigned according to street rank from main avenues to smaller avenues and local streets. Some of Bogotá's main roads, which also go by a proper name in addition to a number, are:
Norte-Quito-Sur or NQS (North Quito South Avenue, from 9th Rd at north following railway to 30th Rd, or Quito City Avenue, and Southern Highway)
Autopista Norte-Avenida Caracas (Northern Highway, or 45th Rd, joined to Caracas Avenue, or 14th Rd)
Avenida Circunvalar (or 1st Rd)
Avenida Suba (60th transversal from 100th St the Suba Hills; 145th St from Suba Hills westward)
Avenida El Dorado (El Dorado Avenue, or 26th St)
Avenida de las Américas (Avenue of the Americas, from 34th street at east to 6th street at west)
Avenida Primero de Mayo (May First Avenue, or 22nd St South)
Avenida Ciudad de Cali (Cali City Avenue, or 86th Rd)
Avenida Boyacá (Boyacá Avenue, or 72nd Rd)
Autopista Sur (Southern Highway)
=== Localities (districts) ===
=== Surrounding towns ===
== Demographics ==
The largest and most populous city in Colombia, Bogotá had 7,412,566 inhabitants within the city's limits (2018 census), with a population density of approximately 4,310 inhabitants per square kilometer. 25,166 people are located in rural areas of Capital District. 47.8% of the population are male and 52.2% women.
In Bogotá, as in the rest of the country, urbanization has accelerated due to industrialization as well as complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which led to migration from rural to urban areas throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. A dramatic example of this is the number of displaced people who have arrived in Bogotá due to the internal armed conflict.
Some estimates show that Bogotá's floating population may be as high as 4 million people, most of them being migrant workers from other departments and displaced people. The majority of the displaced population lives in the Ciudad Bolívar, Kennedy, Usme, and Bosa sections.
Colombia has experienced steady improvements in life expectancy over the past several years, reflecting broader gains in public health, medical access, and socioeconomic development. National data show that life expectancy rose to 78.21 years in 2025, following 78.04 years in 2024. This continued an upward trend from 77.73 years in 2023 and 76.51 years in 2022, the latter representing a notable rebound from pandemic-related mortality increases in 2021
=== Vital statistics ===
In 2022 13,28% of births were to foreign mothers.
=== Total fertility rate (TFR) by locality ===
=== Ethnic groups ===
The ethnic composition of the city's population includes a minority of Afro-Colombian people (0.9%) and Indigenous people (0.3%); 98.8% of the population lists no ethnic affiliation, being mostly Whites and Mestizos.
In Bogotá, the accelerated urbanization process is not exclusively due to industrialization, as there are complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which have motivated migration from the countryside to the city throughout the 20th century, determining an exponential growth of the population in Bogotá and the establishment of misery belts in its surroundings. According to the Consultancy for Human Rights, Codhes, in the period 1999–2005 more than 260,000 displaced people arrived in Bogotá, approximately 3.8% of the total population of Bogotá. The locations where the majority of the displaced population is concentrated are Ciudad Bolivar, Kennedy, Bosa and Usme.
=== Crime ===
Bogotá has gone to great lengths to change its formerly notorious crime rate and its image with increasing success after being considered in the 1990s to be one of the most violent cities in the world. In 1993 there were 4,352 murders at a rate of 81 per 100,000 people; in 2007, Bogotá suffered 1,401 murders at a rate of 20 per 100,000 inhabitants, and had a further reduction to 14 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2017 (the lowest since 1979). This success was mainly the result of a participatory and integrated security policy, "Comunidad Segura", that was first adopted in 1995 and continues to be enforced. 1.2 percent of street addresses account for 99 percent of homicides.
== Government ==
Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, and houses the Congress, Supreme Court of Justice and the center of the executive administration as well as the residence of the President (Casa de Nariño). These buildings, along with the Office of the Mayor, the Lievano Palace (Palacio Liévano), are located within a few meters from each other on the Plaza de Bolívar. The square is located in the city's historical center, La Candelaria, which features architecture in Spanish Colonial and Spanish Baroque styles.
The Mayor of Bogotá and the City Council – both elected by popular vote – are responsible for city administration. In 2023 Carlos Fernando Galán was elected Mayor; his term runs from 2024 to 2027.
=== Localities ===
The city is divided into 20 localities: Usaquén, Chapinero, Santa Fe, San Cristóbal, Usme, Tunjuelito, Bosa, Kennedy, Fontibón, Engativá, Suba, Barrios Unidos, Teusaquillo, Los Mártires, Antonio Nariño, Puente Aranda, La Candelaria, Rafael Uribe Uribe, Ciudad Bolívar and Sumapaz.
Each of the 20 localities is governed by an administrative board elected by popular vote, made up of no fewer than seven members. The Mayor designates local mayors from candidates nominated by the respective administrative board.
=== Neighbourhoods ===
Normandía
Quiroga
Ciudad Bolívar
== Economy ==
Bogotá is the main economic and industrial center of Colombia.
The Colombian government fosters the import of capital goods, Bogotá being one of the main destinations of these imports.
=== Tourism ===
The metro contributes to 38% of Colombia's GDP. (150 billion dollars in 2024)
Travel and tourism's share of the city's overall GDP stands at 2.5%. Bogotá is responsible for 56% of the tourism that arrives to Colombia and is home to 1,423 multinational companies.
Bogotá also ranks highly as a global city for doing business and holding meetings. Bogotá is a growing destination for international meetings.
In 2016, Bogotá has won 50 major international events, with 12 more world-class events in progress. The 16th World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates took place from 2 to 5 February 2017 in Bogotá, Colombia. One Young World is the preeminent global forum for young leaders, aged 18–30. Bogotá, Colombia is the host city for Summit 2017.
The hotels in the historical center of La Candelaria and its surrounding areas cater to lovers of culture and the arts. This area also has the bulk of hostels in the city as well. In La Candelaria, there are many museums, including the Botero Museum and the Gold Museum. Close to La Candelaria is the Cerro Monserrate, which you can reach by cable car or funicular. The hotels located near Ciudad Salitre are intended for visitors who make short stops in Bogotá and near El Dorado International Airport.
Important landmarks and tourist stops in Bogotá include the botanical garden José Celestino Mutis, the Quinta de Bolívar, the national observatory, the planetarium, Maloka, the Colpatria observation point, the observation point of La Calera, the monument of the American flags, and La Candelaria (the historical district of the city). There is also Usaquen, a colonial landmark where brunch and a flea market on Sundays is a traditional activity. The city has numerous green parks and amusement parks like Salitre Magico or Mundo Aventura.
Green areas surrounding Bogotá are perfect locations for eco-tourism and hiking activities. In the eastern mountains of the city, just a few minutes walking from main roads, there are Quebrada La vieja and Chapinero Waterfalls, two of many green spots for sightseeing and tourism with clean air.
There are also several areas of the city where fine restaurants can be found. The G Zone, the T Zone, and La Macarena are well known for their gastronomic offerings.
Since the 2000s, major hotel chains have established themselves in the city. Bogotá has a great cultural diversity, coming from different regions of the country, which allows tourists to know the multiculturalism of the country without the need to travel to other cities, this includes gastronomy and different festivals.
=== Shopping malls ===
Bogotá's economy has been significantly boosted due to new shopping malls built within the last few years. As of December 2011, over 160 new malls are planned in addition to the existing 100 malls. Notable malls include:
Centro Andino
Centro Mayor
Santafé
Gran Estación
Portal de la 80
Titán Plaza
Calima
Atlantis Plaza
Unicentro
Hayuelos
Pasadena
Iserra 100
Colina
Hacienda Santa Barbara
Metropolis
== Media ==
Bogotá is home to several television stations like Canal Capital and Citytv which are local stations, Canal 13 is a regional station, and is home to the national channels Caracol TV, RCN TV, Canal Uno, Canal Institucional, and Señal Colombia. It has multiple satellite television services like Telefónica, Claro and DirecTV and several satellite dishes which offer hundreds of international channels, plus several exclusive channels for Bogotá.
In Bogotá, all the major radio networks in the country are available, in both AM and FM; 70% of the FM stations offer RDS service.
There are several newspapers, including El Tiempo, El Espectador and El Nuevo Siglo, plus economical dailies La República and Portafolio, tabloids El Espacio, Q'Hubo, and Extra. Bogotá also offers three free newspapers, two Spanish, ADN and Publimetro, and one English, The Bogotá Post.
== Infrastructure ==
Energy and sewer bills are stratified based on the location of owner's residence, The system is the classification of the residential properties that should receive public services. Although the system does not consider the income per person and the rules say that the residential real estate should stratify and not households. All mayors should do the stratification of residential properties of their municipality or district.
Bogotá's social strata have been divided as follows and have been extensively used by the government as a reference to develop social welfare programs, statistical information and to some degree for the assignment of lands.
Estrato 1 (lowest)
Estrato 2 (low)
Estrato 3 (mid-low)
Estrato 4 (mid-high)
Estrato 5 (high)
Estrato 6 (highest)
== Transport ==
In addition to TransMilenio, the Peñalosa administration and voter-approved referendums helped to establish travel restrictions on cars with certain license plate numbers during peak hours called Pico y placa (peak, as in hour, and plate, as in license plate); 121 kilometers (75 miles) of Ciclovía on Sundays and major holidays; a massive system (376 km (234 mi) as of 2013) of bicycle paths and segregated lanes called ciclorrutas; and the removal of thousands of parking spots in an attempt to make roads more pedestrian-friendly and discourage car use. Ciclorrutas is one of the most extensive dedicated bike path networks of any city in the world, with a total extension of 376 kilometers (234 miles). It extends from the north of the city, 170th Street, to the south, 27th Street, and from Monserrate on the east to the Bogotá River on the west. The ciclorruta was started by the 1995–1998 Antanas Mockus administration with a few kilometers, and considerably extended afterwards with the development of a Bicycle Master Plan and the addition of paths hundreds of kilometers in extent. Since the construction of the ciclorruta bicycle use in the city has increased, and a car free week was introduced in 2014.
=== Roads ===
In addition to this, the metropolis currently has over 650 kilometers of urban bicycle paths divided among its 20 boroughs, making it the city with the largest bicycle lane system on the planet. Bogotá massive urban growth during the 20th and 21st centuries due to immigration and rapid urbanization of neighboring cities has placed a strain on the city's downtown avenues and highways, but since the creation of the Bogota Metropolitan area in 1990 significant efforts to upgrade the city's infrastructure have been undertaken, including the construction of several new avenues and boulevards, as well as the construction of the first two lines of the Bogota Metro. In recent years, the capital district has embarked on several city building projects including the expansion of the Avenida Boyaca and Autopista Norte, as well as the construction of the brand new Avenida Guayacanes, a 13-kilometer 8-lane avenue currently being constructed from scratch in the boroughs of Bosa and Kennedy, as well as the excavations for the city's second metro line. Private car ownership forms a major part of the congestion, in addition to taxis, buses, and commercial vehicles.
=== Buses ===
Buses remain the main means of mass transit. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the TransMilenio BRT system. The city's administration is currently in the process of replacing and updating the entire fleet for the TransMilenio BRT system, adopting Euro VI-standard CNG-powered buses as well as electric buses. Once completed, Bogotá will have the largest electric bus fleet in the world outside China.
The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues: Bus (large buses), Buseta (medium size buses) and Colectivo (vans or minivans). The bigger buses were divided into two categories: Ejecutivo, which was originally to be a deluxe service and was not to carry standing passengers, and corriente or normal service. Since May 2008, all buses run as corriente services. Bogotá is a hub for domestic and international bus routes. The Bogotá terminal serves routes to most cities and towns in Colombia and is the largest in the country. There is international service to Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela.
The TransMilenio system was created during Enrique Peñalosa's mayoral term, and is a form of bus rapid transit that has been deployed as a measure to compensate for the lack of a subway or rail system. TransMilenio combines articulated buses that operate on dedicated bus roads (busways) and smaller buses (feeders) that operate in residential areas, bringing passengers to the main grid. TransMilenio's main routes are: Caracas Avenue, Northern Highway (Autopista Norte), 80th Street, Americas Avenue, Jiménez Avenue, and 30th Avenue (also referred to as Norte Quito Sur or N.Q.S. for short). Routes for Suba Avenue and Southern Highway (Autopista Sur), the southern leg of the 30th Avenue, were opened in April 2006. The third phase of the system will cover 7th Avenue, 10th Avenue, and 26th Street (or Avenida El Dorado). The system is planned to cover the entire city by 2030. Although the Transmilenio carries commuters to numerous corners of the city, it is more expensive (US$0.80 or 2300 COP) than any public transport, except taxis.
=== Air ===
Bogotá's main airport is El Dorado International Airport, with an approximate area of 6.9 km2 (2.7 sq mi) located west of the city's downtown in the Fontibón Locality. Globally known as The Hub of the Americas, it is the busiest airport in Latin America and Colombia. Construction of the airport was ordered by Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (19th President of Colombia) in 1955 to replace the Techo Airport. Due to its central location in Colombia and in Latin America, it is a hub for Colombia's Flagship Carrier Avianca, Copa Airlines Colombia and LATAM Colombia. It is also serviced by a number of international airlines including American, Delta, United, Air France, KLM, Turkish Airlines, Edelweiss, Lufthansa, Emirates, Iberia and Air Canada. The national airport has begun to take more responsibility due to the congestion at the international airport. In response to the high demand of approximately 27 Million passengers per year,
A secondary airport, CATAM, serves as a base for Military and Police Aviation. This airport, which uses the runways of El Dorado will eventually move to Madrid, a nearby town in the region of Cundinamarca, leaving further space to expand El Dorado.
Guaymaral Airport is another small airport located in the northern boundaries of Bogotá. It is used mainly for private aviation activities.
=== Water ===
In 2024, the City Council approved a megaproject that would be carried out in three phases: the first phase would be implemented in the first year, with a main port, docks and vessels all along the Bogotá River, at a cost of 250 billion pesos and would contemplate the transport of up to 120,000 passengers per day, with seven possible routes that would cover distances such as from the boroughs of Suba to Bosa (with the El Dorado International Airport station in between) in a time no longer than 40 minutes. The next two phases, which would also require an investment of nearly 250 billion pesos, would be aimed at strengthening the system and increasing passenger capacity. With this measure, the Bogotá River is expected to become a vital artery for transport and regional connectivity, improving citizens' quality of life and fostering more balanced and sustainable urban development.
=== Rail ===
==== Urban rail ====
Bogotá has little railway transit infrastructure, following the collapse of the tram network, although a number of plans hope to change that. The Bogotá Metro has been pushed forward by two successive governments, and construction began in 2020 with opening planned for 2028.
==== Suburban rail ====
Plans to construct railways in and out of the city, replacing defunct routes, have been delayed due to the pressing need for transport within the city. A tram train line using right-of-way from the defunct Bogotá Savannah Railway, known as RegioTram is being constructed.
==== History ====
On 25 December 1884, the first tramway pulled by mules was inaugurated and covered the route from Plaza de Bolívar to Chapinero, and in 1892, the line connecting Plaza de Bolívar and La Sabana Station started operating. The tramway ran over wooden rails and was easily derailed, so steel rails imported from Britain were eventually installed. In 1894, a tramway car ran the Bogotá–Chapinero line every 20 minutes. The tram system eventually grew to cover most of the city and its surrounding suburbs. But during the Bogotazo riots of 1948, the system suffered heavy damage and was forced to close. The economic effects of the subsequent civil war that followed prevented the damage from being repaired. Parts of the system continued to operate in a reduced state until 1951, when they were replaced by buses. Most of the streetcar tracks were eventually paved over, but exposed tracks can still be seen on many of the older roads of the city, especially downtown and in the La Candelaria area, although it has been about 70 years since any vehicles have run on them.
=== Cycling ===
Bogotá has most extensive and comprehensive network of bike paths in Colombia. Bogotá's bike paths network or Ciclorrutas de Bogotá in Spanish, designed and built during the administration of Mayors Antanas Mockus and Enrique Peñalosa, is also one of the most extensive in the world and the most extensive in Latin America. The network is integrated with the TransMilenio bus system which has bicycle parking facilities, therefore rendering it feasible to cross the entire metropolitan area while riding a bike.
Bogotá implemented a healthy lifestyle program called "Ciclovía", through which principal highways are closed from 7:00 a.m. until 2:00 pm on Sundays and public holidays. Thanks to the "Ciclovía", the general population rides its bikes enjoying the city as well as exercising. In addition, cars do not circulate as heavily, so there is less pollution. Along the same lines, just during the month of December, the same activity is carried out at night; there are some special amenities and activities, such as fireworks, street theater performances, and street food vendors.
Since 4 April 2016 the carrera 11 has been reduced from four to three car lanes and a new bike lane (ciclorruta) has been inaugurated.
=== Public transport statistics ===
The average time spent commuting via public transit in Bogotá on a weekday (for example, to and from work) is 97 minutes total. 32% of riders spend more than 2 hours each day riding on public transportation. The average time spent waiting at a stop or station for public transit to arrive is 20 minutes, while 40% of riders wait for over 20 minutes every day. The average distance traveled via public transit is 8 kilometers, with 16% of trips being over 12 kilometers in a single direction.
== Education ==
Known as the Athens of South America, Bogotá has an extensive educational system of both primary and secondary schools and colleges. Due to the constant migration of people into the nation's capital, the availability of quotas for access to education offered by the State free of charge is often insufficient. The city also has a diverse system of colleges and private schools.
There are a number of universities, both public and private. In 2002, there were a total of 113 higher education institutions; in Bogotá there are several universities, most partially or fully accredited by the NAC (National Accreditation Council): National University of Colombia, University of the Andes, Colombia, District University of Bogotá, La Salle University, Colombia, University of La Sabana, Pontifical Xavierian University, Our Lady of the Rosary University, Universidad Externado de Colombia, Nueva Granada Military University, Central University, Colombia, El Bosque University, University of America, Sergio Arboleda University, Jorge Tadeo Lozano University, Pilot University of Colombia, Catholic University of Colombia, Saint Thomas Aquinas University and Universidad Pedagógica Nacional.
The city has a University City at the National University of Colombia campus located in the traditional sector Teusaquillo. It is the largest campus in Colombia and one of the largest in Latin America.
A private school, Chapinero's English Royal School (Colegio Inglaterra Real de Chapinero), existed from 2008 until 2021, when it closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
== Culture ==
Bogotá has many cultural venues including 58 museums, 62 art galleries, 150 libraries (of different types), 45 stage theaters, 75 sports and attraction parks, and over 150 national monuments. Many of these are renowned globally such as: BibloRed, Bogotá's Public Libraries Network, the Luis Ángel Arango Library, the most important in the region which receives well over 6 million visitors a year; the Colombian National Museum, one of the oldest in the Americas, dating back to 1823; the Ibero-American Theater Festival, largest of its kind in the world, receives 2 million attendees enjoying over 450 performances across theaters and off the street; the Bogotá Philharmonic is the most important symphony orchestra in Colombia, with over 100 musicians and 140 performances a year. The city has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of music since March 2012. In 2007, Bogotá was named World Book Capital by UNESCO.
The Cristóbal Colón Theater, the country's oldest Opera House, opened in 1892. It is home to the National Symphony Association's major act, the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia.
Rock al Parque or Rock at the Park is an open air rock music festival. Recurring annually, it gathers over 320,000 music fans who can enjoy over 60 band performances for free during three days a year. The series have been so successful during its 15 years of operation that the city has replicated the initiative for other music genres, resulting in other recent festivals like Salsa at the Park, Hip Hop at the Park, Ballet at the Park, Opera at the Park, and Jazz at the Park.
Kids' Choice Awards Colombia, are the awards given in the city by Nickelodeon and the first ceremony was given in 2014 by the singer Maluma and in Corferias the ceremony has been the home of shows given by artists like Austin Mahone, Carlos Peña, Don Tetto and Riva among others.
Bogotá has worked in recent years to position itself as leader in cultural offerings in South America, and it is increasingly being recognized worldwide as a hub in the region for the development of the arts.
In 2007, Bogotá was awarded the title of Cultural Capital of Ibero-America by the UCCI (Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities), and it became the only city to have received the recognition twice, after being awarded for the first time in 1991.
=== Cultural history ===
Bogotá gave the Spanish-speaking world José Asunción Silva (1865–1896), Modernism pioneer. His poetic work in the novel De sobremesa has a place in outstanding American literature. Rafael Pombo (1833–1912) was an American romanticism poet who left a collection of fables essential part of children imagination and Colombian tradition.
=== Architecture ===
The urban morphology and typology of colonial buildings in Bogotá have been maintained since the late nineteenth century, long after the independence of Colombia (1810). This persistence of the colonial setting is still visible, particularly in La Candelaria, the historical center of Bogotá. Also kept up are the colonial houses of two stories, with courtyards, gabled roofs, ceramic tiles and balconies. In some cases, these balconies were enclosed with glass windows during the Republican period, a distinguishing feature of the architecture of the sector (for example, the House of Rafael Pombo).
"Republican Architecture" was the style that prevailed between 1830 and 1930. Although there were attempts to consolidate a modern architectural language, the only examples seen are University City and White City at the National University of Colombia (constructed 1936–39). This work was developed by German architect Leopold Rother, although architects of rationalist trends participated in the design of campus buildings. There are also architecture trends such as art deco, expressionism and organic architecture. This last trend was typified by Bogotan architects in the second half of the twentieth century such as Rogelio Salmona.
In 2015 BD Bacatá was inaugurated, surpassing the Colpatria Tower to become the tallest building of the city and of Colombia. The building its expected to be the beginning of the city's downtown renovation.
=== Libraries and archives ===
In 2007, Bogotá was named World Book Capital by UNESCO. Bogotá is the first Latin American city to receive this recognition, and the second one in the Americas after Montreal. It stood out in programs, the library network and the presence of organizations that, in a coordinated manner, are working to promote books and reading in the city. Several specific initiatives for the World Book Capital program have been undertaken with the commitment of groups, both public and private, engaged in the book sector.
The city is home to the Biblored, a network which administers 146 small and four large public libraries (Biblioteca Virgilio Barco, Biblioteca El Tintal, Biblioteca El Tunal and Biblioteca Julio Mario Santodomingo). It also has six branches of the Library Network of the Family Compensation Fund Colsubsidio and libraries and documentation centers attached to institutions like the Museo Nacional de Colombia (specializing in old books, catalogs and art), Bogotá Museum of Modern Art, the Alliance Française, and the Centro Colombo Americano.
Another set of libraries are the new collaborative initiatives between the state, city and international agencies. Examples are the Cultural Center Gabriel García Marquez, custom designed by the Fondo de Cultura Economica in Mexico, and the Spanish Cultural Center, which will begin construction with public funds and of the Spanish government in downtown Bogotá.
The National Library of Colombia (1777), a dependence of the Ministry of Culture and the Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango (1958), a dependence of the Bank of the Republic are the two largest public libraries in the city. The first is the repository of more than two million volumes, with an important collection of ancient books. The latter has almost two million volumes, and with 45,000 m2 (480,000 sq ft) in size, it hosts 10,000 visitors a day; the Library Alfonso Palacio Rudas is also a dependence of the Bank of the Republic, and is located at the north of the city, with about 50,000 volumes. Other large public libraries are the Library of Congress in Colombia (with 100,000 volumes), of the Instituto Caro y Cuervo (with nearly 200,000 volumes, the largest Latin American library in Philology and Linguistics), the Library of the Academy of History The Library of the Academy of Language, the Library of the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History ICANH, and many university libraries.
Bogotá is home to historical records housed in the General National Archive, a collection of about 60 million documents, one of the largest repositories of primary historical sources in Latin America. Bogotá is also home to the Musical Archive of the Cathedral of Bogotá (with thousands of books and choral song-colonial period), the Archdiocesan Archive, the Archive of the Conciliar Seminary of Bogotá, the Archive History National University of Colombia and the Archive of the Mint in Bogotá, under the Bank of the Republic.
=== Museums and galleries ===
As of 2009, the city had 58 museums and 62 art galleries. The National Museum of Colombia has acquisitions divided into four collections: art, history, archeology and ethnography. The Gold Museum, with 35,000 pieces of tumbaga gold, along with 30,000 objects in ceramic, stone and textiles, represents the largest collection of pre-Columbian gold in the world.
The Museo Botero has 123 works of Fernando Botero and 87 works by international artists. The Bogotá Museum of Modern Art has a collection of graphic arts, industrial design and photography. The Museum of Colonial Art is home to an important collection of colonial art from Colombia. Fundación Gilberto Alzate Avendaño hosts activities related to the performing arts and shows temporary exhibits of art in its halls and galleries.
Among the scientific museums are the Archeological Museum – Casa del Marqués de San Jorge, which has about 30 thousand pieces of pre-Columbian art, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales (UN), one of the four largest museums of natural sciences in Latin America, and the Geological Museum, which has a collection specializing in Geology and Paleontology.
Bogotá has historical museums like the Jorge Eliecer Gaitan Museum, the Museum of Independence (Museo de la Independencia), the Quinta de Bolívar and the Casa Museo Francisco José de Caldas, as well as the headquarters of Maloka and the Children's Museum of Bogotá. New museums include the Art Deco and the Museum of Bogotá.
=== Theater and arts ===
Besides the Ibero-American Theater Festival, the largest theater festival in the world, the city has forty-five theaters; the principal ones are the Colon Theater, the newly built Teatro Mayor Julio Mario Santo Domingo, the National Theater with its two venues, the traditional TPB Hall, the Theater of La Candelaria, the Camarin del Carmen (over 400 years old, formerly a convent), the Colsubsidio, and a symbol of the city, the renovated Teatro Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, León de Greiff Auditorium (home of the Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra), and the Open Air Theater "La Media Torta", where musical events are also held.
The Ibero-American Theater Festival, is not the only acclaimed festival. There are many other regional and local theater festivals that are celebrated and maintain the city active year-round . Amongst these is the "Alternative Theater Festival".
Bogotá has its own film festival, the Bogotá Film Festival, and many theaters, showing both contemporary films and art cinema. Bogotá's international art fair, ArtBo, takes place in October of every year and showcases thousands of works covering arts across all formats, movements, and concepts.
The main cultural center of the city is the La Candelaria, historic center of the city, with a concentration of universities and museums. In 2007 Bogotá was designated the Ibero-American cultural Capital of Iberoamerica.
=== Religion ===
Before the Spanish conquest, the beliefs of the inhabitants of Bogotá formed part of the Muisca religion. From the colonial period onwards, the city has been predominantly Roman Catholic. Proof of this religious tradition is the number of churches built in the historic city center. The city has been seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bogotá since 22 March 1564. The seat of the Archbishop is the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá; the archdiocese itself is located in new buildings in the north of the city.
As of 2023, Bogotá had six mosques, including Abou Bakr Al-Siddiq Mosque on Calle 80 and Carrera 30, Estambul mosque in Chapinero, and Centro de Estudios Al-Qurtubi on Calle 60.
There are a total of four synagogues in Bogotá, the main Ashkenazi Jewish synagogue is located on 94th street.
An Eastern Orthodox church and the San Pablo Anglican Cathedral, the mother church of the Episcopal Church in Colombia, are both located in Chapinero. The Bogotá Colombia Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is located in the Niza neighborhood. There are four Buddhist centers located in the north of the city. There is also a wide variety of Protestant churches in different parts of the city, including the Bogotá Baptist Chapel, the non-denominational Union Church, and the St. Matthaus Evangelical Lutheran Church which holds services in German as well as Spanish for the German-Colombian community.
=== Cuisine ===
There is a broad array of restaurants in Bogotá that serve typical and international food. Parque de la 93, Usaquén, Zona T, The G Zone, La Macarena, La Candelaria, The parkway and the International Center are some of the main sectors where a number of international restaurants are found, ranging from Argentinian, Peruvian, Venezuelan, Brazilian, Mexican, American establishments to Arabic, Asian, French, Italian, Russian and British bistros, rotisseries, steakhouses and pubs, just to name a few.
Typical dishes of Bogotá include the ajiaco, a soup prepared with chicken, a variety of potatoes, corn on the cob, and guascas (an herb), usually served with sour cream and capers, and accompanied by avocado and rice.
Tamales is a very traditional Bogotá dish. Colombian tamal is a paste made with rice, beef, pork and/or chicken (depending on the region), chickpea, carrot, and spices, wrapped in plantain leaves and steam-cooked.
Figs with arequipe, strawberries with cream, postre de natas and cuajada con melao are some of the main desserts offered in the city. Canelazo is a hot drink from the Altiplano prepared with aguapanela, cinnamon and aguardiente. Another hot beverage is the carajillo, made with coffee (tinto as it is known in Colombia) and aguardiente.
=== Parks and recreation ===
There are numerous parks in Bogotá, with facilities for concerts, plays, movies, storytellers, and other activities.
Simón Bolívar Park is a large park regularly used to stage free concerts (such as the annual Rock al Parque festival).
The public Parque Nacional (National Park) has green spaces, ponds, games for children, foot and bicycle paths, and venues for entertainment such as public screenings of movies and concerts and events organized by the Council of Bogotá
The Bogotá Botanical Garden (Jardín Botánico de Bogotá)
Mundo Aventura is an amusement park, with an entry charge and charges for the different attractions. It has rides for adults and children, a petting zoo, and even a small track for animal races.
Salitre Mágico is another amusement park with rides and attractions. The park is near the Simón Bolívar park, where concerts are held throughout the year.
Parque del Chicó has trees, gardens, artificial creeks and ponds, and a colonial-style house converted into a museum; Museo del Chicó
To the north of Bogotá, in the municipality of Tocancipá; Jaime Duque Park has rides, a giant map of Colombia, various exhibits, a zoo, and a big hand holding the world, symbolizing God. There is a reproduction of the Taj Mahal in the park with a collection of reproductions of famous paintings. The park is also used for large concerts, mainly electronic music.
Maloka is an interactive science museum, in the style of similar venues around the world.
Tourist train is a sightseeing train, popular with Bogotá residents, which runs to outlying towns Zipaquirá, Cajicá and Nemocón along the lines of the former Bogotá Savannah Railway on weekends. The route to Zipaquirá (known for its salt cathedral) is 53 kilometers (33 miles) long. Another line goes towards the north for 47 km (29 mi) and ends at Briceño.
The Usaquén Park is another of the most important parks in the city several of the best restaurants in this city are located there, is recognized to have street performers such as storytellers, magicians, jugglers, etc., and also for being one of the most decorated parks in the city during Christmas time.
== Sports ==
The District Institute for Recreation and Sport promotes recreation, sports and use of the parks in Bogotá.
Football has been declared a symbol of Bogotá, and is widely played in the city. There are three professional clubs in the city, Santa Fe, Millonarios, and La Equidad. The main stadium in the city is The Campín Stadium (Estadio Nemesio Camacho El Campín) home of the local teams Santa Fe and Millonarios, In 2001 The Campín Stadium was the place for the 2001 Copa América final between the Colombia national football and the Mexico national football, with a final score 1–0 in favor of the home team, which finally obtained its first continental cup. The other soccer venue is the multi-use Techo Metropolitan Stadium which is the home of La Equidad.
Other major sporting venues are the covered Coliseum El Campín, the Simón Bolívar Aquatic Complex, the Sports Palace, the El Salitre Sports Venue which includes the Luis Carlos Galán Velodrome (which hosted the 1995 UCI Track Cycling World Championships), the El Salitre Diamond Ballpark and the BMX track "Mario Andrés Soto".
Bogotá hosted the first Bolivarian Games held in 1938. The city hosted the National Games in 2004, winning the championship. It was a sub-venue Bolivarian Pan American Games. In addition, the city on the route of the Tour of Colombia.
After being a major venue city for the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup that was held in Colombia, Bogotá was one of the venue cities hosting the 2016 FIFA Futsal World Cup.
=== Sports teams ===
== Symbols ==
The flag originated with the insurgency movement against the colonial authorities which began on 20 July 1810, during which the rebels wore armbands with yellow and red bands, as these colors were those of the Spanish flag used as the flag for the New Kingdom of Granada.
On 9 October 1952, exactly 142 years after these events, decree 555 of 1952 officially adopted the patriotic armband as the flag of Bogotá. The flag of Cundinamarca follows the same pattern, plus a light blue tile which represents the Virgin Mary's cape.
The flag itself is a yellow band above a red one. The yellow denotes the gold from the earth, as well as the virtues of justice, clemency, benevolence, the so-called "mundane qualities" (defined as nobility, excellence, richness, generosity, splendor, health, steadfastness, joy and prosperity), long life, eternity, power and constancy. The red denotes the virtue of charity, as well as the qualities of bravery, nobility, values, audacity, victory, honor and furor, Colombians call it the blood of their people.
The coat of arms of the city was granted by emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) to the New Kingdom of Granada, by royal decree given in Valladolid, Spain on 3 December 1548. It contains a black eagle in the center, which symbolizes steadfastness. The eagle is also a symbol of the Habsburgs, which was the ruling family of the Spanish empire at the time. The eagle is crowned with gold and holds a red pomegranate inside a golden background. The border contains olive branches with nine golden pomegranates on a blue background. The two red pomegranates symbolize audacity, and the nine golden ones represent the nine states which constituted the New Kingdom of Granada at the time. In 1932 the coat of arms was officially recognized and adopted as the symbol of Bogotá.
Bogotá's anthem lyrics were written by Pedro Medina Avendaño; the melody was composed by Roberto Pineda Duque. The song was officially declared the anthem by decree 1000 31 July 1974, by then Mayor of Bogotá, Aníbal Fernandez de Soto.
== International relations ==
=== Twin towns – sister cities ===
Bogotá is twinned with:
=== Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities ===
Bogotá is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities established on 12 October 1982.
=== Partnerships and cooperations ===
In addition, Bogotá cooperates with:
New York City, United States
== Panoramas ==
== See also ==
Carnival of Bogotá
List of largest cities
Transport in Colombia
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bhadra-Heintz, John I. B. (2022). A Tyranny Against Itself: Intimate Partner Violence on the Margins of Bogota. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9806-2.
== External links ==
Official website (in Spanish)
Bogota official tourism site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Chamberlin_(California) | Mount Chamberlin (California) | Mount Chamberlin is a 13,169-foot-elevation (4,014-meter) mountain summit located west of the crest of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in Tulare County, California. It is situated in Sequoia National Park, and is 3.2 miles (5.1 km) south-southwest of Mount Whitney, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south of Mount Hitchcock, and 3.5 miles west of Mount Corcoran. Topographic relief is significant as it rises approximately 1,830 feet (560 meters) above Crabtree Lakes in one-half mile. Mt. Chamberlin ranks as the 119th highest summit in California. This mountain's name was officially adopted in 1940 by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names to honor American geologist Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (1843–1928). The first ascent of the summit was made by Sierra Club member J. H. Czock, date unknown.
== Climbing ==
Established climbing routes:
South and West Slopes – class 2 – 1932 by J.N. Holladay, E.M. Holladay, H.E. Fritsche
East Ridge – class 3 – 1956 by George O. Hale
North Pillar – class 5.10 – 1979 by Galen Rowell, Mike Farrell
North Face – class 5.10d – 1983 by Claude Fiddler, Bob Harrington
Eastern Pillar of the North Face – class 5.11 – 1992 by Julie Brugger, Andy de Klerk
Asleep at the Wheel – class 5.11 – 2001 by Jimmy Haden, Mike Pennings
== Climate ==
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Mount Chamberlin has an alpine climate. Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel east toward the Sierra Nevada mountains. As fronts approach, they are forced upward by the peaks, causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the range (orographic lift). Precipitation runoff from this mountain drains west to the Kern River via Whitney and Rock Creeks.
== See also ==
List of mountain peaks of California
== References ==
== External links ==
Weather forecast: Mount Chamberlin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shristi_Shrestha | Shristi Shrestha | Shristi Shrestha (Nepali: सृष्टि श्रेष्ठ, ) is a Nepalese actress, model and beauty pageant titleholder who the winner of the Miss Nepal 2012 pageant.
== Career ==
=== Pageants ===
Shrestha represented her home district of Chitwan during the Miss Nepal 2012 beauty pageant as Miss Chitwan 2012. She went on to win the main title of Miss Nepal that year along with the Miss Confidence title.
Shrestha is the first Miss Nepal winner to reach the quarter-finals of Miss World; she finished in 20th place overall, achieved eighth place in Beach Beauty, and was one of the top ten contestants for the Multimedia Award. She also won the Public Choice Award during the Miss World pageant.
=== Acting ===
Her acting debut was in the Nepali film Gajalu, alongside Anmol K.C. On the stage, she made her debut as Ophelia in a production of William Shakespeare's Hamlet. This performance was staged at the Theatre Village in Kathmandu for one month, and was produced by the British Council. The play was directed by Gregory Thomson.
== Awards ==
Shrestha has received Best Debut Actor awards from the National Film Awards, the Kamana Film Awards, the Dcine Awards, and the FAAN Awards.
== Personal life ==
Shrestha is the seventh Young Conservation Ambassador for WWF Nepal and is involved with snow leopard conservation projects within the organization. She was in a relationship with Saugat Malla from 2016 to early 2023.
== Filmography ==
=== Music videos ===
=== Films ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Shristi Shrestha at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunfire_(character) | Gunfire (character) | Gunfire (Andrew Van Horn) is a DC Comics superhero and freelance anti-terrorist operative. He first appeared in Deathstroke Annual #2 (October 1993), created by Len Wein and Steve Erwin, and was one of the "New Bloods", several superpowered individuals introduced during the 1993 DC Comics Bloodlines crossover event.
== Fictional character biography ==
Andrew Van Horn is the son of an unnamed business executive who inherits the family business following his death. During the Bloodlines crossover, he is attacked by the alien parasite Venev and gains the ability to manipulate kinetic energy.
In Infinite Crisis, Gunfire battles the Secret Society of Super Villains during their attack on Metropolis, during which Prometheus cuts off his hands.
In Final Crisis, Superman rescues Gunfire, among others, from Limbo, a void inhabited by forgotten characters.
In Heroes in Crisis, Gunfire is among the patients of the Sanctuary therapy center who are killed in an unexpected attack.
== Other versions ==
In Hitman One Million, an unnamed citizen obtains Gunfire's eyepiece and gains his abilities. John McCrea, who illustrated the issue, admitted to disliking the character.
In The New 52, police officer Blake gains similar abilities to Hitman after being infected by an alien parasite. However, he is overcome by the parasite and subsequently killed.
== Powers and abilities ==
Gunfire can charge any object via touch, causing it to emit energy and act like a gun before disintegrating.
== References ==
== External links ==
DCU Guide: Gunfire |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazal_Ilahi_Chaudhry#Political_career | Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry | Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry (1 January 1904 – 2 June 1982) was a Pakistani barrister, politician and statesman who served as the fifth president of Pakistan from 1973 until his resignation in 1978, due to Zia-ul-Haq's martial law following the 1977 coup d'état which overthrew Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's government. He was the first legislatively-elected president in the country's history, serving as a constitutional figurehead.
Born in Kharian, Punjab, Chaudhry received his higher education at the Aligarh Muslim University and the University of the Punjab. He established his law firm in Lahore and further practised civil law. Entering early district-level administration in 1930, he was elected to the Gujrat District Board, unopposed. In 1942, he joined the All-India Muslim League and was elected the party president within the Punjab Muslim League for Gujrat District. He became active in the Pakistan Movement and took part in the 1946 Indian provincial elections in Punjab.
Following Pakistan's independence, Chaudhry was appointed the parliamentary secretary and later the education and health minister within the central cabinet in 1951. He was elected to the West Punjab Assembly from Gujrat District in the 1951 provincial election; and represented Pakistan in the United Nations in 1952. Being elected to the West Pakistan Assembly in 1956, Chaudhry served as its speaker until the 1958 coup d'état when the legislature was suspended. He joined the Convention Muslim League and was elected in the 1965 election to the National Assembly, serving as the legislature's deputy speaker until 1969 when Yahya Khan declared martial law and suspended the 1962 constitution. Chaudhry joined the Pakistan Peoples Party and contested the 1970 election, being elected once again to the National Assembly and later getting elected as its speaker in 1972.
Under the 1973 constitution, Chaudhry contested the 1973 presidential election as a candidate of the Peoples Party against the opposition coalition's contestant Khan Amirzadah Khan of the National Awami Party (Wali); which he won with an absolute electoral college majority. He was sworn in as the president on 14 August 1973, becoming the first ethnic Punjabi to hold the office. He succeeded Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as president, who was sworn in as the prime minister. He served as a figurehead as the presidency, under the newly-promulgated constitution, had become a ceremonial position with executive authority being vested in the prime minister's position. With the success of the 1977 coup d'état, the Bhutto-led federal government, alongside all provincial governments, was overthrown by Zia-ul-Haq, who assumed the position of chief martial law administrator; but Chaudhry continued his presidency with no influence over governmental, military and national affairs. Due to contentious relations with the Zia-led military government, he resigned from the presidency in September 1978, which was then assumed by Zia-ul-Haq.
Establishing himself from district-level administration to national politics and international diplomacy, Chaudhry remained a well-respected politician and legislator throughout his political career; and played his constitutionally nominal role as president. He died in June 1982 in Lahore at the age of 78.
== Early life and education ==
Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was born on 1 January 1904 into an influential Punjabi family of Muslim Gujjars in the village of Marala in the Kharian Tehsil of Gujrat District, Punjab.
After receiving his early education from Kharian, Chaudhry joined the prestigious Aligarh Muslim University in 1920 and moved to the United Provinces, receiving his LLB in civil law in 1924. Thereafter, Chaudhry returned to Punjab, settling in the capital Lahore, and attended the University of the Punjab's post-graduate school in law and political science. In 1925, Chaudhry obtained his MA in political science in 1925, and the advanced LLM in Law and Justice, in 1927.
After completing his education, Chaudhry established his law firm in Lahore, advocating for civil liberties, and went back to Gujrat, and started practising civil law.
== Political career ==
=== Early years (1942–1956) ===
In 1930, Chaudhry started taking interest in politics and participated in the 1930 Indian general election for the Gujrat District Board and was elected unopposed. He joined the Muslim League in 1942. In 1945, he was elected from Gujrat as the President of Muslim League. He took part in the 1946 Indian provincial elections on Muslim League's ticket and played an important role in propagating the ideas of the Muslim League among the people of his area. Upon the independence of Pakistan, he was given the post of Parliamentary Secretary, and was included in Liaquat Ali Khan's cabinet, serving as the education and health minister.
He further joined Pakistan permanent representative's delegation to the United Nations in 1951. In 1951, he contested the elections of the Punjab Legislative Assembly on the Muslim League ticket and was elected as a member of the Punjab Assembly. In 1952, he represented Pakistan in the United Nations.
=== Parliamentary roles (1956–1972) ===
In the 1956 elections, he was elected as member of the West Pakistan Assembly. Chaudhry served as the first Speaker of the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly from 20 May 1956 to 7 October 1958. In 1962, when Ayub Khan announced the elections, he was selected as the Deputy Opposition Leader of the House on the basis of his experience and knowledge about parliamentary proceedings. Chaudhry joined the Convention Muslim League, and after the 1965 presidential election, he was elected as the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly, a role he served in till 1969.
He was elected as member of the National Assembly in 1970 on the ticket of the Pakistan Peoples Party, and was later elected as the Speaker of the National Assembly in 1972. He ended up joining the Pakistan Peoples Party.
== Presidency ==
He contested the Presidential Elections of 1973 against Khan Amirzadah Khan of NAP and all opposition parties, and was elected president in 1973 (receiving 139 votes against Khan's 45), when the head of the PPP, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was made prime minister. He was the first ethnic Punjabi president of the country.
Chaudhry was largely a figurehead, and was the first Pakistani President with less power than the Prime Minister. This was due to the new constitution of 1973 that gave more powers to the Prime Minister. Previously, the President had been the chief executive of Pakistan and had the power to appoint Prime Minister. After Operation Fair Play - a codename of the operation to remove Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from power - Chaudhry continued his presidency but had no influence in the government operations or the military and national affairs.
=== Resignation ===
After contentious relations with the military, Chaudhry decided to resign from his post despite the urging of the Chief of Army Staff and Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff. On 16 September 1978, Chaudhry handed the charge of the presidency to ruling military general Zia-ul-Haq who succeeded him as the sixth president, in addition to being the Chief Martial Law Administrator and the Chief of Army Staff.
== Death ==
Chaudhry died of a heart ailment on 2 June 1982 at the age of 78 in Lahore, Punjab.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Chronicles Of Pakistan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest | Mount Everest | Mount Everest (known locally as Sagarmāthā in Nepal and Qomolangma in Tibet) is Earth's highest mountain above sea level. It lies in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas and marks part of the China–Nepal border at its summit. Its height was most recently measured in 2020 by Chinese and Nepali authorities as 8,848.86 m (29,031 ft 8+1⁄2 in).
Mount Everest attracts many climbers, including highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal (known as the standard route) and the other from the north in Tibet. While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route, Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, and wind, as well as hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall. As of May 2024, 340 people have died on Everest. Over 200 bodies remain on the mountain and have not been removed due to the dangerous conditions.
Climbers typically ascend only part of Mount Everest's elevation, as the mountain's full elevation is measured from the geoid, which approximates sea level. The closest sea to Mount Everest's summit is the Bay of Bengal, almost 700 km (430 mi) away. To approximate a climb of the entire height of Mount Everest, one would need to start from this coastline, a feat accomplished by Tim Macartney-Snape's team in 1990. Climbers usually begin their ascent from base camps above 5,000 m (16,404 ft). The amount of elevation climbed from below these camps varies. On the Tibetan side, most climbers drive directly to the North Base Camp. On the Nepalese side, climbers generally fly into Kathmandu, then Lukla, and trek to the South Base Camp, making the climb from Lukla to the summit about 6,000 m (20,000 ft) in elevation gain.
The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit were made by British mountaineers. As Nepal did not allow foreigners to enter the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the North Ridge route from the Tibetan side. After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached 7,000 m (22,966 ft) on the North Col, the 1922 expedition on its first summit attempt marked the first time a human had climbed above 8,000 m (26,247 ft) and it also pushed the North Ridge route up to 8,321 m (27,300 ft). On the 1924 expedition George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned, leading to debate as to whether they were the first to reach the top. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first documented ascent of Everest in 1953, using the Southeast Ridge route. Norgay had reached 8,595 m (28,199 ft) the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition. The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo, and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the North Ridge on 25 May 1960.
== Name ==
Mount Everest's Nepali/Sanskrit name is Sagarmāthā (IAST transcription) or Sagar-Matha (सगर-माथा, [sʌɡʌrmatʰa], lit. "goddess of the sky"), which means "the head in the great blue sky", being derived from सगर (sagar), meaning "sky", and माथा (māthā), meaning "head".
The Tibetan name for Everest is Qomolangma (ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ, lit. "holy mother"). The name was first recorded (in a Chinese transcription) in the 1721 Kangxi Atlas, issued during the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi; it first appeared in the West in 1733 as Tchoumour Lancma, on a map prepared by the French geographer D'Anville and based on Kangxi Atlas. The Tibetan name is also popularly romanised as Chomolungma and (in Wylie) as Jo-mo-glang-ma.
The official Chinese transcription is 珠穆朗玛峰 (t 珠穆朗瑪峰), or Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng in pinyin. While other Chinese names have been used historically, including Shèngmǔ Fēng (t 聖母峰, s 圣母峰, lit. "holy mother peak"), these names were largely phased out after the Chinese Ministry of Internal Affairs issued a decree to adopt a sole name in May 1952.
The British geographic survey of 1849 attempted to preserve local names when possible (e.g., Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri). However, Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India, claimed that he could not find a commonly used local name, and that his search for one had been hampered by the Nepalese and Tibetan policy of exclusion of foreigners. Waugh argued that – because there were many local names – it would be difficult to favour one name over all others; he therefore decided that Peak XV should be named after British surveyor Sir George Everest, his predecessor as Surveyor General of India. Everest himself opposed the honour, and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that "Everest" could neither be written in Hindi nor pronounced by "the native of India". Despite Everest's objections, Waugh's proposed name prevailed, and the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted the name "Mount Everest" in 1865. The modern pronunciation of Everest () is different from Sir George's pronunciation of his surname ( EEV-rist).
In the late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was Gaurishankar, a mountain between Kathmandu and Everest.
=== Other names ===
"Peak XV" (temporary, assigned by British Imperial Survey)
"Deodungha" (Old Darjeeling)
"Gauri Shankar", "Gaurishankar", or "Gaurisankar" (misattribution; used occasionally until about 1900. In modern times the name is used for a different peak about 30 miles (48 kilometres) away.)
== Surveys ==
=== 19th century ===
In 1802, the British began the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India to fix, among other things, the locations, heights, and names of the world's highest mountains. Starting in southern India, the survey teams moved northward using giant theodolites, each weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb) and requiring 12 men to carry, to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country due to suspicions of their intentions. Several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were denied.
The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult because of torrential rains and malaria. Three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire because of failing health.
Nonetheless, in 1847, the British continued the survey and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 240 km (150 mi) distant. Weather restricted work to the last three months of the year. In November 1847, Andrew Scott Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India, made several observations from the Sawajpore station at the east end of the Himalayas. Kangchenjunga was then considered the highest peak in the world, and with interest, he noted a peak beyond it, about 230 km (140 mi) away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's subordinates, also saw the peak from a site farther west and called it peak "b". Waugh would later write that the observations indicated that peak "b" was higher than Kangchenjunga, but closer observations were required for verification. The following year, Waugh sent a survey official back to Terai to make closer observations of peak "b", but clouds thwarted his attempts.
In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area, who made two observations from Jirol, 190 km (120 mi) away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being 174 km (108 mi) from the peak.
Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform the necessary calculations based on his observations. His raw data gave an average height of 9,200 m (30,200 ft) for peak "b", but this did not consider light refraction, which distorts heights. However, the number clearly indicated that peak "b" was higher than Kangchenjunga. Nicolson contracted malaria and was forced to return home without finishing his calculations. Michael Hennessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designating peaks based on Roman numerals, with Kangchenjunga named Peak IX. Peak "b" now became known as Peak XV.
In 1852, stationed at the survey headquarters in Dehradun, Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calculations based on Nicolson's measurements. An official announcement that Peak XV was the highest was delayed for several years as the calculations were repeatedly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in 1854, and along with his staff spent almost two years working on the numbers, having to deal with the problems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temperature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally, in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter to his deputy in Calcutta. Kangchenjunga was declared to be 8,582 m (28,156 ft), while Peak XV was given the height of 8,840 m (29,002 ft). Waugh concluded that Peak XV was "most probably the highest in the world". Peak XV (measured in feet) was calculated to be exactly 29,000 ft (8,839.2 m) high, but was publicly declared to be 29,002 ft (8,839.8 m) in order to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29000 ft was nothing more than a rounded estimate. Waugh is sometimes playfully credited with being "the first person to put two feet on top of Mount Everest".
=== 20th century ===
In 1856, Andrew Waugh announced Everest (then known as Peak XV) as 8,840 m (29,002 ft) high, after several years of calculations based on observations made by the Great Trigonometrical Survey.
From 1952 to 1954, the Survey of India, using triangulation methods, determined that the height of Everest was 8,847.73 m (29,028 ft). In 1975 it was subsequently reaffirmed by a Chinese measurement of 8,848.13 m (29,029.30 ft). In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured.
The 8,848 m (29,029 ft) height given was officially recognised by Nepal and China. Nepal planned a new survey in 2019 to determine if the April 2015 Nepal earthquake affected the height of the mountain.
In May 1999, an American Everest expedition directed by Bradford Washburn anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device. Although as of 2001, it has not been officially recognised by Nepal, this figure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 (see § 21st-century surveys) surveys.
In 1955, a detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse.
In the late 1980s, an even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography.
=== 21st century ===
On 9 October 2005, after several months of measurement and calculation, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m (29,017.16 ft) with accuracy of ±0.21 m (8.3 in), claiming it was the most accurate and precise measurement to date. This height is based on the highest point of rock and not the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team measured a snow-ice depth of 3.5 m (11 ft), which is in agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft). An argument arose between China and Nepal as to whether the official height should be the rock height (8,844 m, China) or the snow height (8,848 m, Nepal). In 2010, both sides agreed that the height of Everest is 8,848 m, and Nepal recognises China's claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m. On 8 December 2020, it was jointly announced by the two countries that the new official height is 8,848.86 metres (29,031.7 ft).
It is thought that the plate tectonics of the Main Himalayan Thrust and related faults, which form the convergent boundary between the Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate, are adding to the height and moving the summit northeastwards. Two accounts suggest the rates of change are 4 mm (0.16 in) per year vertically and 3 to 6 mm (0.12 to 0.24 in) per year horizontally, but another account mentions more lateral movement (27 mm or 1.1 in), and even shrinkage has been suggested.
=== Comparisons ===
The summit of Everest is the point at which Earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over 10,200 m (33,464.6 ft) from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level.
By the same measure of base to summit, Denali (also called Mount McKinley) in Alaska is taller than Everest as well. Despite its height above sea level of only 6,190 m (20,308 ft), Denali sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300 to 900 m (980 to 2,950 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300 to 5,900 m (17,400 to 19,400 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5,600 m (18,400 ft). By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m (13,800 ft) on the south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of 3,650 to 4,650 m (11,980 to 15,260 ft).
The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from Earth's centre (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km, 3,965.8 mi), because the Earth bulges at the equator. This is despite Chimborazo having a peak of 6,268 m (20,564.3 ft) above sea level versus Mount Everest's 8,848 m (29,028.9 ft).
=== Context and maps ===
Many of the highest mountains in the world are near Mount Everest, for example Lhotse, 8,516 m (27,940 ft); Nuptse, 7,855 m (25,771 ft), Changtse, 7,580 m (24,870 ft) and Khumbutse, 6,636 m (21,772 ft). On the southwest side, a major feature in the lower areas is the Khumbu icefall and glacier, an obstacle to climbers on those routes but also to the base camps.
== Geology ==
Geologists have subdivided the rocks comprising Mount Everest into three units called formations. Each formation is separated from the other by low-angle faults, called detachments, along which they have been thrust southward over each other. From the summit of Mount Everest to its base these rock units are the Qomolangma Formation, the North Col Formation, and the Rongbuk Formation.
The Qomolangma Formation, also known as the Jolmo Lungama Formation, runs from the summit to the top of the Yellow Band, about 8,600 m (28,200 ft) above sea level. It consists of greyish to dark grey or white, parallel laminated and bedded, Ordovician limestone interlayered with subordinate beds of recrystallised dolomite with argillaceous laminae and siltstone. Gansser first reported finding microscopic fragments of crinoids in this limestone. Later petrographic analysis of samples of the limestone from near the summit revealed them to be composed of carbonate pellets and finely fragmented remains of trilobites, crinoids, and ostracods. Other samples were so badly sheared and recrystallised that their original constituents could not be determined. A thick, white-weathering thrombolite bed that is 60 m (200 ft) thick comprises the foot of the "Third Step", and base of the summit pyramid of Everest. This bed, which crops out starting about 70 m (230 ft) below the summit of Mount Everest, consists of sediments trapped, bound, and cemented by the biofilms of micro-organisms, especially cyanobacteria, in shallow marine waters. The Qomolangma Formation is broken up by several high-angle faults that terminate at the low angle normal fault, the Qomolangma Detachment. This detachment separates it from the underlying Yellow Band. The lower five metres of the Qomolangma Formation overlying this detachment are very highly deformed.
The bulk of Mount Everest, between 7,000 and 8,600 m (23,000 and 28,200 ft), consists of the North Col Formation, of which the Yellow Band forms the upper part between 8,200 to 8,600 m (26,900 to 28,200 ft). The Yellow Band consists of intercalated beds of Middle Cambrian diopside-epidote-bearing marble, which weathers a distinctive yellowish brown, and muscovite-biotite phyllite and semischist. Petrographic analysis of marble collected from about 8,300 m (27,200 ft) found it to consist as much as five per cent of the ghosts of recrystallised crinoid ossicles. The upper five metres of the Yellow Band lying adjacent to the Qomolangma Detachment is badly deformed. A 5–40 cm (2.0–15.7 in) thick fault breccia separates it from the overlying Qomolangma Formation.
The remainder of the North Col Formation, exposed between 7,000 to 8,200 m (23,000 to 26,900 ft) on Mount Everest, consists of interlayered and deformed schist, phyllite, and minor marble. Between 7,600 and 8,200 m (24,900 and 26,900 ft), the North Col Formation consists chiefly of biotite-quartz phyllite and chlorite-biotite phyllite intercalated with minor amounts of biotite-sericite-quartz schist. Between 7,000 and 7,600 m (23,000 and 24,900 ft), the lower part of the North Col Formation consists of biotite-quartz schist intercalated with epidote-quartz schist, biotite-calcite-quartz schist, and thin layers of quartzose marble. These metamorphic rocks appear to be the result of the metamorphism of Middle to Early Cambrian deep sea flysch composed of interbedded, mudstone, shale, clayey sandstone, calcareous sandstone, graywacke, and sandy limestone. The base of the North Col Formation is a regional low-angle normal fault called the "Lhotse detachment".
Below 7,000 m (23,000 ft), the Rongbuk Formation underlies the North Col Formation and forms the base of Mount Everest. It consists of sillimanite-K-feldspar grade schist and gneiss intruded by numerous sills and dikes of leucogranite ranging in thickness from 1 cm to 1,500 m (0.4 in to 4,900 ft). These leucogranites are part of a belt of Late Oligocene–Miocene intrusive rocks known as the Higher Himalayan leucogranite. They formed as the result of partial melting of Paleoproterozoic to Ordovician high-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Higher Himalayan Sequence about 20 to 24 million years ago during the subduction of the Indian Plate.
Mount Everest consists of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that have been faulted southward over continental crust composed of Archean granulites of the Indian Plate during the Cenozoic collision of India with Asia. Current interpretations argue that the Qomolangma and North Col formations consist of marine sediments that accumulated within the continental shelf of the northern passive continental margin of India before it collided with Asia. The Cenozoic collision of India with Asia subsequently deformed and metamorphosed these strata as it thrust them southward and upward. The Rongbuk Formation consists of a sequence of high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks that were derived from the alteration of high-grade metasedimentary rocks. During the collision of India with Asia, these rocks were thrust downward and to the north as they were overridden by other strata; heated, metamorphosed, and partially melted at depths of over 15 to 20 kilometres (9.3 to 12.4 mi) below sea level; and then forced upward to surface by thrusting towards the south between two major detachments. Mount Everest is rising by about 2 mm per year.
=== IUGS geological heritage site ===
In respect of the recognition of the "highest rocks on the planet" as fossiliferous, marine limestone, the Ordovician Rocks of Mount Everest were included by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history."
== Flora and fauna ==
There is very little native flora or fauna on Everest. A type of moss grows at 6,480 metres (21,260 ft) on Mount Everest and it may be the highest altitude plant species. An alpine cushion plant called Arenaria is known to grow below 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) in the region. According to the study based on satellite data from 1993 to 2018, vegetation is expanding in the Everest region. Researchers have found plants in areas that were previously deemed bare.
A minute black jumping spider of the genus Euophrys has been found at elevations as high as 6,700 metres (22,000 ft), possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. Another Euophrys species, E. everestensis, has been found at 5,030 metres (16,500 ft), and may feed on insects that have been blown there by the wind. There is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes.
The bar-headed goose migrates over the Himalayas and have been seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain. In 1953, George Lowe (part of the expedition of Tenzing and Hillary) said that he saw bar-headed geese flying over Everest's summit. Another bird species, the chough, have been spotted as high as the South Col at 7,906 m (25,938 ft) and yellow-billed choughs have been seen as high as 7,900 m (25,919 ft).
Yaks are often used to haul gear for Mount Everest climbs. They can haul around 100 kg (220 pounds), have thick fur and large lungs. Other animals in the region include the Himalayan tahr, which is sometimes the prey of the snow leopard. The Himalayan black bear can be found up to about 4,300 metres (14,000 ft) and the red panda is also present in the region. One expedition found a surprising range of species in the region including a pika and ten new species of ants.
=== Conservation ===
From the Nepalese side, Everest is protected as part of Sagarmatha National Park, while from the Chinese side the mountain is protected as part of Qomolangma National Nature Reserve.
== Climate ==
Mount Everest has an ice cap climate (Köppen EF) with all months averaging well below freezing.
=== Climate change ===
The base camp for Everest expeditions based out of Nepal is located by Khumbu Glacier, which is rapidly thinning and destabilizing due to climate change, making it unsafe for climbers. As recommended by the committee formed by Nepal's government to facilitate and monitor mountaineering in the Everest region, Taranath Adhikari—the director general of Nepal's tourism department—said they have plans to move the base camp to a lower altitude. This would mean a longer distance for climbers between the base camp and Camp 1. Although officials had initially stated that the move might happen by 2024, resistance from the climbing and Sherpa communities resulted in the move being put on hold, in part because there is no viable alternative camp location that would allow climbers to pass through the icefall in the safer early morning hours.
=== Meteorology ===
In 2008, a new weather station at about 8,000 m (26,000 ft) elevation went online. The project was orchestrated by Stations at High Altitude for Research on the Environment (SHARE), which also placed the Mount Everest webcam in 2011. The solar-powered weather station is on the South Col.
Mount Everest extends into the upper troposphere and penetrates the stratosphere. The air pressure at the summit is generally about one-third what it is at sea level. The altitude can expose the summit to the fast and freezing winds of the jet stream. Winds commonly attain 160 km/h (100 mph); in February 2004, a wind speed of 280 km/h (175 mph) was recorded at the summit.
These winds can hamper or endanger climbers, by blowing them into chasms or (by Bernoulli's principle) by lowering the air pressure further, reducing available oxygen by up to 14 percent. To avoid the harshest winds, climbers typically aim for a 7- to 10-day window in the spring and fall when the Asian monsoon season is starting up or ending.
Mount Everest hosts several weather stations that collect important data on high-altitude weather conditions. Among them is the Balcony Station, the highest weather station on the planet, located at about 8,430 metres (27,660 ft) above sea level. Set up by climate scientists Tom Matthews and Baker Perry in 2019, this station is positioned just below the summit of Everest, which is the highest point on Earth.
As of January 20, 2020, the Balcony Station ceased transmitting data.
== Expeditions ==
Because Everest is the highest mountain in the world, it has attracted considerable attention and climbing attempts. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancient times is unknown. It may have been climbed in 1924, although this has never been confirmed, as neither man making the attempt returned. Climbing routes have been established over decades of expeditions.
The summit is first known to have been reached by humans in 1953. Despite the effort poured into expeditions, only about 200 people had summited by 1987. Everest remained a difficult climb for decades, even by professional climbers and large national expeditions, which were the norm until the commercial era began in the 1990s. As of December 2024, The Himalayan Database recorded just under 13,000 total summits, by around 7,200 different people.
Although lower mountains have longer or steeper climbs, Everest is so high the jet stream can hit it. Climbers can be faced with winds beyond 320 km/h (200 mph) when the weather shifts. At certain times of the year the jet stream shifts north, providing periods of relative calm at the mountain. Other dangers include blizzards and avalanches.
=== Early attempts ===
In 1885, Clinton Thomas Dent, president of the Alpine Club, suggested climbing Everest was possible in his book Above the Snow Line. The northern approach to the mountain was discovered by George Mallory and Guy Bullock on the initial 1921 British Reconnaissance Expedition. It was not equipped for a serious attempt to climb the mountain. With Mallory leading, and thus becoming the first European to set foot on Everest's flanks, they climbed the North Col to an altitude of 7,005 metres (22,982 ft). From there, Mallory espied a route to the top, but the party was unprepared to climb further and descended. The British returned for a 1922 expedition. On the first summit attempt Mallory, Col. Felix Norton, and Howard Somervell without supplemental oxygen reached 8,225 m (26,985 ft), the first time a human reported to climb higher than 8,000 m (26,247 ft). George Finch together with Geoffrey Bruce climbed using oxygen for the first time. They ascended at a remarkable speed—290 metres (951 ft) per hour—and reached an altitude of 8,321 m (27,300 ft).
The next expedition was in 1924. The initial attempt by Mallory and Geoffrey Bruce was aborted when weather conditions prevented the establishment of Camp VI. The next attempt was by Norton and Somervell, who climbed without oxygen and in perfect weather, traversing the North Face into the Great Couloir. Norton managed to reach, 8,572.8 m (28,126 ft) though he ascended only 30 m (100 ft) or so in the last hour. Mallory used oxygen equipment for a last-ditch effort. He chose young Andrew Irvine as his partner. On 8 June 1924, George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made an attempt on the summit via the North Col-North Ridge-Northeast Ridge route from which they never returned. On 1 May 1999, the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory's body on the North Face in a snow basin below and to the west of the traditional site of Camp VI. Controversy has raged in the mountaineering community whether one or both reached the summit 29 years before the first confirmed ascent and safe descent in 1953. Irvine's detached foot, still in a boot and sock, was found in 2024.
In 1933, Lady Houston, a British millionaire, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formation of two aeroplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over the Everest summit.
Early expeditions—such as Charles Bruce's in the 1920s and Hugh Ruttledge's two unsuccessful attempts in 1933 and 1936—tried to ascend the mountain from Tibet, via the North Face. Access was closed from the north to Western expeditions in 1950 after China took control of Tibet. In 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston, and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has become the standard approach to Everest from the south.
The 1952 Swiss Mount Everest expedition was granted permission to attempt a climb from Nepal. It established a route through the Khumbu icefall and ascended to the South Col at an elevation of 7,986 m (26,201 ft). Raymond Lambert and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay were able to reach an elevation of about 8,595 m (28,199 ft) on the Southeast Ridge, setting a new climbing altitude record. Tenzing's experience was useful when he was hired to be part of the British expedition in 1953. The Swiss made another post-monsoon attempt in the autumn; they made it to the South Col but were driven back by winter winds and severe cold.
=== First successful ascent by Tenzing and Hillary, 1953 ===
In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt, returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt the summit. The first, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans, came within 100 m (330 ft) of the summit on 26 May 1953, but turned back after running into oxygen problems. As planned, their work in routefinding, breaking trail and oxygen caches were of great aid to the following pair. Two days later, the expedition made its second assault with the second pair: New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali Sherpa climber. They reached the summit at 11:30 am local time on 29 May 1953 via the South Col route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first. They took photos and buried sweets and a small cross in the snow before descending.
=== 1950s–60s ===
On 23 May 1956, Ernst Schmied and Juerg Marmet ascended. Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo and Qu Yinhua of China made the first reported ascent of the peak from the North Ridge in May 1960. The first American to climb Everest, Jim Whittaker, joined by Nawang Gombu, reached the summit on 1 May 1963 on the American Mount Everest expedition and on 22 May on the same expedition Tom Hornbein and Willi Unsoeld were the first the traverse the mountain by climbing via the North Face and descending via the South Col.
=== 1970s ===
In 1970, Japanese mountaineers conducted a major expedition. The centrepiece was a large "siege"-style expedition, working on finding a new route up the Southwest Face. Another element was an attempt to ski Everest. Despite a staff of over one hundred and a decade of planning, the expedition suffered eight deaths and failed to summit. However, Japanese expeditions enjoyed some successes. Yuichiro Miura became the first man to ski down Everest from the South Col—he descended nearly 1,300 vertical metres (4,200 ft) from the South Col before falling with extreme injuries. Another success was an expedition that put four on the summit via the South Col route. Miura's exploits became the subject of film, and he went on to become the oldest person to summit Everest in 2003 aged 70 and in 2013 aged 80.
In 1975, Junko Tabei became the first woman to summit Everest. The 1975 British Mount Everest Southwest Face expedition led and organised by Chris Bonington made the first ascent of the Southwest Face from the Western Cwm. In 1978, Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler made the first ascent of Everest without supplemental oxygen.
=== 1979/1980: Winter Himalaism ===
The Polish climber Andrzej Zawada headed the first winter ascent of Everest, the first winter ascent of an eight-thousander. On 15 January, the team managed to set up Camp III at 7,150 metres (23,460 ft) above sea level, but further action was stopped by hurricane-force winds. The weather improved after 11 February, when Leszek Cichy, Walenty Fiut and Krzysztof Wielicki set up camp IV on South Col at 7,906 metres (25,938 ft). Cichy and Wielicki started the final ascent at 6:50 am on 17 February. At 2:40 pm Andrzej Zawada at base camp heard the climbers' voices over the radio – "We are on the summit! The strong wind blows all the time. It is unimaginably cold." The successful winter ascent started a new decade of Winter Himalaism, which became a Polish specialisation. After 1980 Poles did ten first winter ascents on 8000 metre peaks.
=== Lho La tragedy, 1989 ===
In 1989, Polish climbers under the leadership of Eugeniusz Chrobak organised an international expedition to Everest on a difficult western ridge. Ten Poles and nine foreigners participated, but only the Poles remained in the attempt for the summit. On 24 May, Chrobak and Andrzej Marciniak, starting from camp V at 8,200 metres (26,900 ft), overcame the ridge and reached the summit. But on 27 May, during an avalanche from the side of Khumbutse near the Lho La pass, four climbers were killed: Mirosław Dąsal, Mirosław Gardzielewski, Zygmunt Andrzej Heinrich and Wacław Otręba. The following day, due to his injuries, Chrobak died. Marciniak, who was injured, was saved by a rescue expedition in which Artur Hajzer and New Zealanders Gary Ball and Rob Hall took part. The organisation of the rescue included Reinhold Messner, Elizabeth Hawley, Carlos Carsolio and the US consul.
=== 1996 disaster ===
On 10 and 11 May 1996, eight climbers died after guided expeditions were caught in a blizzard during a summit attempt on 10 May. During the 1996 season, 15 people died. These were the highest death tolls for a single weather event, and season, until the 16 deaths in the 2014 Mount Everest ice avalanche. The guiding disaster gained publicity and raised questions about the commercialisation of climbing and the safety of guiding clients on Everest.
Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in one of the affected guided parties, and published the bestseller Into Thin Air, which related his experience. Krakauer was critical of guide Anatoli Boukreev. A year later, Boukreev co-authored The Climb, in part as a rebuttal of Krakauer's portrayal. The dispute sparked debate within the climbing community. Boukreev was awarded The American Alpine Club's David Sowles Award for his rescue efforts on the expedition. In 2004 researchers from the University of Toronto told the New Scientist that analysis of conditions on 11 May suggested that weather caused oxygen levels to plunge about 14 per cent.
One survivor was Beck Weathers, left for dead about 275 metres (900 feet) from Camp 4 at 7,950 metres (26,085 feet). After spending a night on the mountain, Weathers made it back to Camp 4 with massive frostbite and vision impaired due to snow blindness. Fellow climbers considered his condition terminal and left him in a tent to die overnight. Weathers was lowered to Camp 2 and a helicopter rescue was organised by the Nepali Army. The storm's impact on climbers on the North Ridge, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first-hand account by Matt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Everest. Sixteen-year-old Mark Pfetzer was on the climb and wrote about it in, Within Reach: My Everest Story. The 2015 feature film Everest is based on the events of this guiding disaster.
=== 2006 ===
In 2006, 12 people died. David Sharp's death triggered debate and years of discussion about climbing ethics. The question was whether climbers had left a man to die and whether he could have been saved. He attempted to summit alone with two bottles of oxygen, compared to the standard five used by most climbers. He arranged his permit through Asian Trekking, a Kathmandu-based company that provided basic services to base camp, but not beyond that point. Sharp climbed without a radio or guide. Multiple climbing parties encountered Sharp in distress.
Double-amputee climber Mark Inglis said that on 15 May his climbing party, and many others, had passed Sharp, sheltering under a rock overhang 450 metres (1,480 ft) below the summit, without attempting a rescue. Inglis said 40 people had passed by Sharp, but he might have been overlooked as climbers assumed Sharp was the corpse nicknamed "Green Boots", but Inglis was not aware that climbers had tried to help Sharp despite being in the process of helping an injured woman, Burçak Özoğlu Poçan, down. There has been discussion about Himex in the commentary on Inglis and Sharp. In regard to Inglis's initial comments, he later revised details because he had been interviewed while he was "physically and mentally exhausted, and in much pain. He had suffered frostbite – he later had five fingertips amputated." It was estimated that Sharp summited on 14 May and began his descent, but on 15 May he was in trouble and being passed by climbers on their way up and down. It is believed he was suffering from hypoxia and was about 300 m (1,000 ft) from the summit on the North Side route.
The Tribune, India, quoted someone who described what happened to Sharp as "the most shameful act in the history of mountaineering". Much of this controversy was captured by the Discovery Channel while filming Everest: Beyond the Limit. A crucial decision affecting Sharp is shown where a returning climber, adventurer Maxim Chaya, is descending and radios his base camp manager (Russell Brice) that he has found a frostbitten and unconscious climber in distress. Chaya is unable to identify Sharp, who had chosen to climb solo and did not identify himself to other climbers. The manager assumes Sharp is part of a group that has already calculated they must abandon him, and informs his lone climber there is no chance of him being able to help Sharp by himself. As Sharp's condition deteriorates and other descending climbers pass him, his opportunities for rescue diminish: his legs and feet curl from frostbite, preventing him walking; later descending climbers are lower on oxygen and lack the strength to offer aid; time runs out for Sherpas to return and rescue him. Sharp's body remained just below the summit on the Chinese side next to "Green Boots"; they shared a space in a rock cave that was an ad hoc tomb. Sharp's body was removed from the cave in 2007, and since 2014, Green Boots has been missing, presumably removed or buried.
As the Sharp debate started, on 26 May Australian climber Lincoln Hall was found alive after being left. He was found by a party of four climbers who, giving up their own attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with him and 11 Sherpas sent up to carry him down. Hall fully recovered. His team had assumed he had died from cerebral edema, and were instructed to cover him with rocks. There were no rocks to do this and he was abandoned. The erroneous information of his death was passed to his family.
=== 2007 ===
On 21 May 2007, Canadian climber Meagan McGrath initiated the successful high-altitude rescue of Nepali Usha Bista. McGrath was selected as a 2011 recipient of the Sir Edmund Hillary Foundation of Canada Humanitarian Award, which recognises a Canadian who has contributed a significant service in the Himalayan Region of Nepal.
=== Ascent statistics up to 2010 season ===
By the end of 2010, there had been 5,104 summits by about 3,142 individuals, with 77 per cent accomplished since 2000. The summit was achieved in 7 of the 22 years from 1953 to 1974 and not missed between 1975 and 2014. An illustration of the explosion of popularity is provided by the number of daily ascents. Analysis of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster shows part of the blame was on the bottleneck caused by a large number of climbers (33 to 36) attempting to summit on the same day; this was unusually high at the time. By comparison, on 23 May 2010, the summit was reached by 169 climbers – more summits in a single day than in the 31 years from the first successful summit in 1953 to 1983. Nearly all attempts at the summit are done using one of two main routes. In 2005–07, more than half elected to use the more challenging, but cheaper northeast route. In 2008, the northeast route was closed by the Chinese government for the season, and the only people able to summit from the north that year were athletes carrying the Olympic torch for the 2008 Summer Olympics. The route was closed to foreigners in 2009 in the run-up to the 50th anniversary of the Dalai Lama's exile. These closures led to declining interest in the north route, and in 2010, two-thirds summitted from the south.
=== 2010s ===
The 2010s were a time of new highs and lows for the mountain, with disasters in 2013 and 2014 causing record deaths. In 2015 there were no summits for the first time in decades. A record was set in 2019 with over 890 summiters.
=== 2014 avalanche ===
On 18 April 2014, an avalanche hit the area just below Base Camp 2. 16 people were killed, all Nepali guides, and nine injured. In response, Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job and most climbing companies pulled out in respect for the Sherpa people mourning their loss.
=== 2015 avalanche and earthquake ===
2015 was set to be a record-breaking season of climbs, with hundreds of permits. However, on 25 April 2015, an earthquake measuring 7.8 Mw triggered an avalanche that hit Everest Base Camp, shutting down the season. 18 bodies were recovered by the Indian Army mountaineering team. The avalanche began on Pumori, moved through the Khumbu Icefall on the southwest side of Everest, and slammed into the South Base Camp. 2015 was the first time since 1974 with no spring summits, as all climbing teams pulled out. One reason for this was the high probability of aftershocks. Just weeks after the first quake, the region experienced a 7.3 quake and there were many aftershocks.
The quakes trapped hundreds of climbers above the Khumbu icefall, and they had to be evacuated by helicopter as they ran low on supplies. The quake shifted the route through the ice fall, making it impassable. Bad weather made helicopter evacuation difficult. There was a large impact overall on Nepal, with 9,000 dead. In Tibet, by 28 April at least 25 had died.
=== 2016 and 2017 ===
Hawley's database records 641 made it to the summit in early 2016. 2017 was the biggest season yet, yielding hundreds of summiters and a handful of deaths. On 27 May, Kami Rita made his 21st summit with the Alpine Ascents Everest Expedition, one of three people, along with Apa Sherpa and Phurba Tashi Sherpa to make it to the summit 21 times. The season had a tragic start with the death of Ueli Steck, who died from a fall during a warm-up climb. There was continued discussion about possible changes to the Hillary Step. Summiters for 2017 was tallied up to be 648.
=== 2018 ===
A record 891 summited in 2018. One factor that aided this was an especially long and clear weather window of 11 days during the critical spring climbing season. Various records were broken, including a summit by double-amputee Xia Boyu, after winning a case in the Nepali Supreme Court. 7 climbers died. Although record numbers summitted, old-time summiteers that made expeditions in the 1980s lamented the crowding, feces, and cost.
=== 2019 ===
The spring or pre-monsoon window for 2019 witnessed the deaths of climbers. Images of hundreds queuing to reach the summit and reports of climbers stepping over dead bodies dismayed people around the world.
There was an announcement of an expedition to re-measure the height of Everest, particularly in light of the 2015 earthquakes. Among the climbing teams was a scientific expedition with a planned study of pollution, and how things like snow and vegetation influence the availability of food and water in the region. In the 2019 spring season, there were roughly 40 teams with almost 400 climbers and several hundred guides attempting to summit on the Nepali side. Nepal issued 381 climbing permits for 2019. For the northern routes in Chinese Tibet, several hundred more permits were issued. In May, Nepali mountaineering guide Kami Rita summited twice within a week, his 23rd and 24th ascents.
By 28 May, the death toll reached 11, when a climber died at about 7,900 m (26,000 ft) during the descent, and a 12th climber was missing and later declared dead. The deaths were possibly due to crowding leading to delays high on the mountain, and shorter weather windows. Someone who had summited previously noted that when the weather window opens, long lines form as everyone rushes to summit and get back down. Despite the number of deaths, reports indicated that a record 891 climbers summited in the spring 2019 climbing season. Although China has had permit restrictions, and Nepal requires a doctor to sign off on climbing permits, the natural dangers of climbing such as falls and avalanches combined with medical issues aggravated by Everest's extreme altitude led to 2019 being a year with a comparatively high death toll.
=== 2020s ===
Both Nepal and China prohibited foreign climbing groups during the 2020 season, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020 saw no summits from the Nepal (South) Side.
In October 2025, blizzard-like conditions prompted Chinese authorities to evacuate nearly 350 people by October 6, with about 200 more stranded on the Everest Scenic Area.
== Climbing ==
=== Permits ===
In 2014, Nepal issued 334 climbing permits, which were extended until 2019 due to the closure. In 2015, Nepal issued 357 permits, but the mountain was closed again because of the avalanche and earthquake, and these permits were given a two-year extension to 2017.
In 2017, a person who tried to climb Everest without the $11,000 permit was caught after he made it past the Khumbu icefall. He faced, among other penalties, a $22,000 fine and a possible four years in jail. In the end, he was allowed to return home but banned from mountaineering in Nepal for 10 years.
The number of permits issued each year by Nepal is:
2008: 160
2009: 220
2010: 209
2011: 225
2012: 208
2013: 316
2014: 326 (extended for use through 2019)
2015: 356 (extended for use through 2017)
2016: 289
2017: 366 to 373
2018: 346
2019: 381
2020: 0 (no permits issued during the pandemic)
2021: 408 (current record)
The Chinese side in Tibet is also managed with permits for summiting Everest. They did not issue permits in 2008, due to the Olympic torch relay being taken to the summit of Mount Everest.
In March 2020, the governments of China and Nepal cancelled all climbing permits for Mount Everest due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In April 2020, a group of Chinese mountaineers began an expedition from the Chinese side. The mountain remained closed on the Chinese side to all foreign climbers. On 10 May 2021, a separation line was announced by Chinese authorities to prevent the spread of coronavirus from climbers ascending Nepal's side.
=== Commercial climbing ===
According to Jon Krakauer, the era of commercialisation of Everest started in 1985, when the summit was reached by a guided expedition led by David Breashears that included Richard Bass, a wealthy 55-year-old businessman and an amateur mountain climber with four years of climbing experience. By the early-1990s, several companies were offering guided tours to the mountain. Rob Hall, one of the mountaineers who died in the 1996 disaster, had successfully guided 39 clients to the summit before that incident.
By 2016, most guiding services cost between US$35,000 and US$200,000. Going with a "celebrity guide", usually a well-known mountaineer typically with decades of climbing experience and perhaps several Everest summits, can cost over £100,000 as of 2015. However, the services offered vary widely and it is "buyer beware" when doing deals in Nepal, one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Tourism contributed 7.9 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2019 in a country with high unemployment, but an Everest porter can make nearly double the nation's average wage in a region in which other sources of income are lacking.
Costs beyond the guiding service can vary widely. It is technically possible to reach the summit with minimal additional expenses, and there are "budget" travel agencies that offer logistical support for such trips. A limited support service, offering only some meals at base camp and bureaucratic overhead like a permit, can cost as little as US$7,000 as of 2007. However, this is considered difficult and dangerous (as illustrated by the case of David Sharp).
Climbing gear required to reach the summit may cost in excess of US$8,000, and most climbers also use bottled oxygen, which adds around US$3,000. The permit to enter the Everest area from the south via Nepal costs US$10,000 to US$30,000 per person, depending on the size of the team. The ascent typically starts at one of the two base camps near the mountain, both of which are approximately 100 kilometres (60 mi) from Kathmandu and 300 kilometres (190 mi) from Lhasa (the two nearest cities with major airports). Transferring one's equipment from the airport to the base camp may add as much as US$2,000.
Many climbers hire "full service" guide companies, which provide a wide spectrum of services, including the acquisition of permits, transportation to/from base camp, food, tents, fixed ropes, medical assistance while on the mountain, an experienced mountaineer guide, and even personal porters to carry one's backpack and cook one's meals. The cost of such a guide service may range from US$40,000 to $80,000 per person. Since most equipment is moved by Sherpas, clients of full-service guide companies can often keep their backpack weights under 10 kilograms (22 lb), or hire a Sherpa to carry their backpack for them. By contrast, climbers attempting less commercialised peaks, like Denali, are often expected to carry backpacks over 30 kilograms (66 lb) and, occasionally, to tow a sled with 35 kilograms (77 lb) of gear and food.
The degree of commercialisation of Mount Everest is a frequent subject of criticism. Jamling Tenzing Norgay, the son of Tenzing Norgay, said in a 2003 interview that his late father would have been shocked to discover that rich thrill-seekers with no climbing experience were now routinely reaching the summit, "You still have to climb this mountain yourself with your feet. But the spirit of adventure is not there any more. It is lost. There are people going up there who have no idea how to put on crampons. They are climbing because they have paid someone $65,000. It is very selfish. It endangers the lives of others."
One example of this is Shriya Shah-Klorfine, who had to be taught how to put on crampons during her summit attempt in 2012. She paid at least US$40,000 to a new guiding company for the trip, and died when she ran out of oxygen during the descent after climbing for 27 hours straight.
Reinhold Messner concurred in 2004: You could die in each climb and that meant you were responsible for yourself. We were real mountaineers: careful, aware and even afraid. By climbing mountains we were not learning how big we were. We were finding out how breakable, how weak and how full of fear we are. You can only get this if you expose yourself to high danger. I have always said that a mountain without danger is not a mountain....High altitude alpinism has become tourism and show. These commercial trips to Everest, they are still dangerous. But the guides and organisers tell clients, 'Don't worry, it's all organised.' The route is prepared by hundreds of Sherpas. Extra oxygen is available in all camps, right up to the summit. People will cook for you and lay out your beds. Clients feel safe and don't care about the risks.
By 2015, Nepal was considering requiring that climbers have some experience, hoping this would both make the mountain safer and increase revenue. One barrier to this is that low-budget firms make money not taking inexperienced climbers to the summit. Those turned away by Western firms can often find another firm willing to take them for a price—that they return home soon after arriving after base camp, or part way up the mountain.
However, not all opinions on the subject among prominent mountaineers have been strictly negative. For example, Edmund Hillary stated in 2003 that while "Having people pay $65,000 and then be led up the mountain by a couple of experienced guides...isn't really mountaineering at all", he was pleased by the changes brought to Everest area by Westerners: I don't have any regrets because I worked very hard indeed to improve the condition for the local people. When we first went in there they didn't have any schools, they didn't have any medical facilities, all over the years we have established 27 schools, we have two hospitals and a dozen medical clinics and then we've built bridges over wild mountain rivers and put in fresh water pipelines so in cooperation with the Sherpas we've done a lot to benefit them.
One of the early guided summiters, Richard Bass (of Seven Summits fame) stated in 2003 that "Climbers should have high altitude experience before they attempt the really big mountains. People don't realise the difference between a 20,000-foot [6,100 m] mountain and 29,000-foot [8,800 m]. It's not just arithmetic. The reduction of oxygen in the air is proportionate to the altitude alright, but the effect on the human body is disproportionate—an exponential curve. People climb Denali [6,190 m or 20,320 ft] or Aconcagua [6,960 m or 22,834 ft] and think, 'Heck, I feel great up here, I'm going to try Everest.' But it's not like that."
==== Speed climbing ====
===== Altitude tents =====
Some expedition teams have clients use altitude tents to pre-acclimatise prior to leaving for the mountain. Compared to traditional Everest expeditions that last 50 to 60 days, altitude tents can reduce the expedition time frame to 30 to 35 days.
===== Xenon gas =====
In 2025, four men climbed the mountain in one week. They claimed their inhalation of xenon gas 10 days prior to stimulate erythropoietin production had eliminated the need for altitude acclimatisation over several weeks. The International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA) criticised the decision, citing that there is no evidence that the inhalation of xenon improves performance in high elevation environments. Furthermore, the UIAA warned that as an anesthetic, xenon gas could result in impaired brain function, respiratory compromise, and death if used in an unmonitored setting.
==== Summiting with disabilities ====
Summiting Everest with disabilities has become popular in the 21st century. Sudarshan Gautam, a Canadian double-amputee, summited the mountain in 2013. In the same year, Eli Reimer, a teenager with Down syndrome, hiked to the South Base Camp as part of a fundraising effort for his father's foundation.
=== Routes ===
Mount Everest has two main climbing routes, the Southeast Ridge from Nepal and the North Ridge from Tibet, as well as many other less frequently climbed routes. Of the two main routes, the Southeast Ridge is technically easier and more frequently used. It was the route used by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953 and the first recognised of 15 routes to the top by 1996. This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design, as the Chinese border was closed to the western world in the 1950s, after Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China.
Most attempts are made during May, before the summer monsoon season. As the monsoon season approaches, the jet stream shifts northward, thereby reducing the average wind speeds high on the mountain. While attempts are sometimes made in September and October, after the monsoons, when the jet stream is again temporarily pushed northward, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons and the less stable weather patterns at the monsoons' tail end makes climbing extremely difficult.
==== Southeast Ridge ====
The ascent via the Southeast Ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,700 ft) on the south side of Everest, in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla (2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through Namche Bazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatisation in order to prevent altitude sickness. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks, dzopkyos (yak-cow hybrids), and human porters to Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, the British expedition they were part of (comprising over 400 climbers, porters, and Sherpas at that point) started from the Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.
Climbers spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatising to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall.
Seracs, crevasses, and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers usually begin their ascent well before dawn, when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place.
Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 metres (19,900 ft).
From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse Face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre, which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right, near the base of Nuptse, to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.
From Camp II, climbers ascend the Lhotse Face on fixed ropes, up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft).
From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: the Geneva Spur and the Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil-shaped rib of black rock named by the 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow-covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, and semischist, which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.
On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers making summit bids typically can endure no more than two or three days at this altitude. If the weather is not clear with low winds during these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.
From Camp IV, climbers begin their summit push around midnight, with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,600 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early light of dawn. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into the waist-deep snow, a serious avalanche hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit.
From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge Southeast Ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse", where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb, and a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (7,900 ft) down the Southwest Face, while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,010 ft) Kangshung Face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (39 ft) rock wall, the Hillary Step, at 8,790 m (28,840 ft).
Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step, and did so using primitive ice climbing equipment and ropes. Nowadays, climbers ascend using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes—though the exposure on the ridge is extreme, especially while traversing large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers climbing the mountain, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain.
After the Hillary Step, climbers must traverse a loose and rocky section that has a large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers typically spend less than half an hour at the summit to allow time to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, to avoid serious problems with afternoon weather, or because supplemental oxygen tanks run out.
==== North Ridge route ====
The North Ridge route begins from the north side of Everest, in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier, setting up base camp at 5,180 m (16,990 ft) on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of Changtse, at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Camp III (ABC – Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the North Col at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach Camp IV on the North Col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky North Ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route crosses the North Face in a diagonal climb to the base of the Yellow Band, reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From Camp VI, climbers make their final summit push.
Climbers face a treacherous traverse from the base of the First Step: ascending from 8,501 to 8,534 m (27,890 to 28,000 ft), to the crux of the climb, the Second Step, ascending from 8,577 to 8,626 m (28,140 to 28,300 ft). (The Second Step includes a climbing aid called the "Chinese ladder", a metal ladder placed semi-permanently in 1975 by a party of Chinese climbers. It has been almost continuously in place since, and ladders have been used by virtually all climbers on the route.) Once above the Second Step the inconsequential Third Step is clambered over, ascending from 8,690 to 8,800 m (28,510 to 28,870 ft). Once above these steps, the summit pyramid is climbed by a snow slope of 50 degrees, to the final summit ridge along which the top is reached.
=== Summit ===
The summit of Everest has been described as "the size of a dining room table". The summit is capped with snow over ice over rock, and the layer of snow varies from year to year. The rock summit is made of Ordovician limestone and is a low-grade metamorphic rock. (See the Surveys section for more on its height and about the Everest rock summit.)
Below the summit, there is an area known as "rainbow valley", filled with dead bodies still wearing brightly coloured winter gear. Down to about 8,000 m (26,000 ft) is an area commonly called the "death zone", due to the high danger and low oxygen because of the low pressure.
=== Death zone ===
At the higher regions of Mount Everest, climbers seeking the summit typically spend substantial time within the death zone (altitudes higher than 8,000 m or 26,000 ft), and face significant challenges to survival. Temperatures can dip to very low levels, resulting in frostbite of any body part exposed to the air. Since temperatures are so low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death or injury by slipping and falling can occur. High winds at these altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat to climbers.
Another significant threat to climbers is low atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about a third of sea level pressure or 0.333 standard atmospheres (337 mbar), resulting in the availability of only about a third as much oxygen to breathe.
A sea-level dweller exposed to the atmospheric conditions at the altitude above 8,500 m (27,900 ft) without acclimatisation would likely lose consciousness within two to three minutes. At sea level, blood oxygen saturation is generally 98 to 99 per cent. At base camp, blood saturation fell to between 85 and 87 per cent. Blood samples taken at the summit indicated very low oxygen levels in the blood. A side effect of low blood oxygen is a greatly increased breathing rate, often 80–90 breaths per minute as opposed to a more typical 20–30. Exhaustion can occur merely by attempting to breathe.
Lack of oxygen, exhaustion, extreme cold, and climbing hazards all contribute to the death toll. An injured person who cannot walk is in serious trouble, since rescue by helicopter is generally impractical and carrying the person off the mountain is very risky. People who die during the climb are typically left behind. As of 2015, over 200 bodies remain on the mountain.
Debilitating symptoms consistent with high altitude cerebral oedema commonly present during descent from the summit of Mount Everest. Profound fatigue and late times in reaching the summit are early features associated with subsequent death.
A 2008 study noted that the "death zone" is indeed where most Everest deaths occur, but also noted that most deaths occur during descent from the summit. A 2014 article in The Atlantic about deaths on Everest noted that while falling is one of the greatest dangers the death zone presents for all 8000ers, avalanches are a more common cause of death at lower altitudes.
Despite this, Everest is safer for climbers than a number of peaks by some measurements, but it depends on the period. Some examples are Kangchenjunga, K2, Annapurna, Nanga Parbat, and the Eiger (especially the nordwand). Some factors that affect total mountain lethality include the level of popularity of the mountain, the skill of those climbing, and the difficulty of the climb.
Another health hazard is retinal haemorrhages, which can damage eyesight and cause blindness. Up to a quarter of Everest climbers can experience retinal haemorrhages, and although they usually heal within weeks of returning to lower altitudes, in 2010 a climber went blind and died in the death zone.
The team made a huge effort for the next 12 hours to try to get him down the mountain, but to no avail, as they were unsuccessful in getting him through the difficult sections. Even for the able, Everest's Northeast Ridge is recognised as a challenge. It is hard to rescue someone who has become incapacitated and it can be beyond the ability of rescuers to save anyone in such a difficult spot. One way around this situation was pioneered by two Nepali men in 2011, who had intended to paraglide off the summit. They had no choice and were forced to go through with their plan anyway, because they had run out of bottled oxygen and supplies. They successfully launched off the summit and para-glided down to Namche Bazaar in just 42 minutes, without having to climb down the mountain.
=== Supplemental oxygen ===
Most expeditions use oxygen masks and tanks above 8,000 m (26,247 ft). Everest can be climbed without supplementary oxygen, but only by the most accomplished mountaineers and at increased risk. Low oxygen impairs cognition, and the combination of extreme weather, low temperatures, and steep slopes often requires quick, accurate decisions. While about 95 per cent of climbers who reach the summit use bottled oxygen in order to reach the top, about five per cent of climbers have summited Everest without supplemental oxygen. The death rate is double for those who attempt to reach the summit without supplemental oxygen. Travelling above 8,000 m (26,000 ft) altitude is a factor in cerebral hypoxia. One study found that Mount Everest may be the highest an acclimatised human could go, but also found that climbers may suffer permanent neurological damage despite returning to lower altitudes.
The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everest has been controversial. It was first used on the 1922 British Mount Everest Expedition by George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce who climbed up to 7,800 m (25,600 ft) at a spectacular speed of 300 vertical metres per hour (1,000 ft/h). Pinned down by a fierce storm, they escaped death by breathing oxygen from a jury-rigged set-up during the night. The next day they climbed to 8,100 m (26,600 ft) at 270 m/h (900 ft/h) – nearly three times as fast as non-oxygen users. Yet the use of oxygen was considered so unsportsmanlike that none of the rest of the Alpine world recognised this high ascent rate.
George Mallory described the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, but he later concluded that it would be impossible for him to summit without it and consequently used it on his final attempt in 1924. When Tenzing and Hillary made the first successful summit in 1953, they also used open-circuit bottled oxygen sets, with the expedition's physiologist Griffith Pugh referring to the oxygen debate as a "futile controversy", noting that oxygen "greatly increases subjective appreciation of the surroundings, which after all is one of the chief reasons for climbing." For the next twenty-five years, bottled oxygen was considered standard for any successful summit.
...although an acclimatised lowlander can survive for a time on the summit of Everest without supplemental oxygen, one is so close to the limit that even a modicum of excess exertion may impair brain function.
Reinhold Messner was the first climber to break the bottled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with Peter Habeler, made the first successful climb without it. In 1980, Messner summited the mountain solo, without supplemental oxygen or any porters or climbing partners, on the more difficult northwest route. Once the climbing community was satisfied that the mountain could be climbed without supplemental oxygen, many purists then took the next logical step of insisting that is how it should be climbed.
The aftermath of the 1996 disaster further intensified the debate. Jon Krakauer's Into Thin Air (1997) expressed the author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen. Krakauer wrote that the use of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths. The disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers (34 on that day) attempting to ascend, causing bottlenecks at the Hillary Step and delaying many climbers, most of whom summited after the usual 14:00 turnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing pollution on Everest—many bottles have accumulated on its slopes—and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain.
The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of the guide's role in using bottled oxygen.
Guide Anatoli Boukreev's decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticised by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote The Climb) state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security. Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev could not directly help his clients descend.
The low oxygen can cause a mental fog-like impairment of cognitive abilities described as "delayed and lethargic thought process, clinically defined as bradypsychia" even after returning to lower altitudes. In severe cases, climbers can experience hallucinations. Some studies have found that high-altitude climbers, including Everest climbers, experience altered brain structure.
=== Autumn climbing ===
Although generally less popular than spring, Mount Everest has also been climbed in the autumn (also called the "post-monsoon season"). For example, in 2010 Eric Larsen and five Nepali guides summited Everest in the autumn for the first time in ten years. The autumn season, when the monsoon ends, is regarded as more dangerous because there is typically a lot of new snow which can be unstable. However, this increased snow can make it more popular with certain winter sports like skiing and snowboarding. Two Japanese climbers also summited in October 1973.
Chris Chandler and Bob Cormack summited Everest in October 1976 as part of the American Bicentennial Everest Expedition that year, the first Americans to make an autumn ascent of Mount Everest according to the Los Angeles Times. By the 21st century, summer and autumn can be more popular with skiing and snowboard attempts on Mount Everest. During the 1980s, climbing in autumn was actually more popular than in spring. U.S. astronaut Karl Gordon Henize died in October 1993 on an autumn expedition, conducting an experiment on radiation. The amount of background radiation increases with higher altitudes.
The mountain has also been climbed in the winter, but that is not popular because of the combination of cold high winds and shorter days. By January the peak is typically battered by 270 km/h (170 mph) winds and the average temperature of the summit is around −33 °F (−36 °C).
=== Thefts and crime ===
Some climbers have reported life-threatening thefts from supply caches. In May 2006, Vitor Negrete, the first Brazilian to climb Everest without oxygen and part of David Sharp's party, died during his descent, and theft of gear and food from his high-altitude camp may have contributed. In addition to theft, Michael Kodas describes in his book, High Crimes: The Fate of Everest in an Age of Greed (2008): unethical guides and Sherpas, prostitution and gambling at the Tibet Base Camp, fraud related to the sale of oxygen bottles, and climbers collecting donations under the pretense of removing trash from the mountain.
The Chinese side of Everest in Tibet was described as "out of control" in 2007 after one Canadian had all his gear stolen and was abandoned by his Sherpa. Another Sherpa helped the victim get off the mountain safely and gave him some spare gear. Other climbers have also reported missing oxygen bottles, which can be worth hundreds of dollars each. Hundreds of climbers pass by people's tents, making it hard to safeguard against theft. In the late 2010s, the reports of theft of oxygen bottles from camps became more common.
=== Timeline ===
By the end of the 2010 climbing season, there had been 5,104 ascents to the summit by about 3,142 individuals. Some notable "firsts" by climbers include:
1922: First climb to 8,000 metres (26,247 ft), by George Mallory, Col. Felix Norton, and Howard Somervell
1952: First climb to South Col by 1952 Swiss Mount Everest expedition
1953: First ascent, by Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary on 1953 British Mount Everest expedition
1960: First reported ascent from the North Ridge by Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo and Qu Yinhua of China.
1975: First female ascent, by Junko Tabei (16 May).
1975: First female ascent from the North Ridge, by Phanthog, deputy head of the second Chinese Everest expedition that sent nine climbers to the summit (27 May).
1978: First ascent without supplemental oxygen by Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler
1978: First solo ascent, by Franz Oppurg
1980: First winter ascent, by Polish National Expedition Winter 1979/1980 (Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki)
1980: Second solo ascent, and the first without supplemental oxygen, by Reinhold Messner
1988: First "cross-over" climb by Chinese, Japanese and Nepali teams which ascended the peak simultaneously from both the North and South sides of the mountain and descended down the other side. The cross-over climb was also the first to be recorded on live broadcast television.
1988: First descent by paraglider, by Jean-Marc Boivin
1988: First female ascent without supplemental oxygen by Lydia Bradey
2000: Lhakpa Sherpa becomes first Nepali woman to summit Everest and survive.
2000: First descent by ski by Davo Karničar
2001: First descent by snowboard by Marco Siffredi
2001: First ascent by a blind climber, Erik Weihenmayer
2025: First descent by ski without supplemental oxygen by Andrzej Bargiel
== Aviation ==
=== 1933: Flight over Everest ===
Lucy, Lady Houston, a British millionaire former showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933. A formation of airplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale flew over the summit in an effort to photograph the unknown terrain.
=== 1988: First climb and glide ===
On 26 September 1988, having climbed the mountain via the Southeast Ridge, Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paraglider descent of Everest, in the process creating the record for the fastest descent of the mountain and the highest paraglider flight. Boivin said: "I was tired when I reached the top because I had broken much of the trail, and to run at this altitude was quite hard."
=== 1991: Hot air balloon flyover ===
In 1991, four men in two balloons achieved the first hot-air balloon flight over Mount Everest. In one balloon were Andy Elson and Eric Jones (cameraman), and in the other balloon Chris Dewhirst and Leo Dickinson (cameraman). Dickinson went on to write a book about the adventure called Ballooning Over Everest. The hot-air balloons were modified to function at up to 12,000 m (40,000 ft) altitude. Reinhold Messner called one of Dickinson's panoramic views of Everest, captured on the now discontinued Kodak Kodachrome film, the "best snap on Earth", according to UK newspaper The Telegraph. Dewhirst has offered to take passengers on a repeat of this feat for US$2.6 million per passenger.
=== 2005: Pilot summits with helicopter ===
In May 2005, pilot Didier Delsalle of France landed a Eurocopter AS350 B3 helicopter on the summit of Mount Everest. He needed to land for two minutes to set the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) official record, but he stayed for about four minutes, twice. In this type of landing the rotors stay engaged, which avoids relying on the snow to fully support the aircraft. The flight set rotorcraft world records, for highest of both landing and take-off.
Some press reports suggested that the report of the summit landing was a misunderstanding of a South Col landing, but he had also landed on South Col two days earlier, with this landing and the Everest records confirmed by the FAI. Delsalle also rescued two Japanese climbers at 4,880 m (16,000 ft) while he was there. One climber noted that the new record meant a better chance of rescue.
=== 2011: Paraglide off summit ===
On 21 May 2011, Nepalis Lakpa Tsheri Sherpa and Sano Babu Sunuwar paraglided from Everest's summit to Namche Bazaar in 42 minutes. After the flight they hiked, biked, and kayaked to the Indian Ocean, reaching the Bay of Bengal by 27 June 2011, thereby becoming the first people to complete a continuous summit-to-sea descent from Everest. They accomplished the ground-breaking feat despite Babu having never previously climbed, and Lakpa having never kayaked and not even knowing how to swim. The duo subsequently won National Geographic Adventurers of the Year for 2012 for their exploits. In 2013 footage of the flight was shown on the television news program Nightline.
=== 2014: Helicopter-assisted ascent ===
In 2014, a team financed and led by mountaineer Wang Jing used a helicopter to fly from South Base Camp to Camp II to avoid the Khumbu Icefall, and thence climbed to the Everest summit. This climb immediately sparked outrage and controversy in much of the mountaineering world over the legitimacy and propriety of her climb. Nepal ended up investigating Wang, who initially denied the claim that she had flown to Camp II, admitting only that some support crew were flown to that higher camp, over the Khumbu Icefall. In August 2014, however, she stated that she had flown to Camp II because the icefall was impassable. "If you don't fly to Camp II, you just go home", she said in an interview. In that same interview, she also insisted that she had never tried to hide this fact.
Her team had had to use the south side because the Chinese had denied them a permit to climb. Ultimately, the Chinese refusal may have been beneficial to Nepal's interests, allowing the government to showcase improved local hospitals and providing the opportunity for a new hybrid aviation/mountaineering style, triggering discussions about helicopter use in the mountaineering world. National Geographic noted that a village festooned Wang with honours after she donated US$30,000 to the town's hospital. Wang won the International Mountaineer of the Year Award from the Nepal government in June 2014.
=== 2016: Helicopter business increases ===
In 2016 the increased use of helicopters was noted for increased efficiency and for hauling material over the deadly Khumbu icefall. In particular it was noted that flights saved icefall porters 80 trips but still increased commercial activity at Everest. After many Nepalis died in the icefall in 2014, the government had wanted helicopters to handle more transportation to Camp 1 but this was not possible because of the 2015 earthquake closing the mountain, so this was then implemented in 2016 (helicopters did prove instrumental in rescuing many people in 2015 though). That summer Bell tested the 412EPI, which conducted a series of tests including hovering at 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and flying as high as 6,100 m (20,000 ft) altitude near Mount Everest.
== Extreme sports ==
Mount Everest has been host to other winter sports and adventuring besides mountaineering, including snowboarding, skiing, paragliding, and BASE jumping.
Yuichiro Miura became the first man to ski down Everest in the 1970s. He descended nearly 1,300 vertical metres (4,200 ft) from the South Col before falling with extreme injuries. Stefan Gatt and Marco Siffredi snowboarded Mount Everest in 2001. Other Everest skiers include Davo Karničar of Slovenia, who completed a top to South Base Camp descent in 2000, Hans Kammerlander of Italy in 1996 on the north side, and Kit DesLauriers of the United States in 2006. Marco Siffredi died in 2002 on his second snow-boarding expedition. In 2025, Andrzej Bargiel completed the first descent by ski without supplemental oxygen.
Various types of gliding descents have slowly become more popular, and are noted for their rapid descents to lower camps. In 1986 Steve McKinney led an expedition to Mount Everest. Frenchman Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paraglider descent of Everest in September 1988, descending in minutes from the Southeast Ridge to a lower camp. In 2011, two Nepalis made a gliding descent from the Everest summit down 5,000 metres (16,400 ft) in 45 minutes.
== Religious significance ==
The southern part of Mount Everest is regarded as one of several "hidden valleys" of refuge designated by Padmasambhava, a ninth-century "lotus-born" Buddhist saint.
Near the base of the north side of Everest lies Rongbuk Monastery, which has been called the "sacred threshold to Mount Everest, with the most dramatic views of the world." For Sherpas living on the slopes of Everest in the Khumbu region of Nepal, Rongbuk Monastery is an important pilgrimage site, accessed in a few days of travel across the Himalayas through Nangpa La.
Miyolangsangma, a Tibetan Buddhist "Goddess of Inexhaustible Giving", is believed to have lived at the top of Mount Everest. According to Sherpa Buddhist monks, Mount Everest is Miyolangsangma's palace and playground, and all climbers are only partially welcome guests, having arrived without invitation.
The Sherpa people also believe that Mount Everest and its flanks are blessed with spiritual energy, and one should show reverence when passing through this sacred landscape. Here, the karmic effects of one's actions are magnified, and impure thoughts are best avoided.
== Waste management ==
In 2015, the president of the Nepal Mountaineering Association warned that pollution, especially human waste, has reached critical levels. As much as 12,000 kg (26,500 lb) of human excrement each season is left behind on the mountain. Human waste is strewn across the verges of the route to the summit, making the four sleeping areas on the route up Everest's south side minefields of human excrement. Climbers above Base Camp—for the 62-year history of climbing on the mountain—have most commonly either buried their excrement in holes they dug by hand in the snow, or slung it into crevasses, or simply defecated wherever convenient, often within metres of their tents. The only place where climbers can defecate without worrying about contaminating the mountain is Base Camp. At approximately 5,500 m (18,000 ft), Base Camp sees the most activity of all camps on Everest because climbers acclimate and rest there. In the late-1990s, expeditions began using toilets that they fashioned from blue plastic 190-litre (50-US-gallon) barrels fitted with a toilet seat and enclosed.
The problem of human waste is compounded by the presence of more anodyne waste: spent oxygen tanks, abandoned tents, empty cans and bottles. The Nepali government now requires each climber to pack out eight kilograms of waste when descending the mountain.
In February 2019, due to the mounting waste problem, China closed the base camp on its side of Everest to visitors without climbing permits. Tourists are allowed to go as far as the Rongbuk Monastery.
In April 2019, the Solukhumbu district's Khumbu Pasanglhamu Rural Municipality launched a campaign to collect nearly 10,000 kg (20,000 lb) of garbage from Everest. Five years later, 2024, waste removal is receiving continuing attention.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Astill, Tony (2005). Mount Everest: The Reconnaissance 1935.
Boukreev, Anatoli; DeWalt, G. Weston (1997). The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest. Saint Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-16814-8.
Hillary, Edmund (1953). High Adventure. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Holdich, Thomas (1911). "Everest, Mount" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). p. 7.
Messner, Reinhold (1989). The Crystal Horizon: Everest – the first solo ascent. Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 978-0-89886-207-2.
Murray, W.H. (1953). The Story of Everest, 1921–1952. London: J.M. Dent & Sons.
Norgay, Tenzing; Ullman, Ramsey James (1955). Tiger of the Snows. New York: Putnam.
Tilman, H.W. (1952). Nepal Himalaya. Cambridge University Press.
Washburn, Bradford (November 1988). "Mount Everest: Surveying the Third Pole". National Geographic. Vol. 174, no. 5. pp. 652–659. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
Fleetwood, Lachlan (May 2022). Science on the Roof of the World: Empire and the Remaking of the Himalaya. Science in History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-12311-2.
== External links ==
Mount Everest on Himalaya-Info.org (German)
360 panorama view from top of Mount Everest – large dimension drawing
National Geographic site on Mount Everest
NOVA site on Mount Everest
Imaging Everest, a collection of photographs Archived 14 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Mount Everest on Summitpost
Full list of all ascents of Everest up to and including 2008 (in PDF format)
Deaths by year (Summits and deaths per year)
Mount Everest panorama, Mount Everest interactive panorama (QuickTime format), Virtual panoramas
National Geographic, 2015 article with info-graphic on climbing routes
Himalayan Database: Data Visualization of Mount Everest Summit, Attempt, and Death |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizzurno_Palace | Pizzurno Palace | The Sarmiento Palace, commonly known as the Pizzurno Palace, is an architectural landmark in the Recoleta section of Buenos Aires and the location of the Argentine Ministry of Education.
== Overview ==
A will left by a local heiress, Petronila Rodríguez de Rojas, stipulated that her roughly 6 hectares (15 acres) lot in uptown Buenos Aires be used for an educational and charitable compound to include a church, an old-age asylum and a girls' school for no less than 700 pupils. Her 1882 death accordingly left the property to the city, which commissioned German Argentine architects Carlos Adolfo Altgelt and his cousin Hans Altgelt to design the requisite school.
Work began in 1886 on the building which, per Mrs. Rojas' wishes, would include extensive museum and library facilities, as well. The building's design was eclectic, inspired by Second Empire architecture influenced by both French and German Renaissance Revival architecture. It was completed in 1888, and the Petronila Rodríguez de Rojas School was inaugurated in 1893. The majestic landmark was soon earmarked for use as government offices, however, and the National Education Council was installed there in 1903; the National Education Council (since dissolved) administered Argentina's system of national secondary schools. The building was rebaptized as the Sarmiento Palace in honor of former Education Minister and President Domingo Sarmiento, who made "the education of a sovereign people" a policy centerpiece during his prosperous 1868-74 tenure.
The building's location facing leafy Rodríguez Peña Plaza created an urban oasis in the otherwise bustling Barrio Norte section of the upscale Recoleta ward. A lot immediately to the south of the building was converted into Petronila Rodríguez de Rojas Plaza (a playground) as a belated homage to the civic-minded lady during the 1950s (as was a primary school in the Parque Chas neighborhood, in 1934).
The last dictatorship, which dissolved the Education Council in 1978, transferred the Ministry of Education to the building in 1980. Still officially known as the Sarmiento Palace, the building is popularly known as the Pizzurno Palace for the side street built facing it, which was renamed in honor of pedagogian and local primary school system pioneer Pablo Pizzurno, following his death in 1940.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston_Symphony | Kingston Symphony | The Kingston Symphony (KS) is a Canadian orchestra based in Kingston, Ontario. Since 2014 the principal conductor of the symphony has been Evan Mitchell. The ensemble performs most of its concerts at The Grand Theatre.
== History ==
The orchestra was founded in 1953 under the name the New Symphony Association of Kingston. The first principal conductor was Graham George; he led the orchestra's debut concert of Joseph Haydn's The Creation on 12 April 1954 at The Grand Theatre with the Kingston Choral Society and baritone James Milligan. For its first three years the orchestra performed only two concerts a year, but the number of concerts increased steadily beginning in 1957.
Principal conductors for the next few years were William Hill (1957–1959), and Edouard Bartlett (1960–1965). The ensemble was renamed the Kingston Symphony in 1963 with the formation of a new umbrella organization the Kingston Symphony Association. Some of the concerts were held at the Kingston Gospel Temple.
Alexander Brott was brought in as conductor in 1965, and during his tenure the orchestra was able to hire a number of professional string and wind players. Kingston's newly renovated Grand Theatre became the orchestra's main concert venue.
Brian Jackson was hired as conductor in 1982, and remained in this post until 1991. By this time the Symphony was performing about twelve concerts per year.
In 1992, Glen Fast took over as conductor. Under his direction, the KS made a change towards playing new works by Canadian composers. The orchestra has given the world premieres of Chan Ka Nin's Violin Concerto (1998); Marjan Mozetich's Piano Concerto (2000); Srul Irving Glick's last work, Isaiah (2002); John Burge's Clarinet Concerto (2004); István Anhalt's The Tents of Abraham (2005); and Peter Paul Koprowski's Tapestries of Love: Symphony for Soprano and Orchestra (2007).
Fast remained with the Symphony until 2014, at which time Evan Mitchell became conductor.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Malcolm Williams (2004). The Kingston Symphony 1954-2004. Kingston Symphony Association. ISBN 978-0-9735014-0-7.
== External links ==
Kingston Symphony Orchestra website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knocklyon | Knocklyon | Knocklyon (Irish: Cnoc Lín) is a suburb of the city of Dublin, located in South Dublin, Ireland. Unlike many Dublin suburbs, Knocklyon was not developed around a village; rather it largely consists of modern housing, with a number of old cottages and farmhouses along Knocklyon Road attesting to the area's rural past.
== Etymology ==
The area has been known historically in 14th-century scrolls as Cnoclín, literally 'flax mountain'. Until recently, roadsigns in Knocklyon had an incorrect "reverse anglicised" translation, giving Lyon's hill or Cnoc Liamhna, so for example, the Irish-language wording on signs for Knocklyon Road showed Bóthar Chnoc Liamhna. The local authority have updated their translation based on recommendations from the Irish Placenames Commission.
== Location and housing estates ==
Knocklyon is a suburb on the southwest of Dublin city, in the foothills of the Dublin Mountains and immediately south of the River Dodder. It is bordered to the west by Firhouse and Ballycullen, to the east and south by Rathfarnham and Ballyboden, and to the north, across the River Dodder, by Templeogue.
Knocklyon was divided when the M50 motorway was constructed, with most of the suburb today lying east of the motorway. Housing estates to the east include Idrone, Green Acre Court, Knocklyon Avenue, Beverly, Dargle Wood, Coolamber, Knockcullen, Lansdowne, Delaford, Knockaire in the old Knocklyon townland, whilst Orlagh, Scholarstown Park and Templeoran are within the townland of Scholarstown. To the west of the M50 are estates such as Castlefield, Glenlyon, Dalriada, Glenvara and Woodstown. The western and eastern portions of the suburb are linked by the Firhouse Road, by the motorway flyover at Junction 12 of the M50, and by a foot bridge close to where the Old Knocklyon Road formerly met Ballycullen Road.
== Population ==
The population figure cannot be isolated from published census data as Knocklyon is composed of Firhouse-Knocklyon electoral division (ED) (population 39,602 in 2011), plus fractions of Ballyboden ED (57,085) and Firhouse-Ballycullen ED (77,773), not divided and published distinctly.
== Amenities ==
Knocklyon Shopping Centre contains a supermarket and other retail outlets. There are also two smaller shopping sites, in the Orlagh and Woodstown estates, each anchored by a convenience store, and with takeaway food shops, beauty salons and other outlets. There is also a local public house.
A division of the voluntary St. John Ambulance was established in 2010, and provides first aid training in the community. The Rutland Centre, a private addiction rehabilitation facility, is located on the Knocklyon Road.
Knocklyon has a number of open spaces within its residential estates and along the River Dodder, including the home ground and playing pitches for both a Gaelic Athletic Association club, Ballyboden St. Enda's GAA, and a soccer club, Knocklyon United Football Club.
As well as the Roman Catholic Iona Centre, which hosts community organisations, there is Knocklyon Community Centre, which is available for sports and social organisations.
=== Schools ===
St. Colmcille's national school opened in September 1976. The school is the largest primary school in Ireland and one of the largest primary schools in Europe. It educates 1,600 students and employs 80 teachers, 23 special needs assistants, and 11 ancillary staff. Gaelscoil Chnoc Liamhna is an Irish language primary school that teaches over 200 children. It was established in September 1996 with 36 pupils.
St. Colmcille's Community School (formerly Knocklyon Community School) has around 700 secondary students and opened in September 2000.
== Religion ==
The Catholic Parish of Knocklyon was established in October 1974 under the patronage of Saint Colmcille. It forms part of the Dublin Archdiocese and was delegated by it to the Carmelite Order until 2022, and since 2023, is in the care of the Divine Word Missionaries. The parish church opened in April 1980.
The Iona Pastoral Centre, which opened in 2000, hosts prayer groups and social activities (such as pilates, mother and baby groups, knitting and bridge), as well as a chapter of St Vincent de Paul, AA meetings and GROW Mental Health Movement.
The Catholic parish publishes the Knocklyon News magazine, which has been in continuous publication since 1982 and includes article from the wide and varied community groups of Knocklyon, as well as faith-based content, and news from the parish and the diocese. The Knocklyon News is published three to four times per year, and has a print run of 5,000.
Church of Ireland residents of Knocklyon attend Rathfarnham Parish Church. The Knocklyon Church of Christ is an autonomous Christian congregation with premises on Knocklyon Road, near Gaelscoil Chnoc Liamhna.
== Transport ==
Knocklyon is served by the following Dublin Bus routes: 15, 49, 65b, S6 and S8.
== Sport and leisure ==
The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) is represented in Knocklyon by Ballyboden St. Enda's GAA Club while association football is organised locally by Knocklyon United F.C. The local Brothers Pearse Athletics Club was founded in 1956. The district is also served by Knocklyon Junior Badminton Club and Knocklyon Social Badminton, which operate from the Knocklyon Community Centre.
A branch of Scouting Ireland and the South Dublin Model Railway Club each operate from their own premises. There is also a brass band and music school, the Knocklyon Concert Band, operating for over 20 years.
Local businesses and community groups are supported and promoted by Knocklyon Network, an active networking organisation.
== Notable people ==
Chloe Agnew, singer-songwriter, best known for being an original member of Celtic Woman
Brian Gartland, professional footballer
Dane Massey, professional footballer
Andrew Moran, professional footballer and Republic of Ireland international
Darragh Nugent, professional footballer
Caitríona Perry, Irish journalist
Alisha Weir, actress and singer, grew up in Knocklyon
== References ==
== External links ==
St. Colmcille's Community School
Knocklyon Parish |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meldola_Medal_and_Prize#:~:text=John%20Blackford%20Robertson-,1948%3A%20Ralph%20Raphael,-1947%3A%20James | Meldola Medal and Prize | The Meldola Medal and Prize was awarded annually from 1921 to 1979 by the Chemical Society and from 1980 to 2008 by the Royal Society of Chemistry to a British chemist who was under 32 years of age for promising original investigations in chemistry (which had been published). It commemorated Raphael Meldola, President of the Maccabaeans and the Institute of Chemistry. The prize was the sum of £500 and a bronze medal.
The prize was modified in 2008 and joined the Edward Harrison Memorial Prize to become the Harrison-Meldola Memorial Prizes.
== Winners ==
Awardees include:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatap%C3%A9 | Guatapé | Guatapé is a town and municipality in the Department of Antioquia, Colombia. It is a part of the subregion of Eastern Antioquia and is located 79 kilometres (49 mi) from Medellín, the capital of the department. Guatapé is bordered on the north by Alejandría, San Rafael to the east, and Granada and El Peñol to the south. This town is the gathering place for Las Vegas, referring to the small farms of the area.
It lies at an altitude of 1,890 meters (6,200 ft) above sea level.
The town is a major tourist attraction, especially for travelers from Medellín. El Peñón de Guatapé, a large rock that visitors can climb, and the famous zócalos (murals) that adorn several buildings attract many tourists.
== History ==
Before Spanish conquistadores reached the area in the 16th century, this territory was inhabited by indigenous groups, some controlled by a cacique named Guatapé. In his honor, the town was named after him. The name "Guatapé", comes from the Quechua language, related to "stones and water". Another name that the town had in the past was "La Ceja de Guatapé".
In 1714, the indigenous people under Guatapé of this region were grouped into a shelter known as "San Antonio de Remolinos Peñol". Traces of their existence come from clay urns found in the town of Alto Verde, and several archaeological sites not yet studied in the villages of La Peña, La Piedra, El Roble, and El Rosario.
Guatapé was founded on 4 October 1811, by the Spaniard Don Francisco Giraldo y Jimenez. It was declared a municipality in September 1867.
Guatapé has changed throughout its history. It was predominantly a farming town that relied on livestock, agriculture, and mining. Empresas Públicas de Medellín built a large hydroelectric complex here in the 1970s. This megaproject produced large impacts on social, economic, political, environmental, and cultural development in the locality. With the construction of this dam, Guatapé became one of the most important electric production centers in the country.
The neighboring town of El Peñol and rural parts of Guatape were destroyed as a result of the flooding of valley which created the El Peñol-Guatapé reservoir, displacing thousands of residents and resulting in the forced evacuation and rebuilding of the town a few miles west of its former location.
== Demographics ==
Total Population: 6,469 inhabitants (2015)
Urban population: 5,045
Rural population: 1,424
Literacy: 92.3% (2005)
Ethnicity:
According to figures presented by DANE census in 2005, the ethnic makeup of the township is the following:
Mestizo & White (99.96%)
Afro-Colombian (0.04 %)
== Sites of interest ==
Calle del Recuerdo ("Memory Lane")
El Peñol-Guatapé Reservoir (es)
El Peñón de Guatapé (see below)
Parish Church of Nuestra Señora del Carmen (es)
Chapel of Our Lady of Santa Ana
Community Historical Museum
Pueblo de Zócalos
=== La Piedra ===
El Peñón de Guatapé is a rock formation that borders a lake. It formed along the Antioquia Rock Base (batolito de antioquia), 70 million years ago. With two-thirds of its height below ground, the exposed vertical face is over 200 meters high and visible from throughout the surrounding countryside. Visitors can scale the rock via a staircase built into one side, a path that includes more than 708 steps to the top.
=== Zócalos ===
Each building has tiles along the facade's lower walls in bright colors and dimensioned images. Many of the tiles are tied to the products sold by the shops, or the beliefs of the residents. Others are cultural images of the farming heritage of the community.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Guatape travel guide from Wikivoyage
Corporacion CIMTED, Desarrollo desde lo local, Entrepreneur projects in the Guatape City |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourke_Award#:~:text=1965,Heinz%20Gerischer | Bourke Award | The Bourke Award of the Royal Society of Chemistry is an annual prize open to academics from outside the UK. Originally established by the Faraday Society and known as the Bourke Lectures, the award of £2000 enables experts in physical chemistry or chemical physics to present their work in the UK. The winner also receives a commemorative medal.
In 2020 the Bourke Award was merged with the Liversidge Award to create the Bourke-Liversidge Award.
== Winners ==
Source:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hibbett | David Hibbett | David Hibbett is an associate professor in biology at Clark University who analyses fungal relationships through DNA analysis. At Clark he concentrates his lab work in evolutionary biology and ecology of Fungi.
He spent 1991 as a Science and Technology Agency of Japan Post-doctoral Fellow at the Tottori Mycological Institute in Tottori, Japan. A year later Hibbett taught microbiology at Framingham State College for the spring semester. From 1993 to 1999, Hibbett was a postdoctoral researcher and then a research associate in the laboratory of Michael Donoghue in the Harvard University Herbaria.
He received his Bachelor of Arts from the Botany Department of University of Massachusetts Amherst and his Ph.D. from the Botany Department of Duke University.
In 2007, Hibbett led the publication of a phylogenetically based classification scheme for the Kingdom Fungi with a long list of international taxonomic specialists, which has remained the standard framework for the higher classification of these organisms. His most cited paper (as of 4 January 2021) with 1755 citations is Reconstructing the early evolution of Fungi using a six-gene phylogeny.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Cemal_Eringen | Ahmed Cemal Eringen | Ahmet Cemal Eringen (February 15, 1921 – December 7, 2009) was a Turkish engineering scientist. He was a professor at Princeton University and the founder of the Society of Engineering Science. The Eringen Medal is named in his honor.
== Education ==
Eringen was born in Kayseri, Turkey and studied at the Istanbul Technical University and graduated with a diploma degree in 1943 and then worked for the Turkish Aircraft Co. until 1944. In 1944–1945, he was a trainee at the Glenn L. Martin Company and in 1945 was group leader at the Turkish Air League Company. He continued his studies at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in New York City where he received his doctorate in applied mechanics in 1948 under the supervision of Nicholas J. Hoff.
== Academic life ==
He became assistant professor at the Illinois Institute of Technology in 1948, associate professor in 1953 and professor in 1955 at Purdue University. He was appointed as professor of aerospace and mechanical engineering at Princeton University in 1966. He became professor of continuum mechanics in the departments of civil and geological engineering and the program in applied and computational mathematics at Princeton University. He retired in 1991 as the dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Princeton University and died in 2009.
== Research areas ==
His work deals with continuum mechanics, electrodynamics of continua and material theories.
== Awards ==
In 1981 he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Glasgow (D.Sc.). In 1973, he received the Distinguished Service Award and the 1976 as named in his honor A. C. Eringen Medal of the Society of Engineering Science, whose president he was in 1963 to 1973.
== Personal life ==
Eringen had been married since 1949 and had four children.
== Publications ==
Nonlocal Continuum Field Theories, Springer Verlag, 2002
Microcontinuum Field Theories, volume 1, Springer Verlag, 1999
Microcontinuum Field Theories II Fluent Media 1st Edition, Springer 2001
with Erhan Kıral: Constitutive Equations of Nonlinear Electromagnetic-Elastic Crystals, Springer Verlag, 1990
with Gérard A. Maugin: Electrodynamics of Continua, 2 volumes, Springer Verlag, 1989
Continuum Physics (Editor): Continuum Physics, 4 volumes, Academic Press, 1974-1976
with Erdoğan S. Suhubi: Elastodynamics, volume 1, Academic Press, 1974-1975
with Erdoğan S. Suhubi: Elastodynamics: Linear Theory volume 2, Academic Press, 1974-1975
Foundations of Micropolar Thermoelasticity: Course held at the Department for Mechanics of Deformable Bodies July 1970 (CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences) 1970th Edition
Theory of Micropolar Elasticity in Microcontinuum Field Theories, Springer Verlag, 1970
Mechanics of Continua, Wiley, 1967
Nonlinear Theory of Continuous Media, McGraw Hill, 1962
with Roy C. Dixon: A dynamical theory of polar elastic dielectrics, 1964
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_to_Stay | Mars to Stay | Mars to Stay missions propose that astronauts sent to Mars for the first time should intend to remain there. Unused emergency return vehicles would be recycled into settlement construction as soon as the habitability of Mars becomes evident to the initial pioneers. Mars to Stay missions are advocated both to reduce cost and to ensure permanent settlement of Mars. Among many notable Mars to Stay advocates, former Apollo astronaut Buzz Aldrin has been particularly outspoken, suggesting in numerous forums "Forget the Moon, Let’s Head to Mars!" and, in June 2013, Aldrin promoted a crewed mission "to homestead Mars and become a two-planet species". In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a "master plan", for NASA consideration, for astronauts, with a "tour of duty of ten years", to colonize Mars before the year 2040. The Mars Underground, Mars Homestead Project / Mars Foundation, Mars One (defunct in 2019), and Mars Artists Community advocacy groups and business organizations have also adopted Mars to Stay policy initiatives.
The earliest formal outline of a Mars to Stay mission architecture was given at the Case for Mars VI Workshop in 1996, during a presentation by George Herbert titled "One Way to Mars".
== Proposals ==
=== Arguments for settlement missions ===
Since returning the astronauts from the surface of Mars is one of the most difficult parts of a Mars mission, the idea of a one-way trip to Mars has been proposed several times. Space activist Bruce Mackenzie, for example, proposed a one-way trip to Mars in a presentation "One Way to Mars – a Permanent Settlement on the First Mission" at the 1998 International Space Development Conference, arguing that since the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense if the astronauts were not required to return to Earth, the first mission to Mars should be a settlement, not a visit.
Paul Davies, writing in The New York Times in 2004, made similar arguments. Under Davies' plan, an initial colony of four astronauts equipped with a small nuclear reactor and a couple of rover vehicles would make their own oxygen, grow food, and even initiate building projects using local raw materials. Supplemented by food shipments, medical supplies, and replacement gadgets from Earth, the colony would be indefinitely sustained.
=== Original Aldrin plan ===
Under Mars to Stay mission architectures, the first humans to travel to Mars would typically be in six-member teams. After this initial landing, subsequent missions would raise the number of persons on Mars to 30, thereby beginning a Martian settlement. Since the Martian surface offers some of the natural resources and elements necessary to sustain a robust, mature, industrialized human settlement—unlike, for example the Moon—a permanent Martian settlement is thought to be the most effective way to ensure that humanity becomes a space-faring, multi-planet species.
A Mars to Stay mission following Aldrin's proposal would enlist astronauts in the following timeline:
Age 30: an offer to help settle Mars is extended to select pioneers
Age 30–35: training and social conditioning for long-duration isolation and time-delay communications
Age 35–65: development of sheltered underground living spaces
Age 65: an offer to return to Earth or retire on Mars is given to first-generation settlers
As Aldrin has said, "who knows what advances will have taken place. The first generation can retire there, or maybe we can bring them back."
=== "To Boldly Go: A One-Way Human Mission to Mars" ===
An article by Dirk Schulze-Makuch (Washington State University) and Paul Davies (Arizona State University) from the 2010 article The Human Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet highlights their mission plans as:
No base on the Moon is needed. Given the broad variety of resources available on Mars, the long-term survival of Martian settlers is much more feasible than Lunar settlers.
Since Mars affords neither an ozone shield nor magnetospheric protection, robots would prepare a basic modular base inside near-surface lava tubes and ice caves for the human settlers.
A volunteer signing up for a one-way mission to Mars would do so with the full understanding that they will not return to Earth; Mars exploration would proceed for a long time on the basis of outbound journeys only.
The first human contingent would consist of a crew of four, ideally (if budget permits) distributed between two two-man spacecraft for mission redundancy.
Over time humans on Mars will increase with follow-up missions. Several subsurface biospheres would be created until there were 150+ individuals in a viable gene pool. Genetic engineering would further contribute to the health and longevity of settlers.
The astronauts would be sent supplies from Earth regularly. This proposal was picked up for discussion in a number of public sources.
=== Mars One ===
A proposal for a one-way human settlement mission to Mars was put forward in 2012 by the Mars One, a private spaceflight project led by Dutch entrepreneur Bas Lansdorp to establish a permanent human colony on Mars.
Mars One was a Dutch not-for-profit foundation, a Stichting.
The proposal was to send a communication satellite and pathfinder lander to the planet by 2018 and, after several stages, land four humans on Mars for permanent settlement in 2027.
A new set of four astronauts would then arrive every two years. 200,000 applications were started; about 2,500 were complete enough for consideration, from which one hundred applicants were chosen. Further selections were planned to narrow this down to six groups of four before training began in 2016. It was hoped that a reality television show, participant fees, and donations would generate the funding for the project.
The project was criticized by experts as a 'scam' and as 'delusional'. On January 15, 2019, a court decision was settled to liquidate the organization, sending it into bankruptcy administration.
=== Strive to Stay: Emergency Return Only ===
In response to feedback following the EarthLight Institute's "Mars Colony 2030" project at NewSpace 2012 and the announcement of Mars One, Eric Machmer proposed conjunction-class missions be planned with a bias to stay (if low gravity, radiation, and other factors present no pressing health issues), so that, if at the end of each 550-day period during a conjunction-class launch window no adverse health effects were observed, settlers would continue research and construction through another 550-day period. In the meantime, additional crews and supplies would continue to arrive, starting their own 550-day evaluation periods. Health tests would be repeated during subsequent 550-day periods until the viability of human life on Mars was proven. Once settlers determine that humans can live on Mars without negative health effects, emergency return vehicles would be recycled into permanent research bases.
== Initial and permanent settlement ==
Initial explorers leave equipment in orbit and at landing zones scattered considerable distances from the main settlement. Subsequent missions therefore are assumed to become easier and safer to undertake, with the likelihood of back-up equipment being present if accidents in transit or landing occur.
Large subsurface, pressurized habitats would be the first step toward human settlement; as Dr. Robert Zubrin suggests in the first chapter of his book Mars Direct, these structures can be built as Roman-style atria in mountainsides or underground with easily produced Martian brick. During and after this initial phase of habitat construction, hard-plastic radiation and abrasion-resistant geodesic domes could be deployed on the surface for eventual habitation and crop growth. Nascent industry would begin using indigenous resources: the manufacture of plastics, ceramics and glass could be easily achieved.
The longer-term work of terraforming Mars requires an initial phase of global warming to release atmosphere from the Martian regolith and to create a water-cycle. Three methods of global warming are described by Zubrin, who suggests they are best deployed in tandem: orbital mirrors to heat the surface; factories on the ground to pump halocarbons into the atmosphere; and the seeding of bacteria that can metabolize water, nitrogen and carbon to produce ammonia and methane (these gases would aid in global warming). While the work of terraforming Mars is on-going, robust settlement of Mars would continue.
Zubrin, in his 1996 book (revised 2011) The Case for Mars, acknowledges any Martian colony will be partially Earth-dependent for centuries. However, Zubrin suggests Mars may be profitable for two reasons. First, it may contain concentrated supplies of metals equal to or of greater value than silver, which have not been subjected to millennia of human scavenging; it is suggested such ores may be sold on Earth for profit. Secondly, the concentration of deuterium—an extremely expensive but essential fuel for the as-yet non-existent nuclear fusion power industry—is five times greater on Mars. Humans emigrating to Mars, under this paradigm, are presumed to have an industry; it is assumed the planet will be a magnet for settlers as wage costs will be high. Because of the labor shortage on Mars and its subsequent high pay-scale, Martian civilization and the value placed upon each individual's productivity is proposed as a future engine of both technological and social advancement.
== Risks ==
In the fifth chapter of "Mars Direct", Zubrin addresses the idea that radiation and zero-gravity are unduly hazardous. He claims cancer rates do increase for astronauts who have spent extensive time in space, but only marginally. Similarly, while zero-gravity presents challenges, near total recovery of musculature and immune system vitality is presumed by all Mars to Stay mission plans once settlers are on the Martian surface. Several experiments, such as the Mars Gravity Biosatellite, have been proposed to test this hypothetical assumption, but until humans have lived in Martian gravity conditions (38% of Earth's), human long-term viability in such low gravity will remain only a working assumption. Back-contamination—humans acquiring and spreading hypothetical Martian viruses—is described as "just plain nuts", because there are no host organisms on Mars for disease organisms to have evolved.
In the same chapter, Zubrin rejects suggestions the Moon should be used as waypoint to Mars or as a preliminary training area. "It is ultimately much easier to journey to Mars from low Earth orbit than from the Moon and using the latter as a staging point is a pointless diversion of resources." While the Moon may superficially appear a good place to perfect Mars exploration and habitation techniques, the two bodies are radically different. The Moon has no atmosphere, no analogous geology and a much greater temperature range and rotational period of illumination. It is argued Antarctica, deserts of Earth, and precisely controlled chilled vacuum chambers on easily accessible NASA centers on Earth provide much better training grounds at lesser cost.
== Public reception ==
"Should the United States space program send a mission to Mars, those astronauts should be prepared to stay there," said Lunar astronaut Buzz Aldrin during an interview on "Mars to Stay" initiative. The time and expense required to send astronauts to Mars, argues Aldrin, "warrants more than a brief sojourn, so those who are on board should think of themselves as pioneers. Like the Pilgrims who came to the New World or the families who headed to the Wild West, they should not plan on coming back home." The Moon is a shorter trip of two or three days, but according to Mars advocates it offers virtually no potential for independent settlements. Studies have found that Mars, on the other hand, has vast reserves of frozen water, all of the basic elements, and more closely mimics both gravitational (roughly 1⁄3 of Earth's while the moon is 1⁄6) and illumination conditions on Earth. "It is easier to subsist, to provide the support needed for people there than on the Moon." In an interview with reporters, Aldrin said Mars offers greater potential than Earth's satellite as a place for habitation:
If we are going to put a few people down there and ensure their appropriate safety, would you then go through all that trouble and then bring them back immediately, after a year, a year and a half? ... They need to go there more with the psychology of knowing that you are a pioneering settler and you don't look forward to go back home again after a couple of years.
A comprehensive statement of a rationale for "Mars to Stay" was laid out by Buzz Aldrin in a May 2009 Popular Mechanics article, as follows:
The agency's current Vision for Space Exploration will waste decades and hundreds of billions of dollars trying to reach the Moon by 2020—a glorified rehash of what we did 40 years ago. Instead of a steppingstone to Mars, NASA's current lunar plan is a detour. It will derail our Mars effort, siphoning off money and engineering talent for the next two decades. If we aspire to a long-term human presence on Mars—and I believe that should be our overarching goal for the foreseeable future—we must drastically change our focus. Our purely exploratory efforts should aim higher than a place we've already set foot on six times. In recent years my philosophy on colonizing Mars has evolved. I now believe that human visitors to the Red Planet should commit to staying there permanently. One-way tickets to Mars will make the missions technically easier and less expensive and get us there sooner. More importantly, they will ensure that our Martian outpost steadily grows as more homesteaders arrive. Instead of explorers, one-way Mars travelers will be 21st-century pilgrims, pioneering a new way of life. It will take a special kind of person. Instead of the traditional pilot/scientist/engineer, Martian homesteaders will be selected more for their personalities—flexible, inventive and determined in the face of unpredictability. In short, survivors.
The Mars Artists Community has adopted Mars to Stay as their primary policy initiative. During a 2009 public hearing of the U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee at which Dr. Robert Zubrin presented a summary of the arguments in his book The Case for Mars, dozens of placards reading "Mars Direct Cowards Return to the Moon" were placed throughout the Carnegie Institute. The passionate uproar among space exploration advocates—both favorable and critical—resulted in the Mars Artists Community creating several dozen more designs, with such slogans as, "Traitors Return to Earth" and "What Would Zheng He Do?"
In October 2009, Eric Berger of the Houston Chronicle wrote of "Mars to Stay" as perhaps the only program that can revitalize the United States' space program:
What if NASA could land astronauts on Mars in a decade, for not ridiculously more money than the $10 billion the agency spends annually on human spaceflight? It's possible ... relieving NASA of the need to send fuel and rocketry to blast humans off the Martian surface, which has slightly more than twice the gravity of the moon, would actually reduce costs by about a factor of 10, by some estimates.
Hard Science Fiction writer Mike Brotherton has found "Mars to Stay" appealing for both economic and safety reasons, but more emphatically, as a fulfillment of the ultimate mandate by which "our manned space program is sold, at least philosophically and long-term, as a step to colonizing other worlds". Two-thirds of the respondents to a poll on his website expressed interest in a one-way ticket to Mars "if mission parameters are well-defined" (not suicidal).
In June 2010, Buzz Aldrin gave an interview to Vanity Fair in which he restated "Mars to Stay":
Did the Pilgrims on the Mayflower sit around Plymouth Rock waiting for a return trip? They came here to settle. And that's what we should be doing on Mars. When you go to Mars, you need to have made the decision that you're there permanently. The more people we have there, the more it can become a sustaining environment. Except for very rare exceptions, the people who go to Mars shouldn't be coming back. Once you get on the surface, you're there.
An article by Dirk Schulze-Makuch (Washington State University) and Paul Davies (Arizona State University) from the book The Human Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet summarizes their rationale for Mars to Stay:
[Mars to stay] would obviate the need for years of rehabilitation for returning astronauts, which would not be an issue if the astronauts were to remain in the low-gravity environment of Mars. We envision that Mars exploration would begin and proceed for a long time on the basis of outbound journeys only.
In November 2010, Keith Olbermann started an interview with Derrick Pitts, Planetarium Director at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, by quoting from the Dirk Schulze-Makuch and Paul Davies article, saying, "The Astronauts would go to Mars with the intention of staying for the rest of their lives, as trailblazers of a permanent human Mars colony." In response to Olbermann's statement that "the authors claim a one-way ticket to Mars is no more outlandish than a one-way ticket to America was in 1620", Pitts defends Mars to Stay initiatives by saying "they begin to open the doors in a way that haven't been opened before".
In a January 2011 interview, X Prize founder Peter Diamandis expressed his preference for Mars to Stay research settlements:
Privately funded missions are the only way to go to Mars with humans because I think the best way to go is on "one-way" colonization flights and no government will likely sanction such a risk. The timing for this could well be within the next 20 years. It will fall within the hands of a small group of tech billionaires who view such missions as the way to leave their mark on humanity.
In March 2011, Apollo 14 pilot Edgar Mitchell and Apollo 17's geologist Harrison Schmitt, among other noted Mars exploration advocates published an anthology of Mars to Stay architectures titled, A One Way Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet. From the publisher's review:
Answers are provided by a veritable who's who of the top experts in the world. And what would it be like to live on Mars? What dangers would they face? Learn first hand, in the final, visionary chapter about life in a Martian colony, and the adventures of a young woman, Aurora, who is born on Mars. Exploration, discovery, and journeys into the unknown are part of the human spirit. Colonizing the cosmos is our destiny. The Greatest Adventure in the History of Humanity awaits us. Onward to Mars!
August 2011, Professor Paul Davies gave a plenary address to the opening session of the 14th Annual International Mars Society Convention on cost-effective human mission plans for Mars titled "One-Way Mission to Mars".
== New York Times op-eds ==
"Mars to Stay" has been explicitly proposed by two op-ed pieces in The New York Times.
Following a similar line of argument to Buzz Aldrin, Lawrence Krauss asks in an op-ed, "Why are we so interested in bringing the Mars astronauts home again?" While the idea of sending astronauts aloft never to return may be jarring upon first hearing, the rationale for one-way exploration and settlement trips has both historical and practical roots. For example, colonists and pilgrims seldom set off to the New World with the expectation of a return trip. As Lawrence Krauss writes, "To boldly go where no one has gone before does not require coming home again."
If it sounds unrealistic to suggest that astronauts would be willing to leave home never to return ... consider the results of several informal surveys I and several colleagues have conducted recently. One of my peers in Arizona recently accompanied a group of scientists and engineers from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on a geological survey. He asked how many would be willing to go on a one-way mission into space. Every member of the group raised their hand.
Additional immediate and pragmatic reasons to consider one-way human space exploration missions are explored by Krauss. Since much of the cost of a voyage to Mars will be spent on returning to Earth, if the fuel for the return is carried on board, this greatly increases the mission mass requirement – that in turn requires even more fuel. According to Krauss, "Human space travel is so expensive and so dangerous ... we are going to need novel, even extreme solutions if we really want to expand the range of human civilization beyond our own planet." Delivering food and supplies to pioneers via uncrewed spacecraft is less expensive than designing an immediate return trip.
In an earlier 2004 op-ed for The New York Times, Paul Davies says motivation for the less expensive, permanent "one-way to stay option" arises from a theme common in "Mars to Stay" advocacy: "Mars is one of the few accessible places beyond Earth that could have sustained life [... and] alone among our sister planets, it is able to support a permanent human presence."
Why is going to Mars so expensive? ... It takes a lot of fuel to blast off Mars and get back home. If the propellant has to be transported there from Earth, costs of a launching soar.
Without some radical improvements in technology, the prospects for sending astronauts on a round-trip to Mars any time soon are slim, whatever the presidential rhetoric. What's more, the president's suggestion of using the Moon as a base — a place to assemble equipment and produce fuel for a Mars mission less expensively — has the potential to turn into a costly sideshow. There is, however, an obvious way to slash the costs and bring Mars within reach of early human exploration. The answer lies with a one-way mission.
Davies argues that since "some people gleefully dice with death in the name of sport or adventure [and since] dangerous occupations that reduce life expectancy through exposure to hazardous conditions or substances are commonplace", we ought to not find the risks involved in a Mars to Stay architecture unusual. "A century ago, explorers set out to trek across Antarctica in the full knowledge that they could die in the process, and that even if they succeeded their health might be irreversibly harmed. Yet governments and scientific societies were willing sponsors of these enterprises." Davies then asks, "Why should it be different today?"
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Buzz Aldrin and Leonard David (2013). Mission to Mars: My Vision for Space Exploration. National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-4262-1017-4. (at BuzzAldrin.com)
When Will We Land on Mars? by Dr. Wernher von Braun (Popular Science: March 1965) (Google Books link)
Human Mars Mission, Weights and Mass Properties, (PDF) (October 1999)
Austere Human Mission to Mars. NASA – JPL (H. Price et al.) Minimalist Mars Design Reference Mission (Space 2009 AIAA Conference Paper)
== External links ==
'Mars to Stay' Facebook Page
Mars Artists Community
Mars Homestead Project
Develop Space
International Mars Society |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Henry_and_Prosper_Henry#:~:text=126%20Velleda,5%20November%201872 | Paul Henry and Prosper Henry | Paul-Pierre Henry (21 August 1848 – 4 January 1905) and his brother Prosper-Mathieu Henry (10 December 1849 – 25 July 1903) were French opticians and astronomers.
They made refracting telescopes and instruments for observatories, and were involved in the origin of the Carte du Ciel project.
Between the two of them, they discovered a total of 14 asteroids. The Minor Planet Center credits their discoveries under "P. P. Henry" and "P. M. Henry", respectively. The lunar crater Henry Frères (Henry brothers) and the Martian crater Henry are named after them. They were jointly awarded the first Valz Prize in 1877 for their sky charts designed to facilitate the search for minor planets.
== List of discovered minor planets ==
== Obituaries ==
=== Paul Henry ===
AN 167 (1905) 223/224 (in German)
MNRAS 65 (1905) 349
Obs 28 (1905) 110
PASP 17 (1905) 77 (one paragraph)
=== Prosper Henry ===
AN 163 (1903) 381/382 (in French)
MNRAS 64 (1904) 296
Obs 26 (1903) 396 (one paragraph)
PASP 15 (1903) 230
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Samuel_Bolomey#:~:text=He%20received%20his%20early%20artistic,Joseph%2DMarie%20Vien%20in%201758. | Benjamin Samuel Bolomey | Benjamin Samuel Bolomey (19 May 1739 – 19 December 1819) was a Swiss painter and politician. As an artist he spent most of his career as a portrait painter in the Netherlands.
== Biography ==
Bolomey was born in Lausanne on 19 May 1739, to François Louis Bolomey, an hotelier, and Pernette Mercier. He received his early artistic education in Paris, where he studied between 1752 and 1760 as a pastel portrait painter, and became a pupil of Joseph-Marie Vien in 1758. While studying there he was also influenced by Boucher and La Tour.
He moved to The Hague in 1763, joining the Confrerie Pictura the same year. He was court painter to William V, Prince of Orange and is known for portraits of the Dutch society. In 1771 he became regent of the Confrerie, and was the director of the Royal Academy of Art in The Hague from 1777 until 1791, when he returned to his hometown of Lausanne.
Bolomey painted a series of portrait miniatures of politicians and revolutionaries of Vaud (part of the canton of Bern until 1798) during the years of the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803). After Vaud became a Swiss canton, Bolomey served as member of the Grand Council of Vaud from 1803 to 1807. He died in Lausanne on 19 December 1819, aged 80.
== Gallery ==
=== Works ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Benjamin Bolomey on Artnet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vice-chancellors_of_the_University_of_Delhi | List of vice-chancellors of the University of Delhi | The vice-chancellor of the executive head of the University of Delhi.
== Vice-chancellors of DU ==
The vice-chancellors of DU are as follows.
== See also ==
University of Delhi
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanele_Muholi#Innovative_Women_(2009) | Zanele Muholi | Zanele Muholi (born 1972) is a South African artist and visual activist working in photography, video, and installation. Muholi's work focuses on race, gender and sexuality with a body of work that dates back to the early 2000s, documenting and celebrating the lives of South Africa's Black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex communities. Muholi is non-binary and uses they/them pronouns, explaining that "I'm just human".
Muholi has described themselves as a visual activist as opposed to an artist. They are dedicated to increasing the visibility of black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex people. They researched and documented the stories of hate crimes against the LGBTQI community in order to bring forth the realities of "corrective rape," assault, and HIV/AIDS, to public attention.
Muholi was shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in 2015. They received an Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography in 2016, a Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2016, and an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 2018.
Muholi had a retrospective exhibition on at Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris from 1 February to 25 May 2023. Their work was also shown that year at Mudec-Museo delle Culture in Milan, from 31 March through 30 July 2023, showcasing 60 self-portraits in black and white chosen especially for Mudec.
== Early life and education ==
Zanele Muholi was born and raised in Umlazi, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Their father was Ashwell Tanji Banda Muholi and their mother was Bester Muholi. They are the youngest of eight children. Muholi's father died shortly after their birth, and their mother was a domestic worker who had to leave her children to work for a white family during apartheid in South Africa. Muholi was raised by an extended family.
Muholi completed an Advanced Photography course at the Market Photo Workshop in Newtown, Johannesburg in 2003, and held their first solo exhibition at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. In 2009 they were awarded their Master of Fine Arts degree in Documentary Media from Ryerson University in Toronto. Their thesis mapped the visual history of black lesbian identity and politics in post-Apartheid South Africa.
On 28 October 2013, they were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.They were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.
== Photography ==
Muholi's photography has been compared to the way W.E.B. DuBois subverted the typical representations of African Americans. Both Muholi and Du Bois have created an archive of photos, working to dismantle dominant, pre-existing perceptions of the subjects they chose to photograph. Muholi views their work as collaborative, referring to the individuals they photograph as "participants" rather than as subjects. With the term "participants" Muholi allows their participants to collaborate on poses instead of Muholi placing them in positions. Seeking to empower their subjects, Muholi often invites participants to speak at events and exhibitions, adding the participant's voice to the conversation. Through their artistic approach they hope to document the journey of the African queer community as a record for future generations. They try to capture the moment without negativity or focusing on the prevalent violence, portraying the LGBTQI community as individuals and as a whole to encourage unity. Thus, their work can be considered documentative, recording the overall community LGBTI of South Africa and their challenges, and at times, more specifically the struggle of black lesbians. Before 1994, black lesbian voices were excluded from the making of a formal queer movement. Muholi's efforts of creating a more positive visualization of LGBTI Africans combats the homophobic-motivated violence that is prevalent in South Africa today, especially in the case of black lesbians. While black women's bodies appear frequently throughout sexualized pop-culture, black lesbians are viewed (through the lens of the patriarchy and heteronormativity) as undesirable. This negative view of homosexuals in Africa lead to violence, such as murder and rape, and rejection from their families. Muholi's Zukiswa (2010), shows an African lesbian woman making eye contact with the viewer, displaying an unwavering gaze of confidence, self-awareness, and determination. This example encourages awareness, acceptance, and positivity with the queer community as well as South Africa.
Although Muholi became known as a photographer who engaged with the then-invisible lives of black lesbians in South Africa, they began to recognize this idea of "gender within gender." In 2003, and their sense of community definitively began to include trans people. Muholi was employed as a photographer and reporter for Behind the Mask, an online magazine on LGBTI issues in Africa.
Muholi first received global attention from the art world in 2012 at Documenta, a world-famous exhibition of modern and contemporary art in (Germany), for a series of portraits of lesbians and transgender participants titled: Faces and Phases. The photos were also exhibited at Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture (2004) ===
Muholi launched their visual activism through their first solo exhibition entitled Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture, at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. This exhibition featured photographs of survivors of rape and hate crimes as well as an image of a rape and an assault case number. The artist explicitly captures the images as to not reveal the person's gender. The viewer may only have access to an above the knee, and hip shot with hands over the genital region. In contrast to their later exhibitions, the people in these images remain anonymous. Although homosexuality is technically protected legally under the South African government, many individuals do not exercise their legal rights publicly in fear of violent backlash. There is also a reluctance to report cases of hate crimes since officials will often ridicule the victim and nothing will be accomplished. This is a systematic use of violence and oppression. In Only Half the Picture series, the artist was able to give LGBT people a voice without ousting their anonymity. Their work is mostly about bringing visibility of queer people in the black community.
=== Faces and Phases (2006–ongoing) ===
In 2006, Muholi began their Faces and Phases project, a series of around three hundred portraits of lesbians, shot in front of plain or patterned backgrounds. The project began in 2006 when Muholi photographed activist and friend Busi Sigasa. Sigasa is a survivor of corrective rape and contracted HIV from the attack. Muholi's concern for their participant's safety dictated that all pictured individuals be of age and fully out. Faces and Phases mocks the "art-in-service-to-science" narrative engrained in colonial images. 18th century botany imagery shows various plants plucked from their natural environment therefore erasing any social or cultural context. This practice emphasizes Western discovery of an object without acknowledging its longstanding existence. According to Susan Kart at Grove Art Online, this project "documents victims of sexual assault and hate crimes, the wedding images share moments of victory, acceptance, and joy for LGBTI families." In Faces and Phases, Muholi utilizes this history and compares it to the representation of LGBTI in South Africa. Black queer individuals have increased dramatically in national representation but this is still an erasure of important context. These individuals are represented in the same way as the botanical prints. There is increased visibility for Western consumption but no attention is paid to the suffering and systematic oppression these individuals face in post-apartheid South Africa. Muholi challenges this in their series by providing names, dates, locations, and representing the participants within a public sphere.
In June 2014, Muholi was back at their alma mater, showing Faces and Phases at the Ryerson Image Centre as part of WorldPride. In the same month they showed at the Singapore International Arts Festival's O.P.E.N. where they also spoke on legacies of violence.
=== Innovative Women (2009) ===
In 2009, the Innovative Women exhibition was shown in South Africa in the cities of Durban and Cape Town. It was curated by painter Bongi Bhengu and features their work as well as 9 other artists including Muholi and photographer Nandipha Mntambo. In August 2009, the Minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana walked out of the exhibition due to Muholi's photography, calling it immoral, offensive and going against nation-building. In their response Muholi said "It's paralysing. I expected people to think before they act, and to ask questions. I wanted to create dialogue."
=== Trans(figures) (2010–2011) ===
Their Trans(figures) (2010–2011) project embraces lesbian and trans life. The portraits are taken in urban and rural settings in South Africa and internationally.
=== Of Love & Loss (2014) ===
Muholi's 2014 exhibition, Of Love & Loss, focused on the violence and hate crimes experienced by members of the LGBTQIA communities in South Africa. Juxtaposing images of weddings and funerals, the show included photographs, video works and installation elements. An element of autobiography featured images of Muholi and their partner. This exhibition furthermore exemplifies why Muholi calls themself a visual activist rather than an artist and it shows their battle scars. They bring these harsh issues into light with such powerful contrast, as a way to show resistance. Muholi calls this as just one of their many responsibilities, and these harsh and cruel realities cannot be ignored.
=== Brave Beauties (2014) ===
A series focusing on capturing the portraits of trans women, Brave Beauties was shot outside the studio and on location throughout South Africa. This "mobile studio" was a further expression of Muholi's celebration of LGBTQIA visibility as equal citizens of their country, an embrace of artistic freedom and a gesture of rejecting the limitations that studios can present. While on show at the Stevenson Gallery in Cape Town, an "activist wall" encouraged the participants to write directly on the gallery walls about their experiences, stories and vision. A gesture of destabilization, the activist wall was another expression of Muholi's desire to empower the participants in their work.
=== Isibonelo/Evidence (2015) ===
In 2015, Muholi presented 87 works in their solo Isibonelo/Evidence at the Brooklyn Museum. The meaning of the show's title, in which "Isibonelo" roughly translates from Zulu to "evidence," referred to its contents, which were split into three main sections separated on three walls. The first featured a decade-long chronology of hate crimes in South Africa, and faced the second, which was covered in handwritten messages from members of the LGBTQIA communities. The third and final wall consisted of portraits, including one of Muholi themself.
=== Somnyama Ngonyama ("Hail the Dark Lioness") (2012–present) ===
In 2014 Muholi began working on 365 self portraits for the series Somnyama Ngonyama. The portraits are alter egos, often with a Zulu name.That Muholi turned the camera towards themselves in this series is a departure from their previous work. Muholi explains, “I needed it to be my own portraiture. I didn't want to expose another person to this pain. I was also thinking about how acts of violence are intimately connected to our faces. Remember that when a person is violated, it frequently starts with the face: it’s the face that disturbs the perpetrator, which then leads to something else. Hence the face is the focal point in the series: facing myself and facing the viewer, the camera, directly.”
For most of the pieces in the collection Muholi exaggerated the darkness of their skin tone to reclaim their blackness from its performance by "privileged others." This, academic and critic Nomusa Makhubu explains, is in reference to the appropriation of blackness in minstrel performance. Of this series, the writer and cultural historian Maurice Berger has this to say: "The self-portraits function on various levels and pay homage to the history of black women in Africa and beyond, the dark lionesses of the book’s title. They reimagine black identity in ways that are largely personal but inevitably political. And they challenge the stereotypes and oppressive standards of beauty that often ignore people of color."
This series had a debut exhibition at Yancey Richardson Gallery in New York in 2015. It was shown in London in 2017 and in Times Square in New York City as digital billboards during the city's autumn 2017 Performa Biennial festival. Previews in Muholi's New York gallery were sold out. The photos were published in a 2018 book published by Aperture. In 2019 Muholi won the Photography Book award from the Kraszna-Krausz Foundation for Somnyama Ngonyama. Hail, the Dark Lioness.
== Activism ==
In 2002, Muholi co-founded the Forum for the Empowerment of Women (FEW), a black lesbian organization dedicated to providing a safe space for women to meet and organize.
=== Inkanyiso (2009) ===
In 2006 Zanele Muholi conceptualized a platform that promoted Queer Activism = Queer media. With the intention of a flexible and unique source of information for art advocacy. In 2009, Muholi founded Inkanyiso ("illuminate" in Zulu), a non-profit organisation concerned with queer visual activism. In 2009, Muholi registered the non-profit organization with Department of Social Services (NPO 073–402). It is involved with visual arts and media advocacy for and on behalf of the LGBTI community. The organization's vision statement is "Produce. Educate. Disseminate."
=== Women's Mobile Museum (2018) ===
In 2018, Muholi collaborated with photographer Lindeka Qampi, and the Philadelphia Photo Arts Center (PPAC), to create and mentor a cohort of women artists in Philadelphia. Called the Women's Mobile Museum, the collaborative project culminated in a special exhibition at the PPAC featuring works by the participating artists. According to art critic Megan Voeller: "For nearly nine months, they underwent a professional boot camp at PPAC, starting with technical workshops in digital camerawork, lighting and Photoshop and progressing to assembling and promoting an exhibition."
=== Somnyama Ngonyama (2021) ===
In 2021, Muholi produced a colouring book of their exhibition Somnyama Ngonyama to engage South-African children who are categorised as youth until the age of 35, as a result of the apartheid. Workshops teaching photography and painting were organised in parallel to provide the opportunity of an art education to underprivileged regions. The matter is of personal concern to the artist as someone who grew up under similar circumstances faced with conditions that they are still trying to 'break through' today. 'My activism now focuses on education and building arts infrastructure in places that are rural or still considered peripheral,' Muholi tells Ocula Magazine.
== Documentaries ==
In 2010, Muholi co-directed their documentary Difficult Love, which was commissioned by SABC. Difficult Love provides a look into Muholi's life and the lives, loves and struggles of other black lesbians in South Africa. In the documentary Muholi presents the stories and people that inspired them to create their images. It has shown in South Africa, USA, Spain, Sweden, UK, Amsterdam, Paris (Festival Cinefable) and Italy. In 2013, Muholi co-directed a documentary called We Live in Fear, released by Human Rights Watch.
== Attacks and robberies ==
On 20 April 2012, Muholi's flat in Vredehoek was robbed, with over twenty primary and back-up external hard drives containing five years' worth of photos and video being stolen with their laptop. Photos contained therein include records of the funerals of Black South African lesbians murdered in hate crimes. Nothing else was stolen, raising suspicions that Muholi's recordings of Black lesbian life was targeted. Muholi was overseas at the time of the robbery. This effectively erased the previous five years of Muholi's work. A few weeks later they said, "I'm still traumatized by the burglary" and, "It's hard to fall asleep in this place, which is now a crime scene, as I dealt with many crime scenes before."
In July 2017, a collaborator of Muholi's, Sibahle Nkumbi, was pushed down a staircase in Amsterdam by their Airbnb host while visiting the Netherlands to cover the opening of Muholi's exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum. Nkumbi was hospitalised, sustaining a concussion and substantial bruising. Video footage of the confrontation subsequently went viral, and the host was charged with attempted manslaughter.
== Publication ==
Zanele Muholi: Only Half The Picture. Cape Town: Michael Stevenson, 2006. ISBN 0-620361468.
Faces and Phases. Munich; Berlin; London; New York: Prestel, 2010. ISBN 978-3-7913-4495-9.
Zanele Muholi. African Women Photographers #1. Granada, Spain: Casa África/La Fábrica, 2011. ISBN 978-8-4150-3466-7.
Faces + Phases 2006–14. Göttingen, Germany: Steidl, 2014. ISBN 978-3-86930-807-4.
Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness. Renée Mussai (author), Zanele Muholi (photographer), et al., New York: Aperture, 2018, ISBN 978-1597114240.
== Exhibitions ==
=== Solo exhibitions ===
2004: Visual Sexuality, as part of Urban Life (Market Photo Workshop exhibition), Johannesburg Art Gallery, Johannesburg, South Africa
2006: Vienna Kunsthalle project space, Vienna: Slide Show
2014: Faces and Phases, Massimadi Festival, Montreal, Canada
2015: Zanele Muholi: Vukani/Rise, Open Eye Gallery, Liverpool, England
2015: Somnyama Ngonyama, Yancey Richardson, New York, NY, USA
2017: Zanele Muholi, Stedelijk, Amsterdam
2017: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Autograph ABP, London
2017: Zanele Muholi Homecoming: Durban Art Gallery, Durban, South Africa
2018: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Spelman College Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA, USA
2019: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Colby College Museum of Art, Maine, USA
2019: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Seattle Art Museum, WA, USA
2020/21: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London (delayed opening) – their biggest solo exhibition to date
2022: Being Muholi: Portraits as Resistance, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, MA
2022: Zanele Muholi, National Gallery of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
2023: Maison européenne de la photographie, Paris
2023: Muholi: A Visual Activist, Museo delle culture (Milano), Milan, Italy
2023: Zanele Muholi, Kunstmuseum Luzern, Luzern, Switzerland
2024: Zanele Muholi: Eye Me, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA
2024: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London
=== Group exhibitions ===
2011: Figures & Fictions: Contemporary South African Photography, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England
2016: Systematically Personae at the FotoFocus Biennal, National Underground Railroad Freedom Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
2017: Art/Afrique, Louis Vuitton Foundation, Paris, France
2018: Half the Picture: A Feminist Look at the Collection, Brooklyn Museum, New York, NY, USA
2018: Legacy of the Cool: A Tribute to Barkley L. Hendricks, MassArt Art Museum (MAAM), Boston, MA, USA
2019: Yithi Laba. A group exhibition by Lindeka Qampi, Neo Ntsoma, Zanele Muholi, Ruth Seopedi Motau and Berni Searle at Market Photo Workshop, Johannesburg, South Africa
2019: 58th Venice Biennale curated by Ralph Rugoff
2020: Radical Revisionists: Contemporary African Artists Confronting Past and Present, Moody Center for the Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Through an African Lens: Sub-Saharan Photography from the Museum's Collection, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Crossing Views, Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France
2020: African Cosmologies: Fotofest Biennial 2020, Houston, Texas, USA
2020: Sydney Biennale 2020, Sydney Australia
2021: Afro-Atlantic Histories, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2021: Interior Infinite, The Polygon Gallery, Vancouver, Canada
2021: THIS IS NOT AFRICA – UNLEARN WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark; Red Clay, Ghana
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, LACMA, Los Angeles, California, USA
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., USA
2022: Fire Figure Fantasy: Selections from ICA Miami’s Collection, ICA Miami, Miami, FL, USA
2022: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2022: The Work of Love, the Queer of Labor, Pratt Manhattan Gallery, New York, NY, USA
2022: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Black Venus, Fotografiska, New York, NY
2023: Museu de l’art Prohibit, Barcelona, Spain
2023: La Cinquième Saison (The Fifth Season), Jardin des Tuileries, Paris, France
2023: Love & Anarchy, Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham, NC
2023: Imagining Black Diasporas: 21st Century Art and Poetics, LACMA, Los Angeles, CA
2023: Africa Fashion, Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA
2023: Black Venus: Reclaiming Black Women in Visual Culture, Somerset House, London, UK
2023: Youth vs. Crisis: A Generation in Search of a Future, Kunsthalle Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2023: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2023: Coyote Park: I Love You Like Mirrors Do, Leslie-Lohman Museum of Art, New York, NY
2023: Trace – Formations of Likeness: Photography and Video from The Walther Collection, Haus der Kunst, Munich, Germany
2023: Lente Africana; fotografia subsahariana de la colleción del Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2023: Museo de Arte Miguel Urrutia, Bogotá, Colombia
2023: Nudes – Art from the Tate, LWL Museum for Art and Culture, Münster, Germany
2023: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
2023: Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2023: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2023: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
2023: Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2023: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain
2024: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2024: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2024: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2024: Turning the Page, Pier 24 Photography, San Francisco, CA
2024: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain; CaixaForum Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CaixaForum Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain; CaixaForum Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
=== Curated exhibitions ===
2016: Co-curated a show at Rencontres d'Arles photography festival, Arles, France
== Awards ==
2005: Tollman Award for the Visual Arts
2006: BHP Billiton/Wits University Visual Arts Fellowship
2009: Thami Mnyele Residency in Amsterdam
2009: Ida Ely Rubin Artist-in-Residence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
2009: Fondation Blachère award at African Photography Encounters (Rencontres Africaines de la Photographie, Biennale Africaine de la photographie) in Bamako, Mali
2009: Fanny Ann Eddy accolade from IRN-Africa for their outstanding contributions to the study of sexuality in Africa
2012: Civitella Ranieri Fellowship by the Civitella Ranieri Foundation, Italy
2013: Freedom of Expression award by Index on Censorship
2013: Glamour Magazine named them Campaigner of the Year
2013: Winner of the Fine Prize for the 2013 Carnegie International
2013: Prince Claus Award
2013: Feather Award (South Africa's LGBTI Awards)
2015: Shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize for Faces and Phases 2006–2014
2015: Light Work Artist-in-Residence Program, Syracuse, NY, USA
2016: Infinity Award for Documentary and Photojournalism from the International Center of Photography, New York, NY, USA
2016: Africa's Out! Courage + Creativity Award
2016: Outstanding International Alumni Award from Ryerson University
2017: Mbokodo Award (Visual Art) for South African Women in the Arts
2017: Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knighthood of the Order Arts and Letters)
2018: Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bath, England
2019: Rees Visionary Award, Amref Health Africa, New York, USA
2019: Lucie Humanitarian Award
2019 Kraszna-Krausz Foundation Best Photography Book Award
== Collections ==
Muholi's work is held in the following public collections:
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL (7 prints)
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (3 prints as of October 2018)
Museum of Modern Art, New York (6 prints as of March 2019)
Williams College Museum of Art, Williamstown, MA (1 featured print as of March 2019)
North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, NC
Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, NC (2 prints as of March 2019)
Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH
Tate Modern, London (15 pieces)
Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN (3 prints as of August 2020)
National Museum of Women in the Arts
== References ==
== External links ==
"My year as a dark lioness – in pictures " – a gallery of photographs in The Guardian
"Zanele Muholi: Mobile Studio" from Art21
Zanele Muholi at Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town, South Africa
Zanele Muholi at Yancey Richardson Gallery, New York, New York, USA
Zanele Muholi at La MEP, Paris, France |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Jamal_(cricketer) | Ahmed Jamal (cricketer) | Ahmed Jamal (born 3 September 1988) is a Pakistani first-class cricketer who plays for Sui Southern Gas Company. He is a six feet four inches (193 cm) tall right-arm pace bowler. In October 2017, he took nine wickets for 50 runs for Sui Southern Gas Corporation against Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited in the 2017–18 Quaid-e-Azam Trophy, his career-best figures.
Jamal is noted for winning Pakistan’s “King of Speed” competition in 2013, registering a bowling speed of 143 km/h.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ahmed Jamal at ESPNcricinfo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_5 | PlayStation 5 | The PlayStation 5 (PS5) is a home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment. It was announced as the successor to the PlayStation 4 in April 2019, was launched on November 12, 2020, in Australia, Japan, New Zealand, North America, and South Korea, and was released worldwide a week later. The PS5 is part of the ninth generation of video game consoles, along with Microsoft's Xbox Series X/S consoles, which were released in the same month.
The base model includes an optical disc drive compatible with Ultra HD Blu-ray discs. The Digital Edition lacks this drive, as a lower-cost model for buying games only through download. The two variants were launched simultaneously. Slimmer hardware revisions of both models replaced the original models on sale in November 2023. A PlayStation 5 Pro model was released on November 7, 2024, featuring a faster GPU, improved ray tracing, and introducing an AI-driven upscaling technology.
The PlayStation 5's main hardware features include a solid-state drive customized for high-speed data streaming to enable significant improvements in storage performance, an AMD GPU capable of 4K resolution display at up to 120 frames per second, hardware-accelerated ray tracing for realistic lighting and reflections, and the Tempest Engine for hardware-accelerated 3D audio effects. Other features include the DualSense controller with haptic feedback, backward compatibility with the majority of PlayStation 4 and PlayStation VR games, and the PlayStation VR2 headset.
== History ==
=== Development ===
The lead architect of the PlayStation console line, Mark Cerny, implemented a two-year feedback cycle after the launch of the PlayStation 4. This entailed regularly visiting Sony's first-party developers at two-year intervals to find out what concerns they had about Sony's hardware and how it could be improved in console refreshes or for the next generation. This feedback directly influenced the priorities of the development team. During the development of the PlayStation 5, a central challenge revolved around addressing the length of loading times for games. Cerny said several developers, including Epic Games' Tim Sweeney, told him that standard I/O speed of a hard disk drive was now a limiting factor in pushing game development. Slow data rates placed limits on the size of data being loaded into the game, the physical location of data on the storage medium, and the duplication of data across the medium in order to reduce load times. An important goal was to find ways to reduce loading time, particularly in games that stream or dynamically load new game areas as the player moves through the game world.
Jim Ryan, then CEO of Sony Interactive Entertainment, stated that Sony had researched the feasibility of a "low priced, reduced spec" version of the PlayStation 5, like what Microsoft had done with its lower-power counterpart to the Xbox Series X, the Xbox Series S, and concluded that they believed such consoles do not fare well, becoming obsolete too fast.
=== Marketing and release ===
Cerny first publicly described the new console in an interview with Wired magazine in April 2019. In early 2019, Sony's financial report for the quarter ending March 31, 2019, affirmed that new next-generation hardware was in development but would ship no earlier than April 2020. In a second Wired magazine interview in October 2019, Sony said it intended to ship its next-generation console worldwide by the end of 2020. The current hardware specifications were revealed in October 2019. At CES 2020, Sony unveiled the official logo for the platform, which follows the similar minimalist styling of the previous PlayStation consoles and brand. Full specifications were given in an online presentation by Cerny and published by Sony and Digital Foundry on March 18, 2020. Digital Foundry spoke with Cerny in detail and published a "deep dive" on April 2.
A major game library showcase had been planned for June 4, 2020, but was postponed until June 11 due to the George Floyd protests. This presentation was also the premiere of the PS5's external design.
Sony planned to launch the PlayStation 5 by the 2020 end-of-year holiday period.
The date and pricing was confirmed as part of a game showcase presentation on September 16, 2020; the release date in Australia, Japan, New Zealand, North America, and South Korea was confirmed for November 12, 2020, and for most of the rest of the world on November 19, 2020. The console was launched in the Philippines on December 11, 2020.
PlayStation 5's release in India was delayed, leading to speculation that a trademark dispute was the reason; the name "PS5" was briefly trademarked by a different person. Eventually, the dispute was resolved and the system released there on February 2, 2021. The console launched in Indonesia on January 22, 2021. The system launched in China on May 15, 2021.
The console launched with two models: a base version with an Ultra HD Blu-ray compatible optical disc drive for retail game support alongside online distribution via the PlayStation Store, and a lower-cost variant lacking the disc drive and retaining digital download support.
Following the September 16, 2020, presentation, Sony stated that pre-orders for the console were to open at various retailers on the following day. However, several retailers in the United States and the United Kingdom launched pre-orders that evening, causing a rush on pre-orders, including scalping as many stores' inventories were quickly sold out, and creating confusion. Sony apologized for the incident on September 19, 2020, and promised to increase more pre-order deliveries over the coming days and stock through the end of the year.
Worldwide supply of the console remained low due to a global chip shortage from 2020 to 2023. Sony expected a short retail stock until 2023; the company said that the supply chain issues were fixed. In August 2022, Sony announced a price increase by up to 20% in most of its markets except the US, citing global economic, inflationary, and supply chain pressures. A price increase in the US took effect in August 2025, citing a "challenging economic environment". Accessories were not affected.
== Hardware ==
The PlayStation 5 features a custom system on a chip (SoC) developed by AMD in collaboration with Sony, integrating both the CPU and GPU. The eight-core CPU is based on AMD's Zen 2 architecture and built on a 7 nm process, operating at a variable frequency up to 3.5 GHz. The GPU is based on AMD's RDNA 2 architecture, with 36 compute units running at up to 2.23 GHz, delivering a theoretical peak performance of 10.28 teraFLOPS. It also supports hardware-accelerated real-time ray tracing, a technique that simulates how light interacts with objects to produce more realistic lighting and shadows. The GPU is programmed via Sony's new graphics API named AGC. The PlayStation 5 includes a custom "boost" system based on AMD's SmartShift technology. This system dynamically adjusts the CPU and GPU speeds depending on what the game or application needs, balancing performance and power consumption.
The console's cooling system uses a double-sided intake fan that is 120 mm (4.7 in) in diameter and 45 mm (1.8 in) thick, paired with a large heat sink utilizing a heat pipe design that Sony claims has a "shape and airflow [which] make it possible to achieve the same performance as a vapor chamber". A layer of liquid metal between the chip and the heat sink improves heat transfer. The console uses a 350-watt internal power supply and is designed to consume less energy while in rest mode compared to the PlayStation 4.
The PlayStation 5 includes 16 GB of GDDR6 SDRAM connected via a 256-bit interface and capable of reaching a peak bandwidth of 448 GB/s. This unified memory pool is shared between the CPU and GPU. The console supports Bluetooth 5.1 and Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax). The console has a new audio processing system called the Tempest Engine, which supports hundreds of simultaneous sound sources, compared to 50 on the PlayStation 4.
=== Storage architecture ===
The PlayStation 5 features 825 GB of built-in solid-state storage, of which 667 GB is available to the user for game installation. The flash memory chips and controller are soldered directly to the motherboard, providing 5.5 GB/s of raw bandwidth via a 12-channel interface. A dedicated decompression unit supporting zlib and Oodle Kraken formats allows for typical throughput of 8–9 GB/s, peaking at 22 GB/s. An internal M.2-format solid-state drive (SSD) slot supports user-installed NVMe drives up to 8 TB. SSD support was added in a system update in September 2021 following a public beta.
Games must be installed onto either the built-in SSD or an M.2 SSD. However, to save space, developers may allow selective installation of features such as a multiplayer mode. External USB drives (up to 8 TB) are also supported; however, only PlayStation 4 games can be played directly from USB storage. PlayStation 5 games can be stored on an external drive but must be transferred to internal or SSD storage for gameplay.
The standard model includes an Ultra HD Blu-ray drive supporting Ultra HD Blu-ray, standard Blu-ray, and DVD formats, but not CDs or 3D Blu-rays. PlayStation 5 game discs can hold up to 100 GB of data, double the capacity of standard Blu-ray discs used for most PlayStation 4 games.
=== Form factor ===
The PlayStation 5's form factor was revealed during its June 11, 2020 presentation. The launch model features a two-tone design with a black central unit flanked by white side panels, matching the DualSense controller. Blue LEDs accent the edges. The console can be oriented vertically or horizontally. Long air intake vents run along the front, while heat is exhausted through vents at the rear. The console's large size in comparison to previous gaming consoles has drawn attention. This design allows for effective cooling management and reduced fan noise during operation. Senior Art Director Yujin Morisawa led the case design, balancing aesthetics with internal volume and airflow requirements.
The side panels are removable, allowing access to components such as the SSD expansion slot and the optional Ultra HD Blu-ray drive. Two dust collection channels are also accessible for maintenance. Front ports on the launch versions of the console include one USB-C (USB 3.1 Gen 2) and one USB-A (USB 2.0), while the rear offers two USB-A ports (USB 3.1 Gen 2), an HDMI 2.1 port, Gigabit Ethernet, and power.
When in its vertical position, the launch version of the console with an optical disc drive measures 390 millimeters (15 in) high, 260 mm (10 in) deep, 104 mm (4.1 in) wide, and weighs 4.5 kilograms (9.9 lb). The digital edition is slightly slimmer at 92 mm (3.6 in) wide and initially weighed 3.9 kg (8.6 lb).
=== Hardware revisions ===
==== Standard model ====
Sony released a minor hardware revision of the PlayStation 5 in August 2021. This version, the 1100 series, features a smaller heatsink without a significant impact on cooling performance. The revision also eliminated the need for a screwdriver when attaching the console stand. As a result, the overall weight was reduced to 3.9 kg (8.6 lb) for the model with an optical disc drive and 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) for the digital edition.
Another revision, the 1200-series, began shipping in August 2022. This version featured a die shrink of the SoC, reducing power consumption, allowing Sony to redesign the heatsink again, contributing to a weight decrease. The revised model with an optical disc drive weighs 3.9 kg (8.6 lb) and the digital edition weighs 3.4 kg (7.5 lb).
==== PlayStation 5 Slim ====
Sony announced revised models of the PlayStation 5 and PlayStation 5 Digital Edition in October 2023, with a release scheduled for November 2023. These models, colloquially referred to as the "PlayStation 5 Slim", replaced the original versions of the system. Both versions are physically smaller and include 1 TB of internal storage. The front USB-A port was replaced with a second USB-C port, though it still operates at USB 2.0 speeds.
The revised Digital Edition was priced higher than the original; in the US, it was $50 more expensive. An optional Ultra HD Blu-ray disc drive can be purchased separately for $79 and attached to the Digital Edition, making it functionally and visually equivalent to the standard model. When positioned vertically, the model with an optical disc drive measures 358 mm (14.1 in) high, 216 mm (8.5 in) deep, 96 mm (3.8 in) wide, and weighs 3.9 kg (8.6 lb). The digital edition is slightly slimmer at 80 mm (3.1 in) wide and weighs 2.6 kg (5.7 lb).
==== PlayStation 5 Pro ====
Sony announced the PlayStation 5 Pro (PS5 Pro) on September 10, 2024, following industry rumors since March 2024. Among other changes, the new console has three primary improvements: a GPU about 45% faster than that in the existing PlayStation 5, a deep learning-based image upscaling technology called PlayStation Spectral Super Resolution (PSSR), and twice as fast ray tracing performance compared to the PlayStation 5. As a result, games optimized for the Pro are expected to support 4K resolutions at 60 frames per second. It also ships with 2 TB of internal SSD storage, but does not include an optical disc drive nor vertical stand, which can be purchased separately. The Pro unit also includes support for Wi-Fi 7 and 8K resolution output. Games can be patched to access features of the Pro system, with 50 games expected to be ready with enhanced versions by the system launch. Industry rumors stated that Sony's internal studios had been working with the devkit version of the Pro console as early as September 2023. A Game Boost feature would also allow selected PS4 games to have improved resolutions on the Pro system, with about 8,500 such games set to use this feature at launch. The Pro model was released globally on November 7, 2024, with a price of US$699 / £699 / €799.
The pricing of the PS5 Pro made it one of the most expensive consoles to be released when accounting for inflation, and the second most-expensive within the PlayStation line following the original PlayStation 3 price of $499+. Rolling Stone observed an "overwhelmingly negative" response to the console's limited increase of benefits. Sports Illustrated mocked the price, with editor Dave Aubrey writing: "It feels almost cruel, in a climate like this, to try and convince people that the PS5 Pro, with its meager enhancements, is actually worth the money." Sony president Hiroki Totoki stated in an investor call in November 2024 that the company did not believe the high price had a negative impact on sales, since the Pro model was targeting hardcore users who are willing to pay more for high performance.
=== 30th anniversary editions ===
Limited quantities of the PS5 Digital Edition and PS5 Pro, with gray cases and special branding, were released on November 21, 2024, to celebrate the brand's 30th anniversary. Similar branded PlayStation DualSense, DualSense Edge, and PlayStation Portal devices were also made available.
=== DualSense and DualSense Edge controllers ===
The DualSense wireless controller for the PlayStation 5 was revealed on April 7, 2020. It is based on the prior DualShock controller but with modifications influenced by discussions with game designers and players. The DualSense controller has adaptive triggers with force feedback through voice coil actuators that can change the resistance to the player as necessary, supporting experiences such as virtually drawing an arrow from a bow. The DualSense maintains the same buttons as the DualShock 4, though the "Share" button was renamed to "Create" with additional means for players to create and share content. A new built-in microphone array was added so players can speak to others using only the controller, and the included controller speaker has been improved. It has two-tone coloring, primarily white with black facing, with the black piece being easily detachable. The light bar has been moved to the sides of the touchpad. It has USB-C connectivity, a higher-rated battery, and an audio jack. As an Easter egg, the texture of the controller unit is covered in miniature versions of the four PlayStation button symbols (cross, circle, square, and triangle).
Sony revealed the DualSense Edge (CFI-ZCP1), a new controller for the PlayStation 5 featuring additional capabilities, in August 2022. The controller features a more modular design than the DualSense with replaceable stick modules, multiple control profiles and an option of relocating map inputs. The controller was initially released on January 26, 2023, on PlayStation Direct, but was made available through other retailers on February 23, 2023.
=== Additional accessories ===
Accessories include a charging station for the DualSense, a new HD camera, and a media remote control. The Pulse 3D wireless headset is integrated with the PS5's Tempest Engine 3D audio technology. The PS5 is backwards compatible with most existing PS4 controllers and accessories for PS4 games only – some with limited functionality. Rock Band peripherals are supported since Rock Band 2. PS5 games can use the existing PlayStation Move, PlayStation Camera, PlayStation VR Aim Controller, officially licensed headsets, and specialty controllers with official licenses like flight sticks and racing wheels.
==== PlayStation Portal ====
==== PlayStation VR2 ====
Sony announced the PlayStation VR2 for the PlayStation 5 in January 2022. A successor to the PlayStation VR, the device consists of a headset featuring dual OLED panels capable of 4K resolution, HDR and 90/120 Hz refresh rates. It also includes two Sense controllers which have 14 embedded IR LEDs for tracking, and haptic feedback and adaptive triggers, similar to the DualSense controller included with the PlayStation 5. The headset features eye-tracking for foveated rendering and in-game features in select games. Additionally, the controllers includes finger touch detection, used to render the position of the thumb, index and middle fingers to show on in-game models. Unlike its predecessor, it does not require external cameras for it positioning; instead, it uses four cameras inside the headset to track the headset and controller's position, using only the headset's USB-C cable to connect to the console.
The headset launched on February 22, 2023, for $549.99 in the United States, €599.99 in the EU, and £529.99 in the United Kingdom. Games available for the PS VR2 at launch included Horizon Call of the Mountain, Gran Turismo 7, and Resident Evil Village. The headset is not compatible with games released for the previous generation PS VR by default, requiring developers to update their games. The PlayStation VR2 released to positive reviews, but was later criticized for a lack of continued support.
== System software ==
The PlayStation 5's user interface is characterized by Sony as "accessible and informative", providing updates of friends' activities, available multiplayer activities, and single-player missions and rewards. Cerny stated "we don't want the player to have to boot the game, see what's up, boot the game, see what's up", so all of these options are "visible in the UI". Matt MacLaurin, the current vice president of UX design at PlayStation, described the redesigned user interface as a "very interesting evolution of the OS", and a "100 percent overhaul of the PS4 UI and some very different new concepts". MacLaurin stated that the UI is extremely fast with a new and robust visual language.
Eurogamer said the user interface was conceived for responsiveness, improved accessibility, clarity, and simplicity. It is rendered in 4K resolution and high dynamic range. Users are greeted with a stylistic boot-up animation and a new login screen. The central design concepts and motifs introduced on the PS4 were redesigned into a new home screen user interface. The top of the screen has a row of applications, and two upper tabs to switch between showing games or media apps. Selecting a game reveals individual activities such as a specific level or multiplayer mode. PlayStation Store is no longer a standalone application and is now fully integrated into the home screen user interface.
The most significant departure from the PS4 interface is the introduction of the Control Center, accessed from the bottom of the screen by pressing the PS button. The Control Center is divided into two sections. The upper portion is a row of cards suggesting actions based on the current game or recent actions such as a group chat. Game-related cards may present players with gameplay information such as a progress report toward completing specific missions, or listing game challenges with an option to jump directly to them. PlayStation Plus subscribers see game activity cards with hints, tips, screenshots, or videos detailing how to complete the activity. System-level items may present the player with options such as PlayStation Store sale information, or recent screenshots taken by the user to be shared. These features are available for PS5 games or for updated PS4 games. The lower portion of the Control Center contains a customizable horizontal row of icons, including notifications, status updates, friends list, and system settings. According to internal materials reviewed by Vice, the strategy behind this "activities"-focused UI was to help players in committing time towards games particularly single-player video games which Sony felt were thriving on the PlayStation console environment. Sony recognized that at present, many players did not have as much time to commit to playing games, so the notion of activity cards was used to help give players an idea of what activities they could do in a game and how long it would take so that they could work that activity into their schedule.
The PlayStation 5 supports multiple streaming services such as Netflix and YouTube, with support for others hinted at in the future. Sony Pictures Core service was released on the system in 2023. The system included support for PlayStation Now, Sony's subscription-based cloud gaming service, while it was available. Sony's Remote Play application, available on the PlayStation 4, Windows, iOS, and Android devices, was updated just prior to the PlayStation 5's launch to allow a user to remotely play their PlayStation 5 games on these other devices over a local network.
=== Software updates ===
In April 2021, Sony released a new software update through which users can transfer their downloaded PS5 game to an external USB hard drive. Sony announced a PlayStation 5 system software beta program in June 2021, similar to the Xbox Insider program, where signed-up users can receive early releases of planned updates to the console's software for testing prior to their release. One of the first major features offered in this program was support for expanding internal storage via the M.2 port, added in the beta software path in July 2021.
In September 2021, Sony released a new software update offering support for a new trophy tracker, Control Center customization, 3D audio support for built-in TV speakers, internal SSD expansion and several UX enhancements. Sony introduced Game Trials in October 2021, starting with a limited release for UK users for Death Stranding: Director's Cut and Sackboy: A Big Adventure. Users have access to download and play the full version of the game for a fixed amount of time through these Game Trials, after which they would be required to buy the game to continue playing.
In March 2022, Sony released software update 5.00 which adds several improvements for accessibility such as an improved screen reader with support for features like mono audio, reading notifications aloud, additional language support, and the ability to show a check mark on enabled settings. Support for voice commands was also introduced in this update for users in the United States and United Kingdom, which allows users to control their PlayStation 5 by saying "Hey, PlayStation" and then a chosen command. Support for the Ukrainian language was also added, and Game Base was enhanced with the abilities to view all friends in a new "Friends" tab, more easily decline friend requests, and other enhancements and updates. There were also various enhancements made to trophies, child accounts, the home screen, and other features.
On March 8, 2023, Sony released software update 7.00, which included VRR support for 1440p resolution, the ability to transfer data between PS5 consoles, support for voice chat on Discord, and support for using voice to save video clips of gameplay (at release, this is only available in English for the US and UK).
On September 13, 2023, Sony released software update 8.00, which included support for Dolby Atmos, the possibility to use an M.2 SSD with a maximum capacity of 8 TB (up from the previous 4 TB limit), and the ability to mute the start-up beep sound.
On March 13, 2024, Sony released software update 9.00, which included the ability to adjust the brightness of the PS5's power indicator, added new features in Parties and Share Screen, and improved the DualSense and DualSense Edge wireless controllers mic input quality with a new AI machine-learning model.
On September 12, 2024, Sony released software update 10.00, which added Welcome hub, Party Share, personalized 3D audio profiles, adaptive controller charging, and support for enabling remote play for individual users.
On March 25, 2025, Sony released software update 11.00, which added full details displaying on activity cards, support for Unicode 16.0 emojis, parental control adjustments, system performance and stability improvements, and refinements to messages and overall usability on certain system screens.
On September 17, 2025, Sony released software update 12.00, which added a power saver for supported PS5 games, and a feature that allows the wireless controllers to be paired across multiple devices simultaneously.
== Games ==
Each PlayStation 5 console comes preinstalled with Astro's Playroom, a game designed to serve as a demonstration of the DualSense controller. Games are not region locked, so games purchased in one region can be played on consoles in all regions.
Sony announced its concurrent responsibilities of supporting the PlayStation 4 community, and embracing the PlayStation 5 as a major technological advancement. In an interview with GamesIndustry.biz, Ryan stated "We have always said that we believe in generations. We believe that when you go to all the trouble of creating a next-gen console, that it should include features and benefits that the previous generation does not include. And that, in our view, people should make games that can make the most of those features." Discussing the capabilities of the DualSense controller with Geoff Keighley, General manager Eric Lempel affirmed that Sony "want[s] to evolve every part of the experience", but for that to happen "we can't take everybody with us from previous consoles into [a next-generation experience]. You need new hardware, you need new devices to experience what these developers want you to experience." Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart was highlighted as a next-generation game that is not technically possible on older hardware. Lempel assured Keighley that interest in PlayStation 4 will not end abruptly, with more to come.
Sony's definition of consoles as distinct generations had been widely interpreted as an era-defining shift to PS5-exclusive games that exploit the console's capabilities instead of releasing cross-generation games that play across both PlayStation consoles. Ryan said that there should be no disappointment as the PS5 versions take advantage of the console's advanced feature set and initially planned that PS4 versions can be freely upgraded. Few major games such as Horizon Forbidden West are developed as concurrent releases for PS5 and PS4, and Sony supports any publisher that wants to offer enhanced versions of PS4 games at no additional cost. However, in May 2021, Sony announced a major shift in this approach, with previously PS5-exclusive games Gran Turismo 7 and God of War Ragnarök now planned as both PS5 and PS4 games. Game journalists believed this was a factor related to the effect of the global semiconductor shortage from the COVID-19 pandemic on PlayStation 5 availability. Sony initially had planned to charge PS4 users to upgrade to the PS5 version of Horizon Forbidden West when preorders were announced, but after negative feedback from consumers (who pointed out that Sony had previously mentioned that Horizon Forbidden West would have a free upgrade), stated that this upgrade will be free, but all future PS4 to PS5 upgrades from their first-party games will be at cost, reversing course from their earlier plans.
Eurogamer reported that Sony's certification program as of May 2020 required PS4 games, submitted for certification after July 13, 2020, to be natively compatible with the PlayStation 5.
=== Backward compatibility ===
According to Hideaki Nishino, Sony's senior vice president of Platform Planning and Management, the PS5 is designed to be backward compatible with more than "99 percent" of PS4's 4,000+ game library, playable from launch day. The console is compatible with PlayStation VR. Because of PS5's high-speed SSD and increased processing power, many PS4 games gain from improved loading times or gameplay speeds "so that they can benefit from higher or more stable frame rates and potentially higher resolutions". Players can synchronize their saved game files through cloud storage or transfer them using a USB storage device so no progress is lost. Backward compatibility is enabled in part by the similarity of hardware architecture, such as "extra logic" in the RDNA 2 GPU that ensures compatibility with PS4's GCN-based GPU. Mark Cerny explained during a March 2020 presentation and later in an interview with Digital Foundry how CPU clock timing required particular attention; though the Zen 2 CPU has an instruction set to handle the PS4's Jaguar CPU, their timings can be very different, so Sony worked closely with AMD when developing the Zen 2 CPU to more closely match the Jaguar's timings. PS5 backward compatibility may exhibit errors with some PS4 games, and does not include previous generations. However, some older PlayStation console games are available through the PlayStation Plus game streaming service which is available for the PlayStation 5. The PlayStation 4's Share menu cannot be displayed but the PS5's Create menu can be used to capture screenshots or video.
All compatible downloaded versions of PS4 games are visible in the library on the PS5 and available for download. The games can also be copied via USB hard drive or Wi-Fi. Save data can be copied in the same way or via the cloud storage. On October 9, 2020, Sony released a list of ten PS4 games identified as being incompatible with PS5; the list has shortened since as some developers released compatibility updates for previously incompatible games. As of December 16, 2021, the official PlayStation website shows six PS4 games that remain incompatible with PS5; Afro Samurai 2: Revenge of Kuma Volume One, Hitman Go: Definitive Edition, Just Deal With It!, Robinson: The Journey, Shadwen and We Sing. Additionally, the PlayStation 4 bundled game, The Playroom, is also not supported.
== Reception ==
The PlayStation 5 was generally well received at launch, with much praise of its DualSense controller's improved haptic feedback and adaptive triggers. Astro's Playroom, which comes preinstalled on every PS5 and is designed to demonstrate the controller's features, was praised with Laptop Mag calling it "deceptively cute". The exclusive line-up, including Spider-Man: Miles Morales and Demon's Souls, was heavily praised, although some reviewers, such as TechRadar, said there should have been more launch games. The console's user interface was generally praised for being fast and easy to navigate.
Many reviewers found the console's design polarizing. CNET described the black and white scheme as "clearly meant to be a sculptural conversation piece". The large size was criticized by Tom's Guide as "inelegant", and by others as frustrating its integration into a home entertainment center. Many also acknowledged the size for improving the cooling and quieting of its operation. The comparatively small 667 GB of usable SSD space was criticized.
More technical reviews, such as those by Digital Foundry, noted that features such as variable refresh rate and the advertised 8K video output mode were not present at launch. They lauded the ray tracing, SSD speed, and 120 Hz output capabilities.
=== Sales ===
The PlayStation 5, as with the Xbox Series X/S, was in limited supply immediately upon launch, and through 2021 due to a global semiconductor shortage, combined with increased demand for video game consoles due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Sony expected supply to continue to be limited until at least 2022. Scalpers took advantage of the shortage, attempting to sell the console for thousands of dollars. Sony expanded its PlayStation Direct program to sell consoles directly to consumers within Europe in November 2021 to bypass scalpers.
Two weeks after launch, Sony declared the largest launch in PlayStation history, surpassing the PlayStation 4's 2.1 million units in its first two weeks in 2013. During the system's first week of release in Japan, 103,901 standard consoles were sold, and 14,181 Digital Editions were sold, for a combined total of 118,082, making it the best-selling console in the country for that week. By September 2021, Sony reported over a million PS5 sales in Japan. In comparison, its predecessor did not reach a million units sold until a year after release. In the UK, the PS5 was the best-selling video game console sold in the month of November. In Spain, the PS5 sold over 43,000 units in the first week of release.
Sony reported total shipments of the PS5 through its fiscal quarter ending December 31, 2020 of 4.5 million units, which were similar numbers to the PS4's launch shipments. Total shipments of PlayStation 5 reached 7.8 million by March 31, 2021, surpassing the 7.6 million units that the PS4 had shipped in its first two-quarters of release. Sony reported that as of July 18, 2021, 10 million PS5 units had been sold through, making the PS5 its fastest-selling console to date. The company later confirmed that by June 30, 2021, it had shipped 10.1 million consoles, indicating that nearly every shipped console had been sold as soon as it reached the market. Console shipments surpassed 13.4 million as of September 30, 2021. The company anticipated in August that it would have enough stock hardware to ship more than 22 million PS5 units by the end of its 2021 fiscal year in March 2022, but this was revised to 15 million units in November. Despite this, sales during the fiscal year 2022 were forecast to increase to 22.6 million units. Bloomberg News reported in January 2022 that Sony was continuing production of the PS4 rather than discontinue it at the end of 2021, in order to help alleviate the shortage of the PS5 while the chip shortage continued. By the end of September 2024, total shipments of PS5 units had reached 65 million units. Sony's quarterly financial results for Q2 2025 stated that the PlayStation 5 had shipped 84.2 million units.
Sales of the PS5 reached 20 million units by May 2022, 40 million units by July 2023, 50 million units by December 2023, and 75 million units by February 2025.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Happy_Valley_episodes#Series_1_(2014) | List of Happy Valley episodes | Happy Valley is a British crime drama television series created by Sally Wainwright and produced by Red Production Company. The first series of six episodes started airing on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2014. It was released on Netflix in the United States and Canada on 20 August 2014. A second six-episode series began airing on BBC One on 9 February 2016 and was made available on Netflix in the US later that year.
The BBC announced Series 3 on 26 October 2021 with filming scheduled to begin in 2022. Series 3 started airing on BBC One on 1 January 2023.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Series 1 (2014) ===
=== Series 2 (2016) ===
=== Series 3 (2023) ===
== Ratings ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Happy Valley episodes at BBC One
Happy Valley episodes at the Internet Movie Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_M%C3%A9nigon#:~:text=She%20married%20Jean%2DMarc%20Rouillan,at%20the%20Fleury%2DM%C3%A9rogis%20Prison. | Nathalie Ménigon | Nathalie Ménigon (born 28 February 1957 in Enghien-les-Bains, Val-d'Oise), was convicted for acts of terrorism committed while she was a member of the French revolutionary group Action Directe. She was sentenced to life in prison in 1989 and released in August 2008 after serving more than 20 years in prison.
== Arrest and imprisonment ==
She was arrested, with her companions Jean-Marc Rouillan, Joëlle Aubron and Georges Cipriani, on 18 February 1987 on a farm in Vitry-aux-Loges. She was convicted in 1989 for the 1986 assassination of Georges Besse, then-president of Renault, and of the 1985 assassination of René Audran, a senior official at the French Ministry of Defence. She was sentenced to life in prison.
She married Jean-Marc Rouillan on 29 June 1999 at the Fleury-Mérogis Prison.
== Release from prison ==
She was imprisoned in the Bapaume Prison, located in Pas-de-Calais, until August 2007. She was three times denied a suspended sentence for medical reasons, after suffering from hemiplegia, depression, problems balancing, and spasms. In May 2007 she was transferred to a house arrest program. The conditions allowed her to work during the days, but she had to spend her nights in prison. This parole was required in order for her to eventually be conditionally released from prison. Her conditional release was effective 2 August 2008.
While in prison she suffered from hemiplegia, caused by two strokes. She also engaged in self-harm in 2003, in protest of the jail conditions.
== New Anticapitalist Party ==
In July 2008, she expressed interest in the New Anticapitalist Party, started by Olivier Besancenot and the Revolutionary Communist League.
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Fenno#:~:text=Fenno's%20books%20Congressmen%20in%20Committees,leading%20scholar%20of%20American%20politics. | Richard Fenno | Richard Francis Fenno Jr. (December 12, 1926 – April 21, 2020) was an American political scientist known for his pioneering work on the U.S. Congress and its members. He was a Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at the University of Rochester. He published numerous books and scholarly articles focused on how members of Congress interacted with each other, with committees, and with constituents. Political scientists considered the research groundbreaking and startlingly original and gave him numerous awards. Many followed his research design on how to follow members from Washington back to their home districts. Fenno was best known for identifying the tendency — dubbed "Fenno's Paradox" — of how most voters say they dislike Congress as a whole, but they trust and reelect their local Congressman.
== Early life and education ==
Fenno grew up in Boston and served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. After the war, he graduated from Amherst College in 1948 and completed a Ph.D. degree in political science under William Yandell Elliott at Harvard University in 1956.
== Career ==
In 1958, Fenno was hired by the University of Rochester, where he spent his career. He wrote about Republicans and Democrats and explored rural, urban and African American congressional districts in depth. An independent who never publicized his personal political views, he never endorsed any candidates.
Fenno's books Congressmen in Committees (1973) and Home Style: House Members in Their Districts (1978), for which he won the first D. B. Hardeman Prize, established him as a leading scholar of American politics. With William Riker, Fenno built the reputation of University of Rochester's political science department. Riker focused on positive political science, while Fenno focused on establishing Rochester as a center for congressional studies. He built the first internship program for undergraduates to work in Congress.
Fenno's trademark style of political science research is sometimes referred to as "Soak and Poke" (see Fenno, 1986). Rather than relying primarily on data sets or rational choice theory, Fenno undertook empirical observation of the movements of political actors on the stage of politics. His most famous book Home Style is written in this fashion.
In 1978, Fenno won the American Political Science Association's (APSA) Woodrow Wilson Award for the best book in political science for "Home Style".
In 1996, the Association for Budgeting & Financial Management awarded Fenno its Aaron Wildavsky Award for Lifetime Scholarly Achievement in Public Budgeting, for his work on Congress and appropriations. Congress at the Grassroots won the 2001 V. O. Key Award for the best book on southern politics.
Fenno served as book review editor of the American Political Science Review (1968–1971), as a director of the Social Science Research Council, and as president of APSA (1984–1985). He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a member of the American Philosophical Society. Since 1986, APSA's Legislative Studies Section has awarded the Richard F. Fenno Jr. Prize for the best book on legislative studies.
Fenno's archival collection is housed at the University of Rochester's River Campus Libraries Department of Rare Books, Special Collections, and Preservation. Research interviews and oral history notes are also housed at the National Archives and Records Administration's Center for Legislative Activities.
According to Norman J. Ornstein:
Fenno was hands down the most significant student of Congress of the last half of the 20th century. He was the first to note that voters loved their congressman while hating Congress, he wrote the definitive study of the appropriations process (“The Power of the Purse”) and a series of books where he explored the relationship between legislators at home and in Washington.
== Death ==
On April 21, 2020, Fenno died in Mount Kisco, New York, from the effects of COVID-19.
== Selected publications ==
The President's Cabinet: An Analysis in the Period from Wilson to Eisenhower. 1959. Harvard University Press. online no charge to borrow
The Power of the Purse: Appropriations Politics in Congress. 1966. Little, Brown. online
Congressmen in Committees. 1973. Little, Brown.
Home Style: House Members in their Districts. 1978. Little, Brown. online
The United States Senate: a bicameral perspective (1982) [http,
"Observation, Context, and Sequence in the Study of Politics". 1986. American Political Science Review 80(1): 3–15. online
The making of a senator: Dan Quayle (1989), online
The presidential odyssey of John Glenn (1990), online
Learning to legislate : the Senate education of Arlen Specter (1991), online
The emergence of a Senate leader: Pete Domenici and the Reagan budget (1991), online
"Strategy and Sophisticated Voting in the Senate". 1994. Journal of Politics 56(2): 349–376 (with Randall L. Calvert). DOI: 10.2307/2132143 online
Senators on the Campaign Trail: The Politics of Representation. 1996. University of Oklahoma Press.
Congress at the Grassroots: Representational Change in the South, 1970–1998. 2000. University of North Carolina Press.
Going Home: Black Representatives and their Constituents. 2003. University of Chicago Press online.
Congressional Travels: Places, Connections, and Authenticity. 2007. Pearson/Longman.
== See also ==
Fenno's paradox
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Polsby, Nelson (1984). "The Contributions of President Richard F. Fenno Jr". PS – Political Science & Politics. 17 (4): 778–781. doi:10.1017/S1049096500025026 (inactive November 10, 2025). S2CID 155051972.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2025 (link)
Schudel, Matt. "Richard F. Fenno Jr., preeminent scholar of Congress, dies at 93", Washington Post April 30, 2020.
== External links ==
richardfenno.com
Summary of Home Style Archived October 11, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
University of Rochester bio
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shubh#:~:text=Shubhneet%20Singh%20(born%2010%20August,'Still%20Rollin'%20in%202023. | Shubh | Shubhneet Singh (born 10 August 1997), known professionally as Shubh, is an Indian rapper-singer and songwriter based in Canada associated with Punjabi music. Shubh rose to mainstream in 2021 with his single "We Rollin". He released his debut album 'Still Rollin' in 2023.
His numerous singles have charted on the Canadian Hot 100, New Zealand Chart, UK Singles Chart and Billboard India. His single "Baller" charted on the Canadian Hot 100. In 2023, his song "Cheques" from his debut album Still Rollin peaked at number 3 on Billboard India Songs, while album was charted on Canadian Albums Chart and New Zealand Albums Chart.
== Early life ==
Shubh was born to a Punjabi Sikh family on 10 August 1997 in Punjab, India. He has an elder brother Ravneet Singh, who is also an actor, singer, vocalist and host. He moved to Brampton where his musical career started.
== Career ==
=== 2021–2022: musical breakthrough ===
Shubh started in 2021 with single "We Rollin", following which he released songs "Elevated" and "Offshore".
In 2022, Shubh released three singles "No Love", "Baller" and "Her". His song "Baller", with music producer Ikky became his most streamed track of all time. It charted on Canadian Hot 100 at 68.
=== 2023–present: Still Rollin, tour and more ===
In 2023, he released his debut album Still Rollin. The album debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Canadian Albums Chart. He released another single "One Love" in August.
In August 2023, Shubh announced his Still Rolling world tour across 7 countries including India, UK, Australia, New Zealand, UAE, USA and Canada, divided among 7 different phases. The tour came following the release of the album 'Still Rollin'.
Phase 1 is the Still Rolling India Tour, visiting 10 cities in India and including a cruise event. He is scheduled to perform as part of Cruise Control 4.0 event in Mumbai, organised aboard Cordelia Cruise. On 20 September 2023, BookMyShow announced the cancellation of Shubh's Still Rollin tour for India. Prior to this announcement, the electronics brand boAt revealed on X (formerly Twitter) that it had withdrawn its sponsorship of the tour due to the controversy.
The UK phase consisted of concerts in two cities, London and Birmingham.
By just one day prior announcement, Shubh released his first EP Leo on 5 January 2024 under his own label.
On 29 March 2024 Shubh released his another single "Bandana" without prior announcement.
On 10 April Shubh announced his Still Rolling world tour next phase of Aus/Nz in 4 cities in total which includes Melbourne , Brisbane , Auckland and with last concert in Sydney with tickets available on Shubhtour.com with beginning on 3 May 2024. The Brisbane Show held on 4 May was cancelled due to lack of communication between the promoter and venue and as well as due to promoter mismanagement the show permit was revoked. The venue load issues presented by the promoters would result in chaotic and unsafe show.
On Melbourne show 3 May Shubh sang his unreleased song MVP and later released the audio on his YouTube channel on 10 May 2024
== Controversy ==
In March 2023, when Punjab Police was in search of a pro-khalistan separatist Amritpal Singh, curfew imposed in several districts and mobile internet services were shut down in Punjab, Shubh shared a portrait of an allegedly distorted map of India in his Instagram story titled "Pray for Punjab", created by Amandeep Singh, a graphic artist known by the pseudonym Inkquisitive. The portrait shows a police cop unplugging a light bulb, rendering the states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh dark, while Northeastern states, and the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh were omitted, garnering criticism for a wrong portrayal of the map of India. Notably, actress Kangana Ranaut alleged it was an indirect support of the Khalistan movement. Facing backlash, Shubh removed the story and replaced it with the words "Pray for Punjab" on a black background. Later, Inkquisitive apologised on social media, saying it was "not done intentionally to provoke any sort of separate state agenda" but to show a "blackout in Punjab".
In September 2023, Shubh announced his first Indian tour. The electronics brand boAt withdrew its sponsorship of Shubh's tour following criticism. Subsequently, on 20 September, the ticketing app BookMyShow announced the cancellation of the tour. Indian cricketers like Virat Kohli, KL Rahul, Hardik Pandya and Suresh Raina also unfollowed him on Instagram. On 19 September, Inkquisitive reiterated on social media that Shubh shared his artwork, and apologised saying it was to show a "blackout in Punjab". Showing solidarity to Shubh, Inkquisitive blamed Ranaut for giving it a "pro-khalistan angle". Later on 21 September, Shubh took to his Instagram to provide clarification as a concern for an internet shutdown in Punjab and expressed his disappointment over the cancellation of the tour saying, "India is my country too". Other artists like AP Dhillon, Karan Aujla and Sidhu Moose Wala's team publicly supported Shubh. Several politicians from Punjab, including Harsimrat Kaur Badal, Amrinder Singh Raja Warring, and Bikram Singh Majithia also supported him.
During a concert in London on 29 October 2023, Shubh held up a black hoodie thrown from the audience which allegedly had the date and an image showing assassination of former prime minister Indira Gandhi by her bodyguards Satwant Singh and Beant Singh on a map of Punjab. Later Shubh posted on social media that a lot of clothing, jewellery and phones were thrown at him showing support from the audience and he did not see what was on it along with video.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Extended plays ===
=== Singles ===
==== As lead artist ====
==== As featured artist ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Shubh at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_Linux | Arch Linux | Arch Linux () is an open source, rolling release Linux distribution. Arch Linux is kept up-to-date by regularly updating the individual pieces of software that it comprises. Arch Linux is intentionally minimal, and is meant to be configured by the user during installation so they may add only what they require.
Arch Linux provides monthly "snapshots" which are used as installation media. The newest snapshot as of December 8, 2025, is 2025.12.01, featuring Linux kernel 6.17.9.
Pacman, a package manager written specifically for Arch Linux, is used to install, remove and update software packages. Also, the Arch User Repository (AUR), which is the community-driven software repository for Arch Linux provides packages not included in the official repositories and alternative versions of packages; AUR packages can be downloaded and built manually, or installed through an AUR 'helper'.
Arch Linux has comprehensive documentation in the form of a community-run wiki known as the ArchWiki.
== History ==
Inspired by CRUX, another minimalist distribution, Judd Vinet began the Arch Linux project in March 2002. The name was chosen because Vinet liked the word's meaning of "the principal," as in "arch-enemy".
Originally only for IA-32 (32-bit x86) CPUs, the first x86-64 installation standard ISO image was released in April 2006.
Vinet led Arch Linux until 1 October 2007, when he stepped down due to lack of time, transferring control of the project to Aaron Griffin.
The migration to systemd as its init system began in August 2012, and it became the default on new installations in October 2012. It replaced the SysV-style init system, used since the distribution's inception.
The end of i686 support was announced in January 2017, with the February 2017 ISO being the last one including i686 and making the architecture unsupported in November 2017. Since then, the community derivative Arch Linux 32 can be used for i686 hardware.
On 24 February 2020, Aaron Griffin announced that due to his limited involvement with the project, he would, after a voting period, transfer control of the project to Levente Polyak. This change also led to a new 2-year term period being added to the Project Leader position.
In March 2021, Arch Linux developers were thinking of porting Arch Linux packages to x86_64-v3, roughly correlating to the Intel Haswell era of processors.
In April 2021, Arch Linux installation images began including a guided installation script by default.
In late 2021, the Arch Linux developers released Pacman 6.0, which enabled parallel downloads.
In February 2022, the Arch Linux developers began offering debug packages.
In September 2024, Valve partnered with Arch Linux developers to support ongoing development efforts with the focus on build service infrastructure and secure signing enclave.
On 14 August 2025, the Arch User Repository, the Arch Linux Forums and the Arch Linux website were hit by a distributed denial-of-service attack. As a result of the attack web services became temporarily unavailable and downloads from the AUR were severely slowed down or impossible.
=== Repository security ===
Until Pacman version 4.0.0, Arch Linux's package manager lacked support for signed packages. Packages and metadata were not verified for authenticity by Pacman during the download-install process. Without package authentication checking, tampered-with or malicious repository mirrors could compromise the integrity of a system. Pacman 4 allowed verification of the package database and packages, but it was disabled by default. In November 2011, package signing became mandatory for new package builds, and as of March 2012, every official package is signed. In June 2012, package signing verification became official and is now enabled by default in the installation process.
== Design and principles ==
Arch is largely based on binary packages. Packages target x86-64 microprocessors to assist performance on modern hardware. A ports/ebuild-like system is also provided for automated source compilation, known as the Arch build system.
Arch Linux focuses on simplicity of design, meaning that the main focus involves creating an environment that is straightforward and relatively easy for the user to understand directly, rather than providing polished point-and-click style management tools – the package manager, for example, does not have an official graphical front-end. This is largely achieved by encouraging the use of succinctly commented, clean configuration files that are arranged for quick access and editing. This has earned it a reputation as a distribution for "advanced users" who are willing to use the command-line interface.
Relying on complex tools to manage and build your system is going to hurt the end-users. [...] "If you try to hide the complexity of the system, you'll end up with a more complex system". Layers of abstraction that serve to hide internals are never a good thing. Instead, the internals should be designed in a way such that they need no hiding.
=== Logo ===
The current Arch Linux logo was designed by Thayer Williams in 2007 as part of a contest to replace the previous logo.
== Installation ==
The Arch Linux website supplies ISO images that may be burned to a CD or USB drive. Installation can be accomplished manually by following the instructions on the Arch Wiki, or automatically through the use of the included "archinstall" script. Another command line utility that comes bundled with the installation media, "pacstrap" may be used to install the base system. Installation of additional packages which are not part of the base system can be done with either pacstrap, Pacman after booting (or chrooting) into the new installation, or by specifying packages within the guided archinstall script.
An alternative to using CD or USB images for installation is to use the static version of the package manager Pacman, from within another Linux-based operating system. The user can mount their newly formatted drive partition, and use pacstrap (or Pacman with the appropriate command-line switch) to install base and additional packages with the mountpoint of the destination device as the root for its operations. This method is useful when installing Arch Linux onto USB flash drives, or onto a temporarily mounted device which belongs to another system.
Depending on the selected installation type, further actions may need to be taken before the new system is ready for use. Notable configuration includes the installation of a bootloader, configuring the system with a hostname, network connection, language settings, and graphical user interface.
Arch Linux does not schedule releases for specific dates, nor does it provide traditional releases, but instead uses a rolling release model. Packages in the main repositories are updated often, with new updates being pushed far quicker when compared to long-term support (LTS) distributions. This style of package management allows systems to remain updated easily.
Occasionally, manual interventions are needed for certain updates, with instructions posted on the news section of the Arch Linux website.
== Package management ==
=== Pacman ===
All packages are managed through pacman, a package manager written specifically for Arch Linux. Pacman handles package installation, upgrades, downgrades, removal and features automatic dependency resolution. The packages for Arch Linux are obtained from the Arch Linux package tree and are compiled for the x86-64 architecture.
Pacman typically uses binary packages with a .tar.zst extension (for zstd compression), with .pkg placed before this to indicate that it is a Pacman package (giving .pkg.tar.zst);
though other compression formats are also valid, such as .pkg.tar.xz.
Packages can be installed via pacman -S package name, and pacman -Syu can be used to perform a full system upgrade.
As well as Arch Linux, Pacman is also used for installing packages under MSYS2 (a fork of Cygwin) on Windows.
=== Repositories ===
The following official binary repositories exist:
core, which contains all the packages needed to set up a base system. Packages in this repository include kernel packages and shell languages.
extra, which holds packages unneeded for the base system, including desktop environments and programs.
multilib, a centralized repository for x86-64 users to more readily support 32-bit applications in a 64-bit environment. Packages in this repository include Steam.
Also, testing repositories exist which include binary package candidates for other repositories. Currently, the following testing repositories exist:
core-testing, with packages for core.
extra-testing, with packages for extra.
multilib-testing, with packages for multilib.
The core-staging and extra-staging repositories are used for some rebuilds to avoid broken packages in testing. The developers recommend not using these repositories for any reason, stating that any system updating from them will "unquestionably break."
There are also two other repositories that include the newest version of certain desktop environments.
gnome-unstable, which contains packages of a new version of the software from GNOME before being released into testing.
kde-unstable, which contains packages of a new version of KDE software before being released into testing.
The unstable repository was dropped in July 2008 and most of the packages moved to other repositories. The community repository was merged with extra in May 2023. In addition to the official repositories, there are a number of unofficial user repositories.
The most well-known unofficial repository is the Arch User Repository, or AUR, hosted on the Arch Linux site. The AUR does not host binary packages but instead a collection of build scripts known as PKGBUILDs. PKGBUILD scripts are executed by the makepkg command, which downloads the necessary files from the software's repository and builds them using the Arch build system.
The Arch Linux repositories contain both libre and nonfree software, and the default Arch Linux kernel contains nonfree proprietary blobs, hence the distribution is not endorsed by the GNU project. The linux-libre kernel can be installed from the AUR or by enabling Parabola's repositories.
=== Arch build system (ABS) ===
The Arch build system (ABS) is a ports-like source packaging system that compiles source tarballs into binary packages, which are installed via Pacman. The Arch build system provides a directory tree of shell scripts, called PKGBUILDs, that enable any and all official Arch packages to be customized and compiled. Rebuilding the entire system using modified compiler flags is also supported by the Arch build system. The Arch build system makepkg tool can be used to create custom pkg.tar.zst packages from third-party sources. The resulting packages are also installable and trackable via Pacman.
=== Arch User Repository (AUR) ===
In addition to the repositories, the Arch User Repository (AUR) provides user-made PKGBUILD scripts for packages not included within the main repositories. These PKGBUILD scripts simplify building from source by explicitly listing and checking for dependencies and configuring the install to match the Arch architecture. Arch User Repository helper programs can further streamline the downloading of PKGBUILD scripts and associated building process.
However, this comes at the cost of executing PKGBUILDs not validated by a trusted person; as a result, Arch developers have stated that the utilities for automatic finding, downloading and executing of PKGBUILDs will never be included in the official repositories. Instances of malware have been discovered in the past such as on 19 July 2025 when a modified Firefox build was actually a RAT, thus AUR packages should be installed with great care and Arch Linux directs users to avoid AUR helpers.
Users can create packages compatible with Pacman using the Arch build system and custom PKGBUILD scripts. This functionality has helped support the Arch User Repository, which consists of user contributed packages to supplement the official repositories.
The Arch User Repository provides the community with packages that are not included in the main repositories. Reasons for exclusion from the main repositories include:
Licensing issues: software that cannot be redistributed, but is free to use, can be included in the Arch User Repository since all that is hosted by the Arch Linux website is a shell script that downloads the actual software from elsewhere. Examples include proprietary freeware such as Google Earth and Spotify.
Modified official packages: the Arch User Repository also contains many variations on the official packaging as well as beta versions of software that is contained within the repositories as stable releases.
Popularity of the software: rarely used programs have not been added to the official repositories (yet).
Betas or "nightly" versions of software which are very new and thus unstable. Examples include the "firefox-nightly" package, which gives new daily builds of the Firefox web browser.
PKGBUILDs for any software can be contributed by ordinary users. Any PKGBUILD that has 10 or more votes or more than 1% usage from pkgstats can be promoted into the extra repository.
=== Reproducible builds ===
Arch Linux is working on making all official packages reproducible. This means that when a package is rebuilt in a different environment it should be bit-by-bit identical. This allows users and researchers to verify the integrity of the packages found in the official repository. The status of this effort can be monitored on the dedicated status page.
== Derivatives and other products ==
The Arch Linux wiki maintains its own list of Arch-based distributions.
There are several projects working on porting the Arch Linux ideas and tools to other kernels, including PacBSD (formerly ArchBSD) and Arch Hurd, which are based on the FreeBSD and GNU Hurd kernels, respectively. There is also the Arch Linux ARM project, which aims to port Arch Linux to ARM-based devices, including the Raspberry Pi, as well as the Arch Linux 32 project, which continued support for systems with 32-bit only CPUs after the mainline Arch Linux project dropped support for the architecture in November 2017..
SteamOS 3.0, the version of SteamOS used in the Steam Deck by Valve, is based on Arch Linux.
CachyOS is a Linux distribution based on Arch Linux that is being developed for gaming on Linux, among other things.
== Reception ==
OSNews reviewed Arch Linux in 2002. OSNews also has five later reviews about Arch Linux.
LWN.net wrote a review about Arch Linux in 2005. LWN.net also has two later reviews about Arch Linux.
Tux Machines reviewed Arch Linux in 2007.
Chris Smart from DistroWatch Weekly wrote a review about Arch Linux in January 2009. DistroWatch Weekly reviewed Arch Linux again in September 2009 and in December 2015.
The Linux kernel developer and maintainer Greg Kroah-Hartman (GKH) has stated that he uses Arch Linux and that it "works really really well". He has also praised the Arch Wiki, the distribution's rolling release model, and the feedback loop with the community.
In a 2023 DistroWatch poll, about half of the responders maintained that they were running either Arch (17%) or an Arch derivative (30%). As of 2025, Arch also enjoys the third highest average rating of any Linux distribution on DistroWatch with a rating of 9.18, with only two higher rated distributions (Artix Linux and BigLinux) also being Arch derivatives.
== See also ==
Comparison of Linux distributions
List of Linux distributions
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Arch Linux on GitHub
#archlinux connect on Libera Chat (#archlinuxarm connect, #archlinux32 connect) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Abramovi%C4%87 | Marina Abramović | Marina Abramović (Serbian Cyrillic: Марина Абрамовић, pronounced [marǐːna abrǎːmovitɕ]; born November 30, 1946) is a Serbian conceptual and performance artist. Her work explores body art, endurance art, the relationship between the performer and audience, the limits of the body, and the possibilities of the mind. Being active for over four decades, Abramović refers to herself as the "grandmother of performance art". She pioneered a new notion of artistic identity by bringing in the participation of observers, focusing on "confronting pain, blood, and physical limits of the body". In 2007, she founded the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a non-profit foundation for performance art.
== Early life ==
Abramović was born in Belgrade, PR Serbia, FPR Yugoslavia, on November 30, 1946. In an interview, Abramović described her family as having been "Red bourgeoisie". Her great-uncle was Varnava, Serbian Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Both of her Montenegrin-born parents, Danica Rosić and Vojin Abramović, were Yugoslav Partisans during World War II. After the war, Abramović's parents were given positions in the postwar Yugoslavian government.
Abramović was raised by her grandparents until she was six years old. Her grandmother was deeply religious and Abramović "spent [her] childhood in a church following [her] grandmother's rituals—candles in the morning, the priest coming for different occasions". When she was six, her brother was born, and she began living with her parents while also taking piano, French, and English lessons. Although she did not take art lessons, she took an early interest in art and enjoyed painting as a child.
Life in Abramović's parental home under her mother's strict supervision was difficult. When Abramović was a child, her mother beat her for "supposedly showing off". In an interview published in 1998, Abramović described how her "mother took complete military-style control of me and my brother. I was not allowed to leave the house after 10 o'clock at night until I was 29 years old. ... [A]ll the performances in Yugoslavia I did before 10 o'clock in the evening because I had to be home then. It's completely insane, but all of my cutting myself, whipping myself, burning myself, almost losing my life in 'The Firestar'—everything was done before 10 in the evening."
In an interview published in 2013, Abramović said, "My mother and father had a terrible marriage." Describing an incident when her father smashed 12 champagne glasses and left the house, she said, "It was the most horrible moment of my childhood."
== Education and teaching career ==
She was a student at the Academy of Fine Arts in Belgrade from 1965 to 1970. She completed her post-graduate studies in the art class of Krsto Hegedušić at the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb, SR Croatia, in 1972. Then she returned to SR Serbia and, from 1973 to 1975, taught at the Academy of Fine Arts at Novi Sad while launching her first solo performances.
In 1976, following her marriage to Neša Paripović (between 1970 and 1976), Abramović went to Amsterdam to perform a piece and then decided to move there permanently.
From 1990 to 1995, Abramović was a visiting professor at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and at the Berlin University of the Arts. From 1992 to 1996 she also served as a visiting professor at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and from 1997 to 2004 she was a professor for performance-art at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Braunschweig.
== Art career ==
=== Rhythm 10, 1973 ===
In her first performance in Edinburgh in 1973, Abramović explored elements of ritual and gesture. Making use of ten knives and two tape recorders, the artist played the Russian game, in which rhythmic knife jabs are aimed between the splayed fingers of one's hand, the title of the piece getting its name from the number of knives used. Each time she cut herself, she would pick up a new knife from the row of ten she had set up, and record the operation. After cutting herself ten times, she replayed the tape, listened to the sounds, and tried to repeat the same movements, attempting to replicate the mistakes, merging past and present. She set out to explore the physical and mental limitations of the body – the pain and the sounds of the stabbing; the double sounds from the history and the replication. With this piece, Abramović began to consider the state of consciousness of the performer. "Once you enter into the performance state you can push your body to do things you absolutely could never normally do."
=== Rhythm 5, 1974 ===
In this performance, Abramović sought to re-evoke the energy of extreme bodily pain, using a large petroleum-drenched star, which the artist lit on fire at the start of the performance. Standing outside the star, Abramović cut her nails, toenails, and hair. When finished with each, she threw the clippings into the flames, creating a burst of light each time. Burning the communist five-pointed star or pentagram represented a physical and mental purification, while also addressing the political traditions of her past. In the final act of purification, Abramović leapt across the flames into the center of the large pentagram. At first, due to the light and smoke given off by the fire, the observing audience did not realize that the artist had lost consciousness from lack of oxygen inside the star. However, when the flames came very near to her body and she still remained inert, a doctor and others intervened and extricated her from the star.
Abramović later commented upon this experience: "I was very angry because I understood there is a physical limit. When you lose consciousness you can't be present, you can't perform."
=== Rhythm 2, 1974 ===
Prompted by her loss of consciousness during Rhythm 5, Abramović devised the two-part Rhythm 2 to incorporate a state of unconsciousness in a performance. She performed the work at the Gallery of Contemporary Art in Zagreb, in 1974. In Part I, which had a duration of 50 minutes, she ingested a medication she describes as 'given to patients who suffer from catatonia, to force them to change the positions of their bodies.' The medication caused her muscles to contract violently, and she lost complete control over her body while remaining aware of what was going on. After a ten-minute break, she took a second medication 'given to schizophrenic patients with violent behavior disorders to calm them down.' The performance ended after five hours when the medication wore off.
=== Rhythm 4, 1974 ===
Rhythm 4 was performed at the Galleria Diagramma in Milan. In this piece, Abramović knelt alone and naked in a room with a high-power industrial fan. She approached the fan slowly, attempting to breathe in as much air as possible to push the limits of her lungs. Soon after she lost consciousness.
Abramović's previous experience in Rhythm 5, when the audience interfered in the performance, led to her devising specific plans so that her loss of consciousness would not interrupt the performance before it was complete. Before the beginning of her performance, Abramović asked the cameraman to focus only on her face, disregarding the fan. This was so the audience would be oblivious to her unconscious state, and therefore unlikely to interfere. After several minutes of Abramović's unconsciousness, the cameraman refused to continue and sent for help.
=== Rhythm 0, 1974 ===
To test the limits of the relationship between performer and audience, Abramović developed one of her most challenging and best-known performances, which took place in Naples, Italy. She assigned a passive role to herself, with the public being the force that would act on her. Abramović placed on a table 72 objects that people were allowed to use in any way that they chose; a sign informed them that they held no responsibility for any of their actions. Some of the objects could give pleasure, while others could be wielded to inflict pain, or to harm her. Among them were a rose, a feather, honey, a whip, olive oil, scissors, a scalpel, a gun and a single bullet. For six hours the artist allowed audience members to manipulate her body and actions without consequences. This tested how vulnerable and aggressive human subjects could be when actions have no social consequences. At first the audience did not do much and was extremely passive. However, as the realization began to set in that there was no limit to their actions, the piece became brutal. By the end of the performance, her body was stripped, attacked, and devalued into an image that Abramović described as the "Madonna, mother, and whore." As Abramović described it later: "What I learned was that ... if you leave it up to the audience, they can kill you. ... I felt really violated: they cut up my clothes, stuck rose thorns in my stomach, one person aimed the gun at my head, and another took it away. It created an aggressive atmosphere. After exactly 6 hours, as planned, I stood up and started walking toward the audience. Everyone ran away, to escape an actual confrontation."
In her works, Abramović defines her identity in contradiction to that of spectators; however, more importantly, by blurring the roles of each party, the identity and nature of humans individually and collectively also become less clear. By doing so, the individual experience morphs into a collective one and truths are revealed. Abramović's art also represents the objectification of the female body, as she remains passive and allows spectators to do as they please to her; the audience pushes the limits of what might be considered acceptable. By presenting her body as an object, she explores the limits of danger and exhaustion a human can endure.
=== Works with Ulay (Uwe Laysiepen) ===
In 1976, after moving to Amsterdam, Abramović met the West German performance artist Uwe Laysiepen, who went by the single name Ulay. They began living and performing together that year. When Abramović and Ulay began their collaboration, the main concepts they explored were the ego and artistic identity. They created "relation works" characterized by constant movement, change, process and "art vital". This was the beginning of a decade of influential collaborative work. Each performer was interested in the traditions of their cultural heritage and the individual's desire for ritual. Consequently, they decided to form a collective being called "The Other", and spoke of themselves as parts of a "two-headed body". They dressed and behaved like twins and created a relationship of complete trust. As they defined this phantom identity, their individual identities became less defined. In an analysis of phantom artistic identities, Charles Green has noted that this allowed a deeper understanding of the artist as performer, since it revealed a way of "having the artistic self made available for self-scrutiny".
The work of Abramović and Ulay tested the physical limits of the body and explored male and female principles, psychic energy, transcendental meditation, and nonverbal communication. While some critics have explored the idea of a hermaphroditic state of being as a feminist statement, Abramović herself rejects this analysis. Her body studies, she insists, have always been concerned primarily with the body as the unit of an individual, a tendency she traces to her parents' military pasts. Rather than concerning themselves with gender ideologies, Abramović/Ulay explored extreme states of consciousness and their relationship to architectural space. They devised a series of works in which their bodies created additional spaces for audience interaction. In discussing this phase of her performance history, she has said: "The main problem in this relationship was what to do with the two artists' egos. I had to find out how to put my ego down, as did he, to create something like a hermaphroditic state of being that we called the death self."
In Relation in Space (1976) they ran into each other repeatedly for an hour – mixing male and female energy into the third component called "that self".
Relation in Movement (1977) had the pair driving their car inside of a museum for 365 laps; a black liquid oozed from the car, forming a kind of sculpture, each lap representing a year. (After 365 laps the idea was that they entered the New Millennium.)
In Relation in Time (1977) they sat back to back, tied together by their ponytails for sixteen hours. They then allowed the public to enter the room to see if they could use the energy of the public to push their limits even further.
To create Breathing In/Breathing Out the two artists devised a piece in which they connected their mouths and took in each other's exhaled breaths until they had used up all of the available oxygen. Nineteen minutes after the beginning of the performance they pulled away from each other, their lungs having filled with carbon dioxide. This personal piece explored the idea of an individual's ability to absorb the life of another person, exchanging and destroying it.
In Imponderabilia (1977, reenacted in 2010) two performers of opposite sexes, both completely nude, stand in a narrow doorway. The public must squeeze between them in order to pass, and in doing so choose which one of them to face.
In AAA-AAA (1978) the two artists stood opposite each other and made long sounds with their mouths open. They gradually moved closer and closer, until they were eventually yelling directly into each other's mouths. This piece demonstrated their interest in endurance and duration.
In 1980, they performed Rest Energy, in an art exhibition in Amsterdam, where both balanced each other on opposite sides of a drawn bow and arrow, with the arrow pointed at Abramović's heart. With almost no effort, Ulay could easily kill Abramović with one finger. This was intended to represent the power advantage men have over women in society. In addition, the handle of the bow is held by Abramović and is pointed at herself. The handle of the bow is the most significant part of a bow. This would be a whole different piece if it were Ulay aiming a bow at Abramović, but by having her hold the bow, even while her life is subject to his will, she supports him.
Between 1981 and 1987, the pair performed Nightsea Crossing in twenty-two performances. They sat silently across from each other in chairs for seven hours a day.
In 1988, after several years of tense relations, Abramović and Ulay decided to make a spiritual journey that would end their relationship. They each walked the Great Wall of China, in a piece called Lovers, starting from the two opposite ends and meeting in the middle. As Abramović described it: "That walk became a complete personal drama. Ulay started from the Gobi Desert and I from the Yellow Sea. After each of us walked 2500 km, we met in the middle and said good-bye." She has said that she conceived this walk in a dream, and it provided what she thought was an appropriate, romantic ending to a relationship full of mysticism, energy, and attraction. She later described the process: "We needed a certain form of ending, after this huge distance walking towards each other. It is very human. It is in a way more dramatic, more like a film ending ... Because in the end, you are really alone, whatever you do." She reported that during her walk she was reinterpreting her connection to the physical world and to nature. She felt that the metals in the ground influenced her mood and state of being; she also pondered the Chinese myths in which the Great Wall has been described as a "dragon of energy". It took the couple eight years to acquire permission from the Chinese government to perform the work, by which time their relationship had completely dissolved.
At her 2010 MoMA retrospective, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, in which she shared a period of silence with each stranger who sat in front of her. Although "they met and talked the morning of the opening", Abramović had a deeply emotional reaction to Ulay when he arrived at her performance, reaching out to him across the table between them; the video of the event went viral.
In November 2015, Ulay took Abramović to court, claiming she had paid him insufficient royalties according to the terms of a 1999 contract covering sales of their joint works and a year later, in September 2016, Abramović was ordered to pay Ulay €250,000. In its ruling, the court in Amsterdam found that Ulay was entitled to royalties of 20% net on the sales of their works, as specified in the original 1999 contract, and ordered Abramović to backdate royalties of more than €250,000, as well as more than €23,000 in legal costs. Additionally, she was ordered to credit all works created between 1976 and 1980 as "Ulay/Abramović" and all works created between 1981 and 1988 as "Abramović/Ulay".
=== Cleaning the Mirror, 1995 ===
Cleaning the Mirror consisted of five monitors playing footage in which Abramović scrubs a grimy human skeleton in her lap. She vigorously brushes the different parts of the skeleton with soapy water. Each monitor is dedicated to one part of the skeleton: the head, the pelvis, the ribs, the hands, and the feet. Each video is filmed with its own sound, creating an overlap. As the skeleton becomes cleaner, Abramović becomes covered in the grayish dirt that was once covering the skeleton. This three-hour performance is filled with metaphors of the Tibetan death rites that prepare disciples to become one with their own mortality. The piece was composed of three parts. Cleaning the Mirror #1, lasting three hours, was performed at the Museum of Modern Art. Cleaning the Mirror #2 lasts 90 minutes and was performed at Oxford University. Cleaning the Mirror #3 was performed at Pitt Rivers Museum over five hours.
=== Spirit Cooking, 1996 ===
Abramović worked with Jacob Samuel to produce a cookbook of "aphrodisiac recipes" called Spirit Cooking in 1996. These "recipes" were meant to be "evocative instructions for actions or for thoughts". For example, one of the recipes calls for "13,000 grams of jealousy", while another says to "mix fresh breast milk with fresh sperm milk." The work was inspired by the popular belief that ghosts feed off intangible things like light, sound, and emotions.
In 1997, Abramović created a multimedia Spirit Cooking installation. This was originally installed in the Zerynthia Associazione per l'Arte Contemporanea in Rome, Italy, and included white gallery walls with "enigmatically violent recipe instructions" painted in pig's blood. According to Alexxa Gotthardt, the work is "a comment on humanity's reliance on ritual to organize and legitimize our lives and contain our bodies".
Abramović also published a Spirit Cooking cookbook, containing comico-mystical, self-help instructions that are meant to be poetry. Spirit Cooking later evolved into a form of dinner party entertainment that Abramović occasionally lays on for collectors, donors, and friends.
=== Balkan Baroque, 1997 ===
In this piece, Abramović vigorously scrubbed thousands of bloody cow bones over a period of four days, a reference to the ethnic cleansing that had taken place in the Balkans during the 1990s. This performance piece earned Abramović the Golden Lion award at the Venice Biennale.
Abramović created Balkan Baroque as a response to the Yugoslav Wars. She remembers other artists reacting immediately, creating work and protesting about the effects and horrors of the war. Abramović could not bring herself to create work on the matter so soon, as it hit too close to home for her. Eventually, Abramović returned to Belgrade, where she interviewed her mother, her father, and a rat-catcher. She then incorporated these interviews into her piece, as well as clips of the hands of her father holding a pistol and her mother's empty hands and later, her crossed hands. Abramović is dressed as a doctor recounting the story of the rat-catcher. While the clips are playing, Abramović sits among a large pile of bones and tries to wash them.
The performance occurred in Venice in 1997. Abramović remembered the horrible smell – for it was extremely hot in Venice that summer – and that worms emerged from the bones. She has explained that the idea of scrubbing the bones clean and trying to remove the blood, is impossible. The point Abramović was trying to make is that blood can't be washed from bones and hands, just as the war couldn't be cleansed of shame. She wanted to allow the images from the performance to speak for not only the war in Bosnia, but for any war, anywhere in the world.
=== Seven Easy Pieces, 2005 ===
Beginning on November 9, 2005, Abramović presented Seven Easy Pieces commissioned by Performa, at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. On seven consecutive nights for seven hours she recreated the works of five artists first performed in the 1960s and 1970s, in addition to re-performing her own Thomas Lips and introducing a new performance on the last night. The performances were arduous, requiring both the physical and the mental concentration of the artist. Included in Abramović's performances were recreations of Gina Pane's The Conditioning, which required lying on a bed frame suspended over a grid of lit candles, and of Vito Acconci's 1972 performance in which the artist masturbated under the floorboards of a gallery as visitors walked overhead. It is argued that Abramović re-performed these works as a series of homages to the past, though many of the performances were altered from the originals. All seven performances were dedicated to Abramović's late friend Susan Sontag.
A full list of the works performed is as follows:
Bruce Nauman's Body Pressure (1974)
Vito Acconci's Seedbed (1972)
Valie Export's Action Pants: Genital Panic (1969)
Gina Pane's The Conditioning (1973)
Joseph Beuys's How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (1965)
Abramović's own Thomas Lips (1975)
Abramović's own Entering the Other Side (2005)
=== The Artist Is Present: March–May 2010 ===
From March 14 to May 31, 2010, the Museum of Modern Art held a major retrospective and performance recreation of Abramović's work, the biggest exhibition of performance art in MoMA's history, curated by Klaus Biesenbach. Biesenbach also provided the title for the performance, which referred to the fact that during the entire performance "the artist would be right there in the gallery or the museum."
During the run of the exhibition, Abramović performed The Artist Is Present, a 736-hour and 30-minute static, silent piece, in which she sat immobile in the museum's atrium while spectators were invited to take turns sitting opposite her. Ulay made a surprise appearance at the opening night of the show.
Abramović sat in a rectangle marked with tape on the floor of the second floor atrium of the MoMA; theater lights shone on her sitting in a chair and a chair opposite her. Visitors waiting in line were invited to sit individually across from the artist while she maintained eye contact with them. Visitors began crowding the atrium within days of the show opening, some gathering before the exhibit opened each morning to get a better place in line. Most visitors sat with the artist for five minutes or less, while a few sat with her for an entire day. The line attracted no attention from museum security until the last day of the exhibition, when a visitor vomited in line and another began to disrobe. Tensions among visitors in line could have arisen from the realization that the longer the earlier visitors spent with Abramović, the less chance that those further back in line would be able to sit with her. Due to the strenuous nature of sitting for hours at a time, art-enthusiasts have wondered whether Abramović wore an adult diaper in order to eliminate the need for bathroom breaks. Others have highlighted the movements she made in between sitters as a focus of analysis, as the only variations in the artist between sitters were when she would cry if a sitter cried and her moment of physical contact with Ulay, one of the earliest visitors to the exhibition. Abramović sat across from 1,545 sitters, including Klaus Biesenbach, James Franco, Lou Reed, Alan Rickman, Jemima Kirke, Jennifer Carpenter, and Björk; sitters were asked not to touch or speak to her. By the end of the exhibit, hundreds of visitors were lining up outside the museum overnight to secure a spot in line the next morning. Abramović concluded the performance by slipping from the chair where she was seated and rising to a cheering crowd more than ten people deep.
A support group for the "sitters", "Sitting with Marina", was established on Facebook, as was the blog "Marina Abramović made me cry". The Italian photographer Marco Anelli took portraits of every person who sat opposite Abramović, which were published on Flickr, compiled in a book and featured in an exhibition at the Danziger Gallery in New York.
Abramović said the show changed her life "completely – every possible element, every physical emotion". After Lady Gaga saw the show and publicized it, Abramović found a new audience: "So the kids from 12 and 14 years old to about 18, the public who normally don't go to the museum, who don't give a shit about performance art or don't even know what it is, started coming because of Lady Gaga. And they saw the show and then they started coming back. And that's how I get a whole new audience." In September 2011, a video game version of Abramović's performance was released by Pippin Barr. In 2013, Dale Eisinger of Complex ranked The Artist Is Present ninth (along with Rhythm 0) in his list of the greatest performance art works.
Her performance inspired Australian novelist Heather Rose to write The Museum of Modern Love and she subsequently launched the US edition of the book at the Museum of Modern Art in 2018.
=== Balkan Erotic Epic: October 2025 ===
Balkan Erotic Epic was a durational performance artwork by Marina Abramović, presented at Factory International's Aviva Studios in Manchester from 9 to 19 October 2025. Building on Abramović’s 2005 multi-channel video installation of the same name, the four-hour performance explored Balkan folklore,, collective mythology, ancient myths, ritual, eroticism, spirituality and tradition. It featured more than seventy performers, including dancers, musicians, and singers, and allowed audiences to move freely through a sequence of thirteen immersive scenes. Incorporating elements such as Fertility Rite, Massaging the Breast, and Scaring the Gods, the work re-examines the connection between sexuality, spirituality, and the body in ritual traditions.
The production was noted for its ritualistic use of nudity, its multi-space choreography, and its focus on reclaiming the body as a site of power and transformation. Frieze called the performance "a reclamation, reinvention and perversion of personal and collective history, mythology and identity."
The performance is touring in Barcelona (24-30 January 2026), Berlin (14-17 October 2026) and New York (8-20 December 2026).
=== Other ===
In 2009, Abramović was featured in Chiara Clemente's documentary Our City Dreams and a book of the same name. The five featured artists – also including Swoon, Ghada Amer, Kiki Smith, and Nancy Spero – "each possess a passion for making work that is inseparable from their devotion to New York", according to the publisher. Abramović is also the subject of an independent documentary film entitled Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present, which is based on her life and performance at her retrospective "The Artist Is Present" at the Museum of Modern Art in 2010. The film was broadcast in the United States on HBO and won a Peabody Award in 2012. In January 2011, Abramović was on the cover of Serbian ELLE, photographed by Dušan Reljin. Kim Stanley Robinson's science fiction novel 2312 mentions a style of performance art pieces known as "abramovics".
A world premiere installation by Abramović was featured at Toronto's Trinity Bellwoods Park as part of the Luminato Festival in June 2013. Abramović is also co-creator, along with Robert Wilson of the theatrical production The Life and Death of Marina Abramović, which had its North American premiere at the festival, and at the Park Avenue Armory in December.
In 2007 Abramović created the Marina Abramović Institute (MAI), a nonprofit foundation for performance art, in a 33,000 square-foot space in Hudson, New York. She also founded a performance institute in San Francisco. She is a patron of the London-based Live Art Development Agency.
In June 2014 she presented a new piece at London's Serpentine Gallery called 512 Hours. In the Sean Kelly Gallery-hosted Generator, (December 6, 2014) participants are blindfolded and wear noise-canceling headphones in an exploration of nothingness.
In celebration of her 70th birthday on November 30, 2016, Abramović took over the Guggenheim museum (eleven years after her previous installation there) for her birthday party entitled "Marina 70". Part one of the evening, titled "Silence," lasted 70 minutes, ending with the crash of a gong struck by the artist. Then came the more conventional part two: "Entertainment", during which Abramović took to the stage to make a speech before watching English singer and visual artist ANOHNI perform the song "My Way" while wearing a large black hood.
In March 2015, Abramović presented a TED talk titled, "An art made of trust, vulnerability and connection".
In 2019, IFC's mockumentary show Documentary Now! parodied Abramović's work and the documentary film Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present. The show's episode, entitled "Waiting for the Artist", starred Cate Blanchett as Isabella Barta (Abramović) and Fred Armisen as Dimo (Ulay).
Originally set to open on September 26, 2020, her first major exhibition in the UK at the Royal Academy of Arts was rescheduled for autumn 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the Academy, the exhibition would "bring together works spanning her 50-year career, along with new works conceived especially for these galleries. As Abramović approaches her mid-70s, her new work reflects on changes to the artist's body and explores her perception of the transition between life and death." On reviewing this exhibition Tabish Khan, writing for Culture Whisper, described it thus: “It’s intense, it’s discomfiting, it’s memorable, and it’s performance art at its finest".
In 2021, she dedicated a monument, entitled, Crystal wall of crying, at the site of a Holocaust massacre in Ukraine and which is memorialized through the Babi Yar memorials.
In 2022, she condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
In September 2023, Abramović became the first woman to have a solo exhibition in the Royal Academy’s main galleries; the show, which she helped stage while recovering from a near-fatal pulmonary embolism, explored how her performance works might be reinterpreted or reperformed by others, testing the endurance of her legacy through archival footage, installations, and live performances by artists trained in the Marina Abramović Method.
In 2026, she is planned to have a solo exhibition titled Transforming Energy at Venice's Gallerie dell'Accademia art biennale. It will be the first exhibition for a living female artist at the museum's 275 years history.
=== Unfulfilled proposals ===
Abramović had proposed some solo performances during her career that never were performed. One such proposal was titled "Come to Wash with Me". This performance would take place in a gallery space that was to be transformed into a laundry with sinks placed all around the walls of the gallery. The public would enter the space and be asked to take off all of their clothes and give them to Abramović. The individuals would then wait around as she would wash, dry and iron their clothes for them, and once she was done, she would give them back their clothing, and they could get dressed and then leave. She proposed this in 1969 for the Galerija Doma Omladine in Belgrade. The proposal was refused.
In 1970 she proposed a similar idea to the same gallery that was also refused. The piece was untitled. Abramović would stand in front of the public dressed in her regular clothing. Present on the side of the stage was a clothes rack adorned with clothing that her mother wanted her to wear (including oversized items such as a bra or a slip). She would take the clothing one by one and change into them, then stand to face the public for a while. "From the right pocket of my skirt I take a gun. From the left pocket of my skirt I take a bullet. I put the bullet into the chamber and turn it. I place the gun to my temple. I pull the trigger." The performance had two possible outcomes. One of them is that Abramović dies as a result of shooting herself.
== Films ==
Abramović directed a segment, Balkan Erotic Epic, in Destricted, a compilation of erotic films made in 2006. In 2008 she directed a segment Dangerous Games in another film compilation Stories on Human Rights. She also acted in a five-minute short film Antony and the Johnsons: Cut the World.
== Marina Abramović Institute ==
The Marina Abramović Institute (MAI) is a performance art organization with a focus on performance, works of long duration, and the use of the "Abramović Method".
In its early phases, it was a proposed multi-functional museum space in Hudson, New York. Abramović purchased the site for the institute in 2007. Located in Hudson, New York, the building was built in 1933 and has been used as a theater and community tennis center. The building was to be renovated according to a design by Rem Koolhaas and Shohei Shigematsu of OMA. The early design phase of this project was funded by a Kickstarter campaign. It was funded by more than 4,000 contributors, including Lady Gaga and Jay-Z. The building project was canceled in October 2017 due to its excessive cost.
The institute continues to operate as a traveling organization. To date, MAI has partnered with many institutions and artists internationally, traveling to Brazil, Greece, and Turkey.
== Collaborations ==
In her youth, she was a performer in one of Hermann Nitsch's performances which were part of the Viennese actionism.
Abramović maintains a friendship with actor James Franco, who interviewed her for The Wall Street Journal in 2009. Franco visited her during The Artist Is Present in 2010, and the two also attended the 2012 Met Gala together.
In July 2013, Abramović worked with Lady Gaga on the pop singer's third album Artpop. Gaga's work with Abramović, as well as artists Jeff Koons and Robert Wilson, was displayed at an event titled "ArtRave" on November 10. Furthermore, both have collaborated on projects supporting the Marina Abramović Institute, including Gaga's participation in an 'Abramović Method' video and a nonstop reading of Stanisław Lem's sci-fi novel Solaris.
Also that month, Jay-Z showcased an Abramović-inspired piece at Pace Gallery in New York City. He performed his art-inspired track "Picasso Baby" for six straight hours. During the performance, Abramović and several figures in the art world were invited to dance with him standing face to face. The footage was later turned into the music video for the aforementioned song. She allowed Jay-Z to adapt "The Artist Is Present" under the condition that he would donate to her institute. Abramović stated that Jay-Z did not live up to his end of the deal, describing the performance as a "one-way transaction". However, two years later in 2015, Abramović publicly issued an apology stating she was never informed of Jay-Z's sizable donation.
== Personal life ==
Abramović claims she feels "neither like a Serb, nor a Montenegrin", but an ex-Yugoslav. "When people ask me where I am from," she says, "I never say Serbia. I always say I come from a country that no longer exists."
In February 2025, Abramović endorsed the 2024–2025 Serbian anti-corruption protests.
Abramović has had three abortions during her life, and has said that having children would have been a "disaster" for her work.
Sculptor Nikola Pešić says that Abramović has a lifelong interest in esotericism and spiritualism.
=== Occultism conspiracy theories ===
Among the Podesta emails was a message from Abramović to Podesta's brother discussing an invitation to a spirit cooking, which was interpreted by conspiracy theorists such as Alex Jones as an invitation to a satanic ritual, and was presented by Jones and others as proof that Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton had links to the occult. In a 2013 Reddit Q&A, in response to a question about occult in contemporary art, she said: "Everything depends on which context you are doing what you are doing. If you are doing the occult magic in the context of art or in a gallery, then it is the art. If you are doing it in different context, in spiritual circles or private house or on TV shows, it is not art. The intention, the context for what is made, and where it is made defines what art is or not".
On April 10, 2020, Microsoft released a promotional video for HoloLens 2 which featured Abramović. However, due to accusations by right-wing conspiracy theorists of her having ties to Satanism, Microsoft eventually pulled the advertisement. Abramović responded to the criticism, appealing to people to stop harassing her, arguing that her performances are just the art that she has been doing for the last 50 years.
== Awards ==
ars viva, 1982
Golden Lion, XLVII Venice Biennale, 1997
Niedersächsischer Kunstpreis, 2002
New York Dance and Performance Awards (The Bessies), 2002
International Association of Art Critics, Best Show in a Commercial Gallery Award, 2003
Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2008)
Honorary Doctorate of Arts, University of Plymouth UK, September 25, 2009
Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA), September 27, 2011
Cultural Leadership Award, American Federation of Arts, October 26, 2011
Honorary Doctorate of Arts, Instituto Superior de Arte, Cuba, May 14, 2012
July 13' Lifetime Achievement Awards, Podgorica, Montenegro, October 1, 2012
The Karić brothers award (category art and culture), 2012
Berliner Bär (B.Z.-Kulturpreis) (2012; not to be confused with the Silver and Golden Bear at the Berlin Film Festival; a cultural award of the German tabloid BZ)
Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters, 2013
Golden Medal for Merits, Republic of Serbia, 2021
Princess of Asturias Award in the category of Arts, 2021.
Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters, 2022
Sonning Prize, 2023
Praemium Imperiale, 2025
== Bibliography ==
=== Books by Abramović and collaborators ===
Cleaning the House, artist Abramović, author Abramović (Wiley, 1995) ISBN 978-1-85490-399-0
Artist Body: Performances 1969–1998, artist, Abramović; authors Abramović, Toni Stooss, Thomas McEvilley, Bojana Pejic, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Chrissie Iles, Jan Avgikos, Thomas Wulffen, Velimir Abramović; English ed. (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-88-8158-175-7.
The Bridge / El Puente, artist Abramović, authors Abramović, Pablo J. Rico, Thomas Wulffen (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-84-482-1857-7.
Performing Body, artist Abramović, authors Abramović, Dobrila Denegri (Charta, 1998) ISBN 978-88-8158-160-3.
Public Body: Installations and Objects 1965–2001, artist Abramović, authors Celant, Germano, Abramović (Charta, 2001) ISBN 978-88-8158-295-2.
Marina Abramović, fifteen artists, Fondazione Ratti; coauthors Abramović, Anna Daneri, Giacinto Di Pietrantonio, Lóránd Hegyi, Societas Raffaello Sanzio, Angela Vettese (Charta, 2002) ISBN 978-88-8158-365-2.
Student Body, artist Abramović, vari; authors Abramović, Miguel Fernandez-Cid, students; (Charta, 2002) ISBN 978-88-8158-449-9.
The House with the Ocean View, artist Abramović; authors Abramović, Sean Kelly, Thomas McEvilley, Cindy Carr, Chrissie Iles, RosaLee Goldberg, Peggy Phelan (Charta, 2004) ISBN 978-88-8158-436-9; the 2002 piece of the same name, in which Abramović lived on three open platforms in a gallery with only water for 12 days, was reenacted in Sex and the City in the HBO series' sixth season.
Marina Abramović: The Biography of Biographies, artist Abramović; coauthors Abramović, Michael Laub, Monique Veaute, Fabrizio Grifasi (Charta, 2004) ISBN 978-88-8158-495-6.
Balkan Epic, (Skira, 2006).
Seven Easy Pieces, artist, Abramović; authors Nancy Spector, Erika Fischer-Lichte, Sandra Umathum, Abramović; (Charta, 2007). ISBN 978-88-8158-626-4.
Marina Abramović, artist Abramović; authors Kristine Stiles, Klaus Biesenbach, Chrissie Iles, Abramović; (Phaidon, 2008). ISBN 978-0-7148-4802-0.
When Marina Abramović Dies: A Biography. Author James Westcott. (MIT, 2010). ISBN 978-0-262-23262-3.
Walk Through Walls: A Memoir, author Abramović (Crown Archetype, 2016). ISBN 978-1-101-90504-3.
=== Films by Abramović and collaborators ===
Balkan Baroque, (Pierre Coulibeuf, 1999)
Balkan Erotic Epic, as producer and director, Destricted (Offhollywood Digital, 2006)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Hear the artist speak about her work MoMA Audio: Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present
Marina Abramović: The Artist Is Present at MoMA
Marina Abramović: 512 Hours at the Serpentine Galleries
Marina Abramović: Advice to Young Artists Video by Louisiana Channel
Marina Abramović & Ulay: Living Doors of the Museum Video by Louisiana Channel
The Story of Marina Abramović and Ulay Video by Louisiana Channel
47-minute in-depth interview – Marina Abramović: Electricity Passing Through Video by Louisiana Channel
Abramovic SKNY Sean Kelly Gallery
Marina Abramović at Art:21
Marina Abramović on Artnet
Marina Abramovic Institute, Hudson, NY.
Marina Abramović at the Lisson Gallery
Royal Academy of Arts Marina Abramović |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_the_Rising_Sun_(anthem)#:~:text=Land%20of%20the%20Rising%20Sun%20was%20the%20proclaimed%20national%20anthem,%22%2C%20as%20Biafran%20president%20C. | Land of the Rising Sun (anthem) | Land of the Rising Sun was the proclaimed national anthem of the secessionist African state of Biafra, formerly known as Eastern Region, Nigeria. The lyrics were written by Nnamdi Azikiwe, and the tune was adopted from Jean Sibelius' "Finlandia", as Biafran president Emeka Ojukwu enjoyed the musical works of Sibelius.
== Lyrics ==
Land of the rising sun, we love and cherish,
Beloved homeland of our brave heroes;
We must defend our lives or we shall perish,
We shall protect our hearth from all our foes;
But if the price is death for all we hold dear,
Then let us die without a shred of fear.
Hail to Biafra, consecrated nation,
O fatherland, this be our solemn pledge:
Defending thee shall be a dedication,
Spilling our blood we’ll count a privilege;
The waving standard which emboldens the free
Shall always be our flag of liberty.
We shall emerge triumphant from this ordeal,
And through the crucible unscathed we’ll pass;
When we are poised the wounds of battle to heal,
We shall remember those who died in mass;
Then shall our trumpets peal the glorious song
Of victory we scored o’er might and wrong.
Oh God, protect us from the hidden pitfall,
Guide all our movements lest we go astray;
Give us the strength to heed the humanist call:
To give and not to count the cost’ each day;
Bless those who rule to serve with resoluteness,
To make this clime a land of righteousness.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_G._Takwale | Ram G. Takwale | Ram G. Takwale (11 April 1933 – 13 May 2023) was an Indian academic administrator who was the vice chancellor of the University of Pune from 1978 to 1984, a vice chancellor of the Indira Gandhi National Open University and chairman of National Assessment and Accreditation Council.
Takwale was born on 11 April 1933. He died on 13 May 2023, at the age of 90.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_former_Disneyland_attractions | List of former Disneyland attractions | Disneyland is a theme park in Anaheim, California conceived by Walt Disney. This is a list of attractions – rides, shows, shops and parades – that have appeared at the park but have permanently closed. Character meets and atmosphere entertainment (e.g., roving musicians) are not listed. Also not listed are permanently closed attractions from Disney California Adventure.
== Main Street, USA ==
Hollywood-Maxwell's Intimate Apparel Shop (1955–1956): Featuring the "Wizard of Bras"
Maxwell House Coffee House (1955–1957)
Main Street Shooting Gallery (1955–1962): A shooting gallery themed to the 1920s
Main Street Flower Market (1955–1977): A large display of plastic flowers: "The world's finest natural flowers not grown by nature"
Disneyland Branch of Bank of America (1955–1993): A Bank of America with three ATMs to use
Story Book Shop (1955–1995): A book shop operated by Western Publishing
Babes in Toyland Exhibit (1961–1963): Utilizing the sets from Disney's 1961 film Babes in Toyland, this walk-through attraction occupied the Opera House near the park's entrance.
Legacy of Walt Disney (1970–1973): A museum showing exhibits on how Walt Disney changed the world
Disneyland Presents a Preview of Coming Attractions (1973–1989): A preview center for up-coming attractions
Bank of Main Street U.S.A. (1993–2005)
Annual Passholder Center (2005–2009)
=== Main Street Opera House shows ===
The Main Street Opera House has housed the following shows:
Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln (1965–1973): Theater presentation featuring an Audio-Animatronics figure of Abraham Lincoln, a replica of a similar attraction at the 1964 New York World's Fair. Elements of the original show were incorporated into later versions of the attraction from 1975 to 2004 and from 2009–2024.
The Walt Disney Story (1973–1975): Biographical film about Walt Disney, which originally appeared at Walt Disney World in 1972.
The Walt Disney Story featuring Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln (1975–2004): A combination of the two previous shows. Disneyland had been criticized for replacing the Lincoln tribute with a tribute to Walt Disney, and combined elements of the two shows in response. From 2001 to 2004 the Disney tribute was removed, and the entire show was given more of a focus on the American Civil War.
Disneyland: The First 50 Magical Years (2005–2009): An exhibition on the history of Disneyland, including a film narrated by Steve Martin.
== Adventureland ==
Tahitian Terrace (1962–1993): Dinner show with various Polynesian entertainment. Replaced by:
Aladdin's Oasis (1993–1995, 1997–2008): Dinner show based on Disney Animation's 1992 film Aladdin. The dinner show ended in 1995 and the stage show was brought back in 1997–2008.
Big Game Safari Shooting Gallery (1962–1982): A jungle-themed shooting gallery with images of wild animals as the targets.
Swiss Family Treehouse (1962–1999): A Treehouse walk-through attraction based on the 1960 film Swiss Family Robinson. Rethemed as Tarzan's Treehouse in 1999.
Tarzan's Treehouse (1999–2021): A Treehouse walk-through attraction based on Disney Animation's 1999 film, Tarzan. Rethemed to Adventureland Treehouse in 2023.
== New Orleans Square ==
The Disney Gallery (1987–2007): A gallery of Disney-related art. The Disney Gallery was the only area listed on Disneyland maps as both an attraction and a retail location. The Gallery sometimes featured preliminary artwork and sketches from certain attractions or movies, sometimes (as in the 100 Mickeys exhibit) the displayed art was associated only with Disney and not with any specific attraction, film, or event. Often, prints from the exhibit were available for purchase via the print-on-demand system, and the Gallery always featured items such as books about Disney artwork. The Gallery used to sell prints of the ride posters featured in the tunnels leading to and from Main Street. The former gallery was replaced by the Disneyland Dream Suite. In October 2009 the gallery re-opened, but now it resides on Main Street, U.S.A.
Disneyland Dream Suite (2008–2014): A 2,200-square-foot (200 m2) luxury apartment. It was created as part of the "Year of a Million Dreams" promotion that ran from October 1, 2006, through December 31, 2008.
== Frontierland ==
Golden Horseshoe Revue (1955–1986): A musical comedy show featuring Sluefoot-Sue (Betty Taylor), an Irish Tenor (Fulton Burley) and a traveling Salesman (Wally Boag) along with Can-Can girls. An extremely popular show, it ran in the Golden Horseshoe Saloon nearly unchanged for about three decades.
Golden Horseshoe Jamboree (1986–1994): An Old West show featuring singing, dancing, joke-telling, banjo playing, and general fun and rowdiness, starring Miss Lilly, Sam the Bartender and a gang of cowpunchers.
Golden Horseshoe Variety Show (1986–2003): A variety show featuring comedian/musician Dana Daniels and Luigi, his psychic parrot. This shared the Golden Horseshoe Saloon with Billy Hill and the Hillbillies.
All-New Woody's Roundup (1999–2000): A live-action show featuring characters from Pixar's 1999 film Toy Story 2.
Billy Hill and the Hillbillies (1994–2014): A live-action show featuring singing and comedy. In 2012 the musical/variety group moved to Big Thunder Ranch until their show was retired in early 2014. Afterward, they were hired by Knott's Berry Farm as Krazy Kirk and the Hillbillies.
Davy Crockett Museum (1955–1956): Mostly given over to retail space, with a few exhibits detailing scenes from the television series of the same name.
Pack Mules (1955–1956): Real mules which were ridden in a line to view simulated frontierlands and deserts. After renovations and upgrades, the ride was renamed:
Rainbow Ridge Pack Mules (1956–1959)
Pack Mules Through Nature's Wonderland (1960–1973); in 1979, Big Thunder Mountain Railroad and Big Thunder Ranch replaced Nature's Wonderland.
Stage Coach (1955–1956): A real stagecoach drawn by real horses. After new scenic landscaping, it became Rainbow Mountain Stage Coaches (1956–1960).
Conestoga Wagons (1955–1960): A real Conestoga wagon drawn by real animals.
Rainbow Caverns Mine Train (1956–1959): A 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) narrow gauge mine train attraction through the new Living Desert. After the scenery was again redone in 1960, it was also upgraded and became:
Mine Train Through Nature's Wonderland (1960–1977): The Big Thunder Mountain Railroad attraction replaced this sedate train ride with a roller coaster version. The only element that remained in place from its scenic vistas was the waterfall tumbling from Cascade Peak into the Rivers of America, visible from various boat rides around the Rivers. The structure that formed Cascade Peak and its waterfalls was demolished in 1998 after it was found to be suffering structurally from the decades of water that had flowed over it. One of the four locomotives and two cars from the ride remained on a stretch of track where Cascade peak once stood, as a staged wreck scene. The train, however, was removed in early 2010 during the Rivers of America refurbishment.
Mineral Hall (1956–1963): Mineral Hall was a shop located next door to the Rainbow Caverns Mine Train/Mine Train through Nature's Wonderland ride. Operated by Ultra-Violet Products, the Mineral Hall featured a free exhibit, which included a mineral display lit by black-light. The shop also sold related gifts and mineral samples. Selling anywhere between 10 and 50 cents, the Disneyland-themed mineral samples were labeled "Walt Disney's Mineral Land – Rocks & Minerals".
Indian War Canoes (1956–1971): Now Davy Crockett's Explorer Canoes, and part of Bayou Country.
Huckleberry Finn's Fishing Pier (1956–1965): located on Tom Sawyer Island, guests were able to rent fishing poles and fish for real Catfish, Bluegill, River Perch and Trout at Catfish Cove. The fish were held in a hidden underwater net pen, and guests could have park staff clean any fish they caught and store them in a refrigerator until they were ready to leave the park. The "take-home" option was discontinued just weeks after the attraction opened, as many guests chose not to have their fish cleaned and refrigerated, instead taking them into the park and on rides in the special "fish totes" provided by staff for use in carrying cleaned and chilled fish home. Many of these guests ended up abandoning their catch in bushes, trash cans, lockers, etc. Guests continued to be able to practice catch-and-release fishing for some time afterwards, until the attraction was eventually scrapped altogether. The raised stage used for the Fantasmic! show now occupies the space above where the fish pen was once submerged.
Indian Village (1955–1971): Originally in Frontierland, it moved to the other side of the Rivers of America in 1956. "The Indian Village featured authentic dwellings, craft demonstrations, ceremonial dances, and the Indian War Canoes attraction." Now part of Bayou Country.
Big Thunder Ranch (1986–2016): A Western-themed casual area for seeing shows, viewing Disneyland's horses on their breaks and days off, and dining at Big Thunder Barbecue which served ribs, chicken, potatoes, beans, and such. The Barbecue remained open for a few more years after the Ranch area became the Festival of Fools stage for The Hunchback of Notre Dame show. Up until its closing, the area was used for special events, a Petting Zoo, and seasonal attractions. It closed in early 2016 for Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge.
Mike Fink Keel Boats (1956–1994, 1996–1997): Shut down due to an accident in 1997 when the Gullywhumper boat began rocking side-to-side on a trip on the Rivers of America and capsized. The attraction never returned. The Gullywhumper's sister boat, the Bertha Mae, was sold on Disney's auctions site. In 2003, the Gullywhumper returned to the Rivers of America as a prop and is moored on Tom Sawyer Island, where it is visible from the Mark Twain Riverboat, the Sailing Ship Columbia, and the Explorer Canoes.
Little Patch of Heaven Petting Farm (2004–2005): Petting zoo located at Big Thunder Ranch to promote Disney Animation's 2004 film Home on the Range.
== Bayou Country ==
Bear Country opened in 1972. It was renamed Critter Country in 1988, and in 2024 it was renamed Bayou Country.
Country Bear Jamboree (1972–1986): An Audio-Animatronics show featuring traditional American folk songs sung by a variety of bears and their friends. The content of the show was replaced by Country Bear Vacation Hoedown at the Country Bear Playhouse (1986–2001): Used the same bear figures as Country Bear Jamboree, with new costumes. This is now the site of The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh.
The Mile-Long Bar (1972–1988): A snack bar fashioned like an old-west wooden bar with brass footrail and featuring wall-sized mirrors at either end. Later became Brer Bar and is now the site of the expanded Pooh Corner store (formerly Crocodile Mercantile).
Teddi Barra's Swinging Arcade (1972–2003): Video arcade, now the site of the expanded Pooh Corner store.
Splash Mountain (1989–2023): A log flume ride based on the animated sequences of Disney's 1946 film Song of the South. Was rethemed to Tiana's Bayou Adventure.
== Fantasyland ==
Mickey Mouse Club Theater (1955–1964): Walk-in theater continuously showing animated Disney films and shorts, similar to the Main Street Cinema. Renamed Fantasyland Theater (1964–1982); not to be confused with the present-day theater). Now the site of Pinocchio's Daring Journey.
Mickey Mouse Club Circus (1955–1956): A circus arts show featuring actual cast members of the Mickey Mouse Club, live animals with Professor George J. Keller's Jungle Killers, Bob-O the Disneyland Clown and the talking equine, The Wonder Horse!
Keller's Jungle Killers (1956)
Merlin's Magic Shop (1955–1983): The original magic shop in the park. A second one on Main Street, U.S.A. opened in 1957
Skyway to Tomorrowland (1956–1994): This ride, a typical aerial lift ride seen in many parks, traveled from a chalet on the west side of Fantasyland, through the Matterhorn, to a station in Tomorrowland. Cabins hung from cables and ran constantly back and forth between the two lands. The Fantasyland station stood until 2016 – closed to public access – adjacent to the Casey Jr. Circus Train, and was concealed by trees. It was demolished for Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge construction. Its support towers were removed and the holes in the Matterhorn through which the ride passed were filled in.
Junior Autopia (1956–1958): A version of the original Autopia geared towards children. The Junior Autopia featured a guide rail, which the original version of Autopia did not have at the time. The site of the Junior Autopia reopened a year later as the Fantasyland Autopia and is now part of the present-day Autopia.
Midget Autopia (1957–1966): A version of the original Autopia geared towards young children. After the Midget Autopia closed, the ride was dismantled and sent to Walt Disney's hometown of Marceline, Missouri, where it operated for a few years. The site of the Midget Autopia is now the main walkway between It's a Small World and the rest of Fantasyland.
Fantasyland Autopia (1959–1999): A version of the original Autopia, built on the site of the former Junior Autopia. The Fantasyland Autopia was known as the "Rescue Ranger Raceway" and themed to the Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers television series from 1991 to 1993. Its name reverted to "Fantasyland Autopia" afterwards, and operated part-time until it permanently closed in 1999. Its track was combined with the track of the Tomorrowland Autopia to create the present-day Autopia.
Skull Rock and Pirate's Cove (1961–1982): A dining experience themed to Captain Hook's pirate ship. Dumbo the Flying Elephant was relocated to the former location of Skull Rock and Pirate's Cove and reopened there in 1983.
Motor Boat Cruise (1957–1991): Simulated experience of navigating waterways in a motor boat. Renamed Motor Boat Cruise to Gummi Glen (1991–1993), based on the Gummi Bears television show.
Videopolis (1985–1995): A nighttime dance club targeted at young adults. Videopolis featured television monitors playing modern music videos and also hosted live musical acts. It also featured a snack bar, "Yumz". Videopolis was converted into an amphitheatre in 1990 and was renamed Fantasyland Theatre in 1995.
=== Videopolis/Fantasyland Theatre shows ===
One Man's Dream: Stage show about Walt Disney
Dick Tracy: Diamond Double-Cross: Based on the 1990 film Dick Tracy
Beauty and the Beast Live on Stage: Stage version of Disney Animation's 1991 film Beauty and the Beast
Plane Crazy: Original show featuring characters from The Disney Afternoon television shows
The Spirit of Pocahontas: Based on Disney Animation's 1995 film Pocahontas
Animazement—The Musical: Musical featuring characters from several Disney Animation films
Snow White—An Enchanting Musical: Based on Disney Animation's 1937 film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
== Mickey's Toontown ==
Jolly Trolley (1993–2003): The Jolly Trolley was a Trolley providing transportation from one end of Toontown to the other. Closed due to crowded walkways presenting safety hazards, meaning the trolleys could only operate on days with sparse crowds.
Chip 'n Dale's Acorn Crawl (1993–1998)
Goofy's Bounce House (1993–2008) (re-themed to Goofy's Playhouse)
Goofy's Playhouse (2008–2022) (re-themed to Goofy's How-To-Play Yard)
Donald's Boat (1993–2022) (re-themed to Donald's Duck Pond)
Toon Park (1993–1998 or 1999) (re-themed to CenTOONial Park)
Chip 'n Dale's Treehouse (1993–2020)
== Tomorrowland ==
Circarama, U.S.A. (1955–1997), renamed Circle-Vision 360° in 1967: A film presentation showing scenes from around the United States and later China. Guests stood in a large circular room and watched a film projected on nine large, contiguous screens that surrounded them. During its run, the attraction was hosted by American Motors, Bell System, AT&T Corporation, Pacific Southwest Airlines, and Delta Air Lines. In 1998, the theater became the queue for the short-lived Rocket Rods attraction. The building now houses Buzz Lightyear Astro Blasters. Shows were:
A Tour of the West (1955–1959)
America the Beautiful (1960–1984)
"All Because Man Wanted to Fly" (lobby pre-show) (1984–1989)
American Journeys (1984–1996)
Wonders of China (1984–1996)
America the Beautiful (1996–1997)
Clock of the World (1955–1966): A clock tower in the center of Tomorrowland
Monsanto Hall of Chemistry (1955–1966): A hands-on museum-like attraction teaching guests about chemistry
Monsanto's Fashions and Fabrics through the Ages (1965–1966): An exhibition on the evolution of women's attire from the Stone Age to the space age
Space Station X-1 (1955–1960), renamed Satellite View of America in 1958: A circular screen showed America from space.
Rocket to the Moon (1955–1966): Inside a building under a tall futuristic-looking rocket ship, the audience sat in seats around central viewing screens (top and bottom of the center of the room) so that they could see where they were going as they headed away from Earth and towards other worlds. As actual flight to the Moon became more likely, the ride was refurbished as:
Flight to the Moon (1967–1975): A refurbished version of Rocket to the Moon with a mission control pre-show. The ride became obsolete as the United States sent actual crewed flights to the Moon between 1969 and 1972, and it was refurbished as:
Mission to Mars (1975–1992): An updated version of Flight to the Moon, simulating spaceflight to Mars instead of the Moon.
The attraction building is now the site of Pizza Planet, a space-themed restaurant.
Tomorrowland Boats (1955–1956), renamed Phantom Boats in 1956: The boat engines were unreliable, and this became the first permanent attraction to be removed from Disneyland. Later became the site of Submarine Voyage, now Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage.
The World Beneath Us (1955–1960): A CinemaScope film about man's quest for energy, featuring an animated diorama of the Earth's crust.
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea Exhibit (1955–1966): A walk-through with sets from the 1954 film
Flight Circle (1955–1966): A show about planes, cars and boats
Hobbyland (1955–1966)
Art Corner (1955–1966)
Aluminum Hall of Fame (1955–1960)
Dutch Boy Color Gallery (1955–1963)
Starcade (1975–2015): A space themed arcade that was originally two stories but the second story closed in 1997.
Astro Jets (1956–1964): A rocket-spinner ride originally located between Submarine Voyage and Flight to the Moon. Astro Jets has undergone the following name and location changes:
Tomorrowland Jets (1964–1966): New name for the original attraction after corporate sponsor disagreements. After its closure the original attraction was dismantled and the Carousel of Progress theater was built on the site. The building now houses Star Wars Launch Bay and Super Hero HQ.
Rocket Jets (1967–1997): A new version of the same ride, in a new location above the PeopleMover loading platform. The ride's mechanical components are now part of the Observatron, a sculpture on the same site that plays music and spins at regular intervals.
The ride's present incarnation is known as Astro Orbitor, located at the entrance to Tomorrowland from Main Street, and debuted in 1998.
Crane Company Bathroom of Tomorrow (1956–1960)
Skyway to Fantasyland (1956–1994): Aerial lift ride; see Skyway to Tomorrowland in Fantasyland, below. The Tomorrowland station was adjacent to the north side of the Carousel of Progress/America Sings (present-day Innoventions) building and has been demolished.
Viewliner Train of Tomorrow (1957–1958): "The fastest miniature train in the world" ran alongside the Disneyland Railroad for just over a year, and therefore has the distinction of being the shortest-lived ride in the park's history.
Monsanto House of the Future (1957–1967): A walk-through tour of a plastic house with plastic furnishings and interior and modern appliances such as dishwashers. The house was designed in roughly the shape of a plus sign with high-tech rounded exterior contours, all made from white plastic with large windows. It was anchored to a solid concrete foundation that proved to be so indestructible that, when it was dismantled, the work left some of the support pilings in place and are today hidden at the entrance to Pixie Hollow.
Submarine Voyage (1959–1998): Riders entered the half-submerged miniature submarines by descending through access hatches at either end of the submarine, sat on tiny fold-down seats, and leaned forward to peer out through portholes on either side of the submarine. The submarines moved around a track in the mermaid lagoon and simulated diving by having bubbles rise around it with the purported captain intoning commands over the loudspeaker. On the trip, riders saw real-looking and imaginary sea life fastened to rocks or floating in the water, a treasure chest of gold, mermaids and a sea serpent, and passed under icebergs at the "North Pole". The submarines were originally military gray and named after US Navy nuclear-powered submarines but were repainted high-visibility yellow in the 1980s. The attraction returned as "Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage" in 2007.
The Art of Animation (1960–1966)
Flying Saucers (1961–1966): Guests rode in single-rider cars on a cushion of air that were steered by shifting body weight. The air cushion was supplied from below through holes in the floor that opened when the cars passed over. The ride's site later became the site of the Tomorrowland Stage, and is now the site of Magic Eye Theater.
Fashion and Fabrics Through the Ages (1965–1966)
Tomorrowland Stage (1967–1977): Performance venue for concerts and other stage shows, built on the site of the Flying Saucers. The stage was demolished due to the construction of Space Mountain, and was replaced by Space Stage (1977–1985), a performance venue that served a similar purpose to the Tomorrowland Stage. The stage's location is now the site of the Magic Eye Theater.
General Electric Carousel of Progress (1967–1973): A sit-down show in which the building rotated the audience around a series of stages. The stages had audioanimatronic human figures and household appliances showing how appliances and electronics advanced about every 20 years from the turn of the century to the "modern" era of the early 1960s. The audience stopped in front of each stage while the characters joked with each other, described life at the time in history, and demonstrated their kitchen. This ride originated at the 1964 New York World's Fair and was installed at Disneyland after the fair closed. In 1974, Carousel of Progress was moved to Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World, and the show building was used for America Sings and Innoventions.
PeopleMover (1967–1995): A scenic, slow-moving ride high-above Tomorrowland that was intended to demonstrate how people could be shuttled around a central urban area without rushing to board individual trains or drive individual cars. It consisted of many dozens of small open-air cars seating up to eight riders, all running continuously on a track above and through the various attractions in Tomorrowland. After the ride was closed, the track sat vacant for two-and-a-half years until the opening of Rocket Rods.
Adventure Thru Inner Space (1967–1985): A dark ride that pretended to shrink the rider gradually down to microscopic size within a snowflake, then further to view a water molecule in the flake, then finally to the point where one could see the throbbing nucleus of a single oxygen atom, with electrons zooming all around. The attraction was replaced by Star Tours in 1987 and is now the site of Star Tours: The Adventures Continue.
America Sings (1974–1988): A sit-down show in the same building using the same stages as Carousel of Progress. Audio-Animatronics animal figures sang American songs from different eras. It was described as a "lighthearted journey to Musicland, U.S.A". After the attraction closed in spring of 1988, most of the Audio-Animatronics figures were recycled for Splash Mountain. Earlier in 1987, two Audio-Animatronic geese were removed from America Sings, their outer skins removed and used in the Star Tours queue as droids. The building sat empty from 1988 to 1998, except for seats, the old stages and some offices. Innoventions occupied the same building until its closure on March 31, 2015.
Magic Eye Theater (1986–2015): A theater which showed 3-D films. The theater has shown the following films:
Magic Journeys (1984–1986): A film about children's imaginations, originally shown at Space Stage, then Magic Eye Theater.
Captain EO (1986–1997, 2010–2015): A film starring Michael Jackson about a spaceship captain and his misfit crew battling against an evil queen. The show closed in 1997, but in 2009 it was brought back as the "Captain EO Tribute" for a "limited engagement".
Honey, I Shrunk the Audience! (1998–2010): A film that served as a spin-off of the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids franchise, starring Rick Moranis, Marcia Strassman, Eric Idle, and Robert Oliveri.
Tomorrowland Autopia (1955–1999): The original Autopia attraction. At least one other Autopia had existed in some form in Fantasyland since 1956. In 1999, the tracks of the Tomorrowland Autopia and the last version of the Fantasyland Autopia were combined to create the present-day Autopia, which opened in 2000.
Toy Story Funhouse (1996–1997): A temporary stage show and exhibit themed to Pixar's first feature film, Toy Story (1995).
Rocket Rods (1998–2000): A high-speed ride high above Tomorrowland along the former PeopleMover track. The ride's queue, which went through the old Circle-Vision theater, showed early Disney films about transportation combined with more recent footage. Rocket Rods experienced technical problems that frequently caused the ride to shut down. Its track and station remain standing and unused, and its queue area is now part of Buzz Lightyear Astro Blasters.
The American Space Experience (1998–2003): An exhibit highlighting space exploration in conjunction with NASA's 40th anniversary. It occupied the former Premiere Shop location outside of the Circle-Vision 360 theater. Now the site of the Disney's Fastpass distribution center for Star Tours: The Adventures Continue and part of the Buzz Lightyear Astro Blasters ride.
Star Tours (1987–2010): Built at the original site for Adventure Through Inner Space, this was Disney's first attempt at a motion simulator ride, based on the Star Wars film series. It was closed in late July 2010 to allow the area to be remodeled to a new attraction, Star Tours – The Adventures Continue which features all new simulators, along with a new story line and other changes, including the film being shown in high-definition 3-D film
Innoventions (1998–2015): Built inside the Carousel Theater, its focus was to show near-futuristic technologies. The attraction closed on March 31, 2015.
Jedi Training Academy (2015–2018)
Star Wars Launch Bay (2015–2020)
== Holidayland ==
Holidayland (1957–1961): Holidayland was a recreation area with a separate entrance before being replaced by New Orleans Square. Holidayland featured a baseball diamond, a circus and a picnic area and more resembled a park than a themed land.
== Parades ==
Christmas in Many Lands (1957–1959?)
Mickey at the Movies (1960–1964)
Christmas Toy Parade (1960–1964?)
Fantasy on Parade (1965–1976, 1980–1986)
Mickey's Character Parade (Early 70's)
America on Parade (1975–1976)
Mickey's 50th Birthday Parade (1978)
Dumbo's Circus Parade (1979)
Disneyland's 25th Anniversary Family Reunion Parade (1980)
It's a Small World Parade (1981)
Flights of Fantasy (1983)
American Gazette (1984–1985)
Donald's 50th Birthday (1984)
Mickey, Our Hero (1984)
Disneyland's 30th Anniversary Parade (1985)
Circus Fantasy Parade (1986–1988)
Totally Minnie (1986–1987)
Snow White's 50th Anniversary (1987)
State Fair Parade (1987–1988)
The Very Merry Christmas Parade (1987–1994)
Blast To The Past (1988–1989)
Mickey's 60th Birthday (1988–1989)
Hooray For Disney Stars Parade (1989–1990)
Party Gras Parade (1990)
Celebration, U.S.A. (1991)
Livin' in the USA (1992)
The World According to Goofy (1992)
Aladdin's Royal Caravan (1993–1994)
The Lion King Celebration (1994–1997)
Crusin' The Kingdom (1996–1997)
Light Magic (1997)
Hercules' Victory Parade (1997–1998)
Mulan Parade (1998–1999)
45 Years of Magic Parade/Parade of the Stars (2000–2005)
Walt Disney's Parade of Dreams (2005–2008)
Celebrate! A Street Party (2009–2010)
Paint the Night Parade (May 22, 2015 – January 8, 2017) (Reopening on May 16, 2025)
Pixar Play Parade (April – November 2018)
Mickey's Soundsational Parade (2011–2019)
Main Street Electrical Parade ((June 1972 – 1996), (January 19 – August 20, 2017), (August 2 – September 30, 2019), (April 22 - September 1, 2022)
Magic Happens (February 27 – March 11, 2020; 2023 - 2024)
== Fireworks ==
Fantasy in the Sky (1958—1996, January — May 2015, September 2016 — January 2017)
Believe... There's Magic in the Stars (February 2000 — May 2004)
Imagine... A Fantasy in the Sky (June 2004 — April 2005)
Remember... Dreams Come True (May 2005 – June 2009, January 2010 — November 2014, February 2017 — April 2018, September 2018 — January 2019)
Magical: Disney's New Nighttime Spectacular of Magical Celebrations (2009—2014)
Disneyland Forever (May 2015 — September 2016, June — September 2019, April — September 2022)
Together Forever: A Pixar Nighttime Spectacular (April — September 2018, April — August 2024)
Mickey's Mix Magic (January — June 2019, October 2019 — March 2020, September 2022 — January 2023, 2024)
Wondrous Journeys (January — August 2023, March — April 2024)
== See also ==
List of Disneyland attractions
List of former Disney California Adventure attractions
List of Disney California Adventure attractions
== References ==
== External links ==
Yesterland: With photos of bygone attractions.
General Electric Carousel of Progress at the NY World's fair and beyond, several pages of information
Disneyland Maps: All past Disneyland large poster-sized wall maps sold in the park.
Overview of Disneyland Publications from its history Archived February 1, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
Walt's Magic Kingdom: List of Disneyland attractions, shops, shows and restaurants since 1955.
Crane Bathroom of Tomorrow
Disneyland branch of Bank of America 1955 tri-fold brochure cover and money orders |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_World_1966#: | Miss World 1966 | Miss World is the oldest existing international beauty pageant. It was created in the United Kingdom by Eric Morley in 1951. Since his death in 2000, Morley's widow, Julia Morley, has chaired the pageant. Along with Miss Universe, Miss International, and Miss Earth, it is one of the Big Four beauty pageants.
The current Miss World is Suchata Chuangsri of Thailand who was crowned on 31 May 2025 in Hyderabad, India.
== History ==
=== 20th century ===
In 1951 Eric Morley organised a bikini contest as part of the Festival of Britain celebrations that he called the Festival Bikini Contest. The event was popular with the press, which dubbed it "Miss World". The swimsuit competition was intended as a promotion for the bikini, which had only recently been introduced to the market and was still widely regarded as immodest. When the 1951 Miss World pageant winner, Kerstin "Kiki" Hakansson from Sweden, was crowned in a bikini, it added to the controversy.
The pageant was originally planned as a Pageant for the Festival of Britain, but Morley decided to make the Miss World pageant annual. He registered the "Miss World" name as a trademark, and all future pageants were held under that name. But because of the controversy arising from Håkansson's crowning in a bikini, countries with religious traditions threatened not to send delegates to future events, and the bikini was condemned by the Pope. Objection to the bikini led to its replacement in all future pageants with more modest swimwear, and from 1976 swimsuits were replaced by evening gowns for the crowning. Håkansson remains the only Miss World crowned in a bikini. In Miss World 2013 all participants wore a one-piece swimsuit plus a traditional sarong below the waist as a compromise with local culture.
Morley announced the Miss World winners in the order No. 3, No. 2 and No. 1. This was intended to keep the tension up, and avoid the anticlimax if Nos. 2 and 3 are announced after the winner.
In 1959 the BBC began to broadcast the pageant. Its popularity grew with the advent of television. During the 1960s and 1970s, Miss World was among the most watched programs of the year on British television. In 1970, the contest in London was disrupted by women's liberation protesters armed with flour bombs, stink bombs, and water pistols loaded with ink. The 1970 contest was also controversial when South Africa sent two contestants (one black and one white). Henceforth, South Africa was banned from the contest until apartheid was abolished. More than 18 million people watched the pageant at its peak during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
In the 1980s the pageant repositioned itself with the slogan "Beauty With a Purpose", with added tests of intelligence and personality. In 1984, BBC1 controller Michael Grade announced that the corporation would cease to broadcast beauty pageants the next January, after it had shown Miss Great Britain, saying, "I believe these contests no longer merit national air time." He added, "They are an anachronism in this day and age of equality and verging on the offensive." Thames Television broadcast Miss World between 1980 and 1988, when ITV dropped it.
During the early 1990s mainstream television broadcasts of the event declined in popularity after it became "increasingly unfashionable" in the late 1980s. The pageant returned on satellite channel Sky One in 1997, before moving to Channel 5 for three years (1998–2000).
Eric Morley died in 2000, and his wife, Julia, succeeded him as chair of the Miss World organisation.
=== 21st century ===
The first black African Miss World winner, Agbani Darego of Nigeria, was crowned in 2001. As part of its marketing strategy, Miss World came up with a "Vote For Me" television special during that edition, featuring the delegates behind the scenes and on the beach, and allowing viewers to phone in or vote online for their favourites. It also sells broadcasters its Talent, Beach Beauty and Sports events as television specials. ITV broadcast the 2001 pageant from South Africa on digital channel ITV2, with the special airing a week earlier on the main ITV channel.
In 2002, the pageant was slated to host its final in Abuja, Nigeria. This choice was controversial, as a northern Nigerian woman, Amina Lawal, was awaiting death by stoning for adultery under Sharia law there, but Miss World used the publicity surrounding its presence to bring greater global awareness and action to Lawal's plight. No British channel agreed to broadcast the event, and there were objections to the contest.
Former Miss World Aishwarya Rai attended the Miss World 2014 ceremony with her husband Abhishek Bachchan, daughter Aaradhya and mother Brinda Rai. The pageant has been broadcast on local TV channel London Live since 2014.
== Miss World Organization ==
The Miss World Organization owns and manages the annual Miss World Finals, a competition that has grown into one of the world's biggest. Since its launch in 1951, the Miss World organisation has raised more than £1 billion for children's charities that help disabled and underprivileged children. Miss World is franchised in more than 100 countries.
=== 1970s–1990s ===
The Miss World pageant has been the target of many controversies since its inception.
In 1970, feminist protesters threw flour bombs during the live event at London's Royal Albert Hall, momentarily alarming the host, Bob Hope.
The 1973 winner, Marjorie Wallace, was stripped of her title on 8 March 1974 because she had failed to fulfill the basic requirements of the job. Miss World's organizers did not elect someone to serve in her place.
In 1976, several countries boycotted the pageant because it included both a white and a black contestant from South Africa.
The 1980 winner, Gabriella Brum of Germany, resigned one day after winning. A few days later it emerged that she had been forced to resign after it was discovered that she had posed naked for a magazine.
=== Nigeria 2002 ===
In the year leading up the finals in Nigeria, several European title holders lobbied their governments and the EU parliament to support Amina Lawal's cause. A number of contestants followed the lead of Kathrine Sørland of Norway in boycotting the contest (despite the controversy, Sørland became a semi-finalist in both the Miss World and Miss Universe contests), while others, such as Costa Rica, were instructed by their national governments and parliaments not to attend. Among the other boycotting nations were Denmark, Spain, Switzerland, Panama, Belgium and Kenya. Lawal asked that contestants not suspend their participation in the contest, saying that it was for the good of her country and that they could, as the representative of Sweden had earlier remarked, make a much stronger case for her on the ground in Nigeria.
Despite the increasing international profile the boycott was garnering in the world press, the contest proceeded in Nigeria after being rescheduled to avoid taking place during Ramadan, with many prominent nations sending delegates. Osmel Sousa of Venezuela, one of the world's most influential national directors, said, "there is no question about it [the participation of Miss Venezuela in the contest]." But the trouble did not end there. A ThisDay (Lagos, Nigeria) newspaper editorial suggesting that Muhammad would probably have chosen one of his wives from among the contestants had he been alive to see it resulted in inter-religious riots that started on 22 November in which over 200 people were killed in the city of Kaduna and many houses of worship were burned by religious zealots. Because of these riots, the 2002 pageant was moved to London, following widely circulated reports that Canada's and Korea's representatives had withdrawn from the contest and returned to their respective countries out of safety concerns. A fatwa urging the beheading of the woman who wrote the offending words, Isioma Daniel, was issued in Nigeria, but was declared null and void by the relevant Saudi Arabian authorities. Upon the pageant's return to Britain, many of the boycotting contestants chose to attend, including Miss Norway, Kathrine Sørland, who was ironically tipped in the last few days as the favourite for the crown she had previously boycotted.
The eventual winner of the pageant was Azra Akın of Turkey.
=== Indonesia 2013 ===
In Miss World 2013, protests by Islamic groups began a few weeks before the contest began, resulting in the pageant's finale and all pre-pageant activities being isolated to Hindu-majority Bali.
=== China 2015 ===
Anastasia Lin, Miss World Canada, was not given a visa to travel in China and hence missed the official deadline of 20 November 2015 for entry to the 2015 pageant, and was declared persona non grata by the Chinese Embassy in Ottawa for openly criticizing China's human rights violations. The Miss World Organization later allowed her to compete at Miss World 2016.
=== Thailand 2020 and cancellation ===
After the 2019 pageant, the organization chose Thailand as the host country of Miss World 2020, to be held in Phuket. But due to the spread of COVID-19, most national organizations and the Miss World organization agreed to cancel the 2020 pageant to assure the delegates' safety.
=== Puerto Rico 2021 and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic ===
The edition was originally scheduled for the end of 2020 but postponed indefinitely due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. On 8 March 2021, the date was set for 16 December 2021. The threat of the Omicron variant had already been detected in some parts of the world during the pre-pageant activities, as the disease started swept across the island. On 14 December, Miss World Indonesia Carla Yules tested positive for COVID-19. As a precaution, her roommate Miss World India Manasa Varanasi and five others were classified as suspected cases. Miss World Organization chair Julia Morley confirmed that the delegates were isolated and quarantined and would not be onstage for the final show if they did not produce a negative PCR test. On 15 December, the Puerto Rico Department of Health confirmed 17 positive cases for COVID-19 related to the Miss World pageant activities, including contestants and technical personnel. On 16 December, it was announced that Miss World Malaysia Lavanya Sivaji had tested positive for COVID-19. She was required to be isolated for 10 days and not permitted onstage during the finals. The finale, originally slated for 16 December, was postponed. During a 16 December Puerto Rico Department of Health press conference, epidemiologist Melissa Marzán confirmed 15 staff and 23 contestant positive cases associated with Miss World. She added that pageant organizers, not the island's authorities, decided to postpone. The rescheduled 70th Miss World pageant took place on 16 March 2022, at Puerto Rico's Coca-Cola Music Hall.
== Recent titleholders ==
=== Winners gallery ===
== Fast-track events ==
Fast-track events of Miss World is a set of competition to decide the semi-finalist or the placement of Miss World. Fast-track events was one of deciding factor to choose semi-finalist beside Preliminary Interview by combining those rounds with using points system table. Prior to 2016 the winner of the fast-track events received huge amount of points but not securing semi-finalist spot, however since 2016 the points system table in fast-track were abolished. Since then the winners of the "fast-track" competitions automatically make it to the quarter- or semi-finals. The Miss World fast-track categories are: Beauty With a Purpose, Multimedia Challenge, Sports Challenge, Talent, and Top Model. Miss World Talent added in 2001, Miss World Sports added in 2003, Miss World Top Model added in 2004, Miss World Beauty With a Purpose added in 2005, and Miss World Multimedia added in 2012. There was a fast-track named Miss World Beach Beauty (2003–2015) but it is a discontinued event due to dissatisfaction and cons in many conservative countries, this event was replacing Miss World Best in Swimsuit.
=== Miss World Beauty With a Purpose ===
The Beauty with a Purpose is an event established in 1972 that is celebrated before the Miss World pageant. It awards the contestant with the most relevant and important charity project in her nation. The first winner of Beauty With a Purpose was Miss World Korea 2005 Oh Eun-young. Miss World 2017 Manushi Chhillar is the first and only Beauty With a Purpose recipient to win Miss World.
=== Miss World Top Model ===
The Miss World Top Model is a modeling fast-track competition. It was first held in 2004, but not in 2005–2006. It has been held since 2007; since 2016 the winner of the competition automatically qualifies for the semi-finals.
=== Miss World Talent ===
Miss World Talent is a talent or fast-track competition in which contestants show their abilities in singing, dancing, poetry, etc. Introduced in Miss World 1978, the winner of the event automatically makes it into the semi-finals starting 2016. The award returned at Miss World 2001.
=== Miss World Sports Challenge ===
Miss World Sports or Sportswoman is a title and award given to the winner of a sports event at Miss World. It is a fast-track or preliminary event, giving the winner automatic entry into the semi-finals. In 2005, there was no Miss Sports winner because it was held as a continental team competition. Starting in 2006, the individual competition returned.
=== Multimedia Award (Social Media Award) ===
Miss World Multimedia or Social Media Award is a title and award given to the winner of a Multimedia Challenge. It is a fast-track or preliminary event, giving the winner automatic entry into the semi-finals. The score is based on the contestant's likes on Mobstar and Facebook.
=== Miss World Beach Beauty (Discontinued Event) ===
Miss World Beach Beauty was a swimsuit or fast-track competition. The Beach Beauty event started in 2003, when the Miss World Organization first held fast-track events to automatically give a semi-final spot to some of the delegates. This event allowed the Miss World delegates (over 100) to have a chance to be in the semi-finals. The winner made the semi-finals automatically. The Beach Beauty event showcased different swimsuits designed by Miss World 1975, Wilnelia Merced. In 2013,The Beach Beauty event replaced swimsuit with Balinese sarong. While in 2015, the organisation eliminated the swimsuit competition from the pageant.
== Miss World hosts and artists ==
The following is a list Miss World hosts and invited artists through the years.
== See also ==
Beauty with a Purpose – a registered charity and nonprofit organisation associated with Miss World that raises money and participates in humanitarian projects across the world
Big Four international beauty pageants
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Hunters, Story (16 May 2016). "Miss World: Old-fashioned, sexist beauty contest or advancing feminism's cause?". ABC News. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Negri | Antonio Negri | Antonio Negri (; Italian: [ˈneːɡri]; 1 August 1933 – 16 December 2023) was an Italian political philosopher known as one of the most prominent theorists of autonomism, as well as for his co-authorship of Empire with Michael Hardt. Born in Padua, Italy, Negri became a professor of political philosophy at the University of Padua, where he taught state and constitutional theory. Negri founded the Potere Operaio (Worker Power) group in 1969 and was a leading member of Autonomia Operaia, and published highly influential books, including Empire and Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire.
Negri was accused in the late 1970s of being the mastermind of the left-wing urban guerrilla organization Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse or BR), which was involved in the May 1978 kidnapping and murder of former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro. On 7 April 1979, Negri was arrested and charged with a number of crimes, including the Moro murder. Most charges were quickly dropped, but in 1984, having fled to France, he was sentenced in absentia to 30 years in prison. He was given an additional four years on the charge of being morally responsible for the violence of political activists in the 1960s and 1970s. The question of Negri's involvement with left-wing extremism is a controversial subject. He was indicted on a number of charges, including "association and insurrection against the state" (a charge which was later dropped), and sentenced for involvement in two murders.
Negri fled to France where, protected by the Mitterrand doctrine, he taught at the Paris VIII (Vincennes) and the Collège international de philosophie, along with Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Gilles Deleuze. In 1997, after a plea-bargain that reduced his prison time from 30 to 13 years, he returned to Italy to serve the end of his sentence. Many of his most influential books were published while he was behind bars. After his release he lived in Venice and Paris with his partner, the French philosopher Judith Revel. He was the father of film director Anna Negri.
== Early years ==
Antonio Negri was born in Padua, in the Northeastern Italian region of Veneto, in 1933. His father was an active communist militant from the city of Bologna (in the Northeastern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna), and although he died when Negri was two years old, his political engagement made Negri familiar with Marxism from an early age, while his mother was a teacher from the town of Poggio Rusco (in the province of Mantua, Lombardy). He began his career as a militant in the 1950s with the activist Roman Catholic youth organization Gioventù Italiana di Azione Cattolica (GIAC). Negri became a communist in 1955 when working at the Nahsonim kibbutz in central Israel. The kibbutz was organised according to ideas of Zionist socialism and its the members were Jewish communists. He joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1956 and remained a member until 1963, while at the same time becoming more and more engaged throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s in Marxist movements.
Negri studied philosophy and was hired as a professor at the University of Padua, soon after receiving his doctorate in 1956. There, he taught dottrina dello Stato ("state doctrine"), an Italian field similar to the philosophy of law, covering state and constitutional theory. In the early 1960s, Negri joined the editorial group of Quaderni Rossi, a journal that represented the intellectual rebirth of Marxism in Italy outside the realm of the Communist party. In 1969, together with Oreste Scalzone and Franco Piperno, Negri was one of the founders of the group Potere Operaio (Workers' Power) and the operaismo (lit. 'workerism') movement.
== Arrest and flight ==
On 16 March 1978, Aldo Moro, the party leader of Christian Democracy and the former Italian prime minister, was kidnapped in Rome by the Red Brigades. Forty-five days after the kidnapping and nine days before Moro's death, the Red Brigades called his family and informed Moro's wife of his impending death. The conversation was recorded and later broadcast. While a number of people who knew Negri at the time identified him as the probable author of the call, the caller was later revealed to be Valerio Morucci.
On 7 April 1979, Negri and other activists were charged with kidnapping, assassination and insurrection. Padua's Public Prosecutor Pietro Calogero accused them of being involved in the political wing of the Red Brigades, and thus behind left-wing terrorism in Italy. Negri was charged with a number of offences, including leadership of the Red Brigades, masterminding the 1978 kidnapping and murder of the President of the Christian Democratic Party, Aldo Moro, and plotting to overthrow the government. At the time, Negri was a political science professor at the University of Padua and visiting lecturer at Paris' École Normale Supérieure. The Italian public was shocked that an academic could be involved in such events.
A year later, a leader of the BR, having decided to cooperate with the prosecution, testified that Negri "had nothing to do with the Red Brigades." The charge of 'armed insurrection against the State' against Negri was dropped and he consequently did not receive the 30-year plus life sentence requested by the prosecutor, but did receive 30 years for being the instigator of political activist Carlo Saronio's murder and having 'morally concurred' with the murder of Andrea Lombardini, a carabiniere, during a failed bank robbery.
Some of his peers found little fault with Negri's activities. Michel Foucault commented, "Isn't he in jail simply for being an intellectual?" French philosophers Félix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze also signed in November 1977 L'Appel des intellectuels français contre la répression en Italie (The Call of French Intellectuals Against Repression in Italy) in protest against Negri's imprisonment and Italian anti-terrorism legislation. On the other hand, in the late 1980s Italian President Francesco Cossiga described Antonio Negri as "a psychopath" who "poisoned the minds of an entire generation of Italy's youth."
In 1983, four years after his arrest and while he was still in prison awaiting trial, Negri was elected to the Italian legislature as a member for the Radical Party. He was freed from prison claiming parliamentary immunity and was released, fleeing to France with the help of Félix Guattari and Amnesty International. His release was later revoked when the Chamber of Deputies voted to strip him of his immunity. Negri remained in exile in France for the next 14 years, where he was protected from extradition by the Mitterrand doctrine.
In France, Negri began teaching at the Paris VIII (Vincennes), and also at the Collège international de philosophie founded by Jacques Derrida. Although the conditions of his residence in France prevented him from engaging in political activities, he wrote prolifically and was active in a broad coalition of left-wing intellectuals. In 1997, he returned to Italy to serve out his sentence, hoping to raise awareness of the status of hundreds of other political exiles from Italy. His sentence was commuted and he was released from prison in 2003, having written some of his most influential works while behind bars.
== Political thought and writing ==
Negri was one of the central theorists of autonomist Marxism, and was a prominent philosopher within libertarian socialism, communism, and Marxism. He also wrote various works on imperialism, radical democracy, and political praxis.
=== Labor of Dionysus: A Critique of the State-Form (1994) ===
Written together with Michael Hardt, the authors ask themselves in this book, "How is it, then, that labour, with all its life-affirming potential, has become the means of capitalist discipline, exploitation, and domination in modern society?" The authors expose and pursue this paradox through a systematic analysis of the role of labour in the processes of capitalist production and in the establishment of capitalist legal and social institutions. Critiquing liberal and socialist notions of labour and institutional reform from a radical democratic perspective, Hardt and Negri challenge the state-form itself.
=== Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State (1999) ===
This book, written solely by Negri, "explores the drama of modern revolutions-from Machiavelli's Florence and Harrington's England to the American, French, and Russian revolutions-and puts forward a new notion of how power and action must be understood if we are to achieve a radically democratic future."
=== Empire (2000) ===
In general, the book theorises an ongoing transition from a "modern" phenomenon of imperialism, centred around individual nation-states, to an emergent postmodern construct created among ruling powers which the authors call "Empire", with different forms of warfare:
According to Hardt and Negri's Empire, the rise of Empire is the end of national conflict, the "enemy" now, whoever he is, can no longer be ideological or national. The enemy now must be understood as a kind of criminal, as someone who represents a threat not to a political system or a nation but to the law. This is the enemy as a terrorist ... In the "new order that envelops the entire space of ... civilization", where conflict between nations has been made irrelevant, the "enemy" is simultaneously "banalized" (reduced to an object of routine police repression) and absolutized (like the Enemy, an absolute threat to the ethical order").
Empire elaborates a variety of ideas surrounding constitutions, global war, and class. Hence, the Empire is constituted by a monarchy (the United States and the G8, and international organizations such as NATO, the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization), an oligarchy (the multinational corporations and other nation-states) and a democracy (the various non-government organizations and the United Nations). Part of the book's analysis deals with "imagin[ing] resistance", but "the point of Empire is that it, too, is "total" and that resistance to it can only take the form of negation – "the will to be against". The Empire is total, but economic inequality persists, and as all identities are wiped out and replaced with a universal one, the identity of the poor persists.
=== Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (2004) ===
Multitude addresses these issues and picks up the thread where Empire leaves off. In order to do so, Hardt and Negri argue, one must first analyse the present configuration of war and its contradictions. This analysis is performed in the first chapter, after which chapters two and three focus on multitude and democracy, respectively. Multitude is not so much a sequel as it is a reiteration from a new point of view in a new, relatively accessible style that is distinct from the predominantly academic prose style of Empire. Multitude remains, the authors insist, despite its ubiquitous subject matter and its almost casual tone, a book of philosophy which aims to shape a conceptual ground for a political process of democratisation rather than present an answer to the question 'what to do?' or offer a programme for concrete action.
=== Commonwealth (2009) ===
In 2009 Negri completed the book Commonwealth, the final in a trilogy that began in 2000 with Empire and continued with Multitude in 2004, co-authored with Michael Hardt.
In this book, the authors introduce the concept of "the republic of property": "What is central for our purposes here is that the concept of property and the defence of property remain the foundation of every modern political constitution. This is the sense in which the republic, from the great bourgeois revolutions to today, is a republic of property". Part 2 of the book deals with the relationship between modernity and anti-modernity and proposes altermodernity. Altermodernity "involves not only insertion in the long history of antimodern struggles but also rupture with any fixed dialectic between modern sovereignty and antimodern resistance. In the passage from antimodernity to altermodernity, just as tradition and identity are transformed, so too resistance takes on a new meaning, dedicated now to the constitution of alternatives. The freedom that forms the base of resistance, as we explained earlier, comes to the fore and constitutes an event to announce a new political project."
For Alex Callinicos in a review "What is newest in Commonwealth is its take on the fashionable idea of the common. Hardt and Negri mean by this not merely the natural resources that capital seeks to appropriate, but also "the languages we create, the social practices we establish, the modes of sociality that define our relationships", which are both the means and the result of biopolitical production. Communism, they argue, is defined by the common, just as capitalism is by the private and socialism (which they identify in effect with statism) with the public." For David Harvey Negri and Hardt "in the search of an altermodernity – something that is outside the dialectical opposition between modernity and anti-modernity – they need a means of escape. The choice between capitalism and socialism, they suggest, is all wrong. We need to identify something entirely different, communism – working within a different set of dimensions." Harvey also notes that "Revolutionary thought, Hardt and Negri argue, must find a way to contest capitalism and 'the republic of property.' It 'should not shun identity politics but instead must work through it and learn from it,' because it is the 'primary vehicle for struggle within and against the republic of property since identity itself is based on property and sovereignty.'" In the same exchange in Artforum between Harvey and Micheal Hardt and Antonio Negri, Hardt and Negri attempt to correct Harvey in a concept that is important within the argument of Commonwealth. As such, they state that "We instead define the concept of singularity, contrasting it to the figure of the individual on the one hand and forms of identity on the other, by focusing on three aspects of its relationship to multiplicity: Singularity refers externally to a multiplicity of others; is internally divided or multiple; and constitutes a multiplicity over time – that is, a process of becoming."
After Commonwealth, he wrote multiple notable articles on the Arab Spring and Occupy movements, along with other social issues.
=== Occupy movements of 2011–2012 and Declaration ===
In May 2012, Negri self-published (with Michael Hardt) an electronic pamphlet on the occupy and encampment movements of 2011–2012 called Declaration that argues the movement explores new forms of democracy. The introduction was published at Jacobin under the title "Take Up the Baton". He also published an article with Hardt in Foreign Affairs in October 2011 stating "The Encampment in Lower Manhattan Speaks to a Failure of Representation."
=== Assembly and essay collections (2013–2023) ===
In 2013, Negri published Spinoza: Politics and Postmodernity, a collections of essays on Spinoza and his contemporary relevance to philosophy and political theory, translated into English by William McCuaig.
In 2017, Negri and Michael Hardt published Assembly. The book provides a series of reflections on the nature of contemporary capitalism and social movements, drawing together the concepts and ideas explored previously in their Empire 'trilogy' such as the common, the multitude, and globalisation. It also introduces a new political concept of 'assembly', which draws on Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari's concept of an 'assemblage' (French: agencements) as a way of thinking about mass movements and the role of constituent power. It also provides analyses of events that occurred in the years since Commonwealth was published in 2009, such as the rise of right-wing populism, Occupy Wall Street, the automation of work, and the digital economy. It continues their reflections on the character and goals of leaderless movements, and especially focuses on the ways in which these movements can seek to self-organise in radically democratic and egalitarian ways. They propose that instead of the usual model of leadership and movement in which leadership serves to articulate the long-term and 'large scale' programme of the multitude, this relationship should instead be inverted: leadership instead comes to serve specific, tactical, and short-term ends (such as the organisation of specific moblisations, protests, direct action, strikes, etc.), while the multitude (or collective) serves to "articulate the long-term goals and objectives" to which the leadership must submit and facilitate.
The book received generally positive reviews. Writing for Critical Inquiry, Kyle Perry argues that the central claim of the book is that "advocates for a truly democratic world must no longer refuse the demands of leading, strategizing, decision making, and institution building that can otherwise remain variously secondary, absent, or anathema amid left, liberatory, and progressive causes." It also rejects as a false binary the idea that liberal-democratic institutions should either be occupied or destroyed; instead, "The better move is to get creative about inventing new, effective, and crucially 'nonsovereign' institutions. Such institutions are not meant to 'rule over us' but to 'foster continuity and organization" and to "help organize our practices, manage our relationships, and together make decisions'." Writing for the Los Angeles Review of Books, Terence Renaud argues that "Given how much the political terrain has changed since Empire appeared in 2000, much of Hardt and Negri's project appears dead. It has said all that it's going to say. Even so, the authors do an excellent job of highlighting the internal challenges that a resurgent left will face. Every new left risks degenerating into sectarian conflict, heavy-handed leadership, and complacency about its own righteousness. Hardt and Negri insist on a self-critical and internally democratic left that never ceases to call its own assumptions into question. In order to transform society, the left must first transform itself."
Between 2016 and 2019, Negri published a three-volume collection of essays written in various years, but translated, collected and published together in English in these volumes. The first volume was titled Marx and Foucault, and published on 16 December 2016. In this first volume, Negri aims to show "how the thinking of Marx and Foucault were brought together to create an original theoretical synthesis – particularly in the context of Italy from May '68 onwards." The second volume was titled From the Factory to the Metropolis, and was published in February 2018. This second volume turns towards an analysis of the passage from the traditional proletarian 'mass worker' of industrial capitalism (especially as found in Marx's writing) to the contemporary 'socialised worker', as well as of the modern 'metropolis', which Negri describes as "a space of antagonisms between forms of life produced, on the one hand, by finance capital (the capital that operates around rents), and on the other by the 'cognitive proletariat'. The central question is then how 'the common' of the latter can be mobilised for the destruction of capitalism." The third and final volume of this 'trilogy' was titled Spinoza: Then and Now, which was published in February 2020. In this third volume, Negri "examines how Spinoza's thought constitutes a radical break with past ideas and an essential tool for envisaging a form of politics beyond capitalism."
On 29 October 2021, Negri published the first volume of a new trilogy of books. This first volume is titled Marx in Movement: Operaismo in Context, and seeks to provide an account and examination of the history of Italian Autonomist (or 'Autonomist Marxist') thought, particularly in terms of Negri's theoretical development of the concept of the 'social worker' as an attempt to update Marxism in light of the changes since the factory-based industrial labour of Marx's time.
== Personal life and death ==
Negri married Paola Meo in 1962. They had two children (Anna and Francesco) and later divorced. He has another daughter, Nina Negri, from a separate relationship. He met the philosopher Judith Revel in 1996; they married in 2016.
Negri died in Paris on 16 December 2023, at the age of 90.
== Bibliography ==
Listed in order of their first publication in English.
Antonio Negri, Revolution Retrieved: Selected Writings on Marx, Keynes, Capitalist Crisis and New Social Subjects, 1967–83. Translated by Ed Emery and John Merrington. London: Red Notes, 1988. ISBN 0-906305-09-8
Antonio Negri, The Politics of Subversion: A Manifesto for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989.
Félix Guattari and Antonio Negri, Communists Like Us. Cambridge, Mass.: Semiotext(e) Press, 1990. ISBN 0936756217
Antonio Negri, The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics. Translated by Michael Hardt. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. ISBN 0816618771
Antonio Negri, Marx Beyond Marx: Lessons on the Grundrisse. New York: Autonomedia, 1991. ISBN 093675625X
Antonio Negri, Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State. Translated by Maurizia Boscagli. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999. Reprint by University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
Antonio Negri, Time for Revolution. Translated by Matteo Mandarini. New York: Continuum, 2003. ISBN 9780826473288
Antonio Negri, Negri on Negri: In Conversation with Anne Dufourmentelle. London: Routledge, 2004.
Antonio Negri, Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations. Edited by Timothy S. Murphy, translated by Timothy S. Murphy, Michael Hardt, Ted Stolze, and Charles T. Wolfe. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004.
Antonio Negri, Books for Burning: Between Civil War and Democracy in 1970s Italy. Edited by Timothy S. Murphy, translated by Arianna Bove, Ed Emery, Timothy S. Murphy, and Francesca Novello. London and New York: Verso, 2005.
Antonio Negri, Political Descartes: Reason, Ideology and the Bourgeois Project. Translated by Matteo Mandarini and Alberto Toscano. New York: Verso, 2007.
Goodbye Mr. Socialism Antonio Negri in conversation with Raf Valvola Scelsi, Seven Stories Press, 2008.
The Cell (DVD of 3 interviews on captivity with Negri) Angela Melitopoulos, Actar, 2008.
Antonio Negri, The Porcelain Workshop: For a New Grammar of Politics Translated by Noura Wedell. California: Semiotext(e) 2008.
Antonio Negri, Reflections on Empire. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008. ISBN 9780745637051
Antonio Negri, Empire and Beyond. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008. ISBN 9780745640488
Antonio Negri, The Labor of Job: The Biblical Text as a Parable of Human Labor. Translated by Matteo Mandarini. Durham: Duke University Press 2009 (begun 1983).
Cesare Casarino and Antonio Negri, In Praise of the Common. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
Antonio Negri, Diary of an Escape. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009. ISBN 9780745644257
Antonio Negri, Art and Multitude. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2011. ISBN 9780745648996
Antonio Negri, The Winter is Over: Writings on Transformation Denied, 1989–1995. Edited by Giuseppe Caccia. Translated by Isabelli Bertoletti, James Cascaito, and Andrea Casson. Cambridge, Mass.: Semiotext(e), 2013. ISBN 1584351217
Antonio Negri, Pipeline: Letters from Prison. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2014. ISBN 0745655645
Antonio Negri, Factory of Strategy: 33 Lessons on Lenin. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014. ISBN 0231146833
Antonio Negri, Marx and Foucault. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016. ISBN 9781509503407
Antonio Negri, From the Factory to the Metropolis. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2018. ISBN 9781509503452
Antonio Negri, Spinoza: Then and Now. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2020. ISBN 150950351X
Antonio Negri, Marx in Movement: Operaismo in Context. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2021. ISBN 9781509544233
Antonio Negri, The End of Sovereignty. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2022. ISBN 1509544305
Antonio Negri, Story of a communist: A memoir. Edited by Girolamo De Michele. Translated by Ed Emery. London: Erin, 2024. ISBN 9781912475377
=== In collaboration with Michael Hardt ===
Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Labor of Dionysus: A Critique of the State-Form. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. ISBN 0816620865
Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000. ISBN 0674006712
Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire, New York: Penguin Press, 2004. ISBN 0143035592
Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Commonwealth, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-674-03511-9
Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Declaration, 2012.
Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Assembly. Translated by Ed Emery. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 9780190677961
=== Online articles ===
Multitudes quarterly journal (in French)
Archives of the journal Futur Antérieur (in French)
English translations of recent articles by Antonio Negri from Generation Online
Hardt & Negri (2002), "Marx's Mole is Dead" in Eurozine
Between "Historic Compromise" and Terrorism: Reviewing the experience of Italy in the 1970s Le Monde Diplomatique, August–September 1998
"Towards an Ontological Definition of Multitude" Article published in the French journal Multitudes.
Extract from Negri and Hardt's Empire at Marxists.org
"Take Up the Baton."
=== Interviews ===
Transcendence, Spirituality, Practices, Immanence: A Conversation with Antonio Negri by Judith Revel, Rethinking Marxism, 28(3–4), 470–478, (2016). doi:10.1080/08935696.2016.1243627
From Sociological to Ontological Inquiry: An Interview with Antonio Negri by Max Henninger, Italian Culture, Volume 23, 2005, pp. 153–166 (Article) Published by Michigan State University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/itc.2006.0013
Workerist Marxism: Interview with Antonio Negri, Crisis and Critique, Vol2, Issue2.
Antonio Negri and Danilo Zolo, Empire and the multitude: A dialogue on the new order of globalization, Radical Philosophy 120, Jul/Aug 2003.
“The Revolution Will Not Be an Explosion Somewhere Down the Road”: An Interview with Antonio Negri, Grey Room (2010) (41): 6–23, MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1162/GREY_a_00010
The Paris Commune: Antonio Negri, by Niccolò Cuppini, as part of the Planetary Commune project, Autonomies, 8 April 2021.
== Films ==
Marx Reloaded, Arte, April 2011.
Antonio Negri: A Revolt that Never Ends, ZDF/Arte, 52 min., 2004.
== See also ==
Giorgio Agamben
Étienne Balibar
Paolo Virno
== References ==
== Further reading ==
The Cell (DVD of 3 interviews on captivity with Negri) Angela Melitopoulos, Actar, 2008.
Empire and Imperialism: A Critical Reading of Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri. Atilio Borón, London: Zed Books, 2005. (Publisher's announcement)
Reading Capital Politically, Harry Cleaver. 1979, second ed. 2000.
The Philosophy of Antonio Negri, vol. 1: Resistance in Practice, ed. Timothy S. Murphy and Abdul-Karim Mustapha. London: Pluto Press, 2005.
The Philosophy of Antonio Negri, vol. 2: Revolution in Theory, ed. Timothy S. Murphy and Abdul-Karim Mustapha. London: Pluto Press, 2007.
Dossier on Empire: a special issue of Rethinking Marxism, ed. Abdul-karim Mustapha. London: T&F/Routledge, 2002.
Autonomia: Post-Political Politics, ed. Sylvere Lotringer & Christian Marazzi. New York: Semiotext(e), 1980, 2007. (Includes transcripts of Negri's exchanges with his accusers during his trial.) ISBN 1-58435-053-9, ISBN 978-1-58435-053-8. Available online at Semiotext(e)
Antonio Negri Illustrated: Interview in Venice, Claudio Calia, Red Quill Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-926958-13-2 (Publisher's announcement)
== External links ==
Media related to Toni Negri at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri at Wikiquote |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Mooney_Distinguished_Technology_Award | Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award | The Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award is a professional award conferred by the ACS Rubber Division. Established in 1983, the award is named after Melvin Mooney, developer of the Mooney viscometer and of the Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic law. The award consists of an engraved plaque and prize money. The medal honors individuals "who have exhibited exceptional technical competency by making significant and repeated contributions to rubber science and technology".
== Recipients ==
=== 1980s ===
1982 J. Roger Beatty - Senior Research Fellow at B. F. Goodrich known for development of rubber testing instruments and methods
1983 Aubert Y. Coran - Monsanto researcher responsible for invention of thermoplastic elastomer Geolast
1984 Eli M. Dannenberg - Cabot scientist known for contributions to surface chemistry of carbon black
1985 William M. Hess - Columbian Chemicals Company scientist known for contributions to characterization of carbon black dispersion in rubber
1986 Albert M. Gessler - ExxonMobil researcher known for development of elastomeric thermoplastics
1987 Avrom I. Medalia - Cabot scientist known for contributions to understanding electrical conductivity and dynamic properties of carbon black filled rubbers
1988 John G. Sommer - GenCorp scientist and author of popular texts on rubber technology
1989 Joginder Lal - Goodyear Polymer Research Manager and expert in the synthesis and mechanism of the formation of high polymers.
=== 1990s ===
1990 Gerard Kraus - Phillips Petroleum Scientist known for developing testing standard for carbon black surface area
1991 Charles S. Schollenberger - B. F. Goodrich chemist who invented Estane
1992 Robert W. Layer - B. F. Goodrich chemist noted for contributions to chemistry of imines
1993 John R. Dunn - Polysar synthetic rubber research chemist
1994 Noboru Tokita - Uniroyal and later Cabot scientist known for studying processing of elastomers
1995 Edward N. Kresge - Exxon Chief Polymer Scientist who developed tailored molecular weight density EPDM elastomers
1997 Russell A. Livigni - Gencorp scientist known for discovery and development of barium-based catalysts for the polymerization of butadiene and its copolymerization with styrene to give high trans rubbers with low vinyl content
1998 Henry Hsieh - Phillips Petroleum scientist known for contributions to polymerization chemistry
1999 Avraam I. Isayev - University of Akron Distinguished Professor of Polymer Science known for widely used texts on rheology and polymer molding technology, as well as for development of technology for ultrasonic devulcanization of tire rubber.
=== 2000s ===
2000 Joseph Kuczkowski - Goodyear chemist who elucidated mechanisms of antioxidant function, resulting in the commercialization of several new antioxidant systems
2002 C. Michael Roland - Naval Research Lab scientist recognized for blast and impact protection using elastomers, and for diverse contributions to elastomer science
2003 Walter H. Waddell - Exxon scientist recognized for his work on tire innerliner technology
2004 Oon Hock Yeoh - Freudenberg Scientist known for contributions to nonlinear elasticity and fracture mechanics
2005 Kenneth F. Castner - Senior Research and Development Associate at Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company known for his work in nickel catalyzed diene polymerization for the synthesis of high cis-polybutadiene
2006 Meng-Jaio Wang - Cabot scientist known for studies of carbon black
2007 Daniel L. Hertz Jr. - President of Seals Eastern and NASA consultant on the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
2008 Robert P. Lattimer - Lubrizol Advanced Materials research and development technical fellow
2009 Frederick Ignatz-Hoover - Eastman technology fellow and 9th editor of Rubber Chemistry and Technology
=== 2010s ===
2010 William J. van Ooij - University of Cincinnati professor known for elucidating the mechanisms of brass-rubber adhesion in tires
2011 Periagaram S. Ravishankar - Exxon Senior Staff Engineer recognized for development of Vistalon EPDM elastomers
2012 Robert Schuster - former director of the German Institute for Rubber Technology (DIK) and popular lecturer on rubber technology
2014 Shingo Futamura - Materials scientist noted for his concept of the Deformation Index
2015 Alan H. Muhr - TARRC scientist noted for contributions to understanding the mechanics elastomer applications, including laminated rubber isolators, marine fenders, automotive mounts, and structural energy dissipation systems
2016 Dane Parker - Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company researcher known for developing a single-step process for converting Nitrile latex to HNBR latex
2017 David J. Lohse - ExxonMobil Materials Scientist known for contributions on thermodynamics of mixing, nanocomposites for controlling permeability, neutron scattering of polymers, rheology of polymers
2018 Joseph Padovan - University of Akron Distinguished Professor known for pioneering finite element procedures for analysis of rolling tires.
2019 Manfred Klüppel - German Institute for Rubber Technology department head of Material Concepts and Modeling group
=== 2020s ===
2020 Kenneth T. Gillen - Sandia National Labs researcher noted for contributions to service life prediction methods for elastomers
2021 Howard Colvin - Organic chemist and consultant to the tire and rubber industries noted for developments to rubber chemicals and polymers
2022 Anil K. Bhowmick - University of Houston professor known for contributions to polymer nanocomposites, thermoplastic elastomers, sustainability, adhesion, failure and degradation of rubbers and rubber technology
2023 Anke Blume - engineering technology professor at the University of Twente known for her contributions to silica and silane chemistry for rubber applications.
2024 Andrew V. Chapman - TARRC scientist noted for contributions to AFM microscopy of tire tread compounds.
2025 Sunny Jacob - ExxonMobil scientist known for leading the development of Thermoplastic vulcanizates products and processes.
== See also ==
International Rubber Science Hall of Fame: Another ACS award
Rubber Chemistry and Technology: An ACS journal
List of chemistry awards
Sparks-Thomas award
Charles Goodyear Medal
== References ==
== External links ==
The ACS Rubber Division
Oral histories of several medal winners
Chemical and Engineering News |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Bourchier,_Countess_of_Bath#Second_marriage | Margaret Bourchier, Countess of Bath | Margaret Bourchier, Countess of Bath (née Donington; c. 1509 – 20 December 1561) was an English Tudor noblewoman. She is notable for the three high-profile and advantageous marriages she secured during her lifetime, and for her success in arranging socially impressive marriages for many of her children. Through her descendants she is a common ancestor of many of the noble families of England.
Margaret was the only daughter and sole heiress of John Donington, a member of the Worshipful Company of Salters, and Elizabeth Pye. Through her first marriage she became the owner of Hengrave Hall, where she installed a tomb and stained glass window to the memory of her three husbands, who all predeceased her. She is buried in Hengrave Church.
== Marriages and issue ==
=== First marriage ===
Her first marriage was to Sir Thomas Kitson, a wealthy merchant and Sheriff of London, as his second wife. Together they had five children:
Sir Thomas Kitson (1540–1603), who married firstly Jane Paget, the daughter of William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, by whom he had no issue, and secondly Elizabeth Cornwallis, the eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Cornwallis (d.1604), by whom he had a son who died as an infant and two daughters. From the daughters are descended the Dukes of Devonshire, the Dukes of Newcastle and the Earls Rivers.
Katherine Kitson, who married Sir John Spencer (1524 – 8 November 1586), by whom she had four sons and six daughters. Their descendants include the Earls Spencer, the Dukes of Marlborough and the Barons Monteagle.
Dorothy Kitson (1531–1577), who married firstly Sir Thomas Pakington (died 2 June 1571) by whom she had four sons, including Sir John Pakington and three daughters. Dorothy married secondly Thomas Tasburgh (c. 1554 – c. 1602) by whom she had no issue.
Frances Kitson, who married firstly on 11 December 1548 her step-brother John Bourchier, Lord FitzWarin (who predeceased his father), eldest son of John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath, by whom she had a son, William Bourchier, 3rd Earl of Bath, and secondly she married William Barnaby. Frances' descendants include the Earls of Stamford.
Anne Kitson, who married, as his first wife, Sir William Spring. Their descendants include the Spring baronets.
Through this marriage Dame Margaret inherited extensive property, including Hengrave Hall in Suffolk.
=== Second marriage ===
Margaret's marriage to the courtier Sir Richard Long took place in 1540, a few months after the death of her first husband. The couple had four children:
Jane Long (1541–1562)
Mary Long (born 1543)
Henry Long (1544–1573), godson of Henry VIII of England. He married Dorothy Clark, and their daughter, Elizabeth, married William Russell, 1st Baron Russell of Thornhaugh and is an ancestor of the Dukes of Bedford.
Catherine Long (born 1546), married Edward Fisher in 1561.
=== Third marriage ===
Her final marriage was to John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath on 11 December 1548, after which Margaret was styled Countess of Bath. Before the marriage she insisted that at the same time as her marriage to Bourchier, his son and heir, Lord FitzWarin, should marry her own daughter from her first marriage, Frances Kitson. The marriage settlement also ensured that Margaret retained control over her property. The Earl and Countess of Bath made Hengrave Hall their primary residence. The couple had two daughters:
Lady Susanna Bourchier
Lady Bridget Bourchier, who married Thomas Price.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_F | 2018 FIFA World Cup Group F | Group F of the 2018 FIFA World Cup took place from 17 to 27 June 2018. The group consisted of defending champions Germany, Mexico, Sweden, and South Korea. Sweden and Mexico were the top two teams that advanced to the round of 16.
The surprise elimination of holders Germany marked the first time since 1938 that they did not advance beyond the first round, specifically the group stage which was first introduced in 1950. The early German exit was "greeted with shock in newspapers around the world".
== Teams ==
Notes
== Standings ==
In the round of 16:
The winners of Group F, Sweden, advanced to play the runners-up of Group E, Switzerland.
The runners-up of Group F, Mexico, advanced to play the winners of Group E, Brazil.
== Matches ==
All times listed are local time.
=== Germany vs Mexico ===
The two teams had faced each other 11 times, including three FIFA World Cup games all of which were German victories: 6–0 in 1978 (first group stage), 2–1 in 1998 (round of 16), but a 1986 quarter-final game being the most significant, which ended with a German penalty shoot-out victory.
Timo Werner fired a warning shot across the face of Guillermo Ochoa's goal during the first minutes of the match. Héctor Moreno headed straight at Manuel Neuer from their clearest opening. Javier Hernández's one-two with Andrés Guardado allowed him to spin away from Mats Hummels just inside the Germany half and feed Hirving Lozano down the left. Lozano then cut inside the resistance offered by the back-tracking Mesut Özil to crash a low right foot shot inside Neuer's right post. However, two minutes later, Toni Kroos's free-kick arrowed towards the top corner. Ochoa denied the midfielder's shot, pushing the ball against the crossbar. Near the end Joshua Kimmich and Werner came close to scoring, but their attempts were unsuccessful. Julian Brandt had one final chance to equalize in the 89th minute, but he hit the post from outside the box.
This defeat represented the first time that Germany had lost the opening game in defence of their trophy. They beat Argentina 3–1 in 1958, drew 0–0 with Poland in 1978, and defeated Bolivia 1–0 in 1994. Germany lost their opening match at a World Cup for only the second time, having done so in 1982, against Algeria. This is the third consecutive World Cup in which the reigning champion has failed to win their opening match – Italy drew 1–1 with Paraguay in 2010, while Spain lost 5–1 against the Netherlands in 2014; and also the fourth champions failed to win their opening match, as France lost 0–1 to Senegal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup (all of whom had been knocked out at the group stage). Germany had 26 shots, the most by a side without scoring in a World Cup fixture since 2006 (Portugal v England, 29 shots in a 0–0 draw). Conversely, Mexico beat Germany for only the second time – their previous only win against them came in a friendly in June 1985. However, Mexico's victory over Germany marked the first time a team from the CONCACAF region defeated Germany in the World Cup, and also the second Mexican win against a World Champion's team in a World Cup after beating France in 2010. Additionally, Mexico became the first team from the Americas to defeat Germany at a World Cup in almost 16 years – the last time Germany lost to either a North- or South-American team was at the 2002 final against Brazil. Rafael Márquez featured in his fifth World Cup finals, becoming just the third player to achieve this feat – along with Mexico's Antonio Carbajal and Germany's Lothar Matthäus.
=== Sweden vs South Korea ===
The two teams had faced each other four times, most recently in 2005, a 2–2 draw in a friendly game.
Sweden's defence was tested by a South Korean attack in the early stages. Andreas Granqvist was denied a shot at goal by a last-ditch interception by Kim Young-gwon. Marcus Berg was close to score midway through the first half but his close range shot was beaten away by Jo Hyeon-woo, while South Korea did not manage a single shot on target. Jo also saved from Ola Toivonen's header following a free-kick. In the start to the second half, both sides exchanged chances within the first six minutes. There was a short delay for Kim Min-woo's foul on Viktor Claesson to be analysed on video and for the referee to point to the spot but it did not affect Granqvist, who sent Jo the wrong way. Hwang Hee-chan spurned a glorious opportunity late on, heading wide from 10 yards out, as Sweden ultimately held on for a precious three points.
This was Sweden's first win in their opening match at a World Cup since beating Mexico 3–0 as hosts in 1958. South Korea lost their opening match at a World Cup for the first time since 1998 when they lost 3–1 against Mexico. Sweden's goal was the first they had scored in 402 minutes of international football.
=== South Korea vs Mexico ===
The two teams had met in 12 matches, including one game at the 1998 FIFA World Cup group stage, won by Mexico 3–1. The match was attended by the President of South Korea, Moon Jae-in.
In the 12th minute, Hirving Lozano made a block to deny Lee Yong. Nine minutes later, Son Heung-min shot a low drive which Héctor Moreno helped to keep out. Jang Hyun-soo handled Andrés Guardado's cross and the referee awarded a penalty, Carlos Vela stepped up and sent Jo Hyeon-woo the wrong way. Two minutes later, Miguel Layún lashed his effort over from close range. South Korea wanted a penalty of their own after the restart when Moon Seon-min's strike clipped Carlos Salcedo's arm, but the referee waved away their appeals. Jo lunged to his right to tip Javier Hernández's shot wide. Lozano drove into space, Vela drew away to the right as the ball went left to Hernández, who checked back and clipped low past Jo. In the third minute of stoppage time, Son struck from 20-yards into the top-left corner.
Before Son's goal, South Korea had gone 288 minutes without scoring at the World Cup, their longest ever such drought. Hernández scored his 50th goal for Mexico, becoming the inaugural player of the Mexico national team to reach that milestone. Mexico has won consecutive matches at the World Cup starting with their inaugural achievement at the 2002 World Cup. Hernández is the third player to score at three World Cups, preceded by Mexico's Cuauhtémoc Blanco and Rafael Márquez.
=== Germany vs Sweden ===
The two teams had met in 36 previous matches, including four FIFA World Cup games, the latest of these being a 2–0 Germany win in the 2006 World Cup round of 16.
Julian Draxler had a shot blocked from close range before he toe-poked a left-footed effort narrowly wide from a tight angle soon after. Sebastian Rudy left the field with a bloody nose after a collision with Ola Toivonen moments before he burst into the box to control a Viktor Claesson cross on his chest and lift his shot over Manuel Neuer into the far corner of the net. Three minutes into the second half, Germany drew level when Timo Werner's cross found Marco Reus, who met it with his knee and turned the ball into the bottom corner of the net. With just under 10 minutes left, Jérôme Boateng was dismissed after picking up a second yellow card for a tackle on Marcus Berg, and Neuer then made a one-handed save to deny substitute John Guidetti from a downward header. Toni Kroos tapped a free-kick short to Reus before sweeping the return pass into the top right corner from left of the penalty area with his right foot.
Kroos' goal in (94.39) is the latest winner ever scored on the World Cup stage. The previous record belonged to Francesco Totti, who found the net late on (94.26) against Australia in 2006. Germany came from behind at half-time to win a World Cup match for the first time since 1974 – which was also against Sweden (0–1 at HT, won 4–2). Sweden have lost a World Cup group-stage match for the first time since June 1990, when they lost to Costa Rica – this defeat ends a run of 10 group games unbeaten. Boateng is the first player to be sent off at the World Cup for Germany since Miroslav Klose in 2010 against Serbia.
=== South Korea vs Germany ===
The two teams had faced each other three times, including two FIFA World Cup games, one at the 1994 FIFA World Cup group stage, a Germany 3–2 victory. and one at the 2002 FIFA World Cup semi-finals, which ended with a 1–0 victory for Germany, and despite South Korea's two previous losses, they were not eliminated just yet. For South Korea to have any chance of advancing, Mexico would have to defeat Sweden in their match that same day, and South Korea would then have to defeat Germany by at least two goals, a feat predicted to be highly improbable going in, with the South Korean coach before the game predicting that it had a "one percent" chance of happening.
Son Heung-min shot wide from the edge of the penalty area before Marco Reus shot one towards goal at the other end only to see it blocked. Leon Goretzka drew a one-handed save from Jo Hyeon-woo with a header from the middle of the penalty area, the South Korean goalkeeper diving to his right and pushing the ball away at full stretch. Two minutes into the second-half's stoppage time, Son's corner from the left reached Kim Young-gwon at the far post who scored into the right corner from six yards out with his left foot, the offside decision that followed was overruled by a VAR decision. Ju Se-jong won the ball off Manuel Neuer who had been at the other end of the pitch in order to join the German attack, thus leaving the goal undefended, and hit a long ball to Son, who ran onto the ball and tapped into an empty net from close range to score the second. Had Mexico defeated Sweden in their final group stage match that same day, a South Korean victory over Germany by at least two goals would have advanced South Korea to the round of 16 based on goal differential, at the expense of Sweden. However, since Sweden defeated Mexico 3–0, the South Koreans were eliminated despite their 2–0 victory over Germany. This marked the second time that South Korea failed to qualify for the knockout stage in consecutive World Cups, having been eliminated in the group stage at the previous tournament and in four consecutive World Cups from 1986 to 1998.
Germany were the fourth defending champions to be eliminated from the group stage at the World Cup in the last five tournaments, following France in 2002, Italy in 2010, and Spain in 2014; and since the new millennium, all champions eliminated in the group stage had been UEFA members. This was only the second time that Germany had been eliminated from the first round at the World Cup, having done so in 1938, while also being the first time since then that Germany failed to finish among the best eight teams of the tournament. However, this was the first time it happened after the first round was converted back to a group stage format in 1950. This was Germany's first ever defeat against an Asian nation in a World Cup match in what was their sixth such match, and also the first time that Germany suffered two defeats in a same World Cup since 2010 (in which Germany lost by 1–0 for Serbia in group stage and also by 1–0 for Spain in the semi-finals). This was South Korea's first victory (and clean sheet) at the World Cup since their 2–0 win over Greece in 2010. Son's goal for South Korea (95:52) was the latest goal Germany had ever conceded in a 90-minute World Cup match. This was also the first time Germany finished bottom in the World Cup's group stage, one of the worst performances in their history; having been eliminated from the group stage of UEFA Euro 2000 and 2004. South Korea's win also meant that Australia was the only team from the Asian Football Confederation that failed to win a game in their 2018 World Cup campaign. Germany would also suffer the same fate again 4 years later in 2022, this time finishing 3rd of their group stage.
=== Mexico vs Sweden ===
The two teams had met in nine previous matches, including a 1958 FIFA World Cup group stage match won by Sweden 3–0.
Sweden got the breakthrough five minutes into the second half, Ludwig Augustinsson volleyed past Guillermo Ochoa when Viktor Claesson's mishit sat him up. The referee pointed to the spot when Héctor Moreno slid in on Marcus Berg and Andreas Granqvist shot into the top-left corner. In the 74th minute, substitute Isaac Kiese Thelin flicked on a long throw-in before Edson Álvarez accidentally hit the ball into his own net with his left thigh.
Mexico qualify for the knockout stages for the seventh consecutive World Cup despite this defeat thanks to South Korea's 2–0 victory over Germany. This was Sweden's biggest win in a World Cup match since they defeated Bulgaria 4–0 in 1994 in the third-place play-off match. Granqvist became the first Swedish player to score two or more goals in a single World Cup tournament since Henrik Larsson in 2002. This was Mexico's worst defeat at the World Cup since they were beaten 6–0 by Germany in 1978. Jesús Gallardo was shown a yellow card after just 15 seconds in this game – the quickest anyone has ever been booked in the World Cup.
== Discipline ==
Fair play points would have been used as tiebreakers if the overall and head-to-head records of teams were tied. These were calculated based on yellow and red cards received in all group matches as follows:
first yellow card: minus 1 point;
indirect red card (second yellow card): minus 3 points;
direct red card: minus 4 points;
yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points;
Only one of the above deductions were applied to a player in a single match.
== See also ==
Germany at the FIFA World Cup
Mexico at the FIFA World Cup
South Korea at the FIFA World Cup
Sweden at the FIFA World Cup
== References ==
== External links ==
2018 FIFA World Cup Group F, FIFA.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhi_National_Open_University# | Indira Gandhi National Open University | Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is a public open and distance learning university located in Delhi, India. Named after the former prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi, the university was established in 1985 with a budget of ₹20 million, after the Parliament of India passed the Indira Gandhi National Open University Act, 1985 (IGNOU Act 1985). IGNOU, operated by the Government of India is the world's largest university, with enrollment of over 3,000,000 students. It provides 333 academic programs through its 21 Schools of Studies, supported by a network of 67 Regional Centres and 2,257 Learner Support Centres (LSCs).
IGNOU has achieved an all-time high in total registrations, reaching 753,286 for the 2023–24 period (covering the admission cycle of July 2023 and January 2024). Of these, 352,354 students enrolled in bachelor's degree programs, with the Bachelor of Arts (BAG) being the most popular, garnering 109,840 registrations.
IGNOU had started a decentralisation process by setting up five zones: north, south, east, west and north-east. The Ministry of Education
has entrusted the responsibility of developing a Draft Policy on Open and Distance Learning and Online Courses to IGNOU. IGNOU also partners up with other organizations to launch courses. IGNOU offers a BBA in Retail distance learning course in association with Retailers Association of India (RAI).
== History ==
Dipanshu Sharma, the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare organized a seminar on 'Open University' in collaboration with the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the UGC, and the Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO. After the seminar recommendation, an open university in India was established on an experimental basis. Starting in 1974, the Government of India appointed an eight-member working group on the open university, the leading role was given to G. Parthasarathi, the then Vice-Chancellor of the Jawaharlal Nehru University.
The working group recommended that an open university be established through an act of Parliament as soon as possible. They stressed the importance of the university having jurisdiction over the entire country, ensuring that once it is fully operational, students in even the most remote areas can access its educational resources and degrees (Working Group Report, 1974).
To support effective instructional and management processes for the open university, the working group proposed several key measures, including: a streamlined admission process, age relaxation policies, the development of comprehensive reading materials, the creation of core groups of scholars in various disciplines, the establishment of study centers, the implementation of curricular programs, and opportunities for live interaction with instructors. Following these recommendations, the Union Government prepared a draft bill for the establishment of a National Open University; however, progress on this initiative was delayed for various reasons.
In 1985, the Union Government made a policy statement for the establishment of a national open university. A Committee was constituted by the Ministry of Education to chalk out the plan of action for the National Open University. On the basis of the report of the Committee, the Union Government introduced a bill in Parliament. In August 1985, both the Houses of Parliament passed the bill. Subsequently, the Indira Gandhi National Open University came into existence on 20 September 1985, named after the late prime minister.
In 1989, the first Convocation was held and more than 1,000 students graduated and were awarded their diplomas. IGNOU audio-video courses were the first broadcast by radio and television in 1990 and IGNOU awarded degrees received full recognition by the University Grants Commission in 1992 as being equivalent to those of other universities in the country.
In 1999, IGNOU launched the first virtual campus in India, beginning with the delivery of Computer and Information Sciences courses via the Internet.
As of 2011 IGNOU has served over three million students in India and 40 other countries abroad. These are the UAE, the UK, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Mauritius, Maldives, Ethiopia, Namibia, Kenya, Myanmar, Vietnam, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, Fiji, France, Ghana, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Madagascar, Liberia, West Indies, Samoa, Lesotho, Malawi, Switzerland, Nigeria, Mongolia, and Zambia.
IGNOU is actively engaged in various initiatives through the SANKALP project in collaboration with the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE). The university has signed a MoU with the Dr. Ambedkar Foundation, under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, to provide training for civil service aspirants from SC/ST backgrounds. Additionally, IGNOU has established a knowledge partnership with the Capacity Building Commission (CBC) of the Government of India and has set up a Centre for Modern Indian Languages to promote Indian languages. The university's refresher courses have received recognition from the University Grants Commission (UGC).
The university has introduced audiobooks for its Self-Learning Materials (SLMs) in management courses and has recorded promotional materials for its programmes in regional languages, including 23 recognized regional languages for the MBA programme. IGNOU has also signed an MoU with the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) to provide opportunities through skill-based courses, launching three such courses. Another MoU with the Dattopant Thengadi National Board for Workers Education & Development (DTNBWED) aims to provide training for workers in both organized and unorganized sectors. Under the Unnat Bharat Abhiyan, the university has adopted over 90 villages, and as part of the celebration of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, 74 lectures have been completed. Notably, IGNOU's Regional Centre in Aizawl has been awarded the Government Online Excellence Award by the Department of Information and Communication Technology, Government of Mizoram.
IGNOU was founded to serve the Indian population by means of distance and open education, providing quality higher education opportunities to all segments of society. It also aims to encourage, coordinate and set standards for distance and open education in India, and to strengthen the human resources of India through education. Apart from teaching and research, extension and training form the mainstay of its academic activities. It also acts as a national resource center, and serves to promote and maintain standards of distance education in India. IGNOU hosts the Secretariats of the SAARC Consortium on Open and Distance Learning (SACODiL) and the Global Mega Universities Network (GMUNET), initially supported by UNESCO.
== Languages ==
The IGNOU offers education in undergraduate degree in different Modern Indian Language (MIL): Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Meitei (Manipuri), and Nepali.
== International Presence ==
Established in 1996, the International Division of IGNOU, originally the International Cell, focuses on promoting collaborations with international educational institutions and inter-governmental agencies to enhance global access to higher education. It operates on a four-fold approach of collaboration, cooperation, coordination, and competition, providing comprehensive support services to overseas and foreign students in India, including admission, examination, and degree awarding. The division also serves as the nodal center for online programs for international students and coordinates international delegations and visits to the University.
On an international scale, IGNOU has formed a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with the Guyana Online Academy of Learning (GOAL) and MoU with the Open University of Kenya and maintains a strong presence in 88 countries, including 19 African nations connected through e-Vidyabharti and e-Arogya Bharti (e-VBAB) project of Ministry of External Affairs, offering 51 programmes. Afghanistan was also included later. Additionally, the University has signed Memoranda of Collaboration (MoC) with Baikal State University of Russia, the Financial University of Moscow, and the Hellenic Open University (HOU) of Greece. Further, to promote its online programs internationally, it has introduced the Overseas Facilitator scheme and signed Memoranda of Agreement with 14 existing Overseas Study Centres in the first phase. Recently, MoAs were also signed with ICA Education Pvt. Ltd. in Nepal and the Centre for Open and Distance Education in Kenya. The university is also offering a Hindi Awareness Program in collaboration with the Central Hindi Directorate (CHD) and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), with registration from 42 countries in its latest third batch. Furthermore, IGNOU operates 14 online facilitation centres and offers 168 programs (including 44 online programmes) through 25 Overseas Study Centres across 15 foreign countries, with a cumulative international student enrollment of approximately 92,000.
== Schools ==
IGNOU has 21 schools of studies as listed below :-
School of Agriculture (SOA)
School of Humanities (SOH)
School of Social Sciences (SOSS)
School of Sciences (SOS)
School of Education (SOE)
School of Continuing Education (SOCE)
School of Engineering and Technology (SOET)
School of Management Studies (SOMS)
School of Health Sciences (SOHS)
School of Computer and Information Sciences (SOCIS)
School of Law (SOL)
School of Journalism and New Media Studies (SOJNMS)
School of Gender and Development Studies (SOGDS)
School of Tourism and Hospitality Service Management (SOTHSM)
School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies (SOITS)
School of Social Work (SOSW)
School of Vocational Education and Training (SOVET)
School of Extension and Development Studies (SOEDS)
School of Foreign Languages (SOFL)
School of Translation Studies and Training (SOTST)
School of Performing and Visual Arts (SOPVA)
== Accreditation and recognition ==
IGNOU has been granted the authority to confer degrees by Clause 5(1)(iii) of the IGNOU Act 1985. IGNOU is also recognised as a Central University by the University Grants Commission of India (UGC). The Association of Indian Universities (AIU) recognises IGNOU conferred degrees as on par with the degrees conferred by its members and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) recognises the Master of Computer Applications and Master of Business Administration program of IGNOU.
In 1993, IGNOU was designated by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) as its first Centre of Excellence for Distance Education empowered "to actively participate in Commonwealth co-operative endeavors to identify, nurture, and strengthen open learning institutions throughout the Commonwealth, particularly in the Third World ..".
IGNOU also operates as an accreditor for open university and distance education systems in India through the Distance Education Council (DEC). Authority to do so is granted under Clause 16 and Statute 28 of the IGNOU Act 1985.
IGNOU is accredited by National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) with the highest grade of A++.
== Notable alumni ==
Osthatheos Issac – Syriac Orthodox bishop
Celina Jaitly – Indian actress
Vaani Kapoor – Indian actress
Deepika Padukone – Indian actress
Chethana Ketagoda – Sri Lankan actress
Barun Mazumder – Indian journalist
Ashok Khemka – Indian bureaucrat
K. Vijay Kumar – IPS officer
K. H. Hussain – Indian designer
Abhay Sopori – Indian musician
Gyaneswar Patil – Indian politician
Karthika Naïr – Indian poet
B. Devendhira Poopathy – Indian poet and writer
V. S. R. Murthy – Indian military officer
Biswatosh Sengupta – Indian academic
Ashraful Hussain – Indian social activist and politician
Arjun Munda – former Chief Minister of Jharkhand
Aman Raj – Indian golfer
Kulwant Singh – former Indian army general
Vineet Verma – Indian film director
Deepak Kapoor – 22nd chief of Indian army
Manoj Pande – Indian railway officer
A. G. Perarivalan – Indian assassin
Pushpa Preeya – Indian social activist
Sudipta Chakraborty – Indian actress
Aditya Bandopadhyay – LGBTQ rights activist
Swapna Patker – Indian film producer
Shiv Kumar Rai – Indian journalist
== See also ==
List of universities in India
Universities and colleges in India
Education in India
Education in Delhi
Distance Education Council
University Grants Commission (India)
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
[1] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantfombi_Dlamini | Mantfombi Dlamini | Shiyiwe Mantfombi Dlamini Zulu (15 February 1953 – 29 April 2021) was the queen consort of the Zulu nation from 1977 to 2021 as the Great Wife to King Goodwill Zwelithini. She served as the queen regent from March 2021 to April 2021.
== Early life and family ==
Queen Mantfombi Dlamini was born on 15 February 1953 to the House of Dlamini. Born to King Sobhuza II of Swaziland and Princess Manoni, who was herself the granddaughter of King Mbandzeni, a former Swati king, Mantfombi's father Sobhuza II, as Ngwenyama of the Swazi Nation, became the King of Swaziland at independence in 1968. Queen Mantfombi's brother, Sobhuza's successor Mswati III, would ultimately change their country's name to Eswatini in 2018.
Her family forged links with other African dynasties: her brother, Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini, married into the Mandela chieftaincy family of Mvezo in the same year as her betrothal. Through this union, she gained Zenani Mandela-Dlamini as a sister-in-law.
The Queen was a member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
== Queen consort ==
After a traditional upbringing in the Swazi royal family, the princess was betrothed to King Goodwill Zwelithini of the Zulu Nation in 1973. At the time of their betrothal, she was a member of the royal family of a sovereign state. Her intended husband was a chief recognised by the South African government as the traditional authority of Zululand. Considering their relative dynastic seniority, the Swazi palace laid a condition for the marriage: the princess was to become the King's Great Wife, a position that would give her male children first place in the line of succession. The Zulu agreed, and the couple married in 1977.
== Queen regent ==
She was appointed as the interim leader of the Zulu Nation under the title of queen regent, on 24 March 2021, after the death of His Majesty King Goodwill Zwelithini on 12 March 2021. This was in accordance with King Zwelithini's will, and she was set to temporarily serve in this capacity until the next Zulu king was appointed. Had she survived, she would also have appointed the next king; her first son, Misuzulu Zulu, was believed to have been her choice, which materialised.
On 27 April 2021, the royal family confirmed that Queen Mantfombi Dlamini had been hospitalized. She stayed at the hospital until the time came. She died two days later on 29 April 2021. The family did not immediately release the details of the cause of death.
Prince Mangosuthu Buthelezi described her death as "unexpected". KwaZulu-Natal Premier Sihle Zikalala called the news "heart-wrenching" and said the Queen was a bridge between the Zulu and eSwatini nations. He called her leadership role an inspiration for women, which helped to "administer the final burial rites to the backward, patriarchal and chauvinistic tendencies that considered women as inferior beings".
On the following day, Prince Buthelezi confirmed that the Queen died around 20:15 at the Netcare Milpark Hospital in Johannesburg. He further announced that the Queen had been suffering from a long-term illness; this was known to the palace but not revealed publicly. After recovering from COVID-19, she was admitted to a hospital in Durban for a previously scheduled operation to remove gallstones. As she was too weak to undergo surgery, she saw another doctor in Johannesburg, and was later hospitalized.
== Children ==
Queen Mantfombi and King Goodwill had eight children. They are as follows:
King Misuzulu Zulu, born 23 September 1974 in Kwahlabisa, KwaZulu-Natal. He studied International Studies in Jacksonville, Florida. He was appointed king by his mother before her death, and was crowned in August 2022.
Princess Ntandoyesizwe Zulu, born 28 June 1976. Married to Moses Tembe
Princess Nomkhosi Magogo Zulu
Princess Bukhosibemvelo Zulu, married in 2007 to Sipho Nyawo, who paid 120 cows as part of the ilobolo for her.
Prince Bambindlovu Makhosezwe Zulu
Prince Lungelo Zulu
Prince Mandlesizwe Zulu
Prince Simangaye Zulu
== See also ==
Monarchies in Africa
Zulu Kingdom
Zulu royal family
KwaZulu-Natal
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillar_of_Fire_%28sculpture%29 | Pillar of Fire (sculpture) | Pillar of Fire is an illuminated glass sculpture in Washington, D.C. honoring Whitman-Walker Health (formerly Whitman-Walker Clinic) and the healthcare workers who assisted people living with HIV/AIDS during the height of the AIDS epidemic. Designed by artist William Cochran, the sculpture is composed of 370 layers of float glass that changes colors throughout the day. It was installed in 2013 in front of the old Whitman-Walker Clinic site at 14th and S Streets NW. The design was inspired by the ancient tale of a pillar of fire that led Israelites in their crossing of the Red Sea and through the desert after they fled Egypt.
== Design ==
Pillar of Fire is a 16 feet (4.9 m) high illuminated glass sculpture in the shape of a slender column which represents the pillar of fire that guided the Israelites at night. The glass weighs 2,000 pounds and is rigidly post-tensioned to a durable glass and steel rod placing the column under 15,000 pounds of pressure. The column is composed of 370 egg-shaped layers of float glass with unpolished edges that reflects natural light and is illuminated from within. The glasses ever-changing lights responds to changing atmospheric and lighting conditions throughout the day. An internal and external programmable lighting system creates the illumination. The color design at night is an abstraction of the rainbow flag, a symbol of LGBT pride. A plaque on the sculpture's concrete base says the artwork is dedicated to "Whitman-Walker Clinic and the many health care workers who served the LGBT community in this building from 1987 to 2008, the early years of the pandemic."
== Artists ==
The sculpture was designed by artist William Cochran of Frederick, Maryland, who specializes in large-scale public art installations. On choosing the design of the memorial, Cochran said "The title comes from this notion that when we get scared, as humans, we tend to bring out these old, dark myths of the Old Testament God that punishes people for sin and things that don’t make any sense. It’s darkness...And a place like Whitman-Walker has to work uphill against that to bring dignity and compassion to people caught up in a terrible situation...The 'pillar of fire' refers to the health care workers at Whitman-Walker, who did, in a moment of history, something so incredible that it can be an example for all of us, for the ages."
Lighting consultant John Coventry of Chevy Chase, Maryland, designed and donated the programmable lighting system. Acclaim Lighting of Los Angeles provided additional materials. Engineering services were provided by New York firm Eckersley O’Callaghan, which specializes in structural glass, and the assembly and installation was completed by Service Glass Industries of Frederick.
== History ==
In 2008, JBG Smith purchased the Whitman-Walker Clinic's former building located at 1407 S Street NW in the Logan Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The Historic Preservation Review Board (HPRB) suggested a plaque be placed on the building noting the history of the clinic. Instead the company wanted a more prominent way of honoring the healthcare workers and clinic's role in assisting people living with HIV/AIDS during the height of the AIDS epidemic. James Nozar, a vice president of JBG, said "We thought the work of the clinic during the peak of the AIDS epidemic was worthy of a better memorial than just a plaque." In 2012, JBG announced the memorial would be installed on the corner of 14th and S Streets in front of the renovated building which was incorporated into a 125-unit apartment complex called The District. The plan was approved by the HPRB, Office of Planning and Advisory Neighborhood Commission (ANC). Ramon Estrada, a member of the ANC, noted the area was designated an arts overlay district and the installation of public art was encouraged. The total cost of the project was $80,000.
Pillar of Fire was dedicated on November 4, 2013, with Cochran, representatives from JBG and Whitman-Walker, and Councilmember Jim Graham in attendance. Graham, executive director of Whitman-Walker from 1984 to 2009, stated: "This is a celebration of the human spirit...Because the human spirit that worked in this building, that worked with individuals who, very often, were very poor and facing what was then thought to be a terminal illness – and was, in fact a terminal illness – who had no resources, no support system, very little in the way of friends and supporters, often abandoned by their family, abandoned by their employers. They came to this building as a place of hope and response." The following month Mayor Vincent Gray and around 75 people held a candlelight vigil at the new memorial on World AIDS Day.
== See also ==
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 2
Outdoor sculpture in Washington, D.C.
== References ==
== External links ==
Dedication video by Metro Weekly
Illumination photos by William Cochran |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra_Palace | Alexandra Palace | Alexandra Palace is an entertainment and sports venue in north London, situated between Wood Green and Muswell Hill in the London Borough of Haringey. A Grade II listed building, it is built on the site of Tottenham Wood and the later Tottenham Wood Farm. It was designed by John Johnson and Alfred Meeson. It opened in 1873 but following a fire two weeks after its opening, was rebuilt by Johnson. It was intended as "the People's Palace" and it is often referred to by the nickname "Ally Pally".
At first a private venture, in 1900 the owners planned to sell it and Alexandra Park for development. A group of neighbouring local authorities managed to acquire it. An Act of Parliament created the Alexandra Palace and Park Trust. The Act required the trustees to maintain the building and the park, and make them available for the free use and recreation of the public forever. The present trustee is the London Borough of Haringey, whose coat of arms shows lightning bolts depicting Alexandra Palace's pioneering role in the development of television.
In 1935 the trustees leased part of the Palace to the BBC for use as the production and transmission centre for their new television service. Thus, in 1936, it became the home of the world's first regular public (then) "high-definition" television service. The broadcasting system was 405-line monochrome analogue television – the first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting. Although other facilities soon superseded it after the Second World War, Alexandra Palace continued to be used by the BBC for many years, and its radio and television mast is still in use.
The original Studios A and B still survive in the southeast wing with their producers' galleries, and are used for exhibiting original historical television equipment. The original Victorian Alexandra Palace Theatre with its stage machinery also survives and, as of 2019, is back in use. The theatre and the stage structure are on English Heritage's Buildings at Risk register. Alexandra Palace became a listed building in 1996, at the instigation of the Hornsey Historical Society. A planned commercial development of the building into a mixed leisure complex, including a hotel, a replacement ice-skating rink, a cinema, a ten-pin bowling alley and an exhibition centre, encountered opposition from public groups and was blocked by the High Court in 2007.
The Great Hall and the West Hall are typically used for exhibitions, concerts and conferences. They are operated by the trading arm of the charitable trust that owns the building and the park on behalf of the public. There are also a pub, an ice rink, a palm court and a panoramic view of London.
In 2013 Alexandra Park was declared a local nature reserve. It is also a Site of Borough Importance for Nature Conservation, Grade 1.
The nearest railway stations are Alexandra Palace, with Great Northern services from Moorgate, and the London Underground station Wood Green on the Piccadilly line. Alexandra Palace is also served by London Buses route W3, which is operated by Arriva London.
== History ==
=== 19th century ===
The "Palace of the People" was conceived by Owen Jones in 1859. The Great Northern Palace Company had been established by 1860, but was initially unable to raise financing for the construction of the Palace. Construction materials were acquired and recycled from the large 1862 International Exhibition building in South Kensington after it was demolished: the government had declined to take it over. In 1863 Alexandra Park Co. Ltd. acquired the land of Tottenham Wood Farm for conversion to a park and to build the People's Palace, on a site that stands on a ridge more than 300 ft (91 m) high, part of Muswell Hill. Alexandra Park was opened to the public on 23 July 1863.
The planned building was originally named "The Palace of the People"; it and its park were renamed to honour the popular new Princess of Wales, Alexandra of Denmark, who had married Prince Albert Edward on 10 March 1863. The Palace of the People, or the People's Palace, remained as alternative names. In September 1865 construction commenced but to a design by John Johnson and Alfred Meeson rather than the glass structure initially proposed by Jones.
In 1871 work started on the Edgware, Highgate and London Railway to connect the site to Highgate station. Work on both the railway and the Palace was completed in 1873 and, on 24 May of that year, Alexandra Palace and Park were opened. The structure covers some 7.5 acres (3.0 ha). The Palace was built by Kelk and Lucas, who also built the Royal Albert Hall in South Kensington at around the same time. Sims Reeves sang on the opening day before an audience of 102,000. Only 16 days later, Alexandra Palace was destroyed by a fire which also killed three members of staff. Only the outer walls survived; a loan exhibition of a collection of English pottery and porcelain, comprising some 4,700 items of historic and intrinsic value, was also destroyed.
The Palace was quickly rebuilt and reopened on 1 May 1875. The new Alexandra Palace contained a concert hall, art galleries, a museum, a lecture hall, a library, a banqueting room and a large theatre. The stage of the theatre incorporated machinery that enabled special effects for the pantomimes and melodramas that were then popular: performers could disappear, reappear and be propelled into the air. The theatre was also used for political meetings. An open-air swimming pool was constructed at the base of the hill in the surrounding park; it is long since closed and little trace remains except some reeds.
The grounds included a horseracing course with a grandstand, named the Alexandra Park Racecourse but nicknamed the "Frying Pan" or the "Pan Handle" because of its layout. It was London's only racecourse from 1868 until its closure in 1970. There were also a Japanese village, a switchback ride, a boating lake and a nine-hole pitch-and-putt golf course. Alexandra Park cricket and football clubs have also played within the grounds, in the middle of the old racecourse. since 1888. A Henry Willis organ was installed in 1875, vandalised in 1918, and restored and reopened in 1929. In its restored form Willis's masterpiece was declared by Marcel Dupré to be the finest concert organ in Europe.
=== 20th century ===
In 1900 the owners of Alexandra Palace and Park were threatening to sell them for redevelopment, but a consortium headed by Henry Burt JP, a member of the Middlesex County Council and of Hornsey District Council, embraced the opportunity of securing the Palace and the grounds for the people of London. A committee was formed by Burt and the consortium managed to raise enough money to purchase them just in time. By the Alexandra Park and Palace (Public Purposes) Act 1900 (63 & 64 Vict. c. cclix), a charitable trust was created; representatives of the purchasing local authorities became the trustees with the duty to keep both building and park "available for the free use and recreation of the public forever".
In 1921 a plaque was erected at the entrance of the south terrace in honour of Burt. The Palace passed into the hands of the Greater London Council in 1967, with the proviso that it should be used entirely for charitable purpose. The trusteeship was transferred to Haringey council in 1980.
During the First World War the park was closed; the Palace and its grounds were first used as a refugee camp for displaced Belgians, and then later from 1915 to 1919 as an internment camp for German and Austrian civilians. The camp commandant was Lt. Col. R. S. F. Walker until his death in May 1917.
The theatre was greatly altered in the early 1920s, when the general manager, W. J. MacQueen-Pope, spent war reparation money on refurbishing the auditorium. He abandoned the understage machinery that had produced the effects necessary in Victorian melodrama; some of the machinery is preserved, and there is a project to restore some of it to working order. After these changes the theatre was leased by Archie Pitt, then husband of Gracie Fields, who appeared in the theatre. Fields also drew an audience of 5,000 people to the hall for a charity event.
In 1935 the trustees leased part of the Palace to the BBC for use as the production and transmission centre for their new BBC Television service. The antenna was designed by Charles Samuel Franklin of the Marconi Company. The world's first public broadcasts of (then) "high-definition" television were made from Alexandra Palace in November 1936, an event which is alluded to by the rays in the modern coat of arms of the London Borough of Haringey. Two competing systems, Marconi-EMI's 405-line system and John Logie Baird's 240-line system, were installed, each with its own broadcast studio and were transmitted on alternate weeks until the 405-line system was chosen in January 1937. After the BBC leased the eastern part of the Palace the theatre was only used for props storage space.
The Palace continued as the BBC's main transmitting centre for London until 1956, interrupted only by the Second World War, when the transmitter found an alternative use jamming German bombers' navigation systems. In 1944, a German doodlebug exploded just outside the organ end of the Great Hall and the Rose Window was blown in, leaving the organ exposed to the elements. In 1947 some of the pieces of the shattered rose window were incorporated in a new design by architect E.T. Spashett during renovation of bomb-damaged public buildings by the Ministry of Works. During the 1940s and 1950s the Palace also housed a public roller-skating rink and the Alexandra Palace Roller Skating Club.
In the early 1960s an outside broadcast was made from the top of the tower, in which the first passage of a satellite across the London sky was watched and described. It continued to be used for BBC News broadcasts until 1969, and for the Open University until 1981. The antenna mast still stands and is used for local terrestrial television transmission, local commercial radio and Digital Audio Broadcasting. The main London television transmitter is now at Crystal Palace in South London.
In 1977 the Greater London Council (GLC) considered a £20 million proposal to redevelop Alexandra Park into a multi-sport complex constructed around a shared football ground for two North London clubs, Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur. The 75,000-seat stadium would have required a new transit connection, either a monorail line or a branch of the Piccadilly line, and private funding. The proposal was rejected by the GLC after local opposition cited the potential for hooliganism in the area.
Early in 1980 Haringey Council took over the trusteeship of Alexandra Palace from the GLC, insuring it for £31 million, intending to refurbish the building but just six months later, during Capital Radio's Jazz Festival, a fire started under the organ and quickly spread. It destroyed half the building. Again the outer walls survived and the eastern parts, including the theatre and the BBC Television studios and aerial mast, were saved. Parts of the famous organ were destroyed, though it had been dismantled for repairs so some parts, including nearly all the pipework, were away from the building in store. Some of the damage to the Palace was repaired immediately, but Haringey Council overspent on the restoration, creating a £30 million deficit. The Palace was reopened to the public in 1988 under a new management team headed by Louis Bizat. Later the council was heavily criticised for the overspend in a report by Project Management International. In 1991 the Attorney General stated that the overspending by the council as trustee was unlawful, and so could not be charged to the charity. The council for some years did not accept this finding and instead maintained that the charity "owed" the council £30 million, charged compound interest on what it termed a "debt", which eventually rose to a claim of some £60 million, and to recoup it tried to offer the whole palace for sale.
An ice rink was installed at Alexandra Palace in 1990. Primarily intended for public skating, it has also housed ice hockey teams including the Harringay Racers, the Haringey Greyhounds, the London Racers and now the Haringey Huskies, as well as a figure skating club, the Alexandra Palace Amateur Ice Skating Club.
=== 21st century ===
The first performances for about 70 years took place in the theatre, first in its foyer in June 2004, then, in July, in the theatre itself. Although conditions were far from ideal, the audience was able to see the potential of this very large space. Originally seating 3,000, it could not be licensed for more than a couple of hundred. It was intended that the theatre would reopen, but costly restoration would be required first. It will never again reach a seating capacity of 3,000, not least because one balcony was removed in the early part of the 20th century as a fire precaution when films started to be shown there. A major season of the theatre company Complicité was planned for 2005, but the project, which would have included some repair and access work, was cancelled due to higher-than-anticipated costs.
Plans by the current trustees, Haringey Council, to replace all the charitable uses by commercial ones through a lease of the entire building, including a casino, encountered considerable public and legal opposition, and on 5 October 2007, in the High Court, Mr Justice Sullivan granted an application by Jacob O'Callaghan, a London resident, to quash the Charity Commission's order authorising a 125-year lease of the entire building to Firoka Ltd.
In September 2009 the main hall at Alexandra Palace was allowed 2,000 more occupation, up to 10,250 ("still saddled by a £37 million debt it owes its guardian, Haringey Council").
A masterplan for the future of the site was drawn up in 2012, comprising six "big ideas" to restore and redevelop the Palace. The first of these to be implemented aimed to transform the derelict eastern end of the Palace, making the Victorian theatre and the historic BBC Studios accessible. In 2013 the Heritage Lottery Fund awarded a Round 1 pass to develop the proposals, creating a new entrance in the restored East Court, re-establishing the theatre as a flexible performance space and reopening the BBC Studios as a visitor attraction. There was controversy regarding plans to demolish the brick infills in the colonnade on the southeastern face of the building, which the BBC constructed after 1936 to form their television studios within. Following a public consultation and advice from English Heritage, Planning and Listed Building Consent was given for the proposals, and in March 2015 HLF awarded Round 2 major grant funding.
In 2018 Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios made a £27 million refurbishment of the long-abandoned Alexandra Palace theatre and east wing.
In 2018 it was announced that the Theatre would open for a BBC Proms performance on 1 September before officially reopening to the public on 1 December 2018 following the completion of the East Wing Restoration Project by the contractor Willmott Dixon. The opening programme included performances from Dylan Moran, Horrible Histories, Gilbert & George, Gareth Malone and an evening of jazz presented by Ronnie Scott's.
During the coronavirus pandemic Alexandra Palace was used by Edible London as a food distribution hub for local residents.
== Notable events ==
=== Recurring ===
Alexandra Palace has hosted a number of significant events. Recurring events held there include the Great British Beer Festival (1977–1980), the Brit Awards (1993–1995), the PDC World Darts Championship (2008–present) and the Masters snooker tournament (2012–2020 and 2022–2025).
In November every year a large fireworks display is scheduled there as part of London's Bonfire Night celebrations.
=== 1960s ===
The Observer's Wildlife Exhibition held here in 1963 was an important early event in highlighting awareness of worldwide endangered species, and it gained a large attendance (46,000).
The News of the World Darts Championship final stage was held at Alexandra Palace from 1963 to 1977.
In April 1967 a benefit event took place at the Palace. The 14 Hour Technicolor Dream, organised by the International Times, demonstrated the importance of the quickly developing Underground scene. Although venues such as the UFO Club were hosting counter-cultural bands, this was certainly the largest indoor event at the time. Performers included headlining act Pink Floyd as well as the Pretty Things, Savoy Brown, the Crazy World of Arthur Brown, Soft Machine, The Purple Gang, The Move and Sam Gopal's Dream (featuring Sam Gopal, Mick Hutchinson and Pete Sears). John Lennon attended, and Yoko Ono (who was soon to become Lennon's new romantic partner) presented her performance work "Cut Piece".
=== 1970s ===
In 1970 an Italian director, Lucio Fulci, filmed a segment of his giallo film A Lizard in a Woman's Skin here. Alexandra Palace posed as a disused church. The rock band Led Zeppelin played at Alexandra Palace's Grand Hall in two sell out performances on the evenings of the 22/23 December 1972. Their concert tickets were priced at £1 each for the two-hour-long gig and were uniquely made available from specific Harlequin Record Shops within Central London.
In 1973 the Divine Light Mission held a "Festival of Love" there. Also in 1973, British rock band Wishbone Ash played a Christmas concert at the Palace, billed as "Christmas at the Palace".
The American band Grateful Dead played a series of three shows there between 9 and 11 September 1974; a recording of portions of all three shows was released as part of the Dick's Picks series in March 1997.
The Campaign for Real Ale held the Great British Beer Festival there from 1977 to 1980 (the 1980 edition taking place in tents outside the fire-damaged Alexandra Palace). On the afternoon of 10 July 1980 (an accidental) fire destroyed the Great Hall, Banqueting Suite, Dressing Rooms and Ice Rink during contractors routine repairs and maintenance.
From 27 July to 5 August 1973 The London Music Festival '73 was held here.
=== 1980s ===
After the fire the burnt-out shell of the great hall of Alexandra Palace was used as Victory Square in Michael Radford's 1984 film adaptation of George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four.
The Sinclair C5 battery electric vehicle was launched at the Palace in January 1985, one week after the closure of the 405-line television system that was inaugurated there 49 years earlier.
In November 1989 the Stone Roses performed a concert at Alexandra Palace.
=== 1990s ===
Hugh Cornwell played his last performance with the Stranglers at Alexandra Palace in August 1990. This was documented by the Saturday Night, Sunday Morning album and video.
Blur performed a major concert at the venue in October 1994 to promote their album Parklife. The recording of the concert was released on video in February 1995 with the title Showtime and used as the basis for the video for the band's song "End of a Century".
From 1993 to 1995 the Brit Awards were hosted at Alexandra Palace. In November 1996 it was the venue for the annual MTV Europe Music Awards.
In 1996 the Palace hosted the inaugural London Model Engineering Exhibition which continued each year until 2021 when it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
=== 2000s ===
In April 2000 the funeral service of the Labour MP Bernie Grant took place at the Palace. An estimated 3,000 people attended.
The fourth Mind Sports Olympiad was held at Alexandra Palace in August 2000, with more than 4,000 competitors from around the world taking part in mind sports.
In December 2002 the Miss World 2002 pageant was staged at the venue.
In June 2007 a Hackday event was hosted at Alexandra Palace by the BBC and Yahoo! During the event the building was struck by lightning, causing the fire vents to open (and then get stuck open), and it rained inside the building.
Since December 2007 Alexandra Palace has hosted the PDC World Darts Championship, following 14 years from December 1993 to January 2007 of the tournament being held at the Circus Tavern in Purfleet, Essex. The Palace was previously home to the News of the World Darts Championship between 1963 and 1977.
April 2008 saw the relaunch of the regular antiques fairs, now held four times a year, organised by International Antiques & Collectors Fairs (IACF).
=== 2010s ===
The band Portishead hosted one of two All Tomorrow's Parties festivals titled I'll Be Your Mirror in July 2011 at Alexandra Palace. The 50th anniversary programme of Songs of Praise was recorded there in September 2011 and broadcast the following month.
Since 2012 the Palace has been the venue for the Masters snooker tournament, held every January. The only subsequent year it has not been held there was 2021, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
During the 2012 Summer Olympics the Palace served as the official hospitality venue for the Dutch Olympic team.
In November 2012 it was the venue for the annual Warped Tour, a music and extreme sports festival.
The band Suede appeared in March 2013, playing one of the first dates in support of Bloodsports, their first new album in more than a decade. In September 2013 Björk performed one of the final concerts of her Biophilia tour. The show was the last concert to be held "in the round", a format that characterised the tour, and the first to be performed in this way at Alexandra Palace. The eclectic programming has included in 2015, Florence and the Machine playing 4 dates of their How Big, How Blue, How Beautiful Tour in the Palace as well as in 2016 alone, heavy metal band Slipknot, Drum & Bass DJ Andy C and the Last Shadow Puppets; with sell out shows by Twenty One Pilots and Panic at the Disco.
The bootcamp stage for series 13 of The X Factor was filmed at the Alexandra Palace from 6 to 8 July 2016.
=== 2020s ===
In June 2020, Nick Cave recorded the live album and concert film Idiot Prayer in the West Hall. On the record, he performs songs from throughout his career solo on the piano.
On 18 April 2021 London Grammar performed their third album, Californian Soil, live at Alexandra Palace.
The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge presented the inaugural Earthshot Prizes, with many celebrity guests, at Alexandra Palace on 17 October 2021.
Fontaines D.C. performed the last show of their 2021 UK tour at Alexandra Palace on 27 October 2021.
On 11 November 2021 Bethesda Softworks hosted a special concert to celebrate the 10th anniversary release of The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. The performance by the London Symphony Orchestra and London Voices was livestreamed during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Boxxer Promotions used the Palace for a Sunday special card which was headlined by rising prospect Adam Azim. The event took place on 27 November 2022 and aired live on Sky Sports.
== Notes and references ==
== External links ==
Alexandra Park and Palace Charitable Trust 2016 Annual Review
Heritage at Risk Register: Alexandra+Palace
Alexandra Palace (Victorian London)
Alexandra Palace theatrestrust.org.uk
Pictures and Information About Alexandra Palace History
Alexandra Palace – West Corridor Murals History of the Peoples Palace
Society
Save Ally Pally Archived 6 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine : campaign to maintain the charitable status for the public
Hornsey Historical Society
Friends of Alexandra Park
Friends of Alexandra Palace Theatre
Alexandra Palace Organ Appeal
Television
BBC Television at Alexandra Palace
History of early BBC TV broadcasts, with photos – 9 July 2003 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Garavini | Sergio Garavini | Sergio Garavini (18 May 1926 – 7 September 2001) was an Italian politician, writer, and trade unionist.
== Life and career ==
Garavini was born in Turin. At a very young age, he entered the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and the trade union Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGIL), which he contributed to reform after the defeat in the FIAT internal elections of 1955. He was subsequently regional secretary of CGIL, secretary of FIOM (CGIL's metallurgic workers confederation) and, finally, national secretary of CGIL. In the trade union conflict between Fausto Bertinotti (who always favoured strikes) and Sergio Cofferati (more incline to mediation), Garavini usually sided for the first policy, but also proposed intermediate solutions such as the intermittent strike or the permanent consultation.
As a member of PCI, he supported Rossana Rossanda when she formed the party-newspaper il manifesto and was later expelled from the party, but Garavini never abandoned it. He was a staunch supporter of the automatic recovery of salaries against inflation, which was introduced thanks to CGIL in 1975. He was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies in June 1987, being confirmed in the elections of five years later. When PCI secretary Achille Occhetto proposed to renounce to the party's communist nature and to form the Democratic Party of the Left, Garavini founded, on 15 December 1991, the Communist Refoundation Party, of which he was national secretary until 1993, when he resigned, being replaced by Fausto Bertinotti.
In 1995 Garavini, then a deputy for the Communist Refoundation, voted confidence to the center cabinet led by Lamberto Dini, in contrast with his party's guidelines. Subsequently, he left to form, together with the party's right wing such as Lucio Magri and Famiano Crucianelli, the Movement of Unitarian Communists, which in 1998 merged with the Democrats of the Left. Garavini wrote numerous essays on Italian politics and trade unions, such as Ripensare l'illusione. Una prospettiva dalla fine del secolo of 1993. He died in Rome in September 2001.
== Electoral history ==
== See also ==
Shadow Cabinet of Italy (1989)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maulana_Azad#:~:text=Azad%20had%20grown%20increasingly%20hostile,dominated%20by%20the%20Hindu%20community. | Maulana Azad | Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin (11 November 1888 – 22 February 1958), better known as Maulana Azad and sometimes referred as Abul Kalam Azad, was an Indian writer, activist of the Indian independence movement and statesman. A senior leader of the Indian National Congress, following India's independence, he became the first Minister of Education in the Indian government. His contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognised by celebrating his birthday as National Education Day across India.
As a young man, Azad composed poetry in Urdu, as well as treatises on religion and philosophy. He rose to prominence through his work as a journalist, publishing works critical of the British Raj and espousing the causes of Indian nationalism. Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement, during which he came into close contact with the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. After the failure of the Khilafat Movement, he became closer to the Congress. Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi's ideas of non-violent civil disobedience, and worked to organise the non-co-operation movement in protest of the 1919 Rowlatt Acts. Azad committed himself to Gandhi's ideals, including promoting Swadeshi (indigenous) products and the cause of Swaraj (Self-rule) for India. In 1923, at an age of 35, he became the youngest person to serve as the President of the Indian National Congress.
In October 1920, Azad was elected as a member of foundation committee to establish Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh in U. P. without taking help from British colonial government. He assisted in shifting the campus of the university from Aligarh to New Delhi in 1934. The main gate (Gate No. 7) to the main campus of the university is named after him.
Azad was one of the main organizers of the Dharasana Satyagraha in 1931, and emerged as one of the most important national leaders of the time, prominently leading the causes of Hindu–Muslim unity as well as espousing secularism and socialism. He served as Congress president from 1940 to 1945, during which the Quit India rebellion was launched. Azad was imprisoned, together with the entire Congress leadership. He also worked for Hindu–Muslim unity through the Al-Hilal newspaper.
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
Azad was born on 11 November 1888 in Mecca, then a part of the Ottoman Empire, now a part of Saudi Arabia. His real name was Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin, but he eventually became known as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Azad's forefathers had come to India from Herat. His father was a Muslim scholar who lived in Delhi with his maternal grandfather, as his father had died at a very young age. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he left India and settled in Mecca. His father Muhammad Khairuddin bin Ahmed Al Hussaini wrote twelve books, had thousands of disciples, and claimed noble ancestry, while his mother was Sheikha Alia bint Mohammad, the daughter of Sheikh Mohammad bin Zaher AlWatri, himself a reputed scholar from Medina who had a reputation that extended even outside of Arabia.
Azad settled in Calcutta with his family in 1890.
=== Education and influences ===
Azad was home-schooled by the teachers hired by his family. Following fluency in Arabic as a first language, Azad began to master several other languages including Bengali, Hindustani, Persian, and English. He was also trained in the Madhabs of Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali fiqh, Shariat, mathematics, philosophy, world history, and science by tutors hired by his family. An avid and determined student, the precocious Azad was running a library, a reading room, and a debating society before he was twelve; wanted to write on the life of Al-Ghazali at twelve; was contributing learned articles to Makhzan (a literary magazine) at fourteen; was teaching a class of students, most of whom were twice his age, when he was fifteen; and completed the traditional course of study at the age of sixteen, nine years ahead of his contemporaries, and brought out a magazine at the same age. At the age of thirteen, he was married to a young Muslim girl, Zulaikha Begum. Azad compiled many treatises interpreting the Qur'an, the Hadis, and the principles of Fiqh and Kalam.
=== Early journalistic career ===
Azad began his journalistic endeavours at an early age. In 1899 at the age of eleven he started publishing a poetical journal Nairang-e-Aalam at Calcutta and was already an editor of a weekly Al-Misbah in 1900. He contributed articles to Urdu magazines and journals such as Makhzan, Ahsanul Akhbar, and Khadang e Nazar.
In 1903, he brought out a monthly journal, Lissan-us-Sidq. It was published between December 1903 to May 1905 until its closure due to shortage of funds. He then joined Al-Nadwa, the Islamic theological journal of the Nadwatu l-Ulama on Shibli Nomani's invitation. He worked as editor of Vakil, a newspaper from Amritsar from April 1906 to November 1906. He shifted to Calcutta for a brief period where he was associated with Dar-ul-Saltunat. He returned to Amritsar after few months and resumed the editorship of Vakil, continuing to work there until July 1908.
=== Struggle for Indian Independence ===
In 1908, he took a trip of Egypt, Syria, Turkey and France where he came into contact with several revolutionaries such as followers of Kamal Mustafa Pasha, members of Young Turk Movement and Iranian revolutionaries. Azad developed political views considered radical for most Muslims of the time and became a full-fledged Indian nationalist. In his writing, Azad proved to be a fierce critic of both the British government and Muslim politicians; the former for its racial discrimination and refusal to provide for the needs of the Indian public, and the later for focusing on communal issues before matter of common-self interest (Azad pointedly rejected the All-India Muslim League's communal separatism). However, his views changed considerably when he met ethnically oriented Sunni revolutionary activists in Iraq and was influenced by their fervent anti-imperialism and Arab nationalism. Against common Muslim opinion of the time, Azad opposed the partition of Bengal in 1905 and became increasingly active in revolutionary activities, to which he was introduced by the prominent Hindu revolutionaries Aurobindo Ghosh and Shyam Sundar Chakravarty. Azad initially evoked surprise from other revolutionaries, but Azad won their praise and confidence by working secretly to organise revolutionaries activities and meetings in Bengal, Bihar and Bombay (now called Mumbai).
==== Al-Hilal and Khilafat movement ====
He established an Urdu weekly newspaper in 1912 called Al-Hilal from Calcutta, and openly attacked British policies while exploring the challenges facing common people. Espousing the ideals of Indian nationalism, Azad's publications were aimed at encouraging young Muslims into fighting for independence and Hindu-Muslim unity. With the onset of World War I, the British stiffened censorship and restrictions on political activity. Azad's Al-Hilal was consequently banned in 1914 under the Press Act.
In 1913, he was founding member of the Anjuman-i-Ulama-i-Bangala, which would become the Jamiat Ulema-e-Bangala branch of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind in 1921. His work helped improve the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal, which had been soured by the controversy surrounding the partition of Bengal and the issue of separate communal electorates.
In this period Azad also became active in his support for the Khilafat agitation to protect the position of the Sultan of Ottoman Turkey, who was considered the Caliph or Khalifa for Muslims worldwide. The Sultan had sided against the British in the war and the continuity of his rule came under serious threat, causing distress amongst Muslim conservatives. Azad saw an opportunity to energise Indian Muslims and achieve major political and social reform through the struggle.
Azad started a new journal, the Al-Balagh, which also got banned in 1916 under the Defence of India Regulations Act and he was arrested. The governments of the Bombay Presidency, United Provinces, Punjab and Delhi prohibited his entry into the provinces and Azad was moved to a jail in Ranchi, where he was incarcerated until 1 January 1920.
==== Non-co-operation Movement ====
Upon his release, Azad returned to a political atmosphere charged with sentiments of outrage and rebellion against British rule. The Indian public had been angered by the passage of the Rowlatt Acts in 1919, which severely restricted civil liberties and individual rights. Consequently, thousands of political activists had been arrested and many publications banned. The killing of unarmed civilians at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 had provoked intense outrage all over India, alienating most Indians, including long-time British supporters, from the authorities. The Khilafat struggle had also peaked with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the raging Turkish War of Independence, which had made the caliphate's position precarious. India's main political party, the Indian National Congress came under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who had aroused excitement all over India when he led the farmers of Champaran and Kheda in a successful revolt against British authorities in 1918. Gandhi organised the people of the region and pioneered the art of Satyagraha— combining mass civil disobedience with complete non-violence and self-reliance.
Taking charge of the Congress, Gandhi also reached out to support the Khilafat struggle, helping to bridge Hindu-Muslim political divides. Azad and the Ali brothers – Maulana Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali – warmly welcomed Congress support and began working together on a programme of non-co-operation by asking all Indians to boycott British-run schools, colleges, courts, public services, the civil service, police and military. Non-violence and Hindu-Muslim unity were universally emphasised, while the boycott of foreign goods, especially clothes were organised. Azad joined the Congress and was also elected president of the All India Khilafat Committee. Although Azad and other leaders were soon arrested, the movement drew out millions of people in peaceful processions, strikes and protests.
This period marked a transformation in Azad's own life. Along with fellow Khilafat leaders Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and others, Azad grew personally close to Gandhi and his philosophy. The three men founded the Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi as an institution of higher education managed entirely by Indians without any British support or control. Both Azad and Gandhi shared a deep passion for religion and Azad developed a close friendship with him. He adopted the Islamic prophet Muhammad's ideas by living simply, rejecting material possessions and pleasures. Becoming deeply committed to ahimsa (non-violence) himself, Azad grew close to fellow nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose. He strongly criticised the continuing suspicion of the Congress amongst the Muslim intellectuals from the Aligarh Muslim University and the Muslim League.
In 1921, he started the weekly Paigham which was also banned by December 1921. He along with the editor of Paigham, Abdul Razzak Mahilabadi was arrested by the government and sentenced to one year imprisonment.
During the course of 1922, both the Khilafat and the non cooperation movement suffered blow while Azad and other leaders like the Ali brothers were in jail. The movement had a sudden decline with rising incidences of violence; a nationalist mob killed 22 policemen in Chauri Chaura in 1922. Fearing degeneration into violence, Gandhi asked Indians to suspend the revolt and undertook a five-day fast to repent and encourage others to stop the rebellion. Although the movement stopped all over India, several Congress leaders and activists were disillusioned with Gandhi. By 1923, Ali brothers grew distant and critical of Gandhi and the Congress. Azad's close friend Chittaranjan Das co-founded the Swaraj Party, breaking from Gandhi's leadership. Despite the circumstances, Azad remained firmly committed to Gandhi's ideals and leadership.
In 1923, he became the youngest man to be elected Congress president. Azad led efforts to organise the Flag Satyagraha in Nagpur. Azad served as president of the 1924 Unity Conference in Delhi, using his position to work to re-unite the Swarajists and the Khilafat leaders under the common banner of the Congress. In the years following the movement, Azad travelled across India, working extensively to promote Gandhi's vision, education and social reform.
==== Congress leader ====
Azad served on the Congress Working Committee and in the offices of general secretary and president many times. The political environment in India re-energised in 1928 with nationalist outrage against the Simon Commission appointed to propose constitutional reforms. The commission included no Indian members and did not even consult Indian leaders and experts. In response, the Congress and other political parties appointed a commission under Motilal Nehru to propose constitutional reforms from Indian opinions. In 1928, Azad endorsed the Nehru Report, which was criticised by the Ali brothers and Muslim League politician Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Azad endorsed the ending of separate electorates based on religion, and called for an independent India to be committed to secularism. At the 1928 Congress session in Guwahati, Azad endorsed Gandhi's call for dominion status for India within a year. If not granted, the Congress would adopt the goal of complete political independence for India. Despite his affinity for Gandhi, Azad also drew close to the young radical leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose, who had criticised the delay in demanding full independence. Azad developed a close friendship with Nehru and began espousing socialism as the means to fight inequality, poverty and other national challenges. Azad decided the name of Muslim political party Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam. He was also a friend of Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, founder of All India Majlis-e-Ahrar. When Gandhi embarked on the Dandi Salt March that inaugurated the Salt Satyagraha in 1930, Azad organised and led the nationalist raid, albeit non-violent on the Dharasana salt works to protest the salt tax and restriction of its production and sale. The biggest nationalist upheaval in a decade, Azad was imprisoned along with millions of people, and would frequently be jailed from 1930 to 1934 for long periods of time. Following the Gandhi–Irwin Pact in 1931, Azad was amongst millions of political prisoners released. When elections were called under the Government of India Act 1935, Azad was appointed to organise the Congress election campaign, raising funds, selecting candidates and organising volunteers and rallies across India. Azad had criticised the Act for including a high proportion of un-elected members in the central legislature, and did not himself contest a seat. He again declined to contest elections in 1937, and helped head the party's efforts to organise elections and preserve co-ordination and unity amongst the Congress governments elected in different provinces.
At the 1936 Congress session in Lucknow, Azad was drawn into a dispute with Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and C. Rajagopalachari regarding the espousal of socialism as the Congress goal. Azad had backed the election of Nehru as Congress president, and supported the resolution endorsing socialism. In doing so, he aligned with Congress socialists like Nehru, Subhash Bose and Jayaprakash Narayan. Azad also supported Nehru's re-election in 1937, at the consternation of many conservative Congressmen. Azad supported dialogue with Jinnah and the Muslim League between 1935 and 1937 over a Congress-League coalition and broader political co-operation. Less inclined to brand the League as obstructive, Azad nevertheless joined the Congress's vehement rejection of Jinnah's demand that the League be seen exclusively as the representative of Indian Muslims.
==== Quit India Movement ====
In 1938, Azad served as an intermediary between the supporters of and the Congress faction led by Congress president Subhash Bose, who criticised Gandhi for not launching another rebellion against the British and sought to move the Congress away from Gandhi's leadership. Azad stood by Gandhi with most other Congress leaders, but reluctantly endorsed the Congress's exit from the assemblies in 1939 following the inclusion of India in World War II. Nationalists were infuriated that Viceroy Lord Linlithgow had entered India into the war without consulting national leaders. Although willing to support the British effort in return for independence, Azad sided with Gandhi when the British ignored the Congress overtures. Azad's criticism of Jinnah and the League intensified as Jinnah called Congress rule in the provinces as "Hindu Raj", calling the resignation of the Congress ministries as a "Day of Deliverance" for Muslims. Jinnah and the League's separatist agenda was gaining popular support amongst Muslims. Muslim religious and political leaders criticised Azad as being too close to the Congress and placing politics before Muslim welfare. As the Muslim League adopted a resolution calling for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) in its session in Lahore in 1940, Azad was elected Congress president in its session in Ramgarh. Speaking vehemently against Jinnah's Two-Nation Theory—the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations—Azad lambasted religious separatism and exhorted all Muslims to preserve a united India, as all Hindus and Muslims were Indians who shared deep bonds of brotherhood and nationhood. In his presidential address, Azad said:
"Full eleven centuries have passed by since then. Islam has now as great a claim on the soil of India as Hinduism. If Hinduism has been the religion of the people here for several thousands of years, Islam also has been their religion for a thousand years. Just as a Hindu can say with pride that he is an Indian and follows Hinduism, so also we can say with equal pride that we are Indians and follow Islam. I shall enlarge this orbit still further. The Indian Christian is equally entitled to say with pride that he is an Indian and is following a religion of India, namely Christianity."
In face of increasing popular disenchantment with the British across India, Gandhi and Patel advocated an all-out rebellion demanding immediate independence. Azad was wary and sceptical of the idea, aware that India's Muslims were increasingly looking to Jinnah and had supported the war. Feeling that a struggle would not force a British exit, Azad and Nehru warned that such a campaign would divide India and make the war situation even more precarious. Intensive and emotional debates took place between Azad, Nehru, Gandhi and Patel in the Congress Working Committee's meetings in May and June 1942. In the end, Azad became convinced that decisive action in one form or another had to be taken, as the Congress had to provide leadership to India's people and would lose its standing if it did not.
Supporting the call for the British to "Quit India", Azad began exhorting thousands of people in rallies across the nation to prepare for a definitive, all-out struggle. As Congress president, Azad travelled across India and met with local and provincial Congress leaders and grass-roots activists, delivering speeches and planning the rebellion. Despite their previous differences, Azad worked closely with Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad to make the rebellion as effective as possible. On 7 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Mumbai, Congress president Azad inaugurated the struggle with a vociferous speech exhorting Indians into action. Just two days later, the British arrested Azad and the entire Congress leadership. While Gandhi was incarcerated at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune, Azad and the Congress Working Committee were imprisoned at a fort in Ahmednagar, where they would remain under isolation and intense security for nearly four years. Outside news and communication had been largely prohibited and completely censored. Although frustrated at their incarceration and isolation, Azad and his companions attested to feeling a deep satisfaction at having done their duty to their country and people.
Azad occupied the time playing bridge and acting as the referee in tennis matches played by his colleagues. In the early mornings, Azad began working on his classic Urdu work, the Ghubhar-i-Khatir. Sharing daily chores, Azad also taught the Persian and Urdu languages, as well as Indian and world history to several of his companions. The leaders would generally avoid talking of politics, unwilling to cause any arguments that could exacerbate the pain of their imprisonment. However, each year on 26 January, which was then considered Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) Day, the leaders would gather to remember their cause and pray together. Azad, Nehru and Patel would briefly speak about the nation and the future. Azad and Nehru proposed an initiative to forge an agreement with the British in 1943. Arguing that the rebellion had been mistimed, Azad attempted to convince his colleagues that the Congress should agree to negotiate with the British and call for the suspension of disobedience if the British agreed to transfer power. Although his proposal was overwhelmingly rejected, Azad and a few others agreed that Gandhi and the Congress had not done enough. When they learnt of Gandhi holding talks with Jinnah in Mumbai in 1944, Azad criticised Gandhi's move as counter-productive and ill-advised.
==== Partition of India ====
With the end of the war, the British agreed to transfer power to Indian hands. All political prisoners were released in 1946 and Azad led the Congress in the elections for the new Constituent Assembly of India, which would draft India's constitution. He headed the delegation to negotiate with the British Cabinet Mission, in his sixth year as Congress president. While attacking Jinnah's demand for Pakistan and the mission's proposal of 16 June 1946 that envisaged the partition of India, Azad became a strong proponent of the mission's earlier proposal of 16 May. The proposal advocated a federal system with a limited central government and autonomy for the provinces. The central government would have Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication while the provinces would win all other subjects unless they voluntarily relinquished selected subjects to the Central Government. Additionally, the proposal called for the "grouping" of provinces on religious lines, which would informally band together the Muslim-majority provinces in the West as Group B, Muslim-majority provinces of Bengal and Assam as Group C and the rest of India as Group A. While Gandhi and others expressed scepticism of this clause, Azad argued that Jinnah's demand for Pakistan would be buried and the concerns of the Muslim community would be assuaged. Under Azad and Patel's backing, the Working Committee approved the resolution against Gandhi's advice. Azad also managed to win Jinnah's agreement to the proposal citing the greater good of all Indian Muslims.
Azad had been the Congress president since 1939, so he volunteered to resign in 1946. He nominated Nehru, who replaced him as Congress president and led the Congress into the interim government. Azad was appointed to head the Department of Education. However, Jinnah's Direct Action Day agitation for Pakistan, launched on 16 August sparked communal violence across India. Thousands of people were killed as Azad travelled across Bengal and Bihar to calm the tensions and heal relations between Muslims and Hindus. Despite Azad's call for Hindu-Muslim unity, Jinnah's popularity amongst Muslims soared and the League entered a coalition with the Congress in December, but continued to boycott the constituent assembly. Later in his autobiography, Azad indicated Patel having become more pro-partition than the Muslim League, largely due to the League's not co-operating with the Congress in the provisional government on any issue.
Azad had grown increasingly hostile to Jinnah, who had described him as the "Muslim Lord Haw-Haw" and a "Congress Showboy." Muslim League politicians accused Azad of allowing Muslims to be culturally and politically dominated by the Hindu community. Azad continued to proclaim his faith in Hindu-Muslim unity:
"I am proud of being an Indian. I am part of the indivisible unity that is Indian nationality. I am indispensable to this noble edifice and without me this splendid structure is incomplete. I am an essential element, which has gone to build India. I can never surrender this claim."
Amidst more incidences of violence in early 1947, the Congress-League coalition struggled to function. The provinces of Bengal and Punjab were to be partitioned on religious lines, and on 3 June 1947 the British announced a proposal to partition India on religious lines, with the princely states free to choose between either dominion. The proposal was hotly debated in the All India Congress Committee, with Muslim leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan expressing fierce opposition. Azad privately discussed the proposal with Gandhi, Patel and Nehru, but despite his opposition was unable to deny the popularity of the League and the unworkability of any coalition with the League. Faced with the serious possibility of a civil war, Azad abstained from voting on the resolution, remaining silent and not speaking throughout the AICC session, which ultimately approved the plan.
Azad, committed to a united India until his last attempt, was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan, especially the Muslim League.
=== Post-Independence career ===
India's partition and independence on 15 August 1947 brought with it a scourge of violence that swept the Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi and many other parts of India. Millions of Hindus and Sikhs fled the newly created Pakistan for India, and millions of Muslims fled for West Pakistan and East Pakistan, created out of East Bengal. Violence claimed the lives of an estimated one million people, almost entirely in Punjab. Azad took up responsibility for the safety of Muslims in India, touring affected areas in Bengal, Bihar, Assam and the Punjab, guiding the organisation of refugee camps, supplies and security. Azad gave speeches to large crowds encouraging peace and calm in the border areas and encouraging Muslims across the country to remain in India and not fear for their safety and security. Focusing on bringing the capital of Delhi back to peace, Azad organised security and relief efforts, but was drawn into a dispute with the Deputy prime minister and Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel when he demanded the dismissal of Delhi's police commissioner, who was a Sikh accused by Muslims of overlooking attacks and neglecting their safety. Patel argued that the commissioner was not biased, and if his dismissal was forced it would provoke anger amongst Hindus and Sikhs and divide the city police. In Cabinet meetings and discussions with Gandhi, Patel and Azad clashed over security issues in Delhi and Punjab, as well as the allocation of resources for relief and rehabilitation. Patel opposed Azad and Nehru's proposal to reserve the houses vacated by Muslims who had departed for Pakistan for Muslims in India displaced by the violence. Patel argued that a secular government could not offer preferential treatment for any religious community, while Azad remained anxious to assure the rehabilitation of Muslims in India, secularism, religious freedom and equality for all Indians. He supported provisions for Muslim citizens to make avail of Muslim personal law in courts.
Azad remained a close confidante, supporter and advisor to prime minister Nehru, and played an important role in framing national policies. Azad masterminded the creation of national programmes of school and college construction and spreading the enrolment of children and young adults into schools, to promote universal primary education. He was elected to the lower house of the Indian Parliament, the Lok Sabha in 1952 from Rampur Lok Sabha seat. In 1957 he re-contested Rampur and also dually contested the Gurgaon Lok Sabha seat in Punjab (modern-day Haryana), where he won on both seats. Gurgaon had a significant Muslim Meo population making it a safe seat for Azad.
Azad supported Nehru's socialist economic and industrial policies, as well as the advancing social rights and economic opportunities for women and underprivileged Indians. In 1956, he served as president of the UNESCO General Conference held in Delhi. Azad spent the final years of his life focusing on writing his book India Wins Freedom, an exhaustive account of India's freedom struggle and its leaders. About 30 of the pages of this book were published about 30 years after Azad's death in 1988 as per his own wish.
As India's first Minister of Education, he emphasised on educating the rural poor and girls. As Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education, he gave thrust to adult literacy, universal primary education, free and compulsory for all children up to the age of 14, girl's education, and diversification of secondary education and vocational training.
Addressing the conference on All India Education on 16 January 1948, Maulana Azad emphasised,
We must not for a moment forget, it is a birthright of every individual to receive at least the basic education without which he cannot fully discharge his duties as a citizen.
He oversaw the setting up of the Central Institute of Education, Delhi, which later became the Department of Education of the University of Delhi as "a research centre for solving new educational problems of the country". Under his leadership, the Ministry of Education established the first Indian Institute of Technology in 1951 and the University Grants Commission in 1953., He also laid emphasis on the development of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Faculty of Technology of the Delhi University. He foresaw a great future in the IITs for India:I have no doubt that the establishment of this Institute will form a landmark in the progress of higher technological education and research in the country.
== Literary works ==
Azad wrote many books including India Wins Freedom, Ghubar-e-Khatir, and Tazkirah Tarjumanul Quran (Urdu تذکرہ ترجمان القُران).
=== Ghubar-e-Khatir ===
Ghubar-e-Khatir (Sallies of Mind), (Urdu: غُبارِخاطِر) is one of the most important works of Azad, written primarily during 1942 to 1946 when he was imprisoned in Ahmednagar Fort in Maharashtra by British Raj while he was in Bombay (now Mumbai) to preside over the meeting of All India Congress Working Committee.
The book is basically a collection of 24 letters he wrote addressing his close friend Maulana Habibur Rahman Khan Sherwani. These letters were never sent to him because there was no permission for that during the imprisonment and after the release in 1946, he gave all these letters to his friend Ajmal Khan who let it published for the first time in 1946.
Although the book is a collection of letters but except one or two letters, all other letters are unique and most of the letters deal with complex issues such as existence of God, the origin of religions, the origin of music and its place in religion, etc.
The book is primarily an Urdu language book; however, there are over five hundred of couplets, mostly in Persian and Arabic languages. It is because, Maulana was born in a family where Arabic and Persian were used more frequently than Urdu. He was born in Mekkah, given formal education in Persian and Arabic languages but he was never taught Urdu.
It is often said that his book India Wins Freedom is about his political life and Ghubar-e-Khatir deals with his social and spiritual life.
== Legacy and influence ==
The Ministry of Minority Affairs of the central Government of India set up the Maulana Azad Education Foundation in 1989 on the occasion of his birth centenary to promote education amongst educationally backward sections of the Society. The Ministry also provides the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad National Fellowship, an integrated five-year fellowship in the form of financial assistance to students from minority communities to pursue higher studies such as M.Phil. and PhD In 1992 government of India honoured by giving posthumously Bharat Ratna.
Numerous institutions across India have also been named in his honour. Some of them are the Maulana Azad Medical College in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology in Bhopal, the Maulana Azad National Urdu University in Hyderabad, Maulana Azad Centre for Elementary and Social Education (MACESE Delhi University), the Maulana Azad College, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology in West Bengal, Maulana Azad College of Engineering and Technology in Patna, Bab – e – Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (Gate No. 7), Jamia Millia Islamia, a central (minority) university in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad Library in the Aligarh Muslim University in Aligarh and Maulana Azad Stadium in Jammu. His home housed the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies earlier, and is now the Maulana Azad Museum. The National Education Day, an annual observance in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first education minister of independent India, who served from 15 August 1947 until his death on 22 February 1958. The National Education Day of India is celebrated on 11 November every year in India.
He is celebrated as one of the founders and greatest patrons of the Jamia Millia Islamia. Azad's tomb is located next to the Jama Masjid in Delhi. In recent years great concern has been expressed by many in India over the poor maintenance of the tomb. On 16 November 2005 the Delhi High Court ordered that the tomb of Maulana Azad in New Delhi be renovated and restored as a major national monument. Azad's tomb is a major landmark and receives large numbers of visitors annually.
Jawaharlal Nehru referred to him as Mir-i-Karawan (the caravan leader), "a very brave and gallant gentleman, a finished product of the culture that, in these days, pertains to few". Mahatma Gandhi remarked about Azad by counting him as "a person of the calibre of Plato, Aristotle and Pythagorus".
Azad was portrayed by actor Virendra Razdan in the 1982 biographical film, Gandhi, directed by Richard Attenborough.
A television series, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, aired on DD National in the 1990s and starred Mangal Dhillon in the title role. DD Urdu aired Seher Hone Tak, a docudrama television series by Lavlin Thadani based on his life and political career, with Aamir Bashir portraying the role of Azad. It was later shortened and re-released as the film Aashiq-e-Vatan - Maulana Azad. Woh Jo Tha Ek Massiah Maulana Azad, a 2019 biographical film about Azad was directed by Rajendra Gupta Sanjay and Sanjay Singh Negi, with Linesh Fanse playing the title role.
His birthday, 11 November is celebrated as National Education Day in India.
Commemorative stamps released by India Post (by year):
== See also ==
Cyrus the Great as Dhul-Qarnayn, a theory proposed by Azad
Indian Council for Cultural Relations, international cultural promotion organization founded by Azad
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Cited sources ==
Gandhi, R (1990). Patel: A Life. Navajivan, Ahmedabad.
Pant, Vijay Prakash (2010). "MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD: A Critical Analysis Life and Work". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 71 (4): 1311–1323. ISSN 0019-5510. JSTOR 42748956.
Qaiyoom, Nishat (2012). "Maulana Azad's Journalistic Crusade Against Colonialism". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 73: 678–685. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44156263.
Douglas, Ian Henderson (1993). Abul Kalam Azad: An Intellectual and Religious Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563279-8.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Abul Kalam Azad at Encyclopædia Britannica
APJ Abdul Kalam Scholarship Archived 30 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Azad's Careers – Roads taken and roads not taken – Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia By Aijaz Ahmad
An Introduction to Abul Kalam Azad & collection of his quotes – Eminent Indian freedom fighters Vol2 Chapter 11 p. 310 By S.K. Sharma
Abu'l Kalam Azad, Chapter 44, pp. 325–333, Modernist Islam, 1840–1940: a sourcebook By Charles Kurzman
National Education Day 2012 Celebrated at Sangam University Bhilwara Rajasthan
Some Rare Speeches of Maulana Azad in the Audio Archives of Bhatkallys.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Pieter_Den_Hartog | Jacob Pieter Den Hartog | Jacob Pieter Den Hartog (July 23, 1901 – March 17, 1989) was a Dutch-American mechanical engineer and Professor of Mechanical Engineering at MIT.
== Biography ==
J. P. Den Hartog was born in 1901 in Ambarawa, the Dutch East Indies. In 1916, his family moved to Holland. After attending high school in Amsterdam, he enrolled at Delft University of Technology in 1919 and received his MSc degree in electrical engineering in 1924. Unable to find suitable work in the Netherlands, he emigrated to the United States in 1924.
From 1924 to 1930, he worked as an electrical engineer in the research laboratory of Westinghouse Electric (1886) in Pittsburgh. There under the influence of Stephen P. Timoshenko, who took him as his assistant, he began to study electrical and mechanical vibrations. At the same time, he attended night classes in Mathematics at the University of Pittsburgh, where he became an authority in problems on mechanics and vibration and received a doctorate in 1929.
In 1930–1931, he studied at the University of Göttingen where he collaborated in the laboratory of Ludwig Prandtl (whose fellow Oscar Carl Gustav Titens previously worked for Westinghouse). From 1932 to 1945, he taught at Harvard University and took part in the organization of the International Congress of Applied Mechanics in Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1938.
During the Second World War, Den Hartog volunteered to serve in the US Navy, was engaged in the problems of vibration in shipbuilding. Commissioned as a lieutenant commander in the Naval Reserve, he was promoted to commander effective 1 August 1942 and then to captain on 20 July 1943.
In mid 1944, Den Hartog was chosen to be one of the four US Navy members of the Alsos Mission deployed to Europe to evaluate captured German technology and, in particular, anything related to nuclear weapons research. The other three Navy engineering officers were Captains Albert G. Mumma, Wendell P. Roop and Henry A. Schade. After the Alsos Mission determined that the Germans had not made significant progress toward a bomb, the Navy team shifted their focus to the detailed study of German submarine and rocket technology from January to September 1945. After the war, Den Hartog retained his reserve commission until December 1953.
From 1945 to 1967, he taught dynamics and strength of materials at MIT in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. In 1962, he became jointly appointed as a professor in the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering. He became Professor Emeritus upon his retirement from MIT in 1967.
Den Hartog's former doctoral students Roger Gans, who credits Den Hartog as a major contributor to his derivation of Gansian notation, or the practice of repeatedly interchanging non-interchangeable variables.
Jacob Pieter Den Hartog died at the age of 87 on March 17, 1989 in Hanover, New Hampshire.
== Awards ==
He was awarded the Timoshenko Medal in 1972 "in recognition of distinguished contributions to the field of applied mechanics." In 1987 the Design Division of ASME announced the establishment of the J. P. Den Hartog Award for "sustained
meritorious contributions to vibration engineering" at its eleventh vibration conference; Den Hartog himself was the first recipient.
Den Hartog's other awards include:
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Fellow
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Honorary member
Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Honorary member
National Academy of Sciences, Member
National Academy of Engineering, Member
Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences, Foreign member
Charles Russ Richards Medal, Worcester Reed Warner Medal,
Founders Award of the National Academy of Engineering
Lamme Medal of the American Society of Engineering Education
Den Hartog was an outstanding classroom teacher at MIT. Every second year, MIT's Mechanical Engineering Department gives one professor the J. P. Den Hartog Distinguished Educator Award, to recognize sustained excellence in classroom teaching over a period of many years.
== Selected publications ==
He was a prolific author. His writings include:
J. P. Den Hartog, Mechanical Vibrations, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1956
J. P. Den Hartog, Mechanics, Dover Publications, Inc., corrected reprint of 1948 edition, ISBN 0-486-60754-2
J. P. Den Hartog, Strength of Materials, paperback reprint of 1949 edition, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-60755-0, 1977
J. P. Den Hartog, Advanced Strength of Materials, paperback reprint of 1952 edition, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-65407-9, 1987
== References ==
== External links ==
itiworld.org - Biographical notes by Stephen H. Crandall
[1] - Faculty Page of University of Rochester Mechanical Engineering Faculty |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tivoli_Gardens | Tivoli Gardens | Tivoli Gardens, also known simply as Tivoli (Danish pronunciation: [ˈtsʰiwoli]), is an amusement park and pleasure garden in Copenhagen, Denmark. The park opened on 15 August 1843 and is the second-oldest operating amusement park in the world, after Dyrehavsbakken in nearby Klampenborg, also in Denmark.
With 4.25 million visitors in 2024, Tivoli is the most visited amusement park in Scandinavia and second-most popular seasonal amusement park in the world after Europa-Park. Tivoli is also the fifth-most visited amusement park in Europe, behind Disneyland Park, Efteling, Europa-Park and Walt Disney Studios Park. It is located in downtown Copenhagen, next to the Central rail station.
== History ==
The amusement park was first called "Tivoli & Vauxhall"; "Tivoli" alluding to the Jardin de Tivoli in Paris (which in its turn had been named after Tivoli near Rome, Italy), and "Vauxhall" alluding to Vauxhall Gardens in London. It is mentioned in various books, such as Number the Stars by Lois Lowry, and was also used prominently in the 1961 science fiction film Reptilicus.
Tivoli's founder, Georg Carstensen (b. 1812 – d. 1857), obtained a five-year charter to create Tivoli by telling King Christian VIII that "when the people are amusing themselves, they do not think about politics". The monarch granted Carstensen use of roughly 15 acres (61,000 m2) of the fortified glacis outside Vesterport (the West Gate) for an annual rent. Until the 1850s Tivoli was outside the city, accessible from the city only through the Vesterport.
From its beginning Tivoli included a variety of attractions: buildings in the exotic style of an imaginary Orient: a theatre, band stands, restaurants and cafés, flower gardens, and mechanical amusement rides such as a merry-go-round and a primitive scenic railway. After dark, colored lamps illuminated the gardens. On certain evenings, specially designed fireworks could be seen reflected in Tivoli's lake, a remnant of the moat surrounding the city fortifications.
Composer Hans Christian Lumbye (b. 1810 – d. 1874) was Tivoli's musical director from 1843 to 1872. Lumbye was inspired by Viennese waltz composers such as the Strauss family (Johann Strauss I and his sons), and became known as the "Strauss of the North". Many of his compositions are specifically inspired by the gardens, including "Salute to the Ticket Holders of Tivoli", "Carnival Joys" and "A Festive Night at Tivoli". The Tivoli Symphony Orchestra still performs many of his works.
In 1874, a Chinese-style Pantomimeteatret (pantomime theatre) took the place of an older smaller theatre. The audience stands in the open, the stage being inside the building. The theatre's "curtain" is a mechanical peacock's tail. From the very beginning, the theatre was the home of Italian pantomimes, introduced in Denmark by the Italian Giuseppe Casorti. This tradition, dependent on the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, has been kept alive; it portrays the characters Cassander (the old father), Columbine (his beautiful daughter), Harlequin (her lover), and, especially popular with the youngest spectators, the stupid servant Pierrot. The absence of spoken dialogue is an advantage, for Tivoli is now an international tourist attraction.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, Tivoli also hosted human exhibitions.
In 1943, Nazi sympathisers burnt many of Tivoli's buildings, including the concert hall, to the ground. Temporary buildings were constructed in their place and the park was back in operation after a few weeks.
To help break morale for the Danish citizens during the occupation of World War II, several landmarks within Tivoli Gardens were bombed by saboteurs in June 1944, including sections of Rutschebanen. Government officials believed it was essential to restore the park back to operating order as soon as possible, so Rutschebanen was renovated and reopened just 25 days later.
Tivoli is always evolving without abandoning its original charm or traditions. Georg Carstensen said in 1844: "Tivoli will never, so to speak, be finished", a sentiment echoed just over a century later when Walt Disney said of his own Tivoli-inspired theme park, "Disneyland will never be completed. It will continue to grow as long as there is imagination left in the world".
In Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish, the word tivoli has become synonymous with any amusement park.
== Rides ==
The park is best known for its wooden roller coaster, Rutschebanen, or as some people call it, Bjergbanen (The Mountain Coaster), built in 1914. It is one of the world's oldest wooden roller coasters that is still operating today. An operator controls the ride by braking so that it does not gain too much speed during descent of the hills. It is an ACE Coaster Classic.
Another roller coaster, Dæmonen (The Demon) features an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, and a zero-G roll all during the ride time of just one minute and forty six seconds. An old roller coaster, Slangen (The Snake) was removed to have enough space for Dæmonen. In 2017, Tivoli Gardens added an optional virtual reality experience to the ride, simulating a flight through ancient China, along with encounters with dragons and demons. Dæmonen is situated next to the concert hall.
A well-known swing ride, The Star Flyer, opened in Tivoli in 2006. 260 feet (80 metres) high and built by the Austria-based Australian company Funtime, it offers panoramic views of the city.
On 1 May 2009, Tivoli Gardens opened the new ride Vertigo, a looping plane ride where the rider pilots the ride, able to control the plane. This ride had extremely low capacity and suffered significant downtime. The ride was removed in 2021.
A Zamperla Air Race ride, Aquila, opened on 11 April 2013. It is a giant swing and spinner with centrifugal powers up to 4 g, named after the constellation of the Eagle.
The newest attractions include Fatamorgana and Tik Tak. Fatamorgana opened in 2016. This is the world's first Condor 2GH, which offers two separate seating arrangements, one milder version with two-seater gondolas, and a thrilling version in which riders are slung around at high speed while seated in a ring and facing away from the center.
Tik Tak opened in 2018 and is the first permanent installation of a Mondial Shake R5. This model is slightly less aggressive than the traveling model and is spectacularly themed.
=== Roller coasters ===
=== Other rides ===
Aquila – giant swing and spinner ride that opened in 2013; with centrifugal powers up to 4 g; height limit 1.2 m. Zamperla.
The Bumper Cars – classic bumper cars that date from 1926.
Fatamorgana – a 141 ft (43 m) tall hybrid Condor ride that opened in 2016. Huss.
The Balloon Swing (Ballongyngen) – Ferris wheel which opened during WWII in 1943.
The Flying Suitcase (Den Flyvende Kuffert) – a 7-minute H.C. Andersen-inspired dark ride that opened in 1993 and was renovated in 2010. Mack Rides.
The Galley Ships – roundabout boats that opened in 1937.
The Golden Tower – Turbo Drop tower that opened in 1999; height 207 ft (63 m). S&S Worldwide.
The Mine (Minen) – dark ride in a boat that opened in 2003; this 200 meters long mine-themed ride has a 2 m drop. Mack Rides.
The Monsoon (Monsunen) – giant swing, a magic carpet ride that opened in 2001; height limit 1.4 m. Zierer.
The Skyship (Himmelskibet) – an 260 ft (80 m) tall sky flyer that opened in 2006; height limit 1.2 m. Funtime.
The Swing Carousel – swing ride used at Halloween and Christmas.
Tik Tak – A spinner ride that opened in the summer 2018; Visitors are 'thrown through time and space', rotated both vertically and horizontally at high speed, while being exposed to forces approaching 4G. Mondial (Shake R5)
=== Children's rides ===
The Astronomer (Astronomen) – space-themed roundabout boats that opened in 2017.
The Blue Sapphire (Den blå Safir) – mini Ferris wheel that opened in 1970.
The Animal Carousel (Dyrekarrusellen) – classic carousel from 1920.
The Dragon Boats (Dragebådene) – pilot your own boat on the water, opened in 1936.
The Elf Train – train ride.
The Fun House – house of fun.
The Lighthouse – air carousel that opened in 2010. Zamperla.
The Little Dragon – swing ride.
The Little Pilot – airplanes that opened in 1990. Remodelled/redesigned into 'The Little Dragon' in 2013 as a part of the reopening of the Merry Corner.
The Music Carousel – carousel.
Minimorgana – mini bumper cars that opened in 2016.
The Panda (Pandaen) – mini drop tower that opened in 2000. S&S Sansei .
The Star Tower – Children's 'drop tower' opened in 2013 as a part of the reopening of the Merry Corner, Zamperla.
The Temple Tower – pull-yourself-up tower ride that opened in 2000. Heege.
The Vintage Cars – on-track cars that opened in 1959.
The Wood Carousel – wooden carousel.
=== Former attractions ===
Vertigo – (Permanently closed as of July 5, 2021) giant swing that opened in 2009; height limit 1.4 m. Technical Park. This looping plane ride reaches a speed of 100 km/h (62 mph) and a height of 98 feet (30 metres).
Snurretoppen - Huss Breakdance
Dragon - Huss Flic Flac
Original Rutchebane
=== Other attractions ===
The Pantomime Theater has free pantomime shows.
The Tivoli Guard Boys stars boys age 9 – 16 who perform music at the park.
Tivoli Aquarium – located below ground level inside The Concert Hall, entrance is at extra charge.
Amusement Arcades – extra charge.
Tivoli Jackpot – cash prizes, extra charge.
Tivoli Festival – takes place from 14 May to 8 September and features more than 50 different events that include opera shows, symphony concerts, chamber music, pop and rock artists, and much more. On Fridays at 10 pm there is a weekly rock concert under the banner Friday Rock.
The Concert Hall – there has been a concert hall at the park since day one; the current concert hall was built in 1956 and seats 1660 guests. It was renovated in 1985 and the Rotunda was added then. Extra charge music concerts and shows.
The Glass Hall Theater – the current Glass Hall was built in 1946, following the destruction of the old one in 1944 during the Nazi occupation of Denmark. the hall features all kinds of music events as well as theater shows for kids. Extra charge.
The Harmony Pavilion – occasionally music performances throughout the year and special events.
Open Air Stage – this open-air stage hosts both music performances and other kind of shows.
Promenade Pavilion – occasionally music performances throughout the year and special events.
Montebello – In 1891 Tivoli purchased a large yellow hot air balloon for a new attraction. It was filled with hydrogen, and the basket could carry up to 15 people at a time.
In addition, there is a Halloween Fest in October and Christmas Holidays in December. During the summer the park has fireworks shows each Saturday. In 2022 the firework season runs from June 4 to September 24, and the firework will take place on the roof of The Concert Hall to the tones of The Barber of Seville by Gioachino Rossini.
=== Hotels ===
The Nimb Hotel is the only hotel located on-site at the park. The Tivoli Hotel & Congress Centre is affiliated with Tivoli Gardens only by name, but close cooperation does take place. Many of the interior designs were created by Thomas Winkler, chief artist at the Tivoli Gardens since 2009.
== Performing arts ==
Besides the rides, Tivoli Gardens also serve as a venue for various performing arts & as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.
=== Tivoli Concert Hall ===
Tivoli Concert Hall is a classical concert hall featuring concerts with some of the largest names in international classical music.
=== The Pantomime Theatre ===
The Pantomime Theatre is an open-air theatre designed by Vilhelm Dahlerup, also known for the design of the Royal Danish Theatre. It is a toy-like historicist built in Chinese style and noted for its mechanical front curtain that takes five men to operate and unfolds like a peacock's tail. As indicated by the name, it is primarily a scene for pantomime theatre in the classical Italian commedia dell'arte tradition, which is performed daily with a live pit orchestra. Besides this original function, the theatre leads a second life as a venue for ballet and modern dance, performing works by choreographers such as August Bournonville, Dinna Bjørn, Louise Midjord and Paul James Rooney.
=== The Tivoli Youth Guard ===
The Tivoli Youth Guard is a formation of boys and girls aged 8–16 dressed in uniforms reminiscent of those of the Royal Danish Guard complete with bearskins. It was founded in 1844 and gives concerts, makes parades, stands guard at the garden's buildings and monuments at special occasions and represents the gardens at various events. It is composed of a Corps of drums, a military-styled marching band and an honor guard platoon.
=== Pop and jazz music ===
During the warmer summer months, Tivoli also features a live music series dubbed Fredagsrock (Friday Rock), which in the past has featured Roxette, the Smashing Pumpkins, Sting, the Beach Boys, Pet Shop Boys, Kanye West and 5 Seconds of Summer, and also popular Danish acts such as TV-2, Nephew, Hanne Boel, Raveonettes and Thomas Helmig.
During the Copenhagen Jazz Festival, Tivoli Gardens is one of the many Copenhagen localities that serve as venues for concerts.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Nimb Hotel
Tourism in Denmark
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Danish)
Official website (in English)
Copenhagen-Portal – Tivoli and History
The Roller Coaster Database's page about Tivoli
Tivoli Gardens Article
Picture gallery including Tivoli's first Halloween season |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_1964_Summer_Olympics_medal_winners | List of 1964 Summer Olympics medal winners | The following is a list of medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics, held in Tokyo, from 10 to 24 October 1964.
== Athletics ==
=== Men's events ===
=== Women's events ===
== Basketball ==
== Boxing ==
== Canoeing ==
=== Men's events ===
=== Women's events ===
== Cycling ==
=== Road cycling ===
=== Track cycling ===
== Diving ==
=== Men ===
=== Women ===
== Equestrian ==
== Fencing ==
=== Men's events ===
=== Women's events ===
== Field hockey ==
== Football (Soccer) ==
== Gymnastics ==
=== Men's events ===
=== Women's ===
== Judo ==
== Modern pentathlon ==
== Rowing ==
== Sailing ==
== Shooting ==
== Swimming ==
=== Men's events ===
=== Women's events ===
== Volleyball ==
== Water polo ==
== Weightlifting ==
== Wrestling ==
=== Greco-Roman ===
=== Freestyle ===
== See also ==
1964 Summer Olympics medal table
== External links ==
"Tokyo 1964". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee.
The Games of the XVIII Olympiad, Tokyo 1964 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee. Vol. II. Tokyo: Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVII Olympiad. 1964. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_d%27Escrime | Fédération Internationale d'Escrime | The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) commonly known by the acronym FIE, is the international governing body of Olympic fencing. Today, its head office is at the Maison du Sport International in Lausanne, Switzerland. The FIE is composed of 155 national federations, each of which is recognized by its country's Olympic Committee as the sole representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country.
== History ==
The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) is the heir of the Société d'encouragement de l'escrime founded in France in 1882, which took part in the global movement of structuring sport. The first international fencing congress was held in Brussels, Belgium in 1897 at the instigation of the Fédération belge des cercles d'escrime, followed by another one in Paris in 1900. On this occasion the Société organised one of the first international fencing events; French, Italian, Spanish, and Belgian fencers attended the competition. Dissensions rapidly arose between épéeists and foilists, which held the majority at the Société. The third congress held in Brussels in 1905 voted the creation of an international fencing committee whose mission would be of fostering friendship amongst all fencers, establishing national rules, and supporting the organization of fencing competitions. The third congress also adopted the French rules as the basis for upcoming international competitions. New tensions appeared, this time between France and Italy, about the regulatory weapon grip. They led to the boycott by France of the fencing events of the 1912 Olympic Games.
A new international congress was called together in Ghent, Belgium, in July 1913. The main matter was the adoption of international regulations for each of the three weapons. The French rules were adopted in épée and foil; the Hungarian rules were chosen for sabre. Frenchman René Lacroix also campaigned for the creation of an international fencing federation.
The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) was founded on 29 November 1913, in the conference rooms of the Automobile Club de France in Paris. The nine founding nations were Belgium, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic), France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, and Norway. Albert Feyerick, president of the Federation of fencing clubs of Belgium, was elected as the first president. The FIE held its first congress on 23 June 1914, and accepted the adhesion of seven new countries: Austria, Denmark, Monaco, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States.
=== Presidency of Alisher Usmanov ===
Russian oligarch Alisher Usmanov was elected president of the FIE in 2008 with 66 votes to 61 for incumbent president René Roch. He was re-elected in 2012 and 2016. In 2021, Usmanov was re-elected by acclamation to a fourth term, for which he was congratulated by Vladimir Putin.
On 28 February 2022, in reaction to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the European Union blacklisted Usmanov, imposing an EU-wide travel ban on him and freezing all of his assets. The EU stated: "He has been referred to as one of Vladimir Putin's favourite oligarchs." Following the imposition of the sanctions on him, Usmanov announced on 1 March 2022, in an accusatory letter, that he was stepping down as FIE President. On 30 November 2024, he was re-elected to the office for another term.
=== Impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine ===
In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in late February 2022, the FIE agreed with the European Fencing Confederation (EFC) to ban Russian and Belarusian fencers, and reallocated competitions that were due to be held in Russia and Belarus.
On 10 March 2023, the FIE became the first Olympic governing body to officially reinstate Russian and Belarusian athletes and officials, in time for the start of the qualification for the 2024 Summer Olympics. Protesting this decision, Denmark, France, Germany, and Poland cancelled upcoming World Cup fencing events to prevent Russians and Belarusians from participating.
In April 2023, it was revealed that the European Fencing Confederation had sent a critical letter to the FIE, outlining their opposition to the FIE's plans to strip the countries that had indicated they would not grant visas to Russians and Belarusians from hosting rights, and impose sanctions on them. In addition, the EFC approved in congress in June 2023 that no Russian or Belarusian coach or athlete may compete in an EFC competition, and that Russia and Belarus are suspended as members. Over 200 fencers also signed an open letter in which they objected to the FIE's decision to allow the return of Russian and Belarusian fencers as neutrals. In May 2023, the FIE decided to strip individual events at the 2023 European Games in Kraków-Małopolska of their Olympic qualifier status because the Polish organizers banned Russians from participating at the Games, and therefore they organized instead a separate European Championships in Plovdiv for individual events only where Russians were allowed to compete. The Nordic Fencing Union heavily criticized these decisions by the FIE.
=== Disqualification of Ukrainian world champion, and subsequent reversal ===
In July 2023, Ukrainian four-time individual world sabre champion Olga Kharlan was disqualified by the FIE at the World Fencing Championships. Kharlan defeated Russian Anna Smirnova 15-7. At the time, and since 1 July 2020 (and reconfirmed by FIE public notice in September 2020 and in January 2021), by public written notice the FIE had replaced its previous handshake requirement with a "salute" by the opposing fencers, and written in its public notice that handshakes were "suspended until further notice." Smirnova extended her hand to Kharlan, who in turn extended her saber in an offer to the Russian to tap blades. Kharlan said her choice of salute was meant as a sign of respect for her opponent, while still acknowledging the ongoing conflict between Ukraine and Russia. After a long delay during which Smirnova protested and sat on the strip for 45 minutes, Kharlan was ultimately black-carded and eliminated from the championship by FIE officials. The Russian had been allowed to compete as a neutral athlete. The Ukrainian delegation filed an appeal. The German Fencing Federation criticized the decision by the FIE and maintained that the very strict interpretation of the rules sent a fatal signal far beyond the world of fencing.
The FIE came under fire for its decision. Ukrainian tennis player Elina Svitolina called the FIE’s disqualification “disrespectful” towards Ukrainians. Mykhailo Podolyak, adviser to Ukraine president Volodymyr Zelensky, called the FIE decision "absolutely shameful," and posted a photo on his Twitter feed which appeared to show the Russian fencer smiling and flashing the victory sign with a Russian soldier, writing: "The photo features ... the Russian fencer.... As you can see, she openly admires the Russian army.... The [FIE] disqualified the Ukrainian representative for not shaking hands with the Russian." Kharlan said "This federation will never change." Team USA head coach Yury Gelman said that the FIE was the most corrupt federation in the world.
The IOC strongly disagreed with the FIE's actions. On 28 July at the behest of the Comité international olympique, the FIE reversed itself and cancelled its disqualification of Kharlan, making it possible for her to enter the team women's sabre event on 29 July, while at the same time arguing that "The FIE stands fully behind the penalty, which, after a thorough review, is in complete accordance and compliance with its official rules and associated penalties." Kharlan was also told by the IOC in an empathic letter on which the FIE president was copied that due to the circumstances she was being granted automatic qualification into the 2024 Paris Olympics, and that she should "[r]est assured that the IOC will continue to stand in full solidarity with the Ukrainian athletes and the Olympic community of Ukraine during these extremely difficult times." Subsequently, though the FIE had defended its position in its interim president's letter to Kharlan, Bruno Gares, the FIE's representative of the Executive Committee in the Rules Commission said that -- after the required salutes at the end of a bout -- handshakes would become optional, with a distance greeting permitted instead.
== Events ==
Competitions organized by the FIE include the senior World Championships and World Cup, the Junior World Championships and Junior World Cup, the Cadets World Championships, and the Veterans World Championships. The Zonal Championships recognised by the FIE are the Senior Zonal Championships and the
Junior Zonal Championships, but other competitions may be organized by the Zonal Confederations.
The FIE assists the International Olympic Committee in the organization of fencing events at the Summer Olympics. The number of events has been a matter of contention between the FIE and the CIO since the introduction of the women's sabre at the 1999 World Championships: since then, the World Championships feature twelve events: an individual and a team weapon for each of the three weapons, for men and for women. However, the CIO refuses to increase the number of Olympic medals allocated to fencing. After much dithering, the FIE decided to organize all six individual events, but only four team events, decided on a rotational basis. The two team events excluded from the Olympic programme, one for men and one for women, are included instead in the World Championships.
== People ==
=== Presidents of the FIE ===
A list of FIE presidents from 1913 to the present:
=== Athletes ===
== Continental federations ==
As of 2023, the FIE recognized 155 affiliated national federations.
Note: As of 7 July 2012, the Netherlands Antilles was still listed as an FIE Member nation, and 146 member nations were listed on the FIE's membership page. However, after the country was dissolved, it lost its National Olympic Committee status in 2011. At the 2012 Olympics, athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles were eligible to participate as independent athletes under the Olympic flag (no fencers competed).
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Ottogalli, Cécile; Six, Gérard; Terret, Thierry (2014). L'Histoire de l'escrime. 1913–2013, un siècle de Fédération internationale d'escrime. Biarritz: Atlantica. ISBN 978-2-7588-0485-7. FIE100.
== External links ==
Media related to Fédération Internationale d'Escrime at Wikimedia Commons
Official website
Olympics, FIE records
History of fencing
FIE calendar
Results of FIE competitions
FIE rules
FIE Magazines
FIE press releases |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Arthur_Cooper | G. Arthur Cooper | Gustav Arthur Cooper (February 9, 1902 – October 17, 2000) was an American paleobiologist.
Cooper was born in College Point, Queens, and attended Colgate University. He graduated in 1924, staying on to receive a master's degree in 1926. He then attended Yale University, where he received his PhD in 1929. His dissertation was titled, "Stratigraphy of the Hamilton Group of New York."
He met his future wife, Josephine Wells, while they were both studying geology at Yale. They married in 1930 and moved to Washington, D.C.
In 1930, he got a job as assistant curator at the Division of Stratigraphic Paleontology in United States National Museum. He was promoted to a curator position in 1944 for the Division of Invertebrate Paleontology. In 1957, he became the head curator of the Department of Geology, and 6 years later became the chairman of the newly formed Department of Paleobiology. He became senior paleobiologist in 1967, after which he devoted his life to research. He retired in 1974 with paleobiologist emeritus title. He died in 2000.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aralle-Tabulahan_language | Aralle-Tabulahan language | Aralle-Tabulahan is an Austronesian language that belongs to the South Sulawesi subgroup. It is spoken in Mamasa Regency, West Sulawesi, Indonesia.
== Dialects ==
Aralle-Tabulahan has three major dialects: Aralle, Tabulahan, and Mambi. The Mambi dialect is often regarded as the most divergent of the three dialects and is seen as at the centre of spectrum between the Aralle and Tabulahan dialects and the related Bambam language.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Hinn#:~:text=Benny%20Hinn%20Ministries%20donated%20%24100%2C000,tsunami%20relief%20effort%20in%202007. | Benny Hinn | Toufik Benedictus "Benny" Hinn (born 3 December 1952) is an Israeli-born American-Canadian televangelist, best known for his regular "Miracle Crusades"—revival meeting or faith healing summits that are usually held in stadiums in major cities, which are later broadcast worldwide on his television program, This Is Your Day.
== Biography ==
Hinn was born in Jaffa, in 1952, in the then-newly established state of Israel to parents born in Palestine who had Greek, Palestinian, and Armenian heritage. He was raised within the Eastern Orthodox tradition and baptized by the patriarch of Jerusalem.
Soon after the 1967 Arab–Israeli War ("The Six-Day War"), Hinn's family emigrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 1968 where he attended Georges Vanier Secondary School. He did not graduate. In his books, Hinn states falsely that his father was the mayor of Jaffa at the time of his birth and that he was socially isolated as a child and had a stutter, and he was a first-class student.
In 1972, he claimed to become a born-again Christian. Hinn has written that on 21 December 1973, he traveled by charter bus from Toronto to Pittsburgh to attend a "miracle service" conducted by evangelist Kathryn Kuhlman. Although he never met her personally, he often attended her "healing services" and has often cited her as an influence in his life. In 1974, he was invited to speak about his spiritual experience at Trinity Pentecostal Church in Oshawa and claimed to have been cured of his stuttering.
== Ministry ==
On moving to the United States, Hinn traveled to Orlando, Florida, where he founded the Orlando Christian Center in 1983. Eventually, he began claiming that God was using him as a conduit for healings, and began holding healing services in his church. These new "Miracle Crusades" were soon held at large stadiums and auditoriums across the United States and the world, the first nationally televised service being held in Flint, Michigan, in 1989. In 1990, he also launched a new daily talk show called This Is Your Day, which to this day airs clips of supposed miracles from Hinn's Miracle Crusades. The program premiered on the Trinity Broadcasting Network of Paul Crouch, who would become one of Hinn's most outspoken defenders and allies. Hinn's ministry began to rapidly grow from there, winning praise as well as criticism from fellow Christian leaders. In 1999, he stepped down as pastor of the Orlando Christian Center, moving his ministry's administrative headquarters to Grapevine, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, while hosting This Is Your Day from a television studio in Orange County, California, where he now lives with his family. His former church was renamed Faith World Church under the leadership of Clint Brown, who merged his Orlando church with Hinn's.
Benny Hinn is the author of a number of Christian books. As of 2013, his television series This Is Your Day was among the world's most-watched Christian programs, airing on various Christian television networks, including the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), Daystar Television Network, Grace TV, and The God Channel. However, TBN dropped Hinn's program in 2016, and Daystar stopped airing it in 2017. As of April 2025, Hinn's website lists Kenneth Copeland's Victory Channel as the only network broadcasting This Is Your Day, with a single weekly airing.
Hinn conducts regular "Miracle Crusades"—revival meeting / faith healing events held in sports stadiums in major cities throughout the world. Hinn claims to have spoken to one billion people through his crusades, including memorable crusades with attendance of 7.3 million people (in three services) in India, the largest healing service in recorded history. In February 2024, Hinn held a Healing the Nation Crusade at Nyayo National Stadium in Nairobi, Kenya, attended by an estimated 500,000 people, including Kenyan President William Ruto and First Lady Rachel Ruto. Evander Holyfield, who was diagnosed with a non-compliant left ventricle, has credited his healing to Benny Hinn, stating that through God working through Hinn, he was healed as he had "a warm feeling" go through his chest as Hinn touched him.
Hinn has maintained a recurring presence at Jesus Image, a charismatic ministry based in Orlando, Florida, founded by his son-in-law Michael Koulianos. Hinn has preached at numerous events and Sunday services hosted by the ministry, including an evening service that was live streamed on June 22, 2025. He is also listed as a teaching author on the Jesus Image website, underscoring both his ongoing prominence and the theological alignment between the two ministries.
== Theology and practices ==
Hinn’s theology places strong emphasis on the anointing, which he claims is a divine empowerment capable of tangibly affecting bodies and being ministered through touch, gestures, or breath. Contemporary reporting has documented how this is expressed at his services: he has been observed blowing on attendees, rubbing or flicking his suit jacket toward the crowd, and making sweeping arm gestures, after which people fall or stagger, phenomena he attributes to the Holy Spirit’s power. Hinn cites healing evangelist Kathryn Kuhlman as a formative influence, linking his understanding of the Holy Spirit’s power and ministry style to her meetings and writings.
=== Slain in the Spirit ===
A recurring feature of Hinn’s events is the phenomenon commonly called slaying in the Spirit, in which participants fall backward, often into the arms of attendants (“catchers”), after prayer or physical contact on stage. A 1987 report described a civil suit after an attendee was allegedly knocked into a bystander during a service where Hinn “was striking people on the forehead, claiming they were ‘slain of the spirit.’"
Scholars of religion and culture have analyzed such charismatic manifestations in broader Pentecostal/charismatic contexts, variously interpreting them through lenses of embodiment, suggestion, ritual, and trance rather than exclusively supernatural causation. Investigative writer Joe Nickell reported from a Hinn crusade that the responses resembled hypnotic suggestion and role-expectation, a view he contrasted with participants’ supernatural interpretations.
=== Faith healing ===
Hinn frequently frames disease-curing miracles as central to his ministry. He names specific conditions—such as cancer, blindness, spinal ailments, and emotional afflictions—as being healed through prayer, touch, or decree at his crusades. In his Buffalo, New York crusade, for example, he named ailments by back, leg, cancer, and claimed they were being healed in the moment. Critics argue that such claims lack independent medical verification and rely heavily on performative, psychosocial, or suggestive elements rather than measurable physiological change. Joe Nickell, attending a Hinn event, reported that the pattern of responses aligned with expectation and suggestion: people “behave just as if ‘hypnotized’” rather than undergoing demonstrable healing.
== Missions ==
Benny Hinn Ministries claims to support 60 mission organizations across the world and several orphanages around the world, and claims to house and feed over 100,000 children a year and support 45,000 children daily because of his donors.
Benny Hinn Ministries donated $100,000 for relief supplies for Hurricane Katrina victims in 2005, and $250,000 to the tsunami relief effort in 2007.
== Criticism and controversy ==
In March 1993 Inside Edition reported on Hinn's $685,000 Orlando home and Mercedes-Benz, despite him having previously claimed a "modest lifestyle". An employee of Inside Edition also faked a healing from cerebral palsy which was shown on Hinn's regular broadcast.
A controversial aspect of Hinn's ministry is his teaching on, and demonstration of, a phenomenon he dubs "The Anointing"—the power purportedly given by God and transmitted through Hinn to carry out supernatural acts. At his Miracle Crusades, he has allegedly healed attendees of blindness, deafness, cancer, AIDS, and severe physical injuries. However, investigative reports by the Los Angeles Times, NBC's Dateline, CBC's The Fifth Estate, and the Nine Network's 60 Minutes have called these claims into question.
Hinn has also caused controversy for theological remarks and claims he has made during TV appearances. In 1999, he appeared on the Trinity Broadcasting Network claiming that God had given him a vision predicting the resurrection of thousands of dead people after watching the network—laying out a scenario of people placing their dead loved ones' hands on TV screens tuned into the station—and suggesting that TBN would be "an extension of Heaven to Earth".
In July 2024, the Trinity Foundation expressed skepticism about Hinn's actual net worth, which various websites have alleged to be $60 million, noting the large drop in ratings for his TV viewership.
=== 1987 Oklahoma lawsuit and safety concerns ===
In August 1987, Benny Hinn and his ministry were named in a lawsuit filed in Oklahoma County District Court after an 85-year-old woman, Ruth L. McClung, died 15 days after being injured during one of his faith-healing crusades. According to court documents cited by The Washington Post and The Oklahoman, the suit alleged that another attendee was struck on the forehead by Hinn during a service at the Myriad Convention Center in Oklahoma City and fell backward into McClung, fracturing her hip. Family members asserted that Hinn and his associates failed to render aid or summon emergency medical help after the incident and sought $5 million in damages from Hinn and World Outreach Church, his affiliated ministry at the time.
=== A Question of Miracles ===
In April 2001, HBO aired a documentary entitled A Question of Miracles that focused on Hinn and a well-documented fellow Word-of-Faith German minister based in Africa, Reinhard Bonnke. Both Hinn and Bonnke offered full access to their events to the documentary crew, and the documentary team followed seven cases of reputed miracle healings from Hinn's crusade over the next year. The film's director, Antony Thomas, told CNN's Kyra Phillips that they did not find any cases where people were actually healed by Hinn. Thomas said in a New York Times interview that "If I had seen miracles [from Hinn's ministry], I would have been happy to trumpet it ... but in retrospect, I think they do more damage to Christianity than the most committed atheist."
=== "Do You Believe in Miracles" ===
In November 2004, the CBC Television show The Fifth Estate did a special titled "Do You Believe in Miracles" on the apparent transgressions committed by Hinn's ministry.
With the aid of hidden cameras and crusade witnesses, the producers of the show demonstrated Hinn's apparent misappropriation of funds, his fabrication of the truth, and the way in which his staff chose crusade audience members to come on stage to proclaim their miracle healings. In particular, the investigation highlighted the fact that the most desperate miracle seekers who attend a Hinn crusade—the quadriplegics, the brain-damaged, virtually anyone with a visibly obvious physical condition—are never allowed on stage; those who attempt to be in the line of possible healings are intercepted and directed to return to their seats.
At one Canadian service, hidden cameras showed a mother who was carrying her muscular dystrophy-afflicted daughter, Grace, being stopped by two screeners when they attempted to get into the line for a possible blessing from Hinn. The screeners asked the mother if Grace had been healed, and when the mother replied in the negative, they were told to return to their seats; the pair got out of line, but Grace, wanting "Pastor Benny to pray for [her]", asked her mother to support her as she tried to walk as a show of "her faith in action", according to the mother. After several unsuccessful attempts at walking, the pair left the arena in tears, both mother and daughter visibly upset at being turned aside and crying as they explained to the undercover reporters that all Grace had wanted was for Hinn to pray for her, but the staffers rushed them out of the line when they found out Grace had not been healed. A week later at a service in Toronto, Baptist evangelist Justin Peters who wrote his Masters in Divinity thesis on Hinn and has attended numerous Hinn crusades since 2000 as part of his research for his thesis and for a seminar he developed about the Word of Faith movement entitled A Call for Discernment, also demonstrated to the hidden cameras that "people who look like me"—Peters has cerebral palsy, walks with arm-crutches, and is obviously and visibly disabled—"are never allowed on stage ... it's always somebody who has some disability or disease that cannot be readily seen." Like Grace and her mother, Peters was quickly intercepted as he came out of the wheelchair section (there is one at every crusade, situated at the back of the audience far away from the stage and never filmed for Hinn's TV show) in an attempt to join the line of those waiting to go onstage, and was told to take a seat.
=== Ministry Watch issues "Donor Alert" ===
In March 2005, Ministry Watch issued a Donor Alert against the ministry citing a lack of financial transparency among other possible problems. Benny Hinn Ministries is not a member of the Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability.
=== Senate investigation ===
In 2007, United States Senator Chuck Grassley announced an investigation of Hinn's ministry by the United States Senate Committee on Finance. In a letter to BHM, Grassley asked for the ministry to divulge financial information to the Senate Committee on Finance to determine if Hinn made any personal profit from financial donations, and requested that Hinn's ministry make the information available. The investigation also scrutinized five other televangelists: Paula White, Kenneth Copeland, Eddie L. Long, Joyce Meyer, and Creflo Dollar. In December 2007, Hinn said he would not respond to the inquiry until 2008. The ministry subsequently responded to the inquiry, and Grassley said that "... Benny Hinn [has] engaged in open and honest dialogue with committee staff. They have not only provided responses to every question but, in the spirit of true cooperation, also have provided information over and above what was requested."
The investigation concluded in 2011 with no penalties or findings of wrongdoing. The final report raised questions about personal use of church-owned luxury goods and a lack of financial oversight on the ministries' boards, which are often populated with family and friends of the televangelist. Hinn's group reported to the committee that it complied with tax regulations and had made changes in compensation and governance procedures.
=== Prosperity theology ===
In 2017, pastor Costi Hinn, a nephew of Hinn, came forward with a testimony of his time spent in Hinn's ministry and what made him leave. In the testimony, Costi Hinn described the expensive cars and lavish houses that he and his family members owned, and the luxury that surrounded their travel. Costi Hinn criticized the prosperity gospel and teachings of his uncle, writing among other things that healings only seemed to work in the crusades, where music created an atmosphere, and that many of their prophecies contradicted the Bible. He has since written a book on the topic titled God, Greed, and the (Prosperity) Gospel. In the book, Costi Hinn calls the prosperity gospel "damning and abusive", exploitative of the poor and vulnerable, and "arguably the most hateful and abusive kind of false teaching plaguing the church today".
In September 2019, he said that Benny Hinn no longer believed in prosperity theology and decided to stop teaching it.
== Personal life ==
Hinn married Suzanne Harthern on 4 August 1979. The couple have four children. She filed divorce papers in California's Orange County Superior Court on 1 February 2010, citing "irreconcilable differences".
In July 2010, Hinn and fellow televangelist Paula White were photographed leaving a hotel in Rome holding hands. Both Hinn and White denied allegations in the National Enquirer that the two were engaged in an affair. Hinn was sued in February 2011 by the Christian publishing house Strang Communications, which claimed that a relationship with White did occur and that Hinn had violated the morality clause of his contract with the company.
In May 2012, Hinn announced that he and Suzanne had begun reconciliation during the Christmas season of 2011, stating that the split had been caused by her addiction to prescription drugs and antidepressants and citing his busy schedule and lack of time for his wife and children. Benny and Suzanne remarried on 3 March 2013, at the Holy Land Experience theme park, in a traditional ceremony lasting over two hours and attended by approximately 1,000 well-wishers, including many visiting Christian leaders. Jack Hayford referred to the remarriage as "a miracle of God's grace". However, in July 2024, Suzanne would once again file for divorce, this time in the Hillsborough County Court in Tampa, Florida.
== Published works ==
Benny Hinn (1999). Kathryn Kuhlman: Her Spiritual Legacy and Its Impact on My Life. W Pub Group. ISBN 0-7852-7888-5.
Benny Hinn (1991). Good Morning, Holy Spirit. Word Pub. ISBN 9780850092295.
Benny Hinn (April 2000). He Touched Me: an Autobiography. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7887-7.
Benny Hinn (1997). The Anointing. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7168-6.
Benny Hinn (1997). Welcome, Holy Spirit: How You Can Experience the Dynamic Work of the Holy Spirit in Your Life. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7169-4.
Benny Hinn (1996). This Is Your Day for a Miracle. Orlando, FL: Creation House. ISBN 0-88419-391-8.
Benny Hinn (October 1996). The Biblical Road to Blessing. Nashville, Tenn: Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 0-7852-7517-7.
Benny Hinn (1998). Miracle of Healing. Nashville, Tenn: J. Countryman. ISBN 0-8499-5399-5.
Benny Hinn (2001). The Blood. Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House. ISBN 0-88419-763-8.
Benny Hinn (2002). Going Deeper with the Holy Spirit. Benny Hinn Ministries. ISBN 1-59024-039-1.
Benny Hinn (1993). Lord, I Need a Miracle. Nashville, Tenn: Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 0-8407-6251-8.
Benny Hinn (6 July 2005). Total Recovery: Supernatural Restoration and Release. Dallas, Texas: Clarion Call Marketing, Inc. ISBN 1-59574-038-4.
== See also ==
Charismatic movement
Kathryn Kuhlman
List of television evangelists
Prosperity Gospel
Televangelism
Word of Faith
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Ministry Watch Report on Benny Hinn
This is Your Day with Benny Hinn – Daystar Television – Benny Hinn on Daystar Television
RICHES Podcast Documentaries: Calvary Assembly and Benny Hinn, Part 1 Archived 5 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
RICHES Podcast Documentaires: Calvary Assembly and Benny Hinn, Part 2 Archived 5 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Tate#:~:text=In%20November%202008%2C%20he%20was,Sport%20Kickboxing%20Association%20(ISKA). | Andrew Tate | Emory Andrew Tate III (born 1 December 1986) is an American and British social media personality, businessman, and former professional kickboxer who gained notoriety for promoting various highly controversial positions in the manosphere. His commentary has resulted in his expulsion from various social media platforms and concern that he promotes misogynistic views to his audience. A divisive influencer, Tate has amassed 10.7 million followers on Twitter as of June 2025 and was the third-most googled person in 2023. He has been dubbed the "king of toxic masculinity", has called himself a misogynist, and is politically described as both right-wing and far-right. As of March 2025, Tate is facing six legal investigations—four criminal and two civil—in Romania, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
From 2005, Tate began his kickboxing career in England, winning several kickboxing titles in the late 2000s and early 2010s. In 2016, he appeared on the British reality series Big Brother, but was removed, as he was the suspect in an open rape investigation in the United Kingdom. The investigation was later dropped, but Tate was subject to an extradition request for rape charges in 2024. After his kickboxing career, Tate and his brother, Tristan, began operating a webcam model business, then sold online courses. With his audience from his courses, he became prominent as an internet celebrity promoting a hyper-macho view of masculinity. Tate's courses include Hustler's University, which gained 100,000 subscribers and was later relaunched as The Real World, and the secretive group named The War Room, which the BBC has accused of coercing women into sex work and teaching violence against women. In August 2023, it was estimated that Tate's online ventures generated US$5 million in revenue monthly.
In December 2022, Tate and his brother, Tristan, were arrested in Romania, along with two women. In June 2023, all four were charged with rape, human trafficking, and forming an organised crime group to sexually exploit women. Soon after, accusers reportedly went into hiding after a campaign of online harassment, and the Tate brothers filed a defamation lawsuit, claiming $5 million in damages. In March 2024, British police obtained an arrest warrant for the Tate brothers. In July 2024, a civil case in the UK was brought against the brothers and a third person for alleged tax evasion. In August 2024, Romanian police raided four properties Tate owns and expanded its investigation to include trafficking minors, sex with a minor, money laundering and attempting to influence witnesses. Tate and his brother have denied all charges and allegations. In May 2025, the United Kingdom Crown Prosecution Service brought multiple charges against Tate and his brother Tristan including for rape, actual bodily harm and human trafficking.
== Early life ==
Emory Andrew Tate III was born on 1 December 1986 at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C. He is multiracial; his African American father, Emory Tate (1958–2015), was a chess international master, while his White English mother, Eileen Tate, worked as a catering assistant. He has a younger brother, Tristan, and a younger sister, Janine. He was raised in Chicago, Illinois, and Goshen, Indiana. In 1997, after his parents divorced, his mother took him and his brother to Luton in Bedfordshire, England. They "lived on Marsh Farm, an infamously rough council estate which Tate has described as the 'worst area of the worst town.'" He was educated at Halyard High School and Luton Sixth Form College.
== Kickboxing career ==
Tate started practising boxing and other martial arts in 2005, and worked in the television advertising industry to support himself. Tate started his career in Full contact kickboxing and gained recognition after defeating former super cruiserweight British champions Ollie Green and Mo Kargbo which got him ranked the seventh-best light heavyweight kickboxer in the United Kingdom by the International Sport Kickboxing Association (ISKA) in November 2008.
In 2009, Tate fought and defeated Paul Randall to capture the English ISKA Full Contact Cruiserweight Championship and beat Daniel Hughes for the International Kickboxing Federation Full Contact Cruiserweight British Title receiving the top rank in his division across Europe. Tate's kickboxing nickname was "King Cobra". In 2010 Tate defeated Jamie Bates by knockout.
In 2011, Tate won his first International Sport Kickboxing Association (ISKA) full contact world title in a rematch against Jean-Luc Benoît via knockout, having previously lost to Benoît by decision. The weight was set at light heavyweight 81.5 kg. In August 2011, Tate made his K-1 Rules debut and fought in the Enfusion 3: Trial of the Gladiators tournament to determine the world's Number one kickboxer in the 85 kg category. Tate qualified for the tournament, stopping Sammy Masa by second-round KO and Adnan Omeragić by first-round KO. The tournament was later resumed in December 2012. In November 2011 Tate moved up to 85 kg to challenge Vincent Petitjean for the Nuit des Champions(NDC) full contact title. Tate lost by decision.
In 2012 after scoring a knockout win over Joe McCgovan, Tate would get the opportunity to fight Sahak Parparyan for his It's Showtime 85MAX Championship and would lose by unanimous decision. On 2 December 2012, Tate returned to the Enfusion 3: Trial of the Gladiators tournament to determine the world's Number one kickboxer in the 85 kg category. Tate managed to score a victory in the semi-finals, knocking out Ritchie Hocking with punches in the first round, but lost in the final via a first-round flying knee KO from Franci Grajš who after the fight got named the best in the 85 Max weight division. Before his loss, he was ranked second-best 85 max light-heavyweight kickboxer in the world behind Sahak Parparyan.
In 2013, Tate returned to full contact kickboxing and won his second ISKA world title in a 12-round match against Vincent Petitjean in the Light Cruiserweight division, making him world champion in two weight classes. Tate returned to K-1 rules and managed to score four victories in the Enfusion ring during 2013 over David Radeff, Marino Schouten, Marlon Hunt, and Laszlo Szabo in the middleweight division.
Tate participated in a four-man tournament to determine the Enfusion 85 kg middleweight World Champion, alongside Miroslav Cingel, Jiří Žák, and Rustam Guseinov. Held in Žilina, Slovakia, on 26 April 2014, Tate lost in the semi-finals to local fighter and tournament winner, Miroslav Cingel, via unanimous decision. Tate defended the ISKA Full Contact Light Cruiserweight World Title against Cyril Vetter winning by knockout, won his first K-1 Rules World Title by defeating Wendell Roche to capture the Enfusion 90 kg Belt in 2014, making him a four-time world champion before he retired with 31 recorded fights.
In January 2015 Tate fought in K-1 in the event K-1 China vs. USA against Liang Ling. Tate won by decision. In March 2015 Tate returned to full contact kickboxing and faced Jean Luc Benoît in a trilogy fight to settle the score. Tate won by decision making the rivalry 2–1 in favor of Tate.
In December 2016, Tate returned to kickboxing to fight for the Enfusion 90 kg world title against Ibrahim El Boustati who was originally scheduled to face Marc de Bonte, however tragic events led to de Bonte's passing. Tate would lose by tko in round one due to an eye injury. Tate was later then forced into an early retirement due to his eye sustaining damage through his combat sport career which first began at just 23, when Tate experienced his first eye injury, with detached retinas in both eyes that required surgical repair. By the age of 30, when the condition resurfaced against Ibrahim, Tate then chose to retire from professional kickboxing. In 2020 Tate returned to kickboxing after a long layoff and competed in Romania against low level kickboxers scoring knockout wins over Miralem Ahmeti, Iulian Strugariu and Cosmin Lingurar.
Tate would retire again with a 76-9-1 record in kickboxing in the styles of k-1 rules and full contact. In k-1 rules, Tate managed to hold the Enfusion 90 kg world title, fought mainly in full contact achieving 3 ISKA world titles in 84.6 kg and 81.5 kg, making him a 4 time kickboxing world champion, while his brother Tristan claimed the ISKA British light cruiserweight title twice in k-1 rules and freestyle kickboxing who would also retire early with a 43–9 record due to sustaining a bad shoulder injury in a car accident preventing him from competing in kickboxing.
In 2023 Enfusion chose to establish a new label called T8KO which means Tate KO, Andrew Tate was initially scheduled to serve as a media partner alongside his brother Tristan. However, after Tate's arrest, Enfusion announced on Instagram that, "In consultation with the Dutch Fight Sports Authority, it has been decided that the Tate brothers will not be involved with the new label while the criminal investigation is still ongoing." Additionally, the Fight Sports Authority required Enfusion to rename their new brand, resulting in the name 8TKO.
== Big Brother ==
Tate gained widespread attention in 2016 when he appeared on the British reality television series Big Brother's 17th series. In the series, Tate was a member of a secret second house, part of a group called "The Others." While appearing on the show, he came under scrutiny for previously having made homophobic and racist posts on Twitter. He was removed from the show after six days, with producers saying that it was because of events outside the house and Tate saying that it was about a video which appeared to show him striking a woman with a belt on the show. Producers also said that he was not let go because of the uncovered tweets. Tate and the woman said that they were friends and that the actions in the video were consensual. Vice later reported that Tate was removed because the show's producers became aware of an ongoing police investigation by Hertfordshire Constabulary into him for rape, which closed in 2019 with no charges filed.
== Online ventures ==
Tate's website offers training courses on accumulating wealth and "male–female interactions". According to the site, he also operated a webcam studio using his girlfriends as employees. Tate and his brother, Tristan, started the webcam business, employing as many as 75 webcam models to sell "fake sob stories" to male callers, claiming to have made millions of dollars doing so. According to Mary McNamara, Tate has called himself "a pimp", and The Guardian wrote of his transition from a kickboxer to "a webcam pimp". Tate later acknowledged that the business model was a "total scam". In August 2023, it was estimated that The Real World and The War Room generated US$5 million monthly from subscriptions.
=== Hustler's University ===
Tate operated Hustler's University, a proprietary platform where members paid a US$49.99 monthly membership fee to receive instruction on ways to make money outside traditional employment, such as cryptocurrency, copywriting, and e-commerce, which was facilitated by prerecorded videos and a Discord server. The site employed an affiliate marketing program, where members received a commission for recruiting others to the platform.
Tate became prominent in 2022 by encouraging members of Hustler's University to post videos of him to social media platforms, in an effort to maximise engagement. An investigation by The Observer described "a network of copycat accounts on TikTok" that artificially amplified his content, with the social media platform appearing to allow the content to spread. Hustler's University was subsequently rebranded as Hustler University 2.0 and then Hustler University 3.0. The Irish-American financial services company Stripe pulled out of processing subscriptions for the platform, and Hustler's University shut down its affiliate marketing program. Paul Harrigan, a marketing professor at the University of Western Australia, said the affiliate programme was a social media pyramid scheme. Tate described the claim that Hustler's University's operated as a pyramid scheme as false.
=== The Real World ===
After Hustler's University shut down, Tate relaunched another version of the product named "The Real World" in October 2022. The name references Tate's idea that the world as normally perceived resembles "the Matrix" to which he offers an alternative.
The Real World primarily targets male teenagers. Former Real World students have described the programme as having a "cult-like atmosphere." The Real World has been described by a lawyer for former members as the male version of the Tate brothers' "digital grooming". Members refer to each other as "G" with Tate being the "Top G". The group is centred on Tate's "41 Tenets for men." The Real World course offering included cryptocurrency, e-commerce, and drop shipping.
In 2023, Google and Apple removed The Real World's associated app, the Real World Portal, from their app stores. In January 2024, analysis from the Center for Countering Digital Hate found The Real World official YouTube channel had received 450 million video views, and according to the researchers, a third party's channel had gained nearly 300 million views reposting The Real World content. The researchers suggested that YouTube had earned up to £2.4m in revenue from advertisements on these two channels, and criticised the company for not banning similar third party channels sooner. YouTube responded by describing the estimate as "wildly inaccurate and overinflated".
In May 2024, the website for The Real World leaked the personal data of 968,447 user accounts due to a misconfigured database. Leaked information included email addresses and account passwords. In addition, 22 million messages sent by users on the platform were also openly accessible. In November, the website suffered a cyberattack which leaked the usernames of 794,000 former and current members, 324,382 registered email addresses, as well as the contents of 221 public and 395 private chat servers.
=== The War Room ===
Advertised by Tate and costing $8,000, The War Room is described as "a global network in which exemplars of individualism work to free the modern man from socially induced incarceration", stating it teaches men "physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, and financial development". A senior member of the group, Miles Sonkin, also known as Iggy Semmelweiss, is the supposed leader of the group according to a BBC investigation. Semmelweiss reportedly met Tate in 2018, with the group established in 2019. The investigation in August 2023 led by Matt Shea documented evidence of women groomed into online sex work by members of the group, described as an all-male secretive society.
The group chat, featuring 12,000 pages of encrypted messages, indicated that the group taught a "Pimpin' Hoes Degree" course, abbreviated to PhD, using techniques to "romantically seduce, emotionally manipulate and socially isolate women before luring them into performing on webcams". A legal expert in human trafficking from Bucharest described the course as using all the practices of the "Lover Boy" strategy. A deleted description of the defunct course on the website that prosecutors in Romania have since used in the case against Tate read:My job was to meet a girl, go on a few dates, sleep with her, test if she's quality, get her to fall in love with me to where she'd do anything I say, and then get her on webcam so we could become rich together,Evidence suggested violence against women was also taught and discussed. Victims said sex was used as a manipulation technique. Members of the group believed they were performing "Pavlovian conditioning" on the women, with submission tests such as receiving tattoos on their bodies of members' initials. A whistleblower, who claimed to be former head of sales and marketing, described the group as a cult he had been "brainwashed" by. As of August 2022, there were 434 members and 45 potential victims, based on the leaked chat logs.
=== Meme coins ===
In 2024 Tate launched a meme coin called DADDY. It soon reached a market capitalisation of $217 million. The name is meant to be a play on Iggy Azalea's meme coin $MOTHER, with Tate saying that the coin was "for the patriarchy" and "We're bringing the Gs back make me a f***ing sandwich females." He has encouraged those who hold the coin to join The Real World and has promoted the coin heavily on his social media.
In October 2024 Andrew Tate was sent a series of questions by the YouTube channel Coffeezilla about his meme coin DADDY. In response Tate doxxed Coffeezilla and encouraged his supporters to email abusive content to Coffeezilla with Tate specifically requesting that they call him "gay".
== Other ventures ==
=== Boxing ===
In August 2025, sports journalist Ariel Helwani broke that news that Tate was in advanced talks with Misfits Boxing to compete in a heavyweight bout by the end of the year. However, a day later BBC Sport contacted DAZN and were informed that Tate was in fact not in negotiations with Misfits despite the earlier reports, Misfits declined to comment. On 15 October Daily Mirror reported that Tate was set to make his face reality star Chase DeMoor for the MFB heavyweight title, with the bout set to take place on 20 December at the Coca-Cola Arena in Dubai, UAE. On 19 October, Misfits formally announced the event with a promotional video that featured a cobra wrapping around a Christmas tree, a subtle nod to Tate's fighting alias. On 30 October, the bout between Tate and DeMoor was announced to headline Misfits Mania – The Fight Before Christmas, accompanied with a promotional video that claimed Tate had replaced KSI as the CEO of Misfits.
== Views ==
=== Manosphere ===
Tate is an influencer in the manosphere and "alpha male" community, described as both right-wing and far-right. According to The Conversation, he is a recognised "thought leader" in the online manosphere who mobilises his supporters to spread his ideas to a broader audience. He otherwise identifies as a libertarian and has been dubbed the "king of toxic masculinity". American conservatives such as Tucker Carlson and Candace Owens have platformed Tate as a proponent of "traditional views on men in the culture war raging over gender".
=== Women ===
Tate has been criticised for saying that women "belong in the home", "can't drive", and are "given to the man and belong to the man" as "a man's property". Tate has also said that men prefer dating 18- and 19-year-old women, because they are "likely to have had sex with fewer men", in order to "make an imprint" on teenagers, and that women who do not stay home are "hoes".
=== Sexual harassment ===
In 2017 Tate received attention for his tweets describing his view of what qualifies as sexual harassment amid the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse cases, and for tweeting several times that sexual assault victims share responsibility for their assaults. Tate came out in support of Russell Brand after multiple women accused Brand of sexual assault.
=== Far-right ideologies ===
Tate is associated with far-right ideologies and individuals, including the British activist Tommy Robinson. Before 2022, Tate became known among the online far-right through his appearances on InfoWars and acquaintances including Mike Cernovich, Jack Posobiec, and Paul Joseph Watson. He attended the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC) in 2019. Hope not Hate accuses Tate of a "long history of racist statements, homophobia and links to the organised far-right". In February 2023, Thierry Baudet, founder and leader of the far-right Forum for Democracy, called Tate an "outspoken political dissident" and "courageous critic", tabling a motion in the Dutch parliament regarding his detention in Romania. The Conversation called Tate "not explicitly far right" but otherwise as a figure who has promoted far-right propaganda, including the great replacement conspiracy theory.
Tate has questioned whether the Nazis were really the "bad guy" in World War II. Tate has performed Nazi salutes, and advocated "bring[ing] the Nazi salute back". In January 2025, after Elon Musk made a salute interpreted by many as a Nazi salute, Tate responded by saying, "we're so back".
=== Life discipline ===
In a June 2023 interview with the BBC, Tate said that he was "acting under the instruction of God to do good things" and that "I preach hard work, discipline. I'm an athlete, I preach anti-drugs, I preach religion, I preach no alcohol, I preach no knife crime."
=== Other views ===
Tate has said that depression "isn't real." Tate stated that conspiracy theorist Alex Jones is a hero. In March 2024, after the collapse of the Francis Scott Key bridge in Maryland, Tate falsely claimed the ship that collided with the bridge "was cyber-attacked". Tate was accused of inciting online hate after becoming one of the first influencers to amplify misinformation about the Southport stabbing, leading to the far-right riots in the UK.
In the context of the Gaza war, Tate has accused Israel of "genociding" Palestinians and said that the October 7 attacks was as "an eye for an eye". In response to the killing of Yahya Sinwar, he stated, "I can only pray for a death as heroic as Yahya Sinwar". Mother Jones reported that Tate also promoted an antisemitic conspiracy saying that "'the Matrix' is really just the Jewish mafia." With respect to Adolf Hitler and Holocaust denial, Tate stated, "stop crying over the Hitler crap" and "if they lied to us about Gaza and Israel … Do you think they lied about [the Second World War]?"
== Reception and influence ==
Beginning in 2022, Tate's views and their influence on teenage boys and young men have become a particular concern of parents, teachers and mental health experts in much of the world, including North America, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. The New York Times has described his views as "brainwashing a generation", due to his influence in British schools, and the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) considers Tate's misogyny mainstream. The ADL reported that Tate "teaches his acolytes that women are inferior and morally deficient beings [...] who deserve to be physically, sexually and emotionally abused", equating his philosophy to that of pickup artists.
In August 2022, the White Ribbon Campaign, a nonprofit organisation opposing male-on-female violence, called Tate's commentary "extremely misogynistic" and its possible long-term effects on his young male audience "concerning". Hope not Hate asserted that Tate's social media presence might present a "dangerous slip road into the far-right" for his audience and criticised his ties to the far right. The Rape Crisis England and Wales said it is "unacceptable that such a blatant display of misogyny is being given a platform". The Centre for Countering Digital Hate called Tate's videos "extreme misogyny" after uncovering videos viewed millions of times referencing leaving an imprint on young women. In response to these criticisms, Tate said that his content includes "many videos praising women" and mainly aims to teach his audience to avoid "toxic and low-value people as a whole". He added that he plays a "comedic character" and that people believe "absolutely false narratives" about him.
In February 2023, Tim Squirrell of the Institute for Strategic Dialogue said Tate posed "a risk of radicalising young men into misogynist extremism". In May, Hope not Hate's director of policy called Tate a "legitimising force" for misogynistic views and the End Violence Against Women Coalition's director said it is "hugely concerning" that "Tate continues to wield influence on a significant proportion of younger men, who say they agree with his views on women, masculinity and how to be a man." According to interviews by The Conversation in mid–2023, teachers explicitly identified Tate's influence on students in reference to a dramatic increase in "sexism, misogyny and sexual harassment" in Australian classrooms. In October, UK domestic abuse charity Women's Aid called Tate's content a proxy for misogyny and sexism, saying, "the popularity of Tate is not a phenomenon in and of itself and, instead, is a current representation of existing misogyny".
In a 2024 interview with Empire magazine, the actor James McAvoy said that his character Paddy in the movie Speak No Evil was inspired by Tate.
=== Response ===
In February 2023, courses for teachers in the United Kingdom on how to address Tate's views sold out. Of what was called violent misogyny and other forms of extremist content that Tate distributes online, the head of UK counter-terror policing has said, "I'm concerned about the effect of that kind of rhetoric in the minds of young boys". In April 2023, the Department for Education (DfE) discouraged discussion of Tate, with many citing his influence regarding sexual harassment and misogynistic incidents. The co-founder of the charity Diversify expressed frustration over the refusal to provide any resources or training for teachers.
In October 2023, the Australian government allocated AUD$3.5 million (£1.8 million) to counter "harmful gender stereotypes perpetuated online" in response to young fans of Tate who have been described as "increasingly bringing misogynist views into Australian schools". According to researchers at Monash University Tate and other manosphere influencers have shaped the way boys treat women and girls and led students to openly espouse "male supremacist" views, to the extent that some Australian teachers have quit their jobs.
In February 2024, the shadow education secretary in the UK, Bridget Phillipson, said the Labour Party wanted to use male role models to counter the misogyny of influencers such as Tate. The proposal would implement "peer-to-peer mentoring" programs for school staff in order to directly address the impact of Tate and others. The general secretary of the National Education Union, Daniel Kebede, welcomed the plans, saying, "schools would welcome more support on how to respond to the online sexism and sexual harassment".
=== Surveys ===
In January 2023, a survey by "The Man Cave" of 500 teenage Australian boys found that 28 per cent looked up to Tate and 36 per cent found him relatable. Of 24 schools, half said they were "seeing a significant and negative impact of his influence on our boys". The next month, a survey by Hope not Hate found that eight in ten British males aged 16–17 had viewed Tate's content, with 45 per cent of British males aged 16–24 having a positive view of him, compared to 1 per cent of British females aged 16 and 17.
In September 2023, YouGov data found that 26 per cent of men aged 18–29 and 28 per cent of men aged 30–39 agreed with Tate's views on women. Of the 63 per cent of British adults who had heard of Tate, 6 per cent held a positive view, with men making up 12 per cent and women 3 per cent of views, while about half had a negative view.
In October 2023, a survey by Women's Aid and ORB International found that 40 per cent of 7–18 year-olds had heard of Tate, including 21 per cent of 7–11 year-olds and 43–53 per cent of 11–18 year-olds. The report found a correlation between being exposed to Tate's content and having harmful perceptions of relationships, with children exposed to such content being "five times more likely to think hurting people is OK".
In February 2024, research by King's College London, the Center for Women's Global Leadership, and Ipsos found that one in five men aged 16–29 who had heard of Tate held a favourable view, compared to 7 per cent of women in the same age group. Based on the survey of over 3,700 respondents aged 16 and over, only 6 per cent held a favourable view, while more than three out of four held an unfavourable view. One in seven agreed with his views on male identity and gender roles and 61 per cent disagreed.
=== Social media ===
An early YouTube channel Andrew and Tristan made was called the Hateful Tates. Tate became widely known in mid-2022 and was searched on Google more times than both Donald Trump and COVID-19 that July. In August, The Guardian reported that videos of Tate on TikTok had been viewed 11.6 billion times. In December 2023, Tate had over 8.5 million followers on X (Twitter), an increase of 5 million since December 2022. As of August 2024, Tate has 9.9 million followers on X. He was the third-most googled person in 2023, and his Wikipedia article was ranked among the top 25 English Wikipedia articles in 2023.
In December 2022, Tate addressed the environmentalist Greta Thunberg in a tweet extolling his carbon-emitting automobiles and asked for her email address to give her more information. Thunberg replied with the fake, satirical email address "smalldickenergy@getalife.com". The exchange received substantial attention on Twitter, with Thunberg's retort quickly becoming one of the most-liked tweets ever.
Tate gained notoriety on social media for promoting a "hyper-masculine, ultra-luxurious lifestyle" and a "hyper-macho image". According to The Guardian in February 2023, Tate is popular among British teenage boys, who mimic his phrases and philosophies. It reported that "virtually every parent in Britain" had heard of him, and that parents and schoolteachers expressed concern that he was influencing boys to exhibit misogynistic and aggressive behaviour. In the UK and Australia, increased sexual harassment in schools has been attributed to Tate's influence.
In January 2023 the BBC reported that Tate and his brother had used social media to contact various young women in an attempt to get them to join their webcam business. A year later, the Center for Countering Digital Hate found that YouTube had earned up to £2.4 million in advertising revenue from Tate's content and accused YouTube of being "happy to continue to turn a blind eye". YouTube called the figure "wildly inaccurate and overinflated", highlighting that most channels are not monetised for such revenue.
==== Deplatforming ====
Three of Tate's Twitter accounts have been suspended at different times. In 2021, an account he created to evade his previous ban was verified by Twitter, contrary to its policies. The account was subsequently permanently banned, and Twitter said the verification occurred in error.
In August 2022, after an online campaign to deplatform him, Tate was permanently banned from Facebook and Instagram, losing 4.7 million followers from the latter. Their parent company, Meta, said he had violated its policy on "dangerous organizations and individuals". TikTok, where videos featuring Tate's name as a hashtag have been viewed over 13 billion times, also removed his account after determining that it violated their policies on "content that attacks, threatens, incites violence against, or otherwise dehumanises an individual or a group". Shortly thereafter, YouTube suspended his channel, which had 760,000 subscribers, citing multiple violations, including hate speech and COVID-19 misinformation. Tate later deleted his own Twitch channel, which had 50,000 subscribers. In November 2022, after Elon Musk acquired Twitter, Tate's Twitter account was reinstated.
Tate responded to the bans by saying that, while most of his comments were taken out of context, he took responsibility for how they were received. The YouTuber and boxer Jake Paul denounced Tate's sexism but characterised the bans as censorship. Tate's content continues to circulate on Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok via fan accounts. After the bans, Tate moved to the alt-tech platforms Gettr and Rumble, causing the latter to briefly become the most downloaded app on the Apple App Store.
=== Political party launch ===
In 2025, Tate stated he launched a new political party, the BRUV (Britain Restoring Underlying Values) Party, which was reported to be part of his plan to become prime minister. The party's official website stated, "This is a war to reclaim Britain. No excuses, no compromises, no second chances. We will defend our borders, crush crime, purge corruption, and restore pride to a nation under siege."
The party launch was widely ridiculed on social media, with one Twitter user describing its manifesto as a "mix of North Korea and homoeroticism" while another described the party as the "very worst idea in the history of British politics". Some speculated that it was only a PR stunt, but Tate dismissed the claims, stating, "I am 100% serious. I am in the next election".
The Twitter handle for the political party was suspended. However, after Tate made a complaint to Elon Musk, the account was restored.
== Personal life ==
In 2017 Tate and his brother moved from the United Kingdom to Romania, where they run multiple businesses. Tate said that he moved because he liked "living in countries where corruption is accessible for everybody" and believed he would be less likely to face rape charges in Romania. He said that Romanian police ask women reporting rapes for "evidence" or "CCTV proof", whereas in the Western world during the #MeToo movement any woman "at any point in the future can destroy your life". Tate reportedly has a number of children living in Romania whom he occasionally visits.
Tate was raised Christian but later became an atheist. By early 2022, he identified as a Christian again, and said that he tithed £16,000 to the Romanian Orthodox Church monthly. After a video of him praying at a mosque in Dubai went viral in October 2022, he announced on his Gettr account that he had converted to Islam. Scholars of the faith, such as Mufti Menk, have publicly commended his decision, with Menk stating in a recorded interview that Tate "seems like a very sincere brother" in response to it.
In March 2023, while incarcerated in Romania, Tate's legal team said that "he has a dark spot on his lung, most likely a tumor" following a medical consultation in Dubai, sparking online rumours about whether he has lung cancer. Tate later denied on Twitter that he had cancer.
In June 2025, it was revealed that Tate had received citizenship of Vanuatu through the country's citizenship by investment scheme in December 2022. A spokesperson for Vanuatu's government later stated that they were "definitely looking into" revoking Tate's citizenship.
== Criminal investigations and civil cases ==
=== 2010s ===
Tate was first arrested in Britain in July 2015 after two women filed complaints accusing him of rape and assault and was again arrested on suspicion of rape in December 2015. In 2019, the Crown Prosecution Service declined to file charges for any of the allegations.
==== 2018 ====
Canadian alt-right YouTuber and political activist Lauren Southern wrote in her 2025 memoir that she had met Tate in Romania in 2018. She said in the book that, after he had taken her from a nightclub to her hotel room, "He kissed me. I wasn't expecting it, and I wasn't looking for it, but I kissed him back briefly and then told him I wanted to sleep." She said that, after he insisted in touching her and she tried to fight back, he "put his arm around my neck and began strangling me unconscious. I tried to fight back…. I'd prefer not to share the rest. It's pretty obvious."
=== 2020s ===
==== 2022 ====
In April 2022, the US embassy received a report that an American citizen was being held against her will in a property the Tate brothers own in Pipera, Romania. Romanian police raided the home and a nearby webcam studio belonging to the Tates, where they discovered four women. Two of them, the American and another Romanian woman, told the police they were being held against their will, sparking an in-rem investigation into human trafficking and rape by DIICOT, the Romanian anti-organised crime agency. Later in December, police arrested the Tates and two women. All four were suspected of human trafficking and forming an organised crime group, and one of them is suspected of rape. Romanian authorities seized 29 assets, including cars, properties, watches, and money, totalling almost US$4 million.
==== 2023 ====
In June 2023, DIICOT adjusted the charges from human trafficking to "human trafficking in continued form", a more serious charge, with seven victims identified. The four accused were indicted on charges of rape, human trafficking, and forming an organised crime group to sexually exploit women. They continue to deny all charges and remain under investigation for money laundering and trafficking of minors. That same month, the Tate brothers filed a defamation lawsuit against one of the accusers, their parents and two other people, in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States, seeking $5 million in damages. The Tates claim the five conspired to falsely accuse them of human trafficking and rape, costing them their freedom as well as income from social media and business ventures.
==== 2024 ====
In January 2024, the Romanian criminal case was heard in the preliminary chamber before a trial date was set, and three months later, the Bucharest Tribunal decided that the case against Tate "met the legal criteria". That same month, US District Judge Robin L. Rosenberg dismissed another of the brothers' defamation lawsuits. They had sued a former United States Marine Corps sergeant who reported Tate to the US Embassy in Romania and military officials, leading to his arrest by Romanian authorities.
In March 2024, Westminster Magistrates' Court issued a European arrest warrant against Andrew and Tristan Tate. According to Tate's representative, the charges are based on allegations of sexual aggression from 2012 to 2015. The Tate brothers "categorically reject all charges". In July, Devon and Cornwall Police began civil proceedings against Tate, Tristan, and a third person, for tax evasion with their online businesses. Two months later, the three women involved in the British investigation, along with a fourth British woman, brought a civil case against Tate.
In August 2024, Romanian police expanded their investigation against Tate to include trafficking minors, sex with a minor, money laundering and attempting to influence witnesses. Prosecutors said the new investigation involves 35 alleged victims, including a woman who was a minor at the time. The Tate brothers, among the six detained the next day, denied all the allegations.
In December 2024, the Westminster Magistrates' Court ruled in favour of the Devon and Cornwall Police, allowing them to seize £2.8 million worth of unpaid taxes from the Tate brothers' online businesses.
==== 2025 ====
In February 2025, Alison Hernandez, the Police and Crime Commissioner for Devon and Cornwall in the UK, announced that the force had received around £1.2 million and she hoped that the funds would be used to support the victims of violence against women and girls. In the US, following pressure from the Trump administration on Romanian authorities to lift travel restrictions, Tate left Romania by private jet for the United States and arrived in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where he had become the subject of a statewide criminal investigation.
In March 2025, Florida's Attorney General, James Uthmeier, initiated a criminal investigation into the affairs of Tate upon his arrival in the state. Tate's ex-girlfriend, Brianna Stern, has accused him of choking and beating her at The Beverly Hills Hotel on 10 March, and Stern claims she was later diagnosed with post-concussion syndrome. She subsequently filed a lawsuit against Tate accusing him of physical and sexual abuse. Tate has denied her accusations.
In May 2025, the UK Crown Prosecution Service brought 21 charges against Tate and his brother Tristan including for rape, actual bodily harm and human trafficking.
== Kickboxing record ==
== Mixed martial arts record ==
=== Professional record ===
=== Amateur record ===
== MF–Professional boxing record ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Andrew Tate at BoxRec (registration required)
Andrew Tate at Sherdog
Andrew Tate at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Kathmandu#cite_note-:0-2 | Mayor of Kathmandu | The mayor of Kathmandu is the head of the municipal executive of Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The officeholder is elected for a five-year term and limited to serving no more than two terms. The role was first created in 1932 during the Rana regime.
The current mayor is Balendra Shah, who was elected in the 2022 election and took office on 30 May 2022. The position has been held by fifteen people in a permanent capacity since its creation.
The city of Kathmandu is scrutinized by the Kathmandu Metropolitan City Municipal Assembly and the mayor is supported by the Municipal Executive which consists of ward chairs of all 32 wards of Kathmandu.
== History ==
Kathmandu was first declared as a municipality in 1932 after the formulation of the Kathmandu Municipality Sabal act. It was founded as a waste management department and Singh Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was appointed as the first 'Mayor Man' of Kathmandu municipality in the same year by the government of Chandra Shumsher.
In 1947, the first municipal elections were held in Kathmandu. Gehendra Shumsher Thapa was appointed as the chairman of Kathmandu by the Rana regime and Shankar Dev Pant was elected as his deputy from the common people.
In the first democratic elections since the fall of the Rana regime in 1953, Janak Man Shrestha was elected as mayor of Kathmandu by the council in an indirect election and became the city's first elected mayor. After King Mahendra's coup d'teat in 1960, the position of mayor was abolished and the Pradhan Panch (Council Head) would be the elected head of Kathmandu municipality.
Kathmandu municipality was declared as a metropolitan city by mayor Prem Lal Singh in 1995 and Keshav Sthapit was elected as the first mayor of the metropolitan city in 1997.
== Power and functions ==
Local government in Nepal has authority over the local units pursuant to Schedule 8 of the Constitution of Nepal. The mayor derives its power from the Local Government Operation Act, 2017.
The main functions of the mayor are:
Summon and chair meetings of the municipal assembly and the municipal executive.
Table agendas and proposals to the municipal assembly and the municipal executive.
Prepare and present the annual programme and budget.
Enforce the decisions of the assembly and the executive.
Oversee the work of committees and sub-committees of the municipality and ward committees.
The mayor of Kathmandu is also a member of the Kathmandu District Assembly, and an ex-officio member of the Pashupati Area Development Trust, the Boudhanath Area Development Committee, the senate of the National Academy of Medical Sciences and the chairman of the Valley Municipal Forum.
== List of mayors ==
=== Rana regime (1932–51) ===
=== Transition period (1953–60) ===
=== Panchayat era (1966–90) ===
=== Constitutional monarchy era (1990–2008) ===
=== Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (2017–present) ===
== See also ==
History of Kathmandu
Mayor of Pokhara
Mayor of Dharan
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Hasan_Deobandi | Mahmud Hasan Deobandi | Mahmud Hasan Deobandi (also known as Shaykh al-Hind; 1851–1920) was an Indian Muslim scholar and an activist of the Indian Independence Movement, who co-founded the Jamia Millia Islamia University and launched the Silk Letter Movement for the freedom of India. He was the first student to study at the Darul Uloom Deoband seminary. His teachers included Mahtab Ali Deobandi, Muhammad Qasim Nanawtawi and Mahmud Deobandi, and he was authorized in Sufism by Imdadullah Muhajir Makki and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi.
Hasan served as the principal of the Darul Uloom Deoband and founded organisations such as the Jamiatul Ansar and the Nizaratul Maarif. He wrote a translation of the Quran in Urdu and authored books such as Adilla-e-Kāmilah, Īzah al-adillah, Ahsan al-Qirā and Juhd al-Muqill. He taught hadith at the Darul Uloom Deoband and copyedited the Sunan Abu Dawud. His major students included Ashraf Ali Thanwi, Anwar Shah Kashmiri, Hussain Ahmad Madani, Kifayatullah Dehlawi, Sanaullah Amritsari and Ubaidullah Sindhi.
Hasan was a staunch opponent of the British Raj. He launched movements to overthrow their power in India but was arrested in 1916 and imprisoned in Malta. He was released in 1920, and was honoured with the title of "Shaykh al-Hind" (The Leader of India) by the Khilafat committee. He wrote religious edicts in support of the Non-cooperation movement and travelled various parts of India, to enroll Muslims in the freedom movement. He presided the second general meeting of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind in November 1920 and was appointed its president. The Shaikh-Ul-Hind Maulana Mahmood Hasan Medical College is named in his memory. In 2013, the Government of India released a commemorative postal stamp on his Silk Letter Movement, also called as Reshmi Rumal Movement.
== Early life ==
Mahmud Hasan was born in 1851 in the town of Bareilly (in modern Uttar Pradesh, India) into the Usmani family of Deoband. His father, Zulfiqar Ali Deobandi, who co-founded the Darul Uloom Deoband, was a professor at the Bareilly College and then served as the deputy inspector of madrasas.
Hasan studied the Quran with Miyanji Manglori, and Persian with Abdul Lateef. During the 1857 war of Independence from British, his father was transferred to Meerut, and Hasan was shifted to Deoband, where he studied Persian and Arabic literature from the Dars-e-Nizami course with his uncle, Mahtab Ali Deobandi. He became the first student at the Darul Uloom Deoband; and studied with Mahmud Deobandi. He completed his formal studies in 1869 and went to Meerut to study the Sihah Sittah with Muhammad Qasim Nanawtawi. He attended the hadith discourses of Nanawtawi for two years, and studied Arabic literature with his father during the vacations. He graduated in 1872 and received the turban of honour in 1873 in the first convocation of the Darul Uloom Deoband. He was an authorized disciple of Imdadullah Muhajir Makki and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi in Sufism.
== Career ==
=== Darul Uloom Deoband ===
Hasan was appointed a teacher at the Darul Uloom Deoband in 1873, the same year he completed his studies. He became its principal in 1890, succeeding Syed Ahmad Dehlavi. He did not consider the Deoband seminary just a place of learning, but an institution established to compensate the loss of 1857 rebellion.
Hasan formed the Thamratut-Tarbiyat (The Fruit of the Upbringing) in 1878. It was established as an intellectual centre to train the students and graduates of the Darul Uloom Deoband. It then took the form of Jamiatul Ansar (Community of Helpers), which started in 1909 with its first session held in Moradabad and presided over by Ahmad Hasan Amrohi. Alongside his student Ubaidullah Sindhi, Hasan then started the Nizaratul Ma'arif al-Qur'ānia (Academy of Quranic Learning) in November 1913. It aimed to increase the influence of Muslim scholars and to instruct and teach English-educated Muslims about Islam. Hussain Ahmad Madani suggests that "the purpose behind establishing Nizaratul Maarif was to make Muslim youth stronger believers, and to instruct and guide them, specially western-educated Muslims, in the Quranic teachings in such a logical way that it would remove the poisonous impact of anti-Islam propaganda and ill-founded skepticism about practicality of Islamic belief and tenets in modern age."
=== Silk Letter Movement ===
Hasan wanted to overthrow the British Raj in India; to achieve this, he focussed on two geographic areas. The first was the area of autonomous tribes that lived between Afghanistan and India. Asir Adrawi states, "this is the historical reality that people who came to invade India used that route, and Hasan's selection of this area for his movement was definitely the highest evidence of his prudence and insight." The second area was within India; he wanted to influence all the sincere leaders who cared for the community to support his cause, and in this he was quite successful. The scholars that worked on the first front included his students and companions such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Abdur-Raheem Sindhi, Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari, Ubaidullah Sindhi and Uzair Gul Peshawari. They propagated the program of Hasan into the frontier areas and into those of the autonomous tribes. The scholars that worked on the second front included Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Abdur-Raheem Raipuri and Ahmadullah Panipati. Muhammad Miyan Deobandi states, "Shaikhul Hind used to watch carefully the nature and capability of his disciples and people who approached him. He selected some persons from amongst them and commanded them to reach Yaghistan and instigate the autonomous tribes to attack India." The program designed to prepare the people inside India for a rebellion if the Afghani and Turkish governments provided military aid to the militia and people within the country rose up for the rebellion during the invasion by this army. Yaghistan was the center of the movement of Mahmud Hasan. The Provisional Government of India was designed by Hasan's pupil Ubaidullah Sindhi and his companions, and Mahendra Pratap was appointed the President.
Hasan himself traveled to Hejaz to secure German and Turkish support in 1915. He left Bombay on 18 September 1915, and was accompanied by scholars including Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari, Murtaza Hasan Chandpuri, Muhammad Sahool Bhagalpuri and Uzair Gul Peshawari. On 18 October 1915, he went to Mecca where he had meetings with Ghalib Pasha, the Turkish governor, and Anwar Pasha, who was the defense minister of Turkey. Ghalib Pasha assured him of assistance and gave him three letters, one addressed to the Indian Muslims, the second to the governor Busra Pasha, and the third to Anwar Pasha. Hasan also had a meeting with the Djemal Pasha, the governor of Syria, who concurred with what Ghalib Pasha had said. Hasan feared that if he returned to India, he might be arrested by the British, and asked that he be allowed to reach the Afghanistan border from where he could reach Yaghistan. Djemal made an excuse and told him that if he feared arrest, he could stop at Hejaz or any other Turkish area. Subsequently, the program called the Silk Letter Movement was leaked and its members were arrested. Hasan was arrested in December 1916 alongside his companions and students, Hussain Ahmad Madani and Uzair Gul Peshawari, by Sharif Hussain, the Sharif of Mecca, who revolted against the Turks and allied with the British. The Sharif then handed them over to the British, and they were imprisoned in Fort Verdala in Malta.
=== Khilafat movement ===
Hasan was released in May 1920, and by 8 June 1920 he had reached Bombay. He was welcomed by major scholars and political figures including Abdul Bari Firangi Mahali, Hafiz Muhammad Ahmad, Kifayatullah Dehlawi, Shaukat Ali and Mahatma Gandhi. His release was seen as a huge aid to the Khilafat Movement and he was honoured with the title of "Shaykh al-Hind" (The Leader of India) by the Khilafat Committee.
Hasan inspired the scholars of Deoband seminary to join the Khilafat movement. He issued a religious edict on the boycott of British goods; which was sought by the students of then Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College. In this edict, he advised the students to avoid supporting the government in any manner, to boycott the government funded schools and colleges, and to avoid government jobs. Following this edict, a majority of students left the college. This edict supported the Non-cooperation movement. Hasan then travelled to Allahabad, Fatehpur, Ghazipur, Faizabad, Lucknow and Moradabad and guided Muslims in support of the movements.
=== Jamia Millia Islamia ===
Hasan was asked to preside over the foundational ceremony of the Jamia Millia Islamia, then known as the National Muslim University. The University was established by Hasan alongside Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Hakim Ajmal Khan, who were motivated by the demands of students of Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) who were disappointed with the AMU's pro-British bias and who wanted a new university. Hasan's servants, however, urged him not to accept the offer as he had grown increasingly weak and pale from his time of incarceration in Malta. Hasan stated, in response to their concerns, "If my president-ship pains the British, then I shall definitely take part in this ceremony." He was subsequently brought to Deoband railway station in a palanquin, from where he traveled to Aligarh.
Hasan was not able to write anything, and asked his student Shabbir Ahmad Usmani to prepare his presidential speech. He then made corrections and improvements to the prepared speech, and sent it to print. On 29 October 1920, this speech was read aloud by Usmani in the foundational ceremony of the university, after which Hasan laid the foundation stone of the Jamia Millia Islamia. Hasan said in the speech that "the knowledgeable people amongst you are well aware that my elders and predecessors never issued an edict of disbelief over learning of a foreign language or acquiring the academic sciences of other nations. Yes, it was said that the final last effect of the English-education is that its seekers either colour themselves in that of the Christianity or they mock their own religion and co-religionists through their atheistic insolence, or they worship the current government; then it is better to remain ignorant instead of seeking such education." He concurred with Mahatma Gandhi's who stated that, "the higher education of these colleges is pure and clean as the milk, but mixed with a little bit of poison" and considered the Muslim National University, as an alembic which would separate this poison from academia.
=== Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind ===
Hasan presided over the second general meeting of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, which was held in November 1920 in Delhi. He was appointed the president of the Jamiat, a position he could not serve due to his death after few days [on 30 November]. The general meeting was held over three days starting from 19 November, and Hasan's presidential speech was read aloud by his student Shabbir Ahmad Usmani. Hasan advocated a Hindu-Muslim-Sikh unity and said that, if Hindus and Muslims unite, acquiring freedom was not much more difficult. This was the last conference that Hasan attended.
== Students ==
Hasan's students number in thousands. His major students include Anwar Shah Kashmiri, Asghar Hussain Deobandi, Ashraf Ali Thanwi, Hussain Ahmad Madani, Izaz Ali Amrohi, Kifayatullah Dihlawi, Manazir Ahsan Gilani, Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari, Muhammad Shafi, Sanaullah Amritsari, Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, Syed Fakhruddin Ahmad, Ubaidullah Sindhi and Uzair Gul Peshawari. Ebrahim Moosa states that his "fine cohort of students later gained renown in the madrasa network and made contribution to the public life in South Asia in fields as diverse as religious scholarship, politics, and institution-building."
== Literary works ==
=== The translation of the Quran ===
Hasan wrote an interlinear translation of the Quran in Urdu. He later started to annotate this translation with explanatory notes, as he had just completed the fourth chapter An-Nisa, when he died in 1920. The exegetical work was completed by his student Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, and is published as Tafsir-e-Usmāni. It was later translated into Persian by a group of scholars, patronized by Mohammed Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan.
=== Al-Abwāb wa Al-Tarājim li al-Bukhāri ===
Hasan taught Sahih Bukhari at the Darul Uloom Deoband for a long time and, when he was incarcerated in Malta, he began to write a treatise explaining its chapter-headings. In the hadith studies, the assignation of the chapter-headings in a collection of traditions is seen as a separate science. Hasan started the treatise with fifteen principles on the subject, and then discussed the traditions from the chapter on revelation and incompletely covered the chapter on knowledge. The treatise is entitled al-abwāb wa al-tarājim li al-Bukhāri (transl. An Explanation of the Chapter Headings of Imam Bukhari's Sahih) and spreads over 52 pages.
=== Adilla-e-Kāmilah ===
As the Ahl-i Hadith movement was growing in India they started questioning the authority of Hanafi school of thought. Ahl-i Hadith scholar Muhammad Hussain Batalvi compiled a set of ten questions and announced a challenge with a reward for those who provided an answer, with ten rupees per answer. This was published from Amritsar and sent to Darul Uloom Deoband. The Deoband's policy had been to avoid the issues which divide the Muslim community, but the Ahl-i Hadith people forced the issue. Subsequently, Hasan, at the request of his teacher Nanawtawi, in return asked a series of questions in the form of a treatise, Adilla-e-Kāmilah (transl. The Perfect Argument), promising that, "if you answer these questions, we shall give you twenty rupees per answer."
=== Īzah al-Adillah ===
After Mahmud Hasan's Adilla-e-Kāmilah, an Ahl-i Hadith scholar Ahmad Hasan Amrohwi wrote Misbāh al-Adillah (transl. A Lantern to the Argument) in response to Adilla-e-Kāmilah. The Deobandi scholar waited for a while for any response from the original questioner, Muhammad Hussain Batalwi, who then announced that Amrohwi's work was sufficient, and that he has himself had discarded the idea of writing the answers. Mahmud Hasan, in response, wrote Izāh al-Adillah (transl. Elucidation of the Argument); a commentary on his earlier work Adilla-e-Kāmilah.
=== Ahsan al-Qirā ===
Hasan has discussed the permissibility of Friday prayers in villages and rural areas in this book. Syed Nazeer Husain had raised this issue and published a religious edict which decreed that there is no specification of any place [for the Friday prayers]. He stated that, wherever a least of two people gather, the Friday prayers are necessary. Hanafi jurist and scholar, Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, penned a fatwa over 14 pages in response, called the Awthaq al-'Urā (transl. The Strongest Ring) from the perspective of the Hanafi school of thought.
Gangohi's work received criticism from the Ahl-i Hadith scholars; most of which reproduced the same arguments. Gangohi's pupil Mahmud Hasan felt that the language of these works was insolent, and wrote a lengthy book, entitled Ahsan al-Qirā fī Tawzīḥ Awthaq al-'Urā (transl. The Best Discourse in The Elucidation of The Strongest Ring), in response.
=== Juhd al-Muqill ===
Shah Ismail Dehlvi and his companions who worked for the reformation of Muslims from Bidʻah (religious innovations), received wide criticism from the people who were associated with these innovations. Dehlvi was in particular accused of blasphemy and was excommunicated from Islam. Subsequently, Islamic scholar Ahmad Hasan Kanpuri wrote Tanzih al-Raḥmān (transl. The Glorification of the Merciful), in which he mentioned Dehlvi to be a member of extreme group of the Muʿtazila. Mahmud Hasan, in response, wrote Juhd al-Muqill fī tanzīhi al-Mu'izzi wa al-Mudhill (transl. An Effort of an Insignificant on the Glorification of One who Graces and Disgraces), in two volumes. The book discusses the attributes and qualities of Allah with the terminology of the Ilm al-Kalam, following the accent of Al-Taftazani's commentary Sharah Aqā'id-e-Nasafi, on al-Nasafi's creed. Hasan responded to the allegations made against Shah Ismail Dehlvi and other such scholars, using Ilm al-Kalam.
=== Tas'hīh Abu Dawūd ===
The written manuscripts of the Sihah Sittah were preserved in the libraries of Islamic nations, with the majority held at Mecca and Medina. The Indian scholar Ahmad Ali Saharanpuri copied the manuscripts that existed in Mecca, and then studied them with Shah Muhammad Ishaq. When he returned to India he started publishing the copyedited editions of these hadith manuscripts from his press. His pupil Muhammad Qasim Nanawtawi continued the practice of copyediting the hadith manuscripts until all of the books were published in India.
Later there was a push to copyedit the Sunan Abu Dawud, one among the six major books of the hadith. However, the editions that were published and the original written manuscripts majorly differed from each other. Hasan thus collected all the available manuscripts, copyedited the text and had several editions of it published in book form. These were published in 1900 from the Mujtabai Press in Delhi.
== Death and legacy ==
On 30 October 1920, a day after the foundation of the Jamia Millia Islamia in Aligarh, Hasan travelled to Delhi at the request of Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari. Several days later his health deteriorated and he received treatment from Ansari at his home in Daryaganj. He died on 30 November 1920 in Delhi. As the news of his death was announced, Hindus and Muslims closed their shops and gathered outside Ansari's house to pay tributes to Hasan. Ansari then asked Hasan's brother Hakeem Muhammad Hasan if he preferred Mahmud Hasan to be buried in Delhi with arrangements to be made at the Mehdiyan cemetery, or if preferred to bury him at Deoband with arrangements made for moving the body. It was decided to bury him at Deoband because of his wish that he be buried near the grave of his teacher Muhammad Qasim Nanawtawi. His funeral prayers were offered multiple times. The people of Delhi offered the prayers outside Ansari's house, and then the body was moved to Deoband. As they reached the Delhi railway station, a plethora of people gathered and offered funeral prayers. Subsequently, prayers were offered at the Meerut City railway station and Meerut Cantt railway station. His fifth and last funeral prayer was led by his brother Hakeem Muhammad Hasan and he was buried in the Qasmi cemetery. His descendents include, Manzoor Usmani, writer based in Delhi, India.
Mahmud Hasan has had a number of honours. Ashraf Ali Thanwi called him "Shaykh al'-'Ālam" (The Leader of the World). Thanwi states that, "In our opinion, he is the Leader of India, Sindh, the Arab and the Ajam". A medical college in Saharanpur was named Shaikh-Ul-Hind Maulana Mahmood Hasan Medical College after him. In January 2013, the President of India, Pranab Mukherjee released a commemorative postal stamp on Hasan's Silk Letter Movement.
Shaikhul Hind Academy, a department of Darul Uloom Deoband, is named in his memory.
The Shaykh al-Hind Program, an immersion level Islamic Studies program taught at Darul Qasim College, is also named in his honor.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
== Further reading ==
Arshad, Mawlāna Abdur Rasheed (January 2000). "Shaykhul Hind Mawlānā Maḥmūd Ḥasan". In Deobandi, Nawaz (ed.). Sawaneh Ulama-e-Deoband (in Urdu). Vol. 2. Deoband: Nawaz Publications. pp. 434–522.
Metcalf, Barbara D. (1982). Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05343-X. OCLC 889252131.
Mujab, Muhammad (2001). Islamic sciences in india and indonesia: a comparative study (Thesis). India: Department of Sunni Theology, Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 161–167. hdl:10603/58830.
Shafi, Muhammad, ed. (2001). Urdu Daira Maarif Islamiya (PDF) (in Urdu). Vol. 20. Lahore, Pakistan: University of the Punjab. pp. 32–39.
== External links ==
Visit to Malta with Mufti Ahmad Khanpuri and Colleagues |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahal#Inspiration | Taj Mahal | The Taj Mahal ( TAHJ mə-HAHL, TAHZH -; Hindustani: [taːdʒ ˈmɛɦ(ɛ)l]; lit. 'Crown of the Palace') is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the right bank of the river Yamuna in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was commissioned in 1631 by the fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), to house the tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses the tomb of Shah Jahan himself. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall.
Construction of the mausoleum was completed in 1648, but work continued on other phases of the project for another five years. The first ceremony held at the mausoleum was an observance by Shah Jahan, on 6 February 1643, of the 12th anniversary of the death of Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around ₹32 million, which in 2015 would be approximately ₹52.8 billion (US$827 million).
The building complex incorporates the design traditions of Indo-Islamic and Mughal architecture. It employs symmetrical constructions with the usage of various shapes and symbols. While the mausoleum is constructed of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, red sandstone was used for other buildings in the complex similar to the Mughal era buildings of the time. The construction project employed more than 20,000 workers and artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahori, the emperor's court architect.
The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being "the jewel of Islamic art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage". It is regarded as one of the best examples of Mughal architecture and a symbol of Indian history. The Taj Mahal is a major tourist attraction and attracts more than five million visitors a year. In 2007, it was declared a winner of the New 7 Wonders of the World initiative. The Taj Mahal and its setting, surrounding grounds, and structures are a Monument of National Importance, administered by the Archaeological Survey of India.
== Etymology ==
The name "Taj Mahal" is of Urdu origin, and believed to be derived from Arabic and Persian, with the words tāj mahall meaning "crown" (tāj) "palace" (mahall). An alternative derivation of "taj" is that it was a corruption of the second syllable of "Mumtaz".
Abdul Hamid Lahori, in his 1636 book Padshahnama, refers to the Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara (Perso-Arabic: روضه منواره, rawdah-i munawwarah), meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb.
== Inspiration ==
The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died on 17 June that year while giving birth to their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction started in 1632, and the mausoleum was completed in 1648, while the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later.
The imperial court documenting Shah Jahan's grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrates the love story held as the inspiration for the Taj Mahal. According to contemporary historians Muhammad Amin Qazvini, Abdul Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh, Shah Jahan did not show the same level of affection for others as he had shown Mumtaz while she was alive. After her death, he avoided royal affairs for a week due to his grief and gave up listening to music and lavish dressing for two years. Shah Jahan was enamoured by the beauty of the land at the south side of Agra on which a mansion belonging to Raja Jai Singh I stood. He chose the place for the construction of Mumtaz's tomb after which Jai Singh agreed to give it to emperor Shah Jahan in exchange for a large palace in the centre of Agra.
== Architecture and design ==
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Indo-Islamic and Mughal architecture. Inspirations for the building came from Timurid and Mughal buildings including the Gur-e Amir in Samarkand (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty) and Humayun's Tomb in Delhi which inspired the Charbagh gardens and hasht-behesht plan of the site. The building complex employs symmetrical constructions with the usage of various shapes and symbols. While the mausoleum is constructed of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, red sandstone was used for other buildings in the complex similar to the Mughal era buildings of the time. The entire complex sits on a platform measuring 300 metres (980 ft) in length and 8.7 metres (28.5 ft) in height on the banks of the Yamuna river. The platform is built with varying patterns of dark and light colored sandstone.
=== Exterior ===
The mausoleum building is the central structure of the entire complex. It is a white marble structure standing on a 6-metre (20 ft) high square plinth with sides measuring 95.5 metres (313 ft) in length. The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an eight-sided structure that is approximately 57.3 metres (188 ft) long on each of the four long sides.
The building has four identical sides with iwans (arch-shaped doorways), topped by a large dome and finial. Each side of the iwan is framed with a 33-metre (108 ft) high pishtaq (vaulted archway) with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of archways is replicated on a smaller scale on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical. At the southern side of the platform, facing the garden, there are two flights of stairs on either side which are partly covered and provide the only access from ground level up to the mausoleum building.
The predominant feature of the mausoleum is the 23-metre (75 ft) high marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The onion shaped dome sits on a 12-metre (39 ft) high cylindrical drum with an inner diameter of 18.4 metres (60 ft). The dome is slightly asymmetrical and is topped by a 9.6-metre (31 ft) high gilded finial. The intermediate zone between the drum and the dome is supplanted by an ornamental moulding with a twisted rope design.
The main dome is surrounded by four smaller domes or chattris placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. The smaller domes are supported by columns which stand on the top of the main structure and help bring light to the interior of the building. Tall spires called guldastas extend from edges of walls which serve as decorative elements. The main and the smaller domes are decorated with a design resembling a lotus flower. The domes are topped by decorative finials which uses Persian and Indian design elements. The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif, whose horns point heavenward.
Four minarets flank the tomb building, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The four minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, are symmetrically arranged on the corners facing the chamfered corners of the main building. Each minaret is composed of three almost equal parts with balconies at the intersection of the portions. The towers are also surmounted by smaller chattris and incorporate the same design elements as the main dome with a finial. Steps lead to the top of the tower with rectangular openings below the domes providing light and air on the top. The minarets were designed similar to traditional elements of a mosque, which are used by the muezzin to call for prayer. The minarets were constructed slightly oriented towards the outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.
The external surfaces of the building are decorated with a number of delicate relief art adorned with various precious and semi-previous stones. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. The white marble dados consist of ornamental bas relief depictions of nature and plant based elements. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the frames and archway spandrels are decorated with pietra dura inlays of stylised geometric pattern of vines, flowers and fruits.
The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Contrasting colors have been used to create a complex array of different geometric patterns across the mortared areas of the buildings. The floors and walkways are laid with tiles or blocks with contrasting colors and consisting of various tessellation patterns. The plinth is differentiated from the paved surface of the main platform by an interlocking pattern of octagonal white marble pieces set into four pointed stars made of red sandstone, surrounded by a border. The building has many lattice windows or jalis with interlocking hexagonal patterns.
The gateway arches are bordered by Arabic calligraphy with passages from the Qur'an. Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written with slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy on the southern gate roughly translates to "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy on the buildings were believed to have been created in 1609 by Abdul Haq, who was conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" by Shah Jahan. At the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi".
=== Interior ===
The main inner chamber is an octagon with 7.3-metre (24 ft) sides, with the design allowing for entry from each face with the main door facing the garden to the south. Two tiers of eight pishtaq arches are located along the walls, similar to the exterior. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate jali. The inner wall is open along the axes where jali screens are fitted which transmit light from the exterior to the interior of the main chamber. Except the south side, other three sides consist of an open elongated room flanked by two square cells covered with decorated ceilings set on the platform. The central room has arched openings on three sides fitted with jalis filled with panes of glass and a small rectangular window cut into the central jali. The square cells which are reached through separate doors were probably originally used for visitors and Qur'an reciters as a place to rest. Staircases lead from the ground floor to the roof level, where there are corridors between the central hall and the two corner rooms in the south with a system of ventilation shafts.
The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. The inlay work is a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels similar to the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, while the real ones are in the basement. Perforated marble jalis (mahjar-i mushabbak) border the cenotaphs and are made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones. The cenotaphs were originally covered by a screen made of gold on the occasion of the second anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal's death in 1633, which was later replaced by the marble screen in 1643.
Situated within the screen in the upper main chamber are the likenesses of the tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan with the actual burials done below in the lower tomb chamber. From the southern main entrance room, a stairway leads to the lower tomb chamber which is rectangular in shape with walls laid with marble and an undecorated coved ceiling. The cenotaph of Mumtaz is located in the exact center of the chamber on a marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres (4 ft 11 in by 8 ft 2 in). Shah Jahan's cenotaph is situated on a larger base on the western side in an asymmetrical arrangement. On the top is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box denoting it as a male tomb. The cenotaphs are aligned north–south, with the head towards the north and the bodies were laid in on their sides with the face turned towards the west, facing Mecca.
The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate. While the cenotaphs are similar to the ones from the Mughal era, no other tombs from the era were adorned with such an exquisite decoration. On Mumtaz's sarcophagus on the top, the decoration consists of natural plum fruits, buds and flower blossoms inlaid with Qur'anic inscriptions with the epitaph reading "The illumined grave of Arjumand Bano Begam, entided Mumtaz Mahal, who died in the year 1631". The original tomb in the lower level is largely undecorated, with Ninety Nine Names of God inscribed on the side. The false cenotaph of Shah Jahan has similar decorations and is covered with flowers and other scroll work without any inscriptions. The epitaph surrounded by red poppy flowers reads "This is the sacred grave of His Most Exalted Majesty, Dweller in Paradise (Firdaus Ashiyani), Second Lord of the Auspicious. Conjunction (Sahib-i Qiran-i Sani), Shah Jahan, Padshah; may it ever be fragrant! The year 1076 [AD 1666]". The original cenotaph of Shah Jahan is a more simply decorated version with similar red flowers and yellow plants with a more comprehensive epitaph reading "This is the illumined grave and sacred resting place of the emperor, dignified as Rizwan, residing in Eternity, His Majesty, having his abode in [the celestial realm of] Illiyun, Dweller in Paradise (Firdaus Ashiyani) [posthumous title of Shah Jahan], the Second Sahib-i Qiran, Shah Jahan, Padshah Ghazi [Warrior for the Faith]; may it be sanctified and may Paradise become his abode. He travelled from this world to the banquet hall of eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year one thousand and seventy-six Hijri [31 January AD 1666]".
=== Garden ===
The complex is set around a large charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden is divided by two main walkways (khiyaban) into four quadrants with further raised pathways that divide each of the four-quarters into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. The garden is surrounded by a walkway connecting all the quadrants. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the centre of the garden is a raised marble water tank with five fountains and a reflecting pool positioned on a north–south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The elevated marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad. Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. In the north-western quadrant, is a place that marks the site where Mumtaz Mahal was first buried, before her body was moved to its final resting place inside the main chamber of the mausoleum.
The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor and symbolises the Paradise garden (Jannah) with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east. While most gardens of the era are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the centre, the Taj gardens is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh ("Moonlight Garden") on the other side of the Yamuna river, the Archaeological Survey of India has hypothesised that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggest that both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the gardens were not maintained, and when the British Raj assumed management of the gardens, they changed the landscaping to resemble the formal lawns of London in the 19th century.
The water supply for the gardens were derived from the Yamuna River, where a water channel transported the water into an underground reservoir along the eastern wall of a storage building containing multiple storage tanks. The water from the reservoir was lifted by means of a system of pulleys and wheels, turned by animals, to a tank that supplied an aqueduct which ran south carrying water up to the western wall before turning east. The water was later distributed throughout the garden through earthenware pipes embedded underground. The fountains in the central tank consisted of large vessels made of copper and inter-connected through copper pipes and the drop from the 9.47 m (31.1 ft) high walls created the necessary water for the fountains.
=== Outlying buildings ===
The Taj Mahal complex is enclosed by crenellated red sandstone walls on three sides, with the side facing the Yamuna river left open. Outside the complex walls, there are other mausoleums dedicated to Shah Jahan's other wives, royals and favorite servants. The inner sides of the walls feature columned arcades, adorned with domed cuppola like chattris and smaller structures like the Music House interspersed between them. The main gateway, primarily built of marble, mirrors the tomb's architecture and incorporates intricate decorations like bas-relief and pietra dura inlays. At the far end of the complex stand two similar buildings built of red sandstone, one of which is designated as a mosque and the other as a jawab, a structure to provide architectural symmetry. The mosque's design resembles others built during the era and the jawab has floors with inlaid patterns while lacking a mihrab.
== Construction ==
The land on which the Taj Mahal is situated was present to the south of the walled city of Agra which was given to Shah Jahan by Raja Jai Singh I in exchange for a large palace in the centre of Agra. The building was commissioned in 1631, and construction commenced in 1632. An area of roughly 1.2 hectares (3 acres) was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above the riverbank level. In the tomb area, piles were dug and filled with lime and stone to form the footings of the tomb. The platform above the ground was constructed of brick and mortar.
The tomb complex was built mainly using brick and lime mortar. The external surface of the main tomb building and the interior of the main cenotaph chamber is veneered with white marble. The other interior surfaces and other accessory buildings are lined with red sandstone coated with a red octet for protection, excluding the exterior surfaces of domes. The white marble came from Makrana in Rajasthan, while the red sandstone was quarried from Fatehpur Sikri in Uttar Pradesh. Many precious and semi-precious stones, used for decoration, were imported from across the world, including jade and crystal from China, turquoise from Tibet, Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, sapphire from Sri Lanka and carnelian from Arabia. In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stone were inlaid into the white marble.
It is believed that more than 20,000 artisans, labourers, painters and others were involved in the construction of the building. Specialist sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, designers from southern India, stone cutters from Baluchistan and Italian artisans were employed. Workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb rather than wooden scaffolds. A 15 km (9.3 mi) long earthern ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site, hauled on specially constructed wagons by teams of oxen and elephants. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into the desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of an animal-powered devices.
When the structure was partially completed, the first ceremony was held at the mausoleum by Shah Jahan on 6 February 1643, of the 12th anniversary of the death of Mumtaz Mahal. Construction of the mausoleum was completed in 1648, but work continued on other phases of the project for another five years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around ₹32 million, which in 2015 would be approximately ₹52.8 billion (US$827 million).
== Later years ==
In December 1652, Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb wrote a letter to his father about the tomb, the mosque and the assembly hall of the complex developing extensive leaks during the previous rainy season. In 1658, Shah Jahan was deposed by Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at the nearby Agra Fort from where he could see the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death in 1666, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur attacked the Taj Mahal while invading Agra and took away two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which had hung over the main cenotaph and the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 4.6-metre-high (15 ft) finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. At the end of the century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber and replaced the gardens with European-style lawns that are still in place today.
In 1942, the government erected scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. Since Indian independence in 1947, the Archaeological Survey of India has been responsible for the maintenance of the monument. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffolding was again erected to mislead bomber pilots.
In 1983, the Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for being "the jewel of Islamic art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".
Since the late 20th century, the monument has been affected by environmental pollution which has turned the Taj Mahal yellow-brown. Acid rain and pollution affecting the Yamuna River including the presence of Mathura Oil Refinery, have contributed to the same. After directives by the Supreme Court of India pursuant to M. C. Mehta v. Union of India & Ors. case in 1997, the Indian government set up the "Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ)", a 10,400-square-kilometre (4,000 sq mi) area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin, with cracks appearing in parts of the tomb in 2010 and the minarets surrounding the monument showing signs of tilting. Minor damage was reported due to storms on 11 April 2018 and 31 May 2020. In the 2020s, the Government of India has undertaken various restoration measures, including placing mud packs to restore the white color and replacing broken marble.
== Symbolism ==
Due to the global attention that it has received and the millions of visitors it attracts, the Taj Mahal has become a prominent image that is associated with India, and in this way has become a symbol of India itself.
Along with being a renowned symbol of love, the Taj Mahal is also a symbol of Shah Jahan's wealth and power, and the fact that the empire had prospered under his rule. Bilateral symmetry, dominated by a central axis, has historically been used by rulers as a symbol of a ruling force that brings balance and harmony, and Shah Jahan applied that concept in the making of the Taj Mahal. Additionally, the plan is aligned in the cardinal north–south direction and the corners have been placed so that when seen from the centre of the plan, the sun can be seen rising and setting on the north and south corners on the summer and winter solstices respectively. This makes the Taj a symbolic horizon.
The planning and structure of the Taj Mahal, from the building itself to the gardens and beyond, is symbolic of Mumtaz Mahal's mansion in the garden of Paradise. The concept of gardens of paradise is extended into the building of the mausoleum as well. The structure is decorated with colorful relief and semi-precious stones using a technique called parchin kari, symbolizing grandeur. The building appears to slightly change colour depending on the time of day and the weather. The white marble reflects varying hues—pinkish in the morning, milky white during the day, golden in the moonlight, and sometimes even a bluish hue under certain lighting conditions. This effect is due to the marble's surface reacting to light and moisture, creating a magical and ever-changing visual experience. The sky has not only been incorporated in the design through the reflecting pools but also through the surface of the building itself. This is another way to imply the presence of Allah at the site.
According to Ebba Koch, art historian and international expert in the understanding and interpretation of Mughal architecture and the Taj Mahal, the planning of the entire compound symbolises earthly life and the afterlife, a subset of the symbolisation of the divine. The plan was split into two – one half is the white marble mausoleum itself and the gardens, and the other half is the red sandstone side, meant for worldly markets. Only the mausoleum is white so as to represent the enlightenment, spirituality and faith of Mumtaz Mahal. Koch has deciphered that symbolic of Islamic teachings, the plan of the worldly side is a mirror image of the otherworldly side, and the grand gate in the middle represents the transition between the two worlds.
== Tourism ==
The Taj Mahal is a major tourist attraction and attracts a large number of domestic and foreign visitors. About five million visitors visited Taj Mahal in the financial year 2022–23. A three-tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and more expensive ones for foreigners. As of 2024, the fee for Indian citizens was ₹50, for citizens of SAARC and BIMSTEC countries, it was ₹540 and for other foreign tourists, it was ₹1,100. Visitors are allowed through three gates and as polluting vehicles are not allowed near the complex, tourists must either walk or take electric buses from the designated parking areas. The complex is open on all days except on Friday from one hour before sunrise to 45 minutes before sunset. The complex is open for limited night viewing on the day of the full moon, excluding the month of Ramadan. In 2019, to address overtourism, the site instituted fines for visitors who stayed longer than three hours. As per a 2025 government report, the Taj Mahal earned ₹297 crore (US$35 million) over five years, making it the highest-earning ASI monument.
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was initially constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workers. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the New Seven Wonders of the World, a poll conducted in 2007. Foreign dignitaries often visit the Taj Mahal on trips to India.
== Myths ==
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveler and gem merchant, who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that his son Aurangzeb overthrew Shah Jahan before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in the Mehtab Bagh seeming to support the argument were, however, proven false after excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Mehtab Bagh. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.
No concrete evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberment and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort. Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.
Several myths, none of which are supported by the archaeological record, have appeared asserting that people other than Shah Jahan and the original architects were responsible for the construction of the Taj Mahal. For instance, in 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005, a similar petition brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher claiming that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu king Paramardi in 1196, was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. Several court cases and statements by right-wing politicians about Taj Mahal being a Hindu temple have been inspired by P. N. Oak's 1989 book Taj Mahal: The True Story, in which he claimed it was built in 1155 AD and not in the 17th century. In November 2015, the Union Minister of Culture stated in the Indian Parliament that there was no evidence that it was ever a temple. In August 2017, the Archaeological Survey of India declared that there was no evidence to suggest the monument ever housed a temple.
Another such unsupported theory, that the Taj Mahal was designed by an Italian, Geronimo Vereneo, held sway for a brief period after it was first promoted by Henry George Keene in 1879. Keene went by a translation of a Spanish work, Itinerario (The Travels of Fray Sebastian Manrique, 1629–1643). Another theory, that a Frenchman named Austin of Bordeaux designed the Taj, was promoted by William Henry Sleeman based on the work of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier. These ideas were revived by Father Hosten and discussed again by E. B. Havell and served as the basis for subsequent theories and controversies.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== General sources ===
== External links ==
Official website of the Taj Mahal
Description of the Taj Mahal at the Archaeological Survey of India
Profile of the Taj Mahal at UNESCO
"Outlying Buildings". Taj Mahal. Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015. |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.