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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osvaldo_Fattoruso#:~:text=Osvaldo%20Fattoruso%20(12%20May%201948,the%20Cementerio%20del%20Norte%2C%20Montevideo. | Osvaldo Fattoruso | Osvaldo Fattoruso (12 May 1948 – 29 July 2012) was a Uruguayan musician.
He introduced rock in Latin America with his band Los Shakers, and created a fusion between jazz, rock and African rhythms.
Fattoruso died on July 29, 2012 at the age of 64 and is buried at the Cementerio del Norte, Montevideo.
He was the brother of Hugo Fattoruso and Sylvia Veronica Fattoruso.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Trio Fattoruso"
Osvaldo Fattoruso, Duelo de Tambores.
Osvaldo Fattoruso at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/175_Andromache | 175 Andromache | 175 Andromache is a main-belt asteroid that was discovered by Canadian-American astronomer J. C. Watson on October 1, 1877, and named after Andromache, wife of Hector during the Trojan War. Watson's telegram to Europe announcing the discovery became lost, and so notification did not arrive until several weeks later. As a result, another minor planet, later designated 176 Iduna, was initially assigned the number 175.
The initial orbital elements for 175 Andromache proved unreliable, and it was only in 1893 that an accurate ephemeris was produced. Because the orbital period is fairly close to being double that of the giant planet Jupiter, 175 Andromache initially became of interest in the study of gravitational perturbations.
Based upon its spectrum, this is classified as a C-type asteroid. It has a diameter estimated in the range 101–107 km with a roughly circular shape. The size ratio between the major and minor axes is 1.09 ± 0.09, as determined from the W. M. Keck Observatory. An earlier result published in 2000 gave a larger size ratio of 1.20.
== References ==
== External links ==
175 Andromache at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
175 Andromache at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Flight_Award | Space Flight Award | The Space Flight Award is an award given by the American Astronautical Society most years since 1955. It is presented to "the person whose outstanding efforts and achievements have contributed most significantly to the advancement of space flight and space exploration". The Society refers to the Space Flight Award as its "highest award".
== See also ==
List of space technology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marusudar_River | Marusudar River | Marusudar river or Maru Sudar river is the largest river tributary of the Chenab River, beginning at the Nunkun glacier of the Warwan Valley and joining the Chenab at Bhandarkoot in the Kishtwar district. As of 2021, 1000MW Pakal Dul Dam the 800MW Bursar Hydroelectric Project are under construction on this river.
== Course ==
The Marusudar river originates from the Nunkun glacier of the Warwan Valley of the Kishtwar district and joins the Chenab river at Bhandarkoot, Kishtwar. It is 133 kilometres (83 mi) long and the largest river tributary to the Chenab river.
== Dams ==
This river has the following dams
Pakal Dul Dam, 1000 W, 109 MCM, near Drangdhuran village in Kishtwar district of the Indian Jammu and Kashmir, upstream of Bursar Hydroelectric Power Project.
Bursar Hydroelectric Power Project, 800 MW, 618 MCM, near Pakal village in the Kishtwar district, proposed stalled project was expedited in April 2025 after the termination of IWT. In 2017, the proposal was granted the environmental approval by MoEF, after considering locals concerns, who cited the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) that the Bursar Dam project will affect 18 hamlets, 17,000 people, 1150 ha of forest clearing, fish migration.
== See also ==
Dams on Chenab
Rivers of Jammu and Kashmir
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewster_F2A_Buffalo#Specifications_(F2A-3) | Brewster F2A Buffalo | The Brewster F2A Buffalo is an American fighter aircraft which saw service early in World War II. Designed and built by the Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, it was one of the first U.S. monoplanes with an arrestor hook and other modifications for aircraft carriers. The Buffalo won a competition against the Grumman F4F Wildcat in 1939 to become the U.S. Navy's first monoplane fighter aircraft. Although superior to the Grumman F3F biplane it replaced, and the early F4Fs, the Buffalo was largely obsolete when the United States entered the war, being unstable and overweight, especially when compared to the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero.
Several nations, including Finland, Belgium, Britain and the Netherlands, ordered the Buffalo. The Finns were the most successful with their Buffalos, flying them in combat against early Soviet fighters with excellent results. During the Continuation War of 1941–1944, the B-239s (de-navalized F2A-1s) operated by the Finnish Air Force proved capable of engaging and destroying most types of Soviet fighter aircraft operating against Finland at that time, and claimed in the first phase of that conflict 32 Soviet aircraft shot down for every B-239 lost, producing 36 Buffalo "aces".
In December 1941, Buffalos operated by both British Commonwealth (B-339E) and Dutch (B-339C/D) air forces in South East Asia suffered severe losses in combat against the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero and the Japanese Army's Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar". The British attempted to lighten their Buffalos by removing ammunition and fuel and installing lighter guns to improve performance, but it made little difference. After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammunition load in the wings, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns.
The Buffalo was built in three variants for the U.S. Navy: the F2A-1, F2A-2 and F2A-3. (In foreign service, with lower horsepower engines, these types were designated B-239, B-339, and B-339-23 respectively.) The F2A-3 variant saw action with United States Marine Corps (USMC) squadrons at the Battle of Midway. Shown by the experience of Midway to be no match for the Zero, the F2A-3 was derided by USMC pilots as a "flying coffin". Indeed, the F2A-3s performance was substantially inferior to the F2A-2 variant used by the Navy before the outbreak of the war despite detail improvements.
== Design and development ==
=== United States Navy ===
In 1935, the U.S. Navy issued a requirement for a carrier-based fighter intended to replace the Grumman F3F. The Brewster XF2A-1 monoplane, designed by a team led by Dayton T. Brown, was one of two aircraft designs that were initially considered. The XF4F-1 had a double-row radial engine but was a biplane like the F3F. The U.S. Navy competition was re-opened to allow another competitor, the NF-1, a navalized Seversky P-35, but it was eliminated because the prototype could not exceed 267 mph (430 km/h). The XF2A-1 first flew on 2 December 1937 and early test results showed it was far in advance of the Grumman biplane entry. While the XF4F-1 did not enter production, it later re-emerged as a monoplane, the Wildcat.
The Buffalo was manufactured at the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York. The new Brewster fighter had a modern look with a stubby fuselage, mid-set monoplane wings and a host of advanced features. It was all-metal, with flush-riveted, stressed aluminum construction, although control surfaces were still fabric-covered. The XF2A-1 also featured split flaps, a hydraulically operated retractable main undercarriage (and partially retractable tailwheel), and a streamlined framed canopy. As was common at this time, the aircraft lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and pilot armor. Fuel capacity was only 160 US gal (610 L; 130 imp gal), stored in the fuselage. Powered by a 950 hp (710 kW) single-row Wright R-1820-22 Cyclone radial engine, it had a good initial climb rate of 2,750 ft/min (840 m/min) and a top speed of 277.5 mph (446.6 km/h). The aircraft was then tested in 1938 in the Langley Research Center full-scale wind tunnel, where it was determined that certain factors were contributing to parasitic drag. Based on the tests, improvements were made to the cowling streamlining and carburetor and oil cooler intakes, and the Buffalo's speed rose to 304 mph (489 km/h) at 16,000 ft (4,900 m) without any increase in power. Other manufacturers took notice of this 10 percent increase in speed and efficiency, and wind tunnel tests became standard procedure in the US. With only a single-stage supercharger, high-altitude performance fell off rapidly. Fuselage armament was one fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun with 200 rounds and one fixed .30 in (7.62 mm) AN Browning machine gun with 600 rounds, both in the nose. The Navy awarded Brewster Aeronautical Corporation a production contract for 54 aircraft, the F2A-1s.
Service testing of the XF2A-1 prototype began in January 1938 and in June, production started on the F2A-1. They were powered by 940 hp (700 kW) Wright R-1820-34 engines and had larger fins. The added weight of two additional .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning wing guns and other equipment specified by the Navy for combat operations reduced the initial rate of climb to 2,600 ft/min (790 m/min). Plagued by production difficulties, Brewster delivered only 11 F2A-1 aircraft to the Navy; the remainder of the order was later diverted to the Finnish Air Force in modified form under the export designation Model 239.
A later variant, the F2A-2, of which 43 were ordered by the U.S. Navy, included a more powerful R-1820-40 engine, a better propeller, and integral flotation gear, while still lacking pilot armor and self-sealing tanks. The increase in engine power was welcomed, but to some extent offset by the increased loaded weight (5,942 lb (2,695 kg)) of the aircraft; while top speed was increased to a respectable 323 mph (520 km/h) at 16,500 ft (5,000 m), initial climb rates dropped to 2,500 ft/min (760 m/min). Both the F2A-1 and the F2A-2 variants of the Brewster were liked by early Navy and Marine pilots, including Pappy Boyington, who praised the good turning and maneuvering abilities of the aircraft: "the early models, before they weighed it all down with armor plate, radios, and other [equipment] ... were pretty sweet little ships. Not real fast, but the [early F2As] ... could turn and roll in a phone booth". This might reasonably have been expected with the low wing loading in earlier variants, which was comparable with the Mitsubishi A6M Zero's lb/sq ft.
The F2A-3 was the last version of the Buffalo to enter service with the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. A total of 108 examples were ordered in January 1941. By this time, the Navy had become disenchanted with the Buffalo, and had become especially annoyed at Brewster Aeronautical Corporation's frequent production delays and its frequent management difficulties. This order was seen more as a way of keeping Brewster's production lines running; they would eventually build Corsair fighters for the Navy as well as Buccaneer/Bermuda dive bombers.
The F2A-3s were conceived as long range reconnaissance fighters with new wet wings with self-sealing features and larger fuselage tanks which provided increased fuel capacity and protection, but this also increased the aircraft weight by more than 500 lb (230 kg). The wing and enlarged fuselage tank carried an additional 80 U.S. gal (300 L) of fuel; at 6 lb/U.S. gal (0.72 kg/L), the fuel alone weighed nearly 500 lb (230 kg). The addition of armor plating for the pilot and increased ammunition capacity further increased the aircraft's weight, resulting in a reduced top speed and rate of climb, while substantially degrading the Brewster's turning and maneuvering capability. The Navy found that the added weight of the F2A-3 also aggravated the problem of landing gear failure during carrier landings. However, the −40 two-speed supercharged Cyclone engine in the F2A-3 was an excellent "cruising" engine, and as such the F2A-3 had some value and saw initial service on the carriers Saratoga and Lexington.
Even in late 1940 it was apparent that the Buffalo was rapidly becoming obsolete. It badly needed a more powerful engine and an enlarged wing (to offset the increased weight), but the limits of the airframe had been reached, making installation of a larger engine impossible. Soon after deliveries of the F2A-3 began, the Navy decided to eliminate the type altogether. However, a project was begun to replace the wing-mounted .50 M2 machine guns with two M2 20mm cannons. At least eight sets of wings were completed, and at least one F2A-3 was fitted with them. By then considered a second line aircraft, some were transferred to the U.S. Marine Corps, which deployed two F2A-3 squadrons to the Pacific, one at Palmyra Atoll, and another at Midway Island. Those which still remained on board aircraft carriers narrowly missed a combat opportunity when a relief mission was dispatched to Wake Island, but the relief force was withdrawn before completing the mission. Shortly thereafter, F2A-3s still in naval service were transferred to training squadrons for use as advanced trainers.
== Operational history ==
The first unit to be equipped with the F2A-1 was Lt. Cdr. Warren Harvey's VF-3, assigned to USS Saratoga air group. On 8 December 1939, VF-3 received 10 of the 11 Buffalos delivered to the U.S. Navy. The remaining 43 F2A-1s were declared surplus (to be replaced with an equal number of the improved F2A-2s) and sold to Finland. Ralph Ingersoll wrote in late 1940 after visiting Britain that the Buffalo and other American aircraft "cannot compete with either the existing British or German fighters", so Britain used them "either as advanced trainers --or for fighting equally obsolete Italian planes in the Middle East. That is all they are good for". Even the Eagle Squadrons' American pilots used Hawker Hurricanes instead of the Buffalo. Early in the war all modern monoplane fighter types were in high demand, however. Consequently, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and the Netherlands East Indies purchased several hundred export models.
=== Finland ===
In April 1939, the Finnish government contacted the Roosevelt administration, requesting the supply of modern combat aircraft as quickly as possible. On 17 October, the Finnish Embassy in Washington, D.C., received a telegram clearing the purchase of fighter aircraft. The only strict requirements laid down by Finnish authorities were that the aircraft be already operational and able to use 87-octane fuel. Part of an F2A-1 shipment – 44 aircraft originally intended for the US Navy – was diverted to Finland, by the US State Department, after the USN agreed to instead accept a later shipment of F2A-2 variants.
On 16 December, the Finnish government signed a contract to purchase 44 aircraft: a F2A-1 variant designated Model B-239E by Brewster. Unlike other fighters already in service, the F2A-1 and B-239E lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and cockpit armor. However, the B-239E was built with a more powerful engine than the F2A-1, in the form of the Wright R-1820-G5, producing 950 hp (710 kW), and the capacity to carry four machine guns (rather than the two carried by the F2A-1). The B-239E was also "de-navalized" before shipment: equipment such as tailhooks and life raft containers were removed. The upgraded engine and slightly reduced net weight (i.e. from the omitted armor and de-navalization) resulted in an improved power-to-weight ratio and better general performance.
In four batches the B-239E was shipped initially to Bergen, in Norway, in January and February 1940 from New York City. The crated fighters were then sent by railway to Sweden and assembled by SAAB at Trollhättan, northeast of Gothenburg.
After delivery of the B-239E, the Finnish Air Force added armored backrests, metric flight instruments, the Väisälä T.h.m.40 gunsight, and four .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns. The top speed of the Finnish B-239s, as modified, was 297 mph (478 km/h) at 15,675 ft (4,778 m), and their loaded weight was 5,820 lb (2,640 kg).
In February 1940, pilot Lieutenant Jorma "Joppe" Karhunen flight-tested the first B-239 to become operational in Finland. Unfamiliar with the aircraft, he burned out the engine while flying very low at high speed; crashing on a snow-covered field, damaging the propeller and some belly panels. Initially unimpressed, the Finns later witnessed a demonstration by a Brewster test pilot, who was able to stay on the tail of a Finnish Fiat G.50 Freccia fighter from Italy; although the Fiat fighter was faster in level flight, the Brewster could out-turn it.
None of the B-239E fighters saw combat in the Winter War (1939–1940). However, five of the six delivered during the war became combat-ready before it ended.
The B-239E was never referred to by the name Buffalo in Finland; it was known simply as the Brewster, or by the nicknames Taivaan helmi ("sky pearl") or Pohjoisten taivaiden helmi ("pearl of the northern skies"). Other nicknames were Pylly-Valtteri (lit. "butt-walter"), Amerikanrauta ("American hardware" or "American car") and Lentävä kaljapullo ("flying beer-bottle"). The total of 44 examples of the B-239E fighters used by the FAF received serial numbers BW-351 to BW-394.
Finnish pilots regarded the B-239E as being easy to fly, or in the words of ace Ilmari Juutilainen, a "gentlemen's travelling [or touring] plane". The Buffalo was also popular within the FAF because of its relatively long range and good maintenance record. This was in part due to the efforts of the Finnish mechanics, who solved a problem that plagued the Wright Cyclone engine by inverting one of the piston rings in each cylinder, which had a positive effect on reliability. The cooler weather of Finland also helped, because the engine was prone to overheating as noted in tropical Pacific use. The Brewster Buffalo earned a reputation in Finnish Air Force service as one of its more successful fighter aircraft, along with the Fiat G.50, which scored an unprecedented kill-loss ratio of 33-1.
In service from 1941 to 1945, Buffalos of Lentolaivue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) claimed 477 Soviet Air Force warplanes destroyed, with the combat loss of just 19 Buffalos, an outstanding victory ratio of 26:1.
During the Continuation War, Lentolaivue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) was equipped with the B-239s until May 1944, when the Buffalos were transferred to Hävittäjälentolaivue 26 (Fighter Squadron 26). Most of the pilots of Lentolaivue 24 were Winter War combat veterans. This squadron claimed a total of 459 Soviet aircraft with B-239s, while losing 15 Buffalos in combat.
The Brewsters had their baptism by fire in Finland on 25 June 1941, when a pair of Buffalos from 2/LLv24, operating from Selänpää airfield (ICAO:EFSE) intercepted 27 Soviet Tupolev SBs from 201st SBAP near Heinola. Five SBs were claimed as downed. Subsequent attacks were repelled by LLv24 pilots who, by dusk, had flown 77 sorties.
Many Finnish pilots racked up enormous scores by using basic tactics against Soviet aircraft. The default tactic was the four-plane "parvi" (swarm), with a pair flying lower as bait, and a higher pair to dive on enemy interceptors. The Soviet Air Force was never able to counter this tactic. The top-scoring B-239 pilot was Hans Wind, with 39 kills. Lt Hans Wind, with six other Buffalos of LeLv 24, intercepted some 60 Soviet aircraft near Kronstad. Two Soviet Pe-2 bombers, one Soviet Hawker Hurricane fighter, and 12 I-16s were claimed for the loss of just one B-239 (BW-378). After evaluation of claims against actual Soviet losses, aircraft BW-364 was found to have been used to achieve 42½ kills in total by all pilots operating it, possibly making it the highest-scoring fighter airframe in the history of air warfare. The top scoring Finnish ace, Ilmari Juutilainen, scored 34 of his 94½ kills in B-239s, including 28 in BW-364.
During the Continuation War, a lack of replacements led the Finns to develop a copy of the Buffalo built from non-strategic materials such as plywood, however the Humu, as they called it, was already obsolete and only a single prototype was built. By late 1943, the lack of spares, wear-and-tear, and better Soviet fighters and training greatly reduced the effectiveness of Finnish B-239s, though LeLv 26 pilots would still claim some 35 victories against Soviet aircraft in mid-1944. The last victory by a Buffalo against Soviet aircraft was claimed over the Karelian Isthmus on 17 June 1944.
From 1943, Finland's air force received Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs from Germany, and this much-superior fighter re-equipped most Finnish Air Force fighter squadrons.
After Finland signed an armistice with the Soviet Union in September, 1944, they had to drive Finland's former ally, Nazi Germany out of the country during the "Lapland War". The only clash with the Luftwaffe took place on 3 October 1944 when HLeLV 26 intercepted Junkers Ju 87s, claiming two, the last victories to be made by Brewster pilots in World War II. By the end of the war in Lapland, only eight B-239s were left.
Five B-239s continued to fly until 1948, with last flights of Brewsters by the Finnish Air Force on 14 September 1948, when they were stored until scrapped in 1953.
=== Belgium ===
Just before the start of the war, Belgium sought more modern aircraft to expand and modernize its air force. Belgium ordered 40 Brewster B-339 aircraft, a de-navalized F2A-2, fitted with the Wright R-1820-G-105 engine approved for export use. The G-105 engine had a power output of 1,000 hp (745.7 kW) (peak) on takeoff, some 200 hp (150 kW) less than the engine fitted to the U.S. Navy F2A-2. The arrestor hook and liferaft container were removed, and the aircraft was modified with a slightly longer tail.
Only one aircraft reached France by the time Germany launched its Blitzkrieg in the West on 10 May 1940. The Buffalo was later captured intact by the Germans, and it was partially rediscovered near Darmstadt in 1945.
Six more Belgian Brewsters were offloaded at the French Caribbean island of Martinique and languished on a coastal hillside, never to be flown. The rest of the order went to the RAF.
=== British Commonwealth (Malaya) ===
Facing a shortage of combat aircraft in January 1940, the British Purchasing Commission was established to acquire U.S. aircraft that would help supplement domestic production. Among the U.S. fighter aircraft that caught the Commission's attention was the Brewster. The remaining 32 B-339 aircraft ordered by the Belgians, suspended at the fall of France, were passed on to the United Kingdom. Appraisal by Royal Air Force acceptance personnel criticized it on numerous points including inadequate armament and lack of pilot armor, poor high-altitude performance, engine overheating, maintenance issues, and cockpit controls, while it was praised for its handling, roomy cockpit, and visibility. With a top speed of about 323 mph (520 km/h) at 21,000 ft (6,400 m), but with fuel starvation issues over 15,000 ft (4,600 m), it was considered unfit for duty in western Europe. Still desperately in need of fighter aircraft in the Pacific and Asia for British and Commonwealth air forces, the UK ordered an additional 170 aircraft under the type specification B-339E.
Delivery and assembly of the Buffalos in Singapore took place in the spring of 1941. The first Buffalo units (Nos 67 and 243 Squadron RAF) were formed at RAF Kallang in March 1941.
The B-339E, or Brewster Buffalo Mk I as it was designated in British service, was initially intended to be fitted with an export-approved Wright R-1820-G-105 Cyclone engine with a 1,000 hp (745.7 kW) (peak takeoff) power. The Brewster aircraft delivered to British and Commonwealth air forces were significantly altered from the B-339 type sold to the Belgium and French forces in accordance with their purchase order. The Brewster factory removed the Navy life raft container and arrestor hook, while adding many new items of equipment, including a British Mk III reflector gun sight, a gun camera, a larger fixed pneumatic tire tail wheel, fire extinguisher, engine shutters, a larger battery, and reinforced armor plating and armored glass behind the canopy windshield.
The Brewster Model B-339E, as modified and supplied to Great Britain was distinctly inferior in performance to the F2A-2 (Model B-339) from the original order. It had a less powerful (1,000 hp (745.7 kW)) engine compared to the F2A-2's 1,200 hp (890 kW) Cyclone, yet was substantially heavier due to all of the additional modifications by some 900 lb (410 kg). The semi-retractable tail wheel had been exchanged for a larger fixed model, which was also less aerodynamic. Top speed was reduced from 323 to 313 mph (520 to 504 km/h) at combat altitudes.
In its original form, the B-339 had a theoretical maximum speed of 323 mph (520 km/h) at a rather unrealistic 21,000 ft (6,400 m), but fuel starvation problems and poor supercharger performance at higher altitudes meant that this figure was never achieved in combat; the B-339E was no different in this regard. Its maneuverability was severely impaired (the aircraft was unable to perform loops), and initial rate of climb was reduced to 2,300 ft/min (700 m/min). The Wright Cyclone 1890-G-105 engine designated for use in the Buffalo Mk I was in short supply; many aircraft were fitted with secondhand Wright engines sourced from Douglas DC-3 airliners and rebuilt to G105 or G102A specifications by Wright. In service, some effort was made by at least one Brewster squadron to improve the type's sluggish performance; a few aircraft were lightened by some 1,000 lb (450 kg) by removing armor plate, armored windshields, radios, gun camera, and all other unnecessary equipment, and by replacing the .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns with .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns. The fuselage tanks were filled with a minimum of fuel, and run on high-octane aviation petrol where available. At Alor Star airfield in Malaya, the Japanese captured over 1,000 barrels (160 m3) of high-octane aviation petrol from British forces, which they promptly used in their own fighter aircraft.
Many of the pilots assigned the Buffalo lacked adequate training and experience in the type. A total of 20 of the original 169 Buffalos were lost in training accidents during 1941. By December 1941, approximately 150 Buffalo B-339E aircraft made up the bulk of the British fighter defenses of Burma, Malaya and Singapore. The two RAAF, two RAF, and one RNZAF squadrons, during December 1941 – January 1942, were beset with numerous problems, including poorly built and ill-equipped aircraft. Aviation historian Dan Ford characterized it as, "The performance... was pathetic." Inadequate spare parts and support staff, airfields that were difficult to defend against air attack, lack of a clear and coherent command structure, a Japanese spy in the Army air liaison staff, antagonism between RAF and RAAF squadrons and personnel, and inexperienced pilots lacking appropriate training would lead to disaster. Although the Mk I had .50-inch guns, many aircraft were equipped with .303 Browning mounts and electric firing solenoids, which tended to fail in service. Moreover, according to Flight Lieutenant Mowbray Garden of 243 Squadron RAF, the Buffalos were supplied with only armour-piercing ammunition and no incendiary; Japanese aircraft lacked armor and self-sealing fuel tanks in the early years of the war, a fact unknown to the Allies at the time.
When the Japanese invaded northern Malaya on 8 December 1941, the B-339E initially performed adequately. Against the Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate", the overloaded Brewsters could at least hold their own if given time to get to altitude, and at first achieved a respectable number of kills. However, the appearance of ever greater numbers of Japanese fighters, including markedly superior types such as the Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" soon overwhelmed the Buffalo pilots, both in the air and on the ground. Another significant factor was the Brewster engine's tendency to overheat in the tropical climate, which caused oil to spray over the windscreen, usually forcing an aborted mission and greatly complicating attempts to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft. In the end, more than 60 Buffalo Mk I (B-339E) aircraft were shot down in combat, 40 destroyed on the ground, and approximately 20 more destroyed in accidents. Only about 20 Buffalos survived to reach India or the Dutch East Indies. The last airworthy Buffalo in Singapore flew out on 10 February, five days before the island fell.
It is not entirely clear how many Japanese aircraft the Buffalo squadrons shot down, although RAAF pilots alone managed to shoot down at least 20. Eighty were claimed in total, a ratio of kills to losses of just 1.3 to 1. Additionally, most of the Japanese aircraft shot down by the Buffalos were bombers. The Hawker Hurricane, which fought in Singapore alongside the Buffalo from 20 January, also suffered severe losses from ground attack; most were destroyed. The Fleet Air Arm also used the Buffalo in the Mediterranean in the Battle of Crete in early 1941.
The Brewster Mark I produced four Commonwealth aces: Geoff Fisken, Maurice Holder, A. W. B. (Alf) Clare and R. D. (Doug) Vanderfield. New Zealander Fisken, the top-scoring pilot, later flew RNZAF P-40s and became the highest-scoring Commonwealth pilot within the Pacific theatre.
==== Japanese invasion of Burma ====
No. 67 Squadron RAF was originally formed in Singapore before their redeployment to Burma in October 1941. They were equipped with thirty Buffalos inherited from 60 Squadron RAF at Mingaladon; the aircraft they received in Singapore were passed on to 488 Squadron RNZAF. They were joined by Curtiss P-40 fighters of the American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers). AVG crews were initially impressed with the Buffalo, some even urging General Claire Chennault to trade a squadron of P-40s for Buffalos. In response, Chennault arranged a mock dogfight between both fighters, with 1st Lieutenant Erik Shilling flying the P-40 and Squadron Leader Jack Brandt flying the Buffalo. Over their training base in Toungoo, the P-40 proved to be superior to the Buffalo. When Shilling and Brandt met again fifty years later, the RAF pilot said, "how I wish I could have swapped my aircraft for yours".
The squadron first saw action on 23 December 1941, when 15 Buffalos intercepted a formation of 42 Ki-21 heavy bombers, 27 Ki-30 light bombers and 30 Ki-27 fighters during a daylight raid on Rangoon. Together with twelve P-40s, they claimed 13 bombers destroyed and seven probable; four P-40s including two pilots were lost while all the Buffalos returned safely. Nevertheless, the Japanese succeeded in bombing Rangoon, its port facilities and RAF Mingaladon, inflicting extensive damage and casualties.
The Buffalos and P-40s carried out air defenses over Rangoon and Mingaladon as well as strafing missions on Japanese airfields. Like Malaya and Singapore, lack of effective early warning systems greatly hampered British and AVG efforts to defend Burma from air raids. Reports of Japanese aircraft performance from the Malayan Campaign prompted Buffalo pilots in Burma to employ different tactics; according to Flight Sergeant Vic Bargh, "come in from above, or at the same level at the very least, then dive away before they got onto you, because if they did get onto you, well, you were shot down". One of the Buffalo's final victories of the Burma Campaign was claimed by Bargh; he found the wreckage of the bomber and had his picture taken with it as proof.
The IJAAF secured air superiority over Rangoon by early February 1942, and with the situation on the ground rapidly deteriorating, No. 67 Squadron withdrew north to Toungoo. On 13 February, the squadron moved further north to Magwe with only eight Buffalos, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance flights as well as escorting Westland Lysanders on ground attack missions. The Buffalo flew its last combat sortie with the RAF on 5 March, escorting Hawker Hurricanes and Bristol Blenheims for an attack on a Japanese airbase in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Only six Buffalos remained when the squadron withdrew to Calcutta, India on 11 March to re-equip with Hurricanes. They were swiftly relegated to training duties, though two were briefly acquired by No. 146 Squadron RAF in early April, one of which was regularly flown by Squadron Leader Count Manfred Czernin. No. 67 Squadron claimed 27 Japanese aircraft destroyed; eight Buffalos were shot down and eight pilots were killed. For their actions, Squadron Leader Jack Brandt and Flight Lieutenant Colin Pinckney were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (the latter posthumously), while Sergeant Gordon Williams received the Distinguished Flying Medal.
=== Netherlands East Indies ===
The Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger ("Military Air Service of the Royal Netherlands East Indian Army", ML-KNIL) had ordered 144 Brewster B-339C and D and B-439 models, the former with rebuilt Wright G-105 engines supplied by the Dutch and the latter two with new 1,200 hp (890 kW) Wright R-1820-40 engines purchased from Wright by Brewster. By the time the Pacific War broke out, only about 30 Buffalos had entered service in the Dutch East Indies. In total, 72 Buffalos were delivered to the Netherlands East Indies before deliveries were diverted to the RAAF. A small number served briefly at Singapore before being withdrawn for the defense of Borneo and Java.
As the Brewster B-339 aircraft used by the ML-KNIL were lighter than the modified B-339E Brewster Mark Is used by British, Australian, and New Zealand air forces, they were able to successfully engage the Japanese Army Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar", although both the "Oscar" and the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero still out-climbed the B-339 at combat altitudes (the Zero was faster as well). After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammo load in the wing, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns. In February 1942 they received new model gunsights. Around the same time the Dutch started to use tracer ammunition as well. These two improved their hit ratio. Still, their lack of heavy machine guns (.50") meant their success rate wasn't as high as it could have been.
Apart from their role as fighters, the Brewster fighters were also used as dive bombers against Japanese troopships. Although reinforced by British Commonwealth Buffalo Mk I (B-339E) aircraft retreating from Malaya, the Dutch squadrons faced superior numbers in the air, usually odds of one against two or three. Timely early warning from British radar would have countered this deficit, especially in avoiding unnecessary losses from raids on airfields, but the British government had decided too late to send these: the first British radar stations became operational only towards the end of February.
In a major engagement above Semplak on 19 February 1942, eight Dutch Brewster fighters intercepted a formation of about 35 Japanese bombers with an escort of about 20 Zeros. The Brewster pilots destroyed 11 Japanese aircraft and lost four Brewsters; two Dutch pilots died.
Only four airworthy Buffalos remained on 7 March. Capt. Jacob van Helsdingen led this flight on its final sortie that day, and was credited with a Zero before he was killed. This made him and Lt. August Deibel the most successful Dutch pilots on the Buffalo with three victories each. Altogether, 17 ML-KNIL pilots were killed, and 30 aircraft shot down; 15 were destroyed on the ground, and several were lost to misadventure. Dutch pilots claimed 55 enemy aircraft destroyed.
=== USAAF/RAAF in Australia ===
Following the surrender of the Netherlands East Indies on 8 March 1942, a shipment of 17 Brewster B339-23 fighters ordered for the ML-KNIL was diverted to the US Fifth Air Force in Australia.
All of these Buffalos were subsequently lent to the RAAF, which gave them the serial number prefix A51–. They were used mainly for air defence duties outside frontline areas, photo-reconnaissance and as mock targets in gunnery training. They served with 1 PRU, 24 Sqn, 25 Sqn, 85 Sqn and the Air Gunnery Training School, at RAAF Williamtown.
Between August 1942 and November 1943, 10 of these Buffalos constituted the air defense force for Perth, Western Australia, while assigned to 25 and 85 Sqns at RAAF Pearce and RAAF Guildford.
In 1944, all of the surviving aircraft were transferred to the USAAF.
=== U.S. Marine Corps ===
At Midway Island, United States Marine Corps fighter squadron VMF-221 operated a mixed group of 20 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalos and seven Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats. They were originally assigned to USS Saratoga as part of a relief force bound for Wake Island, but were diverted to Midway instead after the force was controversially recalled on 22 December 1941. Wake Island fell on the following day. The squadron first saw action on 10 March 1942 when a Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boat was shot down by Captain James L. Neefus near Midway, the Buffalo's first kill in U.S. service.
From February - April 1942 the rebuilt squadron VMF-211 (most of which had been lost in the Battle of Wake Island) was re-equipped with F2A-3s and was ferried by the escort carrier Long Island to Palmyra Atoll, where it remained until recalled in July of that year, ferrying their aircraft to land on Long Island to return to Hawaii to re-equip with F4F-4s.
During the Battle of Midway in 1942, VMF-221 was destined to participate in one of the few aerial combats involving the Buffalo in U.S. military service. The initial Buffalo interception of the first Japanese air raid was led by Major Floyd B. Parks, whose 13-aircraft division did not fly in paired flights of mutually supporting aircraft. After attacking a formation of 30–40 Aichi D3A1 "Val" dive bombers escorted by 36 Zeros, the Marines, flying in two divisions of aircraft, downed several Japanese bombers before the escorting Zeros reacted; a furious dogfight developed. Thirteen out of 20 Buffalos were lost; of the six Wildcats, only two remained flyable at the end of the mission. The losses included the Marine air commander, Major Parks, who bailed out of his burning Buffalo, only to be strafed by Zeros after parachuting into the sea.
The Marine pilots who managed to shake off the Zeros used high speed split-s turns or very steep dives. These maneuvers were later found to be the best means to evade pursuit by the highly maneuverable Japanese fighters. One F2A-3 pilot, Marine Captain William Humberd, dove away from his pursuers, then attacked a Zero in a head-on pass, shooting his opponent down. In the battle, some F2A-3s suffered from inoperative guns. The nose-mounted guns' occasional failure to fire was noticed by other users as well; the phenomenon may have been caused by frayed electrical wires in the mechanism that synchronized the nose guns with the propeller. Other Buffalos had not been fitted with plate armor behind the pilot, making them vulnerable to even a single bullet or shell. Losses were aggravated due to the Japanese practice of strafing pilots who had bailed out. Second Lt. Charles S. Hughes, whose Buffalo was forced to retire at the start of the raid due to engine trouble, had a ringside view of the aerial combat:
The Zeros came in strafing immediately afterward. I saw two Brewsters trying to fight the Zeros. One was shot down and the other was saved by ground fires covering his tail. Both looked like they were tied to a string while the Zeros made passes at them.
Second Lt. Charles M. Kunz reported that after successfully downing two Val bombers, he was attacked by Japanese fighters:
I was at an altitude of about 9,000 ft, and shoved over in a dive trying to shake the plane on my tail until I was about 20 feet from the water. I was making radical turns hoping the pilot couldn't get steadied on me. I glanced out of the rear and saw that it was a Zero fighter. I continued flying on a rapid turning course at full throttle when I was hit in the head by a glancing bullet. After he fired a few short bursts he left as I had been in a general direction of 205 degrees heading away from the island. My plane was badly shot up... In my opinion, the Zero fighter has been far underestimated. I think it is probably one of the finest fighters in the present war. As for the F2A-3, (or Brewster trainer), it should be in Miami as a training plane, rather than used as a first-line fighter.
Claire Chennault's report on the Zero and air combat reached Washington in 1941, where it was disseminated to aviation forces of the U.S. Army and Navy. This information, along with the development of two-plane mutual defensive formations and tactics, were incorporated into U.S. and Marine Corps air combat training doctrine by some prescient U.S. commanders, including Lieutenant Commander "Jimmy" Thach. The Thach Weave was developed for use by Wildcat pilots against the Zero and was later adopted by other Wildcat squadrons in the Pacific.
With the emergence of new tactics for the F4F-3 and F4F-4 Wildcat, the Battle of Midway marked the end of the Buffalo in both U.S. Navy and Marine Corps fighting squadrons. Surviving F2A-3 aircraft were transported to the U.S. mainland, where they were used as advanced trainers. The introduction in late 1943 of vastly superior American carrier-borne fighters such as the F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair soon relegated the Brewster F2A-3 to a distant memory.
== Buffalo aces ==
The Finnish Air Force produced 36 Buffalo aces. The top three were Capt. Hans Wind, with 39 Buffalo air victories (out of 75), WO Eino Ilmari Juutilainen, with 34 (out of 94) and Capt. Jorma Karhunen, with 25.5 (out of 31.5). First Lt Lauri Nissinen also had victories in the type (22.5 out of 32.5).
The non-Finnish Buffalo aces were: Geoff Fisken (RNZAF), with six air victories, and Doug Vanderfield (RAAF) with five individual kills, plus one shared. Alf Clare (RAAF) and Maurice Holder (RAF) had five victories each.
== Variants ==
XF2A-1
Prototype
F2A-1
(with Wright R-1820-34 Cyclone engine and two guns above engine cowling, plus two optional guns in the wings) for the United States Navy, 11 built
F2A-2
(with Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone engine and four guns) for the United States Navy and Marines, 43 built
F2A-3
Improved F2A-2 for the United States Navy with larger fuel tank, heavier armour, and provision to carry two underwing 100 lb (45 kg) bombs, 108 built
XF2A-4
One converted from an F2A-3
B-239
Export version of the F2A-1 for Finland (with Wright R-1820-G5 Cyclone engines and four guns), 44 built
B-339B
Export version for Belgium, 40 built (only two delivered to Belgium, the rest to the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm)
B-339C
Export version for the Netherlands East Indies with Wright GR-1820-G105 Cyclone engines; 24 built
B-339D
Export version for the Netherlands East Indies with 1,200 hp (890 kW) Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone engines; 48 built (47 delivered to Dutch East Indies)
B-339E
Export version of the F2A-2 for the Royal Air Force with Wright GR-1820-G105 Cyclone engines as the Buffalo Mk I; 170 built (also used by the RAAF and RNZAF)
B-339-23 a.k.a. B-439
Export version of the F2A-3 for the Netherlands East Indies with 1,200 hp (890 kW) Wright GR-1820-G205A engines; 20 built (17 later to the RAAF, some used by the USAAF)
== Operators ==
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force
No. 21 Squadron RAAF
No. 24 Squadron RAAF
No. 25 Squadron RAAF (ex-Dutch)
No. 43 Squadron RAAF
No. 85 Squadron RAAF (ex-25 Sqn.)
No. 453 Squadron RAAF
No. 452 Squadron RAAF
No. 1 PRU RAAF (ex-Dutch, Photo Reconnaissance Unit)
Finland
Finnish Air Force
No. 24 Squadron (1941–1944)
No. 26 Squadron (1944–1945)
Japan
Captured Buffalos were repaired and test flown, both in Japanese markings, and – starring in recreated combat footage – in incorrect RAF markings.
Netherlands
Militaire Luchtvaart KNIL
Vliegtuiggroep IV, 3e Afdeling (3-VLG-IV: 3rd Squadron, IV Group)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 1e Afdeling (1-VLG-V)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 2e Afdeling (2-VLG-V, helped defend Singapore)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 3e Afdeling (3-VLG-V)
New Zealand
Royal New Zealand Air Force
No. 488 Squadron RNZAF
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force
No. 60 Squadron RAF
No. 67 Squadron RAF (ex-60 Sqn., most pilots were RNZAF)
No. 71 Squadron RAF
No. 146 Squadron RAF (ex-67 Sqn.)
No. 243 Squadron RAF (most pilots were RNZAF)
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
711 Naval Air Squadron
759 Naval Air Squadron
760 Naval Air Squadron
804 Naval Air Squadron
805 Naval Air Squadron
813 Naval Air Squadron
885 Naval Air Squadron
USA
United States Army Air Forces
5th Air Force, Australia (ex-Dutch)
United States Marine Corps
VMF-111, based at Camp Kearney, Calif.
VMF-112, based at Camp Kearney, Calif.
VMD-2
VMF-211, based at Palmyra Atoll
VMF-212, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-213, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-214, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-221, used in Battle of Midway
VMF-222, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-224
VMO-251
United States Navy
VF-2
VF-3
VF-9
VJ-5
VJ-6
VS-201
Training Units at NAS Pensacola and NAS Miami
== Surviving aircraft and replicas ==
Only export models of the Buffalo are preserved. There is currently a complete Finnish B-239 (BW-372), a VL Humu variant (HM-671 at the Central Finland Aviation museum), and two replicas – one in ML-KNIL markings and the other in U.S. Navy markings.
Finnish B-239 (serial no. BW-372) flown by Lt. Lauri Pekuri was damaged by a Soviet Hawker Hurricane and crashed in 1942 on Lake Big Kolejärvi, about 31 mi (50 km) from Segezha, Russia and was rediscovered in 1998 and is now on display at the Keski-Suomen Ilmailumuseo (Aviation Museum of Central Finland). The Finnish museum also has components from FAF BW-393.
In June 2012, divers discovered the partial wreckage of a Buffalo in shallow water just off Midway Atoll. The aircraft had been ditched during February 1942, after an aborted landing attempt in bad weather by 1st Lt Charles W. Somers Jr., USMC (later Colonel, USMC Ret). Officials at the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, where the wreckage was found, have not decided whether to recover any of the parts or leave them in place.
In July 2008, a static full-scale replica B-339C was completed by the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Long Island, New York. The aircraft carries the markings of an ML-KNIL fighter flown by Lt. Gerard Bruggink (two kills). It was built for the Militaire-Luchtvaartmuseum (Military Aviation Museum) at Soesterberg, the Netherlands. The Cradle of Aviation Museum houses a static full-scale replica/model F2A-2, carrying the markings of unit "201-S-13" from VS-201, aboard USS Long Island.
== Specifications (F2A-3) ==
Data from United States Navy Aircraft since 1911General characteristics
Crew: one
Length: 26 ft 4 in (8.03 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft 0 in (10.67 m)
Height: 12 ft 0 in (3.66 m)
Wing area: 209 sq ft (19.4 m2)
Airfoil:
Root: NACA 23018
Tip: NACA 23009
Empty weight: 4,732 lb (2,146 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 7,159 lb (3,247 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone 9 9-cyl air-cooled radial piston engine, 1,200 hp (890 kW)
Propellers: 3-bladed
Performance
Maximum speed: 321 mph (517 km/h, 279 kn)
Cruise speed: 161 mph (259 km/h, 140 kn)
Range: 965 mi (1,553 km, 839 nmi)
Service ceiling: 33,200 ft (10,100 m)
Rate of climb: 2,440 ft/min (12.4 m/s)
Armament
Guns: * 2 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) nose-mounted M2 Browning machine guns
2 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) wing-mounted M2 Browning machine guns
Bombs: * 2 × bombs on underwing racks.
== See also ==
Related development
VL Humu
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
CAC Boomerang
Grumman F4F Wildcat
Hawker Sea Hurricane
Mitsubishi A6M Zero
Polikarpov I-16
Related lists
List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962)
List of military aircraft of the United States
List of fighter aircraft
List of aircraft of World War II
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Arena, Nino. I caccia a motore radiale Fiat G.50 (in Italian). Modena: Mucchi editore, 1996. NO ISBN
Boer, P.C. The Loss of Java. Singapore: NUS Press, 2011. ISBN 978-9971695132.
Boer, P.C. Het Verlies van Java (in Dutch). Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 2006. ISBN 90-6707-599-X.
Byk, Gary. Buffalo Down Under: The Modeller's Guide to Australia's Inherited Fighter. Glen Waverly, Victoria, Australia: Red Roo Models Publication, 1998.
Cull, Brian, Paul Sortenhaug and Mark Haselden. Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942. London: Grub Street, 2003. ISBN 1-904010-32-6.
Dann, Richard S/Ginter, Steve. Brewster F2A Buffalo and Export Variants. Simi Valley, CA: Ginter Publications, 2017. ISBN 978-0-9968258-6-3.
Dennis, Peter et al. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand, 2008 (Second edition). ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
Drendel, Lou. U.S. Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-89747-194-6
Ford, Daniel. "The Sorry Saga of the Brewster Buffalo". Air&Space/Smithsonian, July 1996. Expanded and revised digital edition, Warbird Books, 2013.
Gerdessen, F. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast. No. 13, August–November 1980. p. 78. ISSN 0143-5450
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Brewster F2A Buffalo". WW2 Fact Files: US Navy and Marine Corps Fighters. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1976, pp. 5–15. ISBN 0-356-08222-9.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Brewster's Benighted Buffalo". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, No. 1, n.d., pp. 66–83. ISSN 0143-5450
Horn, Steve. "The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor: Operation K And Other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II". Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-59114-388-8.
Huggins, Mark. "Falcons on Every Front: Nakajima's KI-43-I Hayabusa in Combat." Air Enthusiast, Issue 131, September/October 2007.
Keskinen, Kalevi, Kari Stenman and Klaus Niska. Brewster B-239 ja Humu (in Finnish). Espoo, Finland: Tietoteos, 1977. ISBN 951-9035-16-8. Expanded and revised edition published in two parts:
Brewster Model 239: Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 1A. Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman Publishing, 2005. ISBN 952-99432-3-7.
Brewster Model 239: Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 1B. Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman Publishing, 2005. ISBN 952-99432-4-5.
Lamp, C. O. The Flying Tigers Poke Payoff: They Saved China. iUniverse, 2007. ISBN 978-0-595-86785-1.
Lawrence, Joseph (1945). The Observer's Book Of Airplanes. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co.
Ledet, Michel (April 2002). "Des avions alliés aux couleurs japonais" [Allied Aircraft in Japanese Colors]. Avions: Toute l'Aéronautique et son histoire (in French). No. 109. pp. 17–21. ISSN 1243-8650.
Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-59114-471-7.
Maas, Jim. F2A Buffalo in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-89747-196-2.
Moran, Jim. Wake Island 1941: A Battle to Make the Gods Weep (Osprey Campaign 144). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2011. ISBN 978-1-849086-035.
Morareau, Lucien (September 1998). "Les oubliées des Antilles" [The Forgotten Ones of the Antilles]. Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire (in French). No. 66. pp. 30–37. ISSN 1243-8650.
Neulen, Hans Werner. In the Skies of Europe. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2000. ISBN 1-86126-799-1.
O'Leary, Michael. United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7137-0956-1.
Pacco, John. "Brewster B-339" Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge: Het militair Vliegwezen/l'Aeronautique militaire 1930–1940 (in French). Artselaar, Belgium: J.P. Publications, 2003, pp. 70–71. ISBN 90-801136-6-2.
Raunio, Jukka. Lentäjän näkökulma 2 – Pilot's viewpoint 2 (in Finnish). Self-published, 1993. ISBN 951-96866-0-6.
Shores, Christopher. The Brewster Buffalo (Aircraft in Profile 217). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1971.
Stanaway, John. Nakajima Ki.43 "Hayabusa": Allied Code Name "Oscar". Bennington, Vermont: Merriam Press, 1998. ISBN 978-1-57638-141-0.
Stenman, Kari and Andrew Thomas. Brewster F2A Buffalo Aces of World War 2 (Aircraft of the Aces). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84603-481-7.
Stenman, Kari and Kalevi Keskinen. Finnish Aces of World War 2. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. ISBN 978-1-85532-783-2.
Stenman, Kari. Lentolaivue 24. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-84176-262-8.
Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, Second Edition, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9.
Taylor, John W.R. "Brewster F2A Buffalo." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. ISBN 0-425-03633-2.
Wheeler, Barry C. The Hamlyn Guide to Military Aircraft Markings. London: Chancellor Press, 1992. ISBN 1-85152-582-3.
Winchester, Jim. "Brewster Buffalo." The World's Worst Aircraft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. ISBN 1-904687-34-2.
Wixey, Ken. A Rotund New Yorker: Brewster's Embattled Buffalo. Air Enthusiast 105, May/June 2003, pp. 26–40. ISSN 0143-5450
Zbiegniewski, Andre R. Brewster F2A Buffalo (bilingual Polish/English). Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2003. ISBN 83-89088-14-2.
== External links ==
Manual: (1939) AP 1806A – Pilot's Notes – The Buffalo I Aeroplane – Wright Cyclone GR. 1820 G. 105A Engine
Squadron Leader W.J. Harper, 1946, "Report on NO. 21 and NO. 453 RAAF squadrons" (transcribed by Dan Ford for Warbird's Forum.)
Brewster F2A-3 Buffalo
Finnish Buffalo BW372 recovery |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Gustavo_Petro | Presidency of Gustavo Petro | Gustavo Petro's term as the 34th president of Colombia began with his inauguration on 7 August 2022. Petro, who previously served as mayor of Bogotá, took office after his victory in the 2022 presidential election over the
self-proclaimed "anti-corruption leader" Rodolfo Hernández. Petro took office under the political shadow of his predecessor, amid an economic crisis and increased political polarization.
At the time of his election, Petro was a 62-year-old member of Congress; his victory has been attributed to public anger at the political class over years of corruption in politics, economic recession, the COVID-19 health crisis and a rise in violent crime. The crisis the country was in was caused, among other factors, by the weakness of the prices of raw materials; the events revealed underlying weaknesses in the economy including poor infrastructure, excessive bureaucracy, an inefficient tax system, and corruption.
== 2022 election ==
Petro won the runoff with 50.42% of the vote to Hernández's 47.35%. Petro dominated in regions on Colombia's Caribbean and Pacific coasts, and received over 81% of the vote in the coastal department of Chocó. Due to an increased turnout among his supporters, Petro received nearly 2.7 million more votes in the second round than the first. The result was noted for a continuing trend of left-wing victories in Latin America, which has been dubbed as a "new pink tide".
== Administration and cabinet ==
Petro was inaugurated alongside Francia Márquez, the second woman and first Afro-Colombian vice president.
On 8 August 2022, after taking office as President of Colombia, Petro announced his pick of José Antonio Ocampo for Minister of Finance and Public Credit, previously holding the same position in Ernesto Samper's cabinet.
In April 2023, Petro asked for the resignation of his whole ministerial cabinet to proceed with its restructuring. By June 2023, he had dismissed his Chief of Staff and the ambassador to Venezuela in response to a scandal regarding illegal wiretapping and possible financing irregularities.
== Domestic policy ==
=== Taxes ===
After the failure of the Duque administration's tax reform, the Petro government aimed to create a system where the population with the least economic accessibility would be affected the least. His government has emphasized the importance of reducing taxes for low-income residents and raising them for those with higher incomes.
=== Energy ===
On 8 September, the Minister of Mines and Energy, Irene Veléz, held a meeting with various unions, mayors, and other stakeholders to discuss a path to stabilizing rising energy costs.
The minister insisted that there is another Colombia that has different yet just as difficult challenges: "It is about the more than five hundred thousand families that still do not have access to energy at the national level."
On 28 October, during his visit to the municipality of Bosconia, César Petro declared a state of National Emergency to allocate the economic resources that remained from the year's budget to face emergencies. "César lives a paradox that focuses on the climate crisis. I said it in my electoral campaign; here you suffer, but this region also produces the chemicals that generate this pollution: coal".
=== Environment and climate ===
On 7 November 2022, Petro traveled to Egypt with a delegation of 201 people to discuss and rethink solutions for climate change, one of his main banners was saving the Amazon and protecting water, Petro fired at everyone, including technocrats, in a veiled reference to his predecessor, Iván Duque, who was also at the climate summit promoting one of his books. From the summit, he wanted a common fund with other countries such as Brazil, Peru, Venezuela or the United States to protect the Amazon. Colombia, he announced, will allocate 140 million dollars a year for the next 20 years.
For Andrés Santiago Arroyave, an expert on environmental issues, what the president is asking for, beyond what is said in the decalogue, is that the necessary changes be accelerated to achieve the goals of reducing between 30% and 40% of the greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality (countries generating the amount of greenhouse gases they can offset) by 2050.
However, he says that something that can generate resistance is that Petro speaks in terms of changes that must take place now, and is taking away the strength of the transition. "From an environmental perspective, the president's timing is correct; There is no longer a deadline to make less immediate changes. But if you look at it in the context of an economic crisis, recession and war, it's different", says Arroyave.
He thinks that it is very difficult for Colombia to give up the generation of fossil fuels in the short term, it is very complex because it is the main economic support of the country. "As tight as the schedule is to stop the advance of climate change, making an abrupt change in this area is something that the economy does not allow. What we can gain, from Colombia, with the insistence on the urgency of the Petro changes is that Ecopetrol increase efforts for the transition, which is something in which this country has a lot of potential. There is a lot of room to grow in wind power and solar power production," he says.
On 20 January 2023, he traveled to Davos, Switzerland to participate in the World Economic Forum, where at the end of his speech at the Petro he spoke about the intentions of the national government to lead an energy transition that allows the development of other industries, like tourism. In fact, during his presidential campaign he has insisted on the need for this sector to have significant economic empowerment, but for this a pacification plan is needed in the country.
From there arose the proposal to implement Total Peace, now understood as a State policy. The president stated that one of the steps to take is to invest in the tourism sector, "we are convinced that, with a strong investment in tourism, given the beauty of the country, and the capacity and potential that the country has in generating clean energy, could perfectly, in a short term, in a transition, fill the gaps that the fossil economy can leave", said the Head of State when closing his speech at the Davos Forum.
=== Biodiversity ===
As Colombia is a biodiversity hotspot, the administration planned to "carry out fundamental transformations to face the emergency caused by climate change and the loss of biodiversity". In a speech to the UN, Petro connected the "irrational war on drugs" to the destruction of the rainforest ecosystems, as the eradication of the coca plant through glyphosate or fire causes harm to many other nearby plants and poisons the water in the former case. On 10 January 2023, the National Police of Colombia reduced their target coca eradication goal by 60% for 2023.
In March 2023, Colombia and Bolivia announced a joint petition to remove the coca plant, but not cocaine, from the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, a list of narcotic substances deemed illegal, at the 66th Session of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs in Vienna. In their contribution to the debate Laura Gil Savastano referred to the inclusion of the coca plant in the convention as a historic mistake.
=== Education ===
On 17 November 2022 during an intervention in Pinillos, Bolívar Petro announced changes in the education sector focusing on secondary school, Petro assured that the country's education system has to make a transition to the model that is managed on the European continent.
The president concluded the announcement by saying that the ideal would be for this model to be implemented in the Los Pinillos school, "to ensure that the best public education in Colombia can be established in the region that had one of the best educations in the times of the origin of the Republic of Colombia".
=== Defense ===
On 17 December, President Gustavo Petro commented to various media outlets that the National Government is contemplating the idea of renewing the fleet of combat aircraft of the Colombian Air Force. According to the president, the announcement corresponds to the renewal of the Kfir aircraft fleet, of Israeli origin and that by next year they would be obsolete, because they have been in operation for more than 30 years, the president quoted in verbatim words. I believe that the wives of the current pilots are going to thank me very much, because in reality it was already dangerous to climb on those devices", said Gustavo Petro in the middle of the promotion ceremony for officers of the Military Forces.
Later the Minister of Defense argued in exact words "it is a reality that these planes must be bought and the French planes are the leading proposal. The Dassault Rafale could arrive in 2025 and the old ones would stop leaving service next year, said Velásquez and stated that this decision had been considered for 12 years.
=== Total peace ===
Already during his campaign for president, Gustavo Petro introduced his ideas for a Total Peace in Colombia, which aims for an all encompassing and lasting peace in Colombia, using a two-pronged strategy of reducing social inequality and expanding upon the policy of peacemeal negotiations with armed groups of his predecessors. This set of policies included a renewal of peace talks with the remaining left- and right-wing armed groups to the Colombian conflict, particularly the ELN, as well as plea-bargaining benefits to paramilitary successor groups, like the AGC and FARC dissidents. On 4 November 2022, Petro signed into law a total peace bill, codifying negotiation conditions with armed groups. Peace talks with the ELN were finally resumed at the end of November 2022, with the first set of meetings taking place in Venezuela, after the restoration of diplomatic contacts between the two countries.
In addition to these attempts at peace with armed groups, exploratory talks with violent gangs, like the Shottas and Espartanos were held with government officials that could demobilise up to 2000 gang members. The preliminary truce had already accomplished to prevent any gang-related homicides in Buenaventura in over 100 days. On 1 January 2023, the government obtained a ceasefire agreement with the 5 largest armed groups still operating in Colombia, supposed to be lasting for 6 months. The ELN for its part stated on 3 January 2023 that a mutual ceasefire is only a proposal that needs to be discussed further at an upcoming meeting at the end of January in Mexico, leading to a suspension of the ceasefire from Colombian authorities until such an agreement is reached. In the beginning of March 2023, the government announced that talks with the FARC splinter groups were also in its incipient stages, after 19 arrest warrants against the guerrilla were revoked to negotiate a peace deal and the FARC dissidents released 11 captives via mediation of the Catholic Church and the International Committee of the Red Cross. On 2 May, the Colombian government and the ELN met for a third round of talks in Havana, where both sides indicated their openness to a thorough ceasefire agreement, after a clash between the army and the ELN in late March left nine Colombian soldiers dead, threatening to derail the peace process. At the beginning of June a major breakthrough in the negotiations between the government and the ELN occurred, leading to a six-month long ceasefire between the two parties, starting from 3 August 2023. The signing ceremony took place on 9 June in Havana, in the presence of Gustavo Petro, the ELN commander Antonio García and the Cuban president Miguel Diaz-Canel. Concomitantly on 2 June, several urban gang leaders, who are currently imprisoned in high-security prisons, announced their readiness to further dialogue with the government negotiation team. A currently proposed law outlines a peace formula for these armed gangs, which provides reparations to victims in exchange for reduced prison sentences for those confessing to crimes and enables gangs to retain 6%, with a cap at $2.7m, of their ill-gotten gains.
Aside from these negotiations, the government wants to embark on multiple paths reducing the large social inequality in the country, among them a land redistribution plan and investments in rural infrastructure, benefitting poor rural communities. Further the government signalled its intent in investing in education for peace, tolerance and reconciliation.
In 2025, it was reported that less than 20% of the population believed "Total Peace" was successful, with over 70% stating it was "off-course."
=== National Development Plan ===
On 6 February 2023, Petro announced the details of his four-year development law package, which would invest $247 billion to reduce the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty, redistribute surpluses from fossile energy sources to the renewable energy transition, and institute a land reform to increase the agricultural output, covering nearly 3 million hectares of land to be allotted to poor farmers, if passed.
=== Health ===
One of his main flags, during his 2022 political campaign, was the importance of restructuring the health sector, one of the areas that affects the most Colombians, on 23 February 2023, the Minister of Health, Carolina Corcho, in which established a series of changes and the role of the EPS as well as the rest of the companies that facilitate Health.
Weeks later, the presidents of the parties, Conservative, Liberal and U, Petro's government parties, carried out analyzes of the reform as well as their contributions.
At the end of May the reform passed the lower chamber with the governing majority and some opposition lawmakers voting in favour. Its passage was opposed by many industry lobbying groups, like the National Association of Industrialists (ANDI) and some former Ministers of Health.
In January 2023, on the occaion of the 7th CELAC summit, the foundation of a regional medicine agency, termed Agencia Reguladora de Medicamentos y Dispositivos Médicos de Latinoamérica y el Caribe (AMLAC), was announced to the public. The agency was eventually founded on 27 April 2023, by delegates of Colombia, Mexico and Cuba with 10 other states signalling their intent to join the agency later on. The agency is supposed increase the self-suffiency of the participating states, streamline trade with medicinal products among the countries and harmonise regulations.
=== Labor ===
On 17 March 2023, the administration of Gustavo Petro filed, the labor reform, which would bring higher night and Sunday surcharges for workers, while it will seek that they be linked through indefinite-term contracts and that companies will be more hard to fire
“The centrality of the reform is job stability. It will guarantee the rights of the nearly 22 million employed persons. We have a text that will allow us to move towards a society that recognizes the importance of labor rights", assured the Minister of Labor, Gloria Inés Ramírez.
The bill, which will have to go through Congress, proposes that Colombians have a 42 hour work week that can be distributed, by mutual agreement, between employer and worker, throughout 5 or 6 days a week. Currently, there is a 48 hour work week, with it scheduled to be lowered to 47 hours in July 2025 in accordance with a 2021 law from the Duque administration which planned to gradually reduce working hours from 48 to 42 between 2023 2026.
In addition, the night shift would not start at 9 at night, but at 6 in the afternoon, and work on Sundays or holidays would now be paid with a surcharge of 100 percent, compared to the current 75 percent.
=== Cannabis legalization ===
Mirroring the trend towards legalisation of the cannabis plant in other countries, legislation concerning a legalised and regulated market for cannabis products passed a first hurdle in the Senate in early June 2023 after passing the Chamber of Representatives in early May. Senator María José Pizarro cited reduced crime, health benefits to consumers and approximately $400m in tax revenue as major motivations for the new law. The legislation is opposed by the conservative parties Democratic Center and Conservative Party, who specified health risks and moral reasons for their opposition.
== Foreign policy ==
=== United Nations ===
On 20 September, Petro addressed himself in his speech before the United Nations General Assembly. Contrary to his two predecessors, Iván Duque and Juan Manuel Santos, the speech was mainly in Spanish. It is expected that around 9:30 am, the Colombian president will begin his speech at the lectern of the UN headquarters, Petro raised the need to create a large common fund to save the Amazon. According to Petro, around US$1,000 million must be contributed worldwide for 20 years to work for the recovery of one of the largest forests in the world. This fund would be managed, according to the Colombian president, through the United Nations, which maintained his position on the war on drugs.
In his speech he said that:
pointed to the rich countries and the functioning of contemporary society to be destroying the jungle with their addictions to drugs and consumption. "Which is more poisonous to humanity, cocaine, coal or oil?" she asked.
Petro concluded his intervention by asking Ukraine and Russia to make peace. "Only in peace can we save life in this land of ours. There is no total peace, without social, economic and environmental justice. We are at war, too, with the planet. Without peace with the planet, there will be no peace among nations. Without social justice, there is no social peace," he stated.
=== Americas ===
==== Brazil ====
During his presidency, Gustavo Petro has maintained a stable relationship with President of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva; he has held two bilateral meetings, one of the most important of his administration being the 2023 Amazon Summit that took place on 8 and 9 August and which With the presence of the nine countries that share the Amazon, this summit presented the starting point for the creation of a new agenda for the Amazon Biome based on science, ancestral knowledge, social inclusion and the participation of all stakeholders. that will contribute to the design and implementation of innovative public protection policies for this important ecosystem.
==== Guatemala ====
On 17 January 2023, the Guatemalan prosecutor's office ordered the capture of Iván Velásquez, Minister of Defense who had previously served as Head of the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala, and who allegedly carried out and disclosed information on investigations against corruption carried out at various Central Americans presidents.
Petro assured that they will defend Iván Velásquez, Minister of Defense, in light of the accusations made against him by the Public Ministry of Guatemala. He warned that the actions taken could jeopardize diplomatic relations between the two countries.
Velásquez served in that country as head of the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala until the beginning of 2019 when he was expelled by President Jimmy Morales, along with other investigators. During his tenure, more than 70 criminal structures were dismantled and more than 600 prosecuted. The most prominent was the one known as La Línea, whose investigation led President Otto Pérez Molina and Vice President Roxana Baldetti to prison.
According to President Petro, it was these investigations that are now persecuting the current Minister of National Defense. Like any person who fights against corruption, who takes a vanguard role, and Iván Velásquez did so when he was appointed to the United Nations independent judicial commission to destroy the impunity that dominated, and still dominates, the Republic of Guatemala. because now he is persecuted by that type of interest that touched, said the Colombian president.
Petro pointed out that, contrary to what the Public Ministry now affirms, Iván Velásquez caused a rupture of the powerful and corrupt interests of that country to "discover ways of greater transparency, where they can truly be the owners of power and not the criminals.
==== Nicaragua ====
In April 2022, the ICJ issued a ruling that declared in its title that Colombia violated the sovereign rights of Nicaragua. The ruling demanded that Colombia "immediately cease" fishing activities in Nicaraguan territory, something that the government of Daniel Ortega celebrated.
Nicaragua asserts that from its coasts there is an uninterrupted natural prolongation of the continent that extends beyond its 200 nautical miles. It argues that this gives it the right to increase its platform, despite the fact that it overlaps with the 200 nautical miles that correspond to Colombia from its continental coasts. At the center of the claim are gas and oil from the seafloor. Colombia alleges that it has never ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which recognizes continental shelves. Nicaragua responds that their claims are also recognized in customary law, based on legal customs of the States that are accepted as binding. However, Colombia asserts that this is not true, since customary law refers to general principles and not to the technicalities of the delimitation of territories.
Days later, the Government of Colombia, through a statement made by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Álvaro Leyva, responded "We were programming the sending of the Colombian ambassador to Managua, but I understand that they are not liking the last position". He assured that Colombia's position has always been to ensure human rights, "That's why we wanted to go there, so that it could get on the wagon of the new politics and geopolitics that is being designed in the American continent." Meanwhile, the foreign minister in the conversation spoke about an end to the relationship with Nicaragua, "for now, it seems that they are suspended."
On 28 September 2022, Colombia's ambassador to the Organization of American States, Luis Ernesto Vargas, declared that he would condemn human rights violations in Nicaragua when necessary, but that he would prioritize the integration of the countries in the region.
==== United States ====
On 20 April 2023, he met with the president of the United States, Joe Biden, at the White House, where topics such as decarbonization, the construction of a green economy in America, and electrical transmission at the continental level were discussed. payment of foreign debt through actions against climate change.
Among the conclusions, the United States promised an investment of US$500 million for the Amazon Fund, as part of the efforts of the two nations to face climate change. With this contribution, the United States would be one of the largest donors to this international conservation program, which was established during the previous term of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva to protect the Amazon rainforest from deforestation.
Later he had a meeting with the former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, Nancy Pelosi, where he reiterated the need for United States support for the agrarian reform proposed by the administration.
==== Venezuela ====
As of 2019, before assuming the presidency, Petro had an ambiguous position on Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro. While he has not denounced its human rights violations or described Maduro as a dictator, unlike Iván Duque, he also has not expressed unrestricted support, unlike Evo Morales.
Petro had met Chávez in 1994, on Seventh Street in Bogotá, after inviting the latter to come to Colombia to learn more about the new Political Constitution of 1991. At the Bridge of Boyacá, both "swore an oath of Bolivarian integration for Latin America". After Chávez's death in 2013, Petro affirmed that he was a "great Latin American leader", saying: "You lived in Chávez's times and maybe you thought he was a clown. You were fooled. You lived in the times of a great Latin American leader". He also expressed: "Even if many do not like him, Hugo Chávez will be a man who will be remembered by the history of Latin America, his critics will be forgotten", "a friend and a hope is gone".
In 2016, Petro ironized about the crisis in Venezuela, in a year when shortages and malnutrition were rampant, by posting a photo of a supermarket with full shelves on Twitter and saying, "I went into a supermarket in Caracas and look what I found. Did RCN fool me?". In a 2018 interview in Al Punto, Mexican journalist Jorge Ramos asked Petro if he considered Chávez as a political leader, to which Petro answered that he believed that "he was popularly elected", but that authoritarianism in Venezuela under Maduro was putting an end to all freedoms.
In 2019, Petro criticized the idea of an American military intervention against Maduro's regime, stating that "only Venezuelans should solve Venezuela's problems", that "it's not a coup d'état backed by foreigners that will bring democracy to Venezuela", and that "what is happening in Venezuela is a frontal struggle for the control of oil". In 2020, Petro claimed that if Colombia reestablished diplomatic relations, cut off by Maduro, and sold food to Venezuela, Venezuelan immigration would cease.
In response to Maduro's attack of him and president of Chile Gabriel Boric as well as president of Peru Pedro Castillo, describing them as a "cowardly left wing" attacking the Bolivarian Revolution in February 2022, Petro responded on social media saying "I suggest Maduro to stop his insults. Cowards are those who do not embrace democracy", adding, "Get Venezuela out of oil, take it to the deepest democracy, if you must step aside, do it".
Following the results of the second round of the 2022 presidential elections in Colombia, Maduro congratulated Petro on his victory, saying "I congratulate Gustavo Petro and Francia Márquez, for the historic victory in the presidential elections in Colombia. The will of the Colombian people was heard, who came out to defend the path of democracy and peace. New times are on the horizon for this brother country".
On 26 August 2022, Petro asks his ambassador in Venezuela to establish ties with the neighboring country. The call was made during the act of possession.
"Today I take office before President Petro Gustavo as Colombian ambassador to Venezuela. We will work to normalize relations between two sister countries. Trade, border security and fraternal ties with our neighbor will be a priority," he commented on Twitter. Benedetti has assured that one of his first objectives as ambassador in Venezuela will be to promote commercial exchange between neighboring nations, which will especially benefit the inhabitants of the border.
In an August 2022 interview with the Colombian magazine Semana, Petro stated that he would only recognize Nicolás Maduro as Venezuelan president, and that the partially recognized interim president of Venezuela, Juan Guaidó, was a "non-existent" president, and that Guaidó had no control over the country. Guaidó reproached the lack of recognition of his interim government, and responded in a press conference: "I would have expected that his first decision would not have been to approach one who today shelters world terrorism in Venezuela".
In October 2022, Petro claimed that the number of migrants returning to Venezuela at that time outnumbered those leaving the country, arguing that there were more Colombian migrants entering Venezuela than Venezuelans entering Colombia.
On 1 November 2022 the President of the Republic, Gustavo Petro, arrived in Caracas on an official visit to Venezuela, where he met with Nicolás Maduro. Petro arrived at the Maiquetía airport, where he was received by the Vice President of Venezuela, Delcy Rodríguez. He immediately went to Caracas and, upon arriving at the Miraflores Palace, seat of the Presidency, President Maduro was waiting for him at the main door. At the presidential headquarters, the Parada Group formed a street of honor to welcome the Colombian President. Next, the presidents reviewed the detachment and the Orchestra of the National System of Youth and Children's Orchestras and Choirs of Venezuela presented a cultural sample. The presidents will have a private meeting and later, in the Ayacucho room of the Miraflores Palace, a meeting of the delegations will be held, in which issues such as the opening of the border, trade, Latin American democracy and the entry of Venezuela will be addressed. to the Inter-American Human Rights System. The Colombian Head of State traveled accompanied by the Chief of Staff, Laura Sarabia, the Minister of Foreign Relations, Álvaro Leyva the Ambassador of Colombia in Venezuela, Armando Benedetti the Ambassador of Venezuela in Colombia, Félix Plasencia, and the Ambassador of Colombia to the Organization of American States, Luis Ernesto Vargas.
In February 2023, Gustavo Petro and Nicolás Maduro signed a bilateral trade agreement at the Tienditas International Bridge. The agreement concerns topics like tariffs as well as investment and trade conditions.
Petro announced that Colombia would host an international conference to discuss the crisis in Venezuela in 2023. On the eve of the conference, Guaidó was expelled from Colombia after entering the country. After initially considering deporting him back to Venezuela, Guaidó eventually traveled to the United States. The conference took place in April with 20 countries in attendance but without that of any Venezuelan representation. It concluded with very few results, although it came to three conclusions: the need for an electoral schedule to be established in Venezuela, that the agreements between chavismo and the opposition be accompanied by the lifting of sanctions, and that the resumption of the dialogue process in Mexico go in parallel with the creation of a fund for social investment in the country, as agreed in November 2023.
=== Asia ===
==== China ====
In October 2023, Petro visited China. During the visit, Colombia and China elevated their diplomatic relations to a strategic partnership and signed twelve cooperation agreements.
=== Europe ===
==== France ====
On 22 June 2023, Gustavo Petro held a bilateral with the President of France, Emmanuel Macron. In this meeting, President Gustavo Petro reiterated his proposal that public debt should be exchanged for climate action. Already on the morning of this Thursday, the president presented this thesis before the Summit for a New World Financial Pact.
==== Germany ====
On 14 June 2023, President Petro arrived in Germany to hold a diplomatic meeting with the Federal President of Germany Frank-Walter Steinmeier, the German Chancellor Olaf Scholz members of the German Parliament, as well as a meeting with presidents of different gas production companies, energy, infrastructure, steel, telecommunications and other areas, among the topics to be discussed were the transition to clean energy, production and use of hydrogen in Colombia, technology and innovation.
==== Portugal ====
After his state visit to Spain, Petro arrived in Portugal, to meet with Antonio Costa, Prime Minister of Portugal and later with Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, President of Portugal, this to strengthen the bilateral relationship and the ties of friendship and cooperation between the two countries.
==== Spain ====
On 2 May 2023 he made his first official state visit to Spain, in the company of his wife, the first lady, Verónica Alcocer, and some members of the cabinet, including the Minister of Foreign Affairs Álvaro Leyva, the Colombian ambassador to Spain, Eduardo Ávila, the Chief of Staff, Laura Sarabia, and the Ministers of Mines and Energy, Irene Vélez, of Commerce, Industry and Tourism, Germán Umaña, and of Education, Aurora Vergara.
Among the fundamental issues, they highlighted the mitigation of climate change, energy transition, investment and migration. In addition to highlighting the historical relations with Spain, this visit took on a special character since Spain will receive the presidency of the Council of the European Union in the middle of the year.
==== Switzerland ====
On Thursday, 10 August 2023, he received the President of Switzerland, Alain Berset, at the Casa de Nariño, where they signed an agreement in order to safeguard the fund, a digital copy of the documentary collection of the Commission for the Clarification of the Truth in Swiss. Agreement that had been approved by the Swiss Government on 21 July 2023.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Presidency of Gustavo Petro at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROS-Aeroprogress_T-101_Grach | ROS-Aeroprogress T-101 Grach | The light multipurpose aircraft T-101 "Grach" or "Rook" in English, was based on the An-2 biplane and planned as a replacement for it. The design is focused on low cost, high reliability, and operating from unprepared airfields. The T-101 can carry 10 passengers, or transport 1600 kg of cargo. It can be used for agricultural, patrol, aerial photography, search and rescue, airborne and other utility functions. The T-101 has a strut-braced high-wing, fixed landing gear with tail wheel and a single engine in the nose.
== Specifications ==
Data from Jane's all the World's Aircraft 2004-05General characteristics
Crew: 1 or 2
Length: 15.06 m (49 ft 5 in)
Wingspan: 18.2 m (59 ft 9 in)
Height: 4.86 m (15 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 43.63 m2 (469.6 sq ft)
Aspect ratio: 7.6
Airfoil: TsAGI P-11-14; 3° dihedral; 3° incidence
Empty weight: 3,330 kg (7,341 lb)
Max takeoff weight: 5,250 kg (11,574 lb)
Fuel capacity: 1,200 L (320 US gal; 260 imp gal) / 950 kg (2,090 lb) max
Powerplant: 1 × Glushenkov TVD-10B (Omsk / Mars TVD-10) turboprop, 706 kW (947 shp)
Propellers: 3-bladed AV-24N, 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) diameter constant-speed fully-feathering reversible propeller
Performance
Maximum speed: 300 km/h (190 mph, 160 kn) at 3,000 m (9,800 ft)
Cruise speed: 250 km/h (160 mph, 130 kn) at 3,000 m (9,800 ft)
Range: 700 km (430 mi, 380 nmi) with max payload: 1,270 km (790 mi; 690 nmi) with max fuel
Service ceiling: 4,000 m (13,000 ft)
Wing loading: 120.3 kg/m2 (24.6 lb/sq ft)
Power/mass: 7.44 kg/kW (12.22 lb/shp)
== References ==
== External links ==
Kolganov, V. (April 1993). T-108 aircraft production highlighted. Russia: Economic and Social Affairs. FBIS report: Central Eurasia (Report). FBIS Report. Vol. FBIS-USR-93-130. Translated by Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS). Grazhdanskaya Aviatsiya (Civil Aviation) (published October 7, 1993). pp. 55–58. hdl:2027/inu.30000008301206.
Kolokolnikov, G.; Chevkinov, V. (June 1992). T-101 aircraft highlighted. Russia: Economic and Social Affairs. FBIS report: Central Eurasia (Report). FBIS Report. Vol. FBIS-USR-92-127. Translated by Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS). Grazhdanskaya Aviatsiya (Civil Aviation) (published October 3, 1992). pp. 29–31. hdl:2027/uiug.30112001465522.
[1] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_on_One_(American_TV_series) | One on One (American TV series) | One on One is an American sitcom created by Eunetta T. Boone and was aired on UPN from September 3, 2001, to May 15, 2006. The series stars Flex Alexander as a single sportscaster, who becomes a full-time father when his ex-wife decides to accept a job out of the country and his teenage daughter Breanna (Kyla Pratt) moves in with him. The series was set in Baltimore for the first four seasons, before changing settings to Los Angeles for the final season. The series was a joint production of the Greenblatt/Janollari Studio and Daddy's Girl Productions in association with Paramount Network Television.
The series featured guest appearances from numerous celebrities and athletes, including Lil' Zane, Chris Brown, Lil' Romeo, Eve, Lloyd, Floetry, Angie Stone, Mario, Omarion, Brandy, Solange Knowles, Nina Sky, Marques Houston, Smokey Robinson, Kim Fields, Avant, Jennifer Freeman, Nate Dogg, Bobby V, Claudia Jordan, Ruben Studdard, and Lisa Leslie. The show was cancelled months before The WB and UPN merged to form The CW.
The show would also have a spin-off series Cuts, which follows Flex's younger stepbrother Kevin Barnes running the local barbershop/day spa with a spoiled brat named Tiffany Sherwood after her father Jack Sherwood purchased the shop. The show premiered as a mid-season replacement during the 2004–2005 television season. The show lasted for only two seasons and was also canceled when UPN and The WB merged to form The CW.
== Synopsis ==
Set in Baltimore, the show focuses the lives of Flex Washington (Alexander) and his teenage daughter Breanna Barnes (Pratt). The series begins with Breanna wanting to stay with her father, Flex, whom Breanna used to see only two weeks a year. When he blew out his knee during an NBA game, Flex had his communications degree to fall back on (which he revealed in a later episode, he tried three times to get due to failing the class twice) and became a sportscaster. Flex works for the fictional WYNX-TV, resides in the ultimate bachelor pad, and lives the life of luxury. He is a ladies' man who wants to be both a responsible parent and a best friend to Breanna. Flex is very protective of his daughter, especially with boys. He has only had a few serious relationships, one of which was Breanna's mother Nicole Barnes (Tichina Arnold), whom he impregnated at the age of 18. When Nicole takes a job in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, Nicole allows Breanna to live with Flex.
Flex's best friend and Breanna's godfather, Duane Odell Knox (Kelly Perine), is a used-car salesman who lives across the hall from Flex and Breanna and is a constant presence in their lives for better or worse. Duane's way with women is the exact opposite of Flex's, in which Duane usually repels women. The women he does date, however, are somewhat unusual. His only serious girlfriend during the series was Candy (Shondrella Avery), whom he dated for two years before getting engaged and later breaking up.
Breanna's best friend is Spirit Jones (Sicily Sewell) with whom she creates some mischief. Her other best friend, Arnaz Ballard (Robert Ri'chard), is the object of her on-again, off-again affection. The two were just friends, but Breanna became jealous of Arnaz's old girlfriend, Ginger (Khanya Mkhize). Arnaz became jealous when, in season 2, Breanna began dating Josh (Josh Henderson). The two finally became a couple in the latter part of the series. They break up during the third season and move on to date other people, though they know they still love each other. The series ends with Arnaz chasing after Michelle (Brandy Norwood), D-Mack's sister, with whom he has fallen in love while Breanna is shown in bed with D-Mack (Ray J).
== Episodes ==
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Flex Alexander as Flexter "Flex" Alexander Barnes / Flex Washington (seasons 1–4; recurring season 5) – Flex was born to Richard and Eunice Barnes and is the oldest of three children. In high school, Flex met Nicole, who became his first serious girlfriend. Before that, Flex had a reputation with women that caused many fathers in his neighborhood to dislike him. At age 18, Flex got Nicole pregnant as a senior in high school and they got married. She gave birth to a baby daughter named Breanna when they were 19 years old. A year later, Flex and Nicole went their separate ways when Flex pursued a career in the NBA playing for the Los Angeles Clippers, New York Knicks and Orlando Magic. During a game, however, he blew out his knee and was sidelined. Luckily, he had a communications degree to fall back on (which he admitted he tried to get twice) and became a sportscaster in Baltimore for television station WYNX News 3. After his daughter stays over for two weeks, Nicole springs the news that she got a job in Nova Scotia and wants to take Breanna with her. Flex unwittingly volunteers to take care of Breanna, though it may hamper his bachelor lifestyle. After his divorce from Nicole, Flex had taken on a player persona and even had a 30-day rule, vowing not to date a woman for more than 30 days and run the risk of their connection becoming a romantic relationship. He broke that rule when he dated Natalie, Breanna's art teacher. However, they broke up a year into their romance because she wanted to be a good stepmom to Breanna rather than have children of her own. A year later, Flex began dating Danielle, a psychotherapist who initially did not want to date him because Flex and Brianna were her clients. Flex and Danielle eventually began dating and later became engaged. Around the same time, his show The Flex Files became syndicated. In season 5, the show's premise was revamped and Flex was phased out of the series, but he appeared occasionally as a recurring character. He would fly out to California to visit Breanna and to also make sure Arnaz was not trying to have sex with her.
Kyla Pratt as Breanna Latrice Barnes – Breanna is the daughter of Flex Washington and Nicole Barnes, born when the two were 19. When Breanna finds out that her mother Nicole got a job in Nova Scotia, Breanna comes up with the idea to have Flex take care of her. During her stay with Flex, her best friend Spirit and she joined the cheerleading squad, which she initially would have never thought to try out for until the head cheerleader taunts her and tries everything she can to keep her from joining. Breanna has had several crushes, including Arnaz, one of her two best friends, who became an on-again/off-again love interest during the series, and in whom she did not show any romantic interest until the end of the first season. Breanna dated Josh, a handsome but dimwitted boy, who became part of a love triangle between Breanna, Josh, and Arnaz. Eventually, Breanna and Arnaz became a couple, only to break up when Josh and Arnaz' ex-girlfriend Ginger came up with a plan to break the two up, in which Breanna caught Ginger kissing Arnaz. During the third season, Arnaz and Breanna seemed to be on the way to getting back together until he revealed he was not a virgin one night when Breanna wanted to lose her virginity to Arnaz to stay popular with the cheerleaders (she did not go through with it after she found out). Then, Breanna decided to remain a virgin until she was ready to have sex, even if it was not until she was married. Breanna also kind of went out with a boy from her school, Nyghtmare, whose real name was Clayton. He was smart, but had a reputation as a bad boy. When Breanna found out, she said something that almost leads to a kiss. Flex saw them and prevented Breanna from seeing him. Nightmare explained to Breanna's father what was going on, and she could see him again, but he came in before Arnaz could tell her his feelings for her. In the next episode, he was not there; they just had an attraction to each other. By the fourth season, Breanna and Arnaz finally became a couple, but Breanna had to endure jealousy when Charlie, a French girl, joined Arnaz's band as the lead singer. Nothing happened between Arnaz and Charlie, because his heart was with Breanna. In the season 4 finale, Breanna and Arnaz broke up after Nicole came up with a plot to keep Breanna from making the same mistakes that she made with Flex when they were her age, after Breanna announced she was going to live with Arnaz, and Flex tried to convince Arnaz to let Breanna go to California to attend the California Institute of the Arts. Arnaz ran onto the plane that Breanna was taking to California to tell her he could not live without her. They eventually went to California, where they moved in with four other roommates: Cash, D-Mack, Lisa, and Sara. They broke up again when Arnaz and their roommate D-Mack's sister began getting closer. She began dating Calvin, a manager at McDonald's, only to break up because he thought that her heart was still with Arnaz. Breanna tells Arnaz she still loves him. She is later seen in bed with D-Mack at the end of the last episode (part 2), to whom she loses her virginity. Breanna is the only character to appear in every episode of the series.
Robert Ri'chard as Arnaz Leroy Ballard – Arnaz is an aspiring rock musician and was born to a Caucasian mother and an African-American father, who left his mother and owns a crab restaurant (this is seen when Arnaz's parents are shown later in the series, but this contradicted a reference in the first-season episode "The Case of the Almost Broken Heart", in which Breanna stated that Arnaz's father was Caucasian and his mother was of mixed African-American, Jamaican, and Chinese descent). Arnaz had his own rock band called Zanra (which is his name spelled in backwards). Arnaz had a massive crush on Breanna when they met, and would stop at nothing to impress her. Towards the end of season 1, however, as he got her attention, his attention turned to Ginger, who became Breanna's rival. After Ginger and he broke up, Arnaz attempted to get Breanna back, but Breanna was dating Josh at the time. One Christmas, Breanna was given a half-heart pendant by Arnaz, who kept half of the pendant to show he would always keep Breanna close to his heart. In the season 4 premiere, Arnaz, Breanna, and Spirit ran off to New York to pursue their dreams (Breanna acting, Arnaz playing guitar, and Spirit designing). After three years of a "will they or won't they" situation between them, Arnaz and Breanna became a couple in the fourth season. A year later, Arnaz and Breanna's relationship hit the skids when their roommate D-Mack's sister Michelle (Brandy Norwood) visited, and eventually, Arnaz and Michelle became close friends. One night, the two fell asleep on the couch, Michelle was fully dressed and Arnaz is wearing pants but no shirt. Breanna and their roommates, Sara, D-Mack, Lisa, and Cash, walked in after returning from a party in Mexico and saw them. Though they had never done anything intimate, Breanna and Arnaz broke up. Eventually, Michelle and Arnaz did get together, but they went their separate ways after Michelle realized Arnaz's heart was still with Breanna. He thought differently, so he stole Breanna's car (with permission) and chased Michelle to the mountains. However, since the series did not make it to the sixth season, whether Breanna and Arnaz would eventually get back together remained undetermined.
Sicily as Cloteal "Spirit" Freedom Jones (seasons 1–4) – Spirit is the daughter of Leilani and Cooper Jones, former Black hippies who run an incense shop. Spirit knew Arnaz since they were young children and became best friends with Breanna. Spirit has an quirky fashion sense, which has given her the distinction of being the "Black Blossom Russo." In one episode, Spirit was revealed to have once kissed Arnaz in a game of spin the bottle. The secret angered Breanna because she liked Arnaz, but the two friends apologized for the situation, as Breanna explained that Spirit was one of her few true friends. A running gag in the series is how Spirit never has a boyfriend. This changed in the fourth season when Spirit began dating A-Train (Lloyd), Arnaz's rival in a battle of the bands' contest. Their relationship strained Arnaz and hers for a while, but eventually, they mended fences. She did not appear in the final season.
Kelly Perine as Duane Odell Knox (seasons 1–4) – Duane is a used-car salesman for Big Sal's Used Cars, who lived up to the stereotype that car salesmen cheat their customers. As he says in the episode "Playing Possum", he "eats sleaze for breakfast and washes it down with a tall glass of dishonesty." Duane was Flex's best friend since they were children. Duane had lived in his mother's basement well into his 30s, eventually moving into an apartment across the hall from Flex. He had an on-again/off-again relationship with Candace Taylor (known as Candy), a manicurist at Flex's father's barbershop Phatheadz. They first broke up after Duane lied to her about losing his job at Big Sal's. They later became engaged, but eventually broke off the engagement. When Duane found out he had a serious health issue (high cholesterol), he needed to contact his father, since his high cholesterol might be hereditary. He met his father, Vaughn Odell Knox (Smokey Robinson) after months of searching for him. Not long after, Vaughn asked Duane for a kidney, which turned out to be for Duane's half-brother Dwayne (Orlando Brown). After losing his car-salesman job, he started his own business, D's Dubs and Subs, which was a cross between a sandwich shop and a custom auto part shop. Throughout the series, Duane always wore a hat, because, when they were children, Flex's brother Kevin made a mistake while practicing his barbering skills on Duane, which in pain; this was revealed in the episode "Phatheadz". The character was written out of the series for season 5.
Camille Mana as Lisa Sanchez (season 5) – The character of Lisa Sanchez was introduced at the beginning of season 5. Lisa is one of the four roommates with whom Breanna and Arnaz live when they move to California. Other than her roommates, she is somewhat overlooked by people, such as D-Mack's sister Michelle (Brandy Norwood), who is not remember her at all, though she lived with D-Mack. Lisa has had a long-standing crush on D-Mack, though he takes without interest in her. She eventually dates Benjamin, the handsome, nerdy manager of the BLOG, a restaurant hangout where Arnaz works.
Jonathan Chase as Cash Bagan (season 5) – Cash is another of Breanna and Arnaz's roommates. Cash considers himself a filmmaker but works as a paparazzo to make money. Since the apartment has only two bedrooms, Arnaz is initially alarmed at the idea of sharing a room with Cash and D-Mack, but before long, the three become friends. Throughout the season, Cash chases women, and while he unlucky as he would like to be, he is more successful in his endeavors than D-Mack or Arnaz. At the end of one episode, in an amusing mirror of roommate Sara's usual behavior, Cash uses his toned body to entice a female hotel manager out of making them pay their bill.
Ray J as Darrell "D-Mack" McGinty (season 5) – The character of Darrell McGinty, nicknamed "D-Mack", was introduced as one of the four roommates. D-Mack has a hip-hop persona, although his lifestyle as a Malibu rich kid comes out at times. He used his sister Michelle McGinty (Brandy Norwood) to become close to Arnaz, so he could date Breanna, but without success. He becomes upset to find out his sister and Arnaz are going behind everyone's back sneaking around together. Meanwhile, Michelle leaves Arnaz. He leaves, going after her to the mountains, leaving D-Mack and Breanna as the only ones left in the house. He questions her about being free, then unexpectedly kisses her. Later, Sara comes back to find them sleeping together in Breanna's bed. She panics, then leaves. The season is left with them together in bed.
Nicole Paggi as Sara Crawford (season 5) – Sara is also one of the roommates and is the sexpot girl-next-door of the house. Sara is considered a white gold digger, and dreams of being a trophy wife since she grew up in a trailer park in Iowa. In the last episode, she dated Andrew, whom she met while Lisa and she accompanied Breanna to a clinic to get information on contraceptives (Breanna was prepared to have sex with Arnaz just to keep him from straying from her, but she did not), but his need to get to know Sara before having sex with her tired her to the point where she gave up on him. Her passiveness turned him on, but the next night, Sara caught Andrew with another woman.
=== Recurring ===
Ron Canada as Richard, Flex's father (seasons 1–4)
Joan Pringle as Eunice, Flex's mother (seasons 1–2)
Marques Houston as Kevin, Flex's younger brother, who later runs the family's barbershop (seasons 3–5)
Reagan Gomez-Preston as Bernadette, Flex's younger sister (season 2)
Tamala Jones as Tanya, an old girlfriend of Flex's (season 1; guest season 4)
Tichina Arnold as Nicole, Flex's ex-wife and Breanna's mother (seasons 1–3; guest season 4)
Holly Robinson Peete as Stacy Morgan, Flex's boss (season 1)
Jenny McCarthy as Holly Spears, Flex's co-host (season 3)
Khanya Mkhize as Ginger, Breanna's rival and Arnaz's former girlfriend (seasons 1–3)
Omar Gooding as Malik, a barber at Phatheadz (season 2)
Laz Alonso as Manny, a barber at Phatheadz (seasons 2–3)
Rashaan Nall as Walt, a barber at Phatheadz (seasons 2–4)
Shondrella as Candy, a nail stylist at Phatheadz and love interest for Duane (seasons 2–4)
Melissa De Sousa as Natalie Odessa, Breanna's teacher who later dates Flex (seasons 2–3)
Josh Henderson as Josh McEntire, Breanna's new love interest after her break-up with Arnaz (seasons 2–3)
Kim Coles as Leilani Jones, Spirit's mother (seasons 2–4)
Edward "Grapevine" Fordham, Jr. as "Ace" Fields, a new barber at Phatheadz and later an intern on the Flex Files (seasons 2–4).
Saskia Garel as Danielle, Flex's best friend and therapist, later girlfriend, then wife (season 4; guest season 5)
Lloyd as "A-Train" (season 4)
Kel Mitchell as Manny Sellers, the former child actor and Breanna's landlord (season 5)
Ernie Grunwald as Benjamin (season 5)
Brandy Norwood as Michelle, D-Mack's sister (season 5)
=== Notable guest stars ===
== Theme song and opening sequence ==
The show's theme song "Living One on One", was written and performed by Shanice (wife of the show's star Flex Alexander) and Tonex with music composed by Jonathan Wolff and Becky Kneubuhl (who composed the scene-change music for the first season). The theme song was slightly shortened and remixed by Detail and Ray J for the show's fifth season. A truncated version of the theme, which had no lyrics except for the words "One on One", was used as a closing theme, heard only in syndicated airings.
The opening titles for the first three seasons featured the cast playing basketball on an outdoor court (though it also showed some characters doing other things at that same setting, e.g., Spirit checking out a boy who walks past her, and Arnaz playing the guitar only to be interrupted by a basketball bouncing in his direction that fell out of Duane's hand and he chases him). The fourth-season opening titles featured the cast in a dressing room getting ready for a night on the town, the end of the sequence featuring a pan shot of the cast in the mirror wearing different outfits from what they were wearing at the beginning of the pan shot. The opening sequences for the first four seasons included a closeup shot of Flex, Breanna, and Arnaz before cutting back to a shot of the entire cast. The final season's opening titles featured the main cast (Breanna, Arnaz, and new characters D-Mack, Sara, Cash, and Lisa) at different places at the Venice Beach Boardwalk, before meeting back at the beach house to take a picture together.
== Nielsen ratings ==
== Syndication ==
One on One began airing in syndication in September 2006. CBS Paramount Domestic Television also held the distribution rights to the series for the first year of its syndication run. CBS Media Ventures (formerly CBS Television Distribution) has been the series' distributor since September 2007.
In the United States, One on One was broadcast on various local television stations (mostly Fox, The CW, and MyNetworkTV) affiliates from September 2006 to September 2009. The series was rerun on Noggin's teen block, The N, from October 2006 onward. It continued to air when The N was spun off into a 24-hour channel on December 31, 2007 and ran until October 2008. It rejoined the channel's lineup on September 14, 2009, and was moved to the successor channel TeenNick on September 28, 2009. It aired in two-hour blocks in the morning and late-night hours before being removed from TeenNick's lineup in 2013. The series began airing on BET in 2009, airing in two one-hour blocks (one weekday mornings and one in the afternoon), as well as Saturday broadcasts.
Formerly, Bounce TV and TV One both air the series. The series joined Netflix on October 15, 2020.
As of 2024, reruns of the series can be seen on Cleo TV and Dabl.
== International broadcast ==
In overseas, One on One is broadcast in Canada on BET and local affiliates; on Nine Network in Australia; on SABC1 in South Africa and in the Middle East on the Paramount Comedy Channel in the Middle East (however, the fifth season has yet to be aired in its entirety on Paramount Comedy). The series is broadcast across the African continent on Sony Entertainment Channel via the South African cable network DSTV.
== Awards and nominations ==
BET Comedy Awards
2005 – Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series – Ken Whittingham, Brian K. Roberts, Maynard C. Virgil I, Chip Fields & Mary Lou Belli (Nominated)
2005 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2004 – Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
Image Awards
2005 – Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2004 – Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2004 – Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series – Kyla Pratt (Nominated)
2003 – Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series – Flex Alexander (Nominated)
2003 – Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)
Prism Awards
2005 – TV Comedy Series Episode for episode "No More Wire Hangers" (Won)
== References ==
== External links ==
One on One at IMDb
One on One at epguides.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motavita | Motavita | Motavita is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the subregion of the Central Boyacá Province. It covers approximately 62 square kilometres (24 sq mi).
== Etymology ==
The name Motavita comes from the Chibcha language and means "washing place to prepare for growing crops", indicating a ceremonial use.
== Geography ==
Motavita is bordered to the north by Arcabuco and Cómbita, to the east and south by Tunja, and to the west by Sora and Chíquiza.
== History ==
In the time before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca, Motavita was inhabited by the Muisca, organised in their loose Muisca Confederation. Motavita was an important settlement in the coca trade with surrounding indigenous groups, such as the Muzo people who populated the western parts of Boyacá. Motavita was ruled by the zaque of nearby Hunza. Conquistador Hernán Pérez de Quesada, brother of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, reached Motavita in 1540. In 1776 the first evangelisation of the Catholic Church was established by friar Juan Pérez. Modern Motavita was founded on 23 December 1816 and its first mayor was Marino Monrroy.
== Divisions ==
Motavita was divided into five cadastral vereda (townships): Centro, Carbonera, Ristá, Salvial and Sote Panelas; however, Sote Panelas had four more veredas split off from it, namely: Frutillal, Versalles, Quebrada Honda and Barro Hondo, thus making nine vereda.
== Born in Motavita ==
Jefferson Vargas, professional cyclist
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigd%C3%ADs_Finnbogad%C3%B3ttir | Vigdís Finnbogadóttir | Vigdís Finnbogadóttir (Icelandic: [ˈvɪɣtis ˈfɪnpɔɣaˌtouʰtɪr̥] ; born 15 April 1930) is an Icelandic politician who was the fourth president of Iceland, serving from 1980 to 1996, the first woman to hold the position and the first in the world to be democratically elected president of a country. Having served for 16 years, she was also the longest-serving elected female head of state in history. Vigdís is a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador and a member of the Club of Madrid.
== Early life and career ==
Vigdís was born on 15 April 1930 in Reykjavík. Her father, Finnbogi Rútur Þorvaldsson, was a civil engineer, and her mother, Sigríður Eiríksdóttir, was a nurse who headed the national nurses association. The following year, her younger brother Þorvaldur was born; he did not survive to adulthood, as he drowned in Hreðavatn. Vigdís enrolled at the University of Grenoble in 1949, later switching to the Sorbonne. She studied English and French literature, giving special emphasis to plays, and she graduated in 1953.
Vigdís was married in 1954. The same year, she began acting, co-founding a theatre group. She also worked on the translation of several French plays. She enrolled at the University of Copenhagen in 1957, where she studied theatre history until the following year. She was divorced in 1963. Vigdís participated in the anti-military rallies that took place in the 1960s and 1970s, protesting the United States military presence in Iceland. Vigdís adopted a daughter in 1972, making her the first single woman in Iceland to adopt a child.
Vigdís taught French lessons on television for RÚV beginning in 1972, making her a well known figure throughout the nation. In the same year, she was appointed the artistic director of the Reykjavík Theatre Company. She became a member of the Advisory Committee on Cultural Affairs in the Nordic Countries in 1976, and the organisation's chair in 1978. She continued in all of these positions until she became President of Iceland in 1980. Other jobs she held early in life included her work as a French teacher at several colleges, including at the University of Iceland, and her work as a tour guide with the Icelandic Tourist Bureau in the summers. She eventually became the head of the Icelandic Tourist Bureau.
== Presidency (1980–1996) ==
Vigdís ran in the 1980 presidential election. During her campaign, her anti-military position and her opposition to a United States presence in Iceland led to allegations that she was sympathetic to communism. Vigdís ran for president to prove that women were able to lead political campaigns, and she did not expect to win. Despite this, Vigdís won the election on 29 June 1980. The vote was split among four candidates, and she prevailed with 33.6% of the vote. Vigdís was the first woman to ever be democratically elected as a head of state in any country, taking office on 1 August 1980 as the fourth president of Iceland. The number of women in the Althing increased significantly after her election.
Vigdís was re-elected without opposition in the 1984 presidential election. She oversaw the Reykjavík Summit on 11–12 October 1986 between American president Ronald Reagan and Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev, which is credited with improving relations between the countries and bringing the Cold War closer to an end. In the 1988 presidential election, Vigdís became the first incumbent president of Iceland to face a challenger in the presidential election. The challenger fared poorly, and Vigdís won with 92.7% of the vote. She was again re-elected without opposition in 1992.
Though the Icelandic presidency is mostly ceremonial, Vigdís became an active president, using the role to represent the nation and to inform the national identity through cultural initiatives. Vigdís is an environmentalist, and used her presidency as a platform to advocate for environmental issues. She led a campaign for reforestation in Iceland, and called for the prevention of topsoil loss. Vigdís is also a pacifist, and she describes herself as a "peace person". She was also an advocate for gay rights as president.
The decision Vigdís considered "the most difficult episode" of her career took place in 1994 during the debate on joining the European Economic Area. A strong opposition existed against European integration in Iceland, but Vigdís supported the European Union and European integration, and she refused to use her presidential veto to block Iceland's association with the European Economic Area. Vigdís decided not to run for a fifth term as president, and her tenure ended in August 1996. She served for 16 years. To date, she is the longest-serving female elected head of state in recorded history.
== Post-presidency ==
Vigdís became the founding chair of the Council of Women World Leaders in 1996, and she was first chair of the World Commission on the Ethics in Scientific Knowledge and Technology from 1997 to 2001. Since 1998, Vigdís has served as UNESCO's Goodwill Ambassador for languages. She is also a member of the Fondation Chirac's honour committee.
Vigdís continued her peace advocacy after her tenure as president ended. In 2016, she expressed her desire for the United States and Russia to visit Iceland to resolve their differences through discussion as they did during the Reykjavík Summit. She has described the relations between the two countries as a new Cold War.
Vigdís is a member of the Club of Madrid.
== Honours ==
=== National honours ===
Iceland:
Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Falcon (1 August 1980).
=== Foreign honours ===
Denmark:
Knight of the Order of the Elephant (25 February 1981)
Sweden:
Knight with Collar of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (8 October 1981; collar 1987)
Norway:
Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of St. Olav (1982)
Finland:
Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose (1982).
Netherlands:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (18 September 1985).
Spain:
Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Charles III (11 September 1985).
United Kingdom:
Honorary Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (25 June 1990).
=== Honorary degrees ===
Université Bordeaux Montaigne, (former Université Bordeaux 3), France (1987)
University of Trondheim, Norway (1993)
== See also ==
List of the first women holders of political offices
== References ==
== External links ==
Official CV
Video interview by the Nordic Culture Fund (in Danish)
Video interview by the School of Humanities of the University of Iceland (in Icelandic)
Video message for the Women in Parliaments Global Forum (in English) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Ichiyama | Dennis Ichiyama | Dennis Ichiyama is an artist focusing on woodblock prints and former professor of Visual Communications Design at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana..
== Early life and education ==
Ichiyama attended the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa where he obtained his B.F.A., having grown up in Hawaii. He went on to get his M.F.A. in Graphic Design from Yale University in 1968, studying under Paul Rand to learn how to create within limitations. From 1976 to 1978, Ichiyama studied as a post-graduate student at Allegemeine Gewerbeschule in Basel, Switzerland.
== Career ==
In 1999, Ichiyama became the designer-in-residence at the Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum in Two Rivers, Wisconsin, working with historic wood type.
During his career he has received several fellowships and study grants, and many awards in Print, Communication Arts, Creativity, and HO publications' annual design competitions. He has contributed to the book Contemporary Designers. and the book Hamilton Wood Type, A History in Headlines.
In late 2017, Ichiyama was forced to retire from Purdue University.
== Art ==
Ichiyama's art focuses on woodblock prints. He uses opaque and transparent inks to layer wood block prints of letters on top of one another. By doing this, he creates new shapes and forms within the remaining positive and negative space. His work can be found in many library collections in the US, Zurich, Rome, and Corunda, as well as the National Art Museum and Gallery
Ichiyama has also designed a number of commercial trademarks.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darrud | Darrud | Darrud (Persian: درود) is a city in the Central District of Zeberkhan County, Razavi Khorasan province, Iran.
== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 4,979 in 1,431 households, when it was in the former Zeberkhan District of Nishapur County. The following census in 2011 counted 5,449 people in 1,618 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 5,717 people in 1,846 households.
After the census, the district was separated from the county in the establishment of Zeberkhan County, and Darrud was transferred to the new Central District.
== See also ==
Iran portal
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Hastings#Personal_life | Max Hastings | Sir Max Hugh Macdonald Hastings (; born 28 December 1945) is a British journalist and military historian, who has worked as a foreign correspondent for the BBC, editor-in-chief of The Daily Telegraph, and editor of the Evening Standard. He is also the author of thirty books, most significantly histories, which have won several major awards. Hastings currently writes a bimonthly column for Bloomberg Opinion and contributes to The Times and The Sunday Times.
== Early life ==
Hastings' parents were Macdonald Hastings, a journalist and correspondent, and Anne Scott-James, sometime editor of Harper's Bazaar. He was educated at Charterhouse and University College, Oxford, which he left after a year.
== Career ==
Hastings moved to the United States, spending a year (1967–68) as a Fellow of the World Press Institute, following which he published his first book, America, 1968: The Fire This Time, an account of the US in its tumultuous election year. He became a foreign correspondent and reported from more than sixty countries and eleven wars for BBC1's Twenty-Four Hours current affairs programme and for the Evening Standard in London.
Hastings was the first person accompanying the British Task Force to enter Port Stanley on the last day of the 1982 Falklands War. After ten years as editor and then editor-in-chief of The Daily Telegraph, he returned to the Evening Standard as editor in 1996 and remained there until his retirement in 2002. Hastings was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 2002 Birthday Honours for services to journalism. He was elected a member of the political dining society known as The Other Club in 1993.
He has presented historical documentaries for the BBC and is the author of many books, including Bomber Command, which earned the Somerset Maugham Award for non-fiction in 1980. Both Overlord and The Battle for the Falklands won the Yorkshire Post Book of the Year prize. He was named Journalist of the Year and Reporter of the Year at the 1982 British Press Awards, and Editor of the Year in 1988. In 2010 he received the Royal United Services Institute's Westminster Medal for his "lifelong contribution to military literature", and the same year the Edgar Wallace Award from the London Press Club.
In 2012, he was awarded the US$100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award, a lifetime achievement award for military writing, which includes an honorarium, citation and medallion, sponsored by the Chicago-based Tawani Foundation. Hastings is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, and the Royal Historical Society. He was President of the Campaign to Protect Rural England from 2002 to 2007.
In his 2007 book Nemesis: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45 (known as Retribution in the United States), the chapter on Australia's role in the last year of the Pacific War was criticised by the chief of the Returned and Services League of Australia and one of the historians at the Australian War Memorial, for allegedly exaggerating discontent in the Australian Army. Dan van der Vat in The Guardian called it "even-handed", "refreshing" and "sensitive" and praised the language used. The Spectator called it "brilliant" and praised his telling of the human side of the story.
Hastings wrote a column for the Daily Mail between 2002 and 2008 and often contributes articles to other publications such as The Guardian, and The Sunday Times. He also currently writes a bimonthly column for Bloomberg Opinion.
== Personal life ==
Hastings lives near Hungerford, Berkshire, with his second wife, Penelope (née Levinson), whom he married in 1999. Hastings has a surviving son and daughter by his first wife, Patricia Edmondson, to whom he was married from 1972 until 1994. In 2000, his 27-year-old first son, Charles, died by suicide in Ningbo, China. He dedicated his book Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–45, which was published in 2007, to Charles's memory.
== Political views ==
Hastings has at different times voted for all three major British political parties. He announced his support for the Conservative Party at the 2010 general election, having previously voted for the Labour Party at the 1997 and 2001 general elections. He said that "four terms are too many for any government" and described Gordon Brown as "wholly psychologically unfit to be Prime Minister".
In August 2014, Hastings was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.
In June 2019, Hastings described Boris Johnson, the Conservative Party leadership candidate, as "unfit for national office, because it seems he cares for no interest save his own fame and gratification ... [his] premiership will almost certainly reveal a contempt for rules, precedent, order and stability ... If the price of Johnson proves to be Corbyn, blame will rest with the Conservative party, which is about to foist a tasteless joke upon the British people – who will not find it funny for long." He continued along this line of argument throughout the Johnson premiership and he said that "the experiment in celebrity government to which the Conservative Party committed us has failed, and is seen by the world to have failed. The foremost task for a successor is to restore Britain's reputation as a serious country."
In his Bloomberg column on 14 February 2021, Hastings wrote that the United Kingdom's future was unlikely to be long-term. He advocated a United Ireland but said he was against Scottish and Welsh independence. Hastings was widely criticised for stating in the article that the Welsh language was of "marginal value" and that Wales could not succeed as an independent country because it was "dependent on English largesse". Huw Edwards said there were several factual errors in Hastings' points, while Fergus Llewelyn Turtle responded: "For the non-English part of the UK that is ... the most integrated with England, it's pretty astonishing how many English commentators have exactly zero political clue about Wales."
In March 2021, Hastings wrote that the prospect of a showdown between the United States and China over Taiwan was becoming increasingly likely.
== Select bibliography ==
=== Reportage ===
America 1968: The Fire this Time (Gollancz, 1969) ISBN 0-575-00234-4
Ulster 1969: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland (Gollancz, 1970) ISBN 0-575-00482-7
The Battle for the Falklands (with Simon Jenkins) (Michael Joseph, 1983) ISBN 0-7181-2228-3, (Norton, 1983) ISBN 0-393-01761-3
=== Biography ===
Montrose: The King's Champion (Gollancz, 1977) ISBN 0-575-02226-4
Yoni: Hero of Entebbe: Life of Yonathan Netanyahu (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980) ISBN 0-297-77565-0
=== Autobiography ===
Going to the Wars (Macmillan, 2000) ISBN 0-333-77104-4
Editor: A Memoir (Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0-333-90837-6
Did You Really Shoot the Television?: A Family Fable (London, HarperPress, 2010) ISBN 978-0-00-727171-9
=== History ===
Bomber Command (Michael Joseph, 1979) ISBN 0-7181-1603-8
The Battle of Britain (with Len Deighton) (Jonathan Cape, 1980) ISBN 0-224-01826-4
Das Reich: Resistance and the March of the Second SS Panzer Division Through France, June 1944 (Michael Joseph, 1981) ISBN 0-7181-2074-4, (Henry Holt & Co, 1982) ISBN 0-03-057059-X
Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy (Simon & Schuster, 1984) ISBN 0-671-46029-3
Victory in Europe: D-Day to VE-Day (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985) ISBN 0-297-78650-4 (Little Brown & C, 1992) ISBN 0-316-81334-6
The Korean War (Michael Joseph, 1987) ISBN 0-7181-2068-X, (Simon & Schuster, 1987) ISBN 0-671-52823-8
Armageddon: The Battle for Germany 1944–45 (Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 0-333-90836-8
Warriors: Exceptional Tales from the Battlefield (HarperPress [UK], 2005) ISBN 978-0-00-719756-9
Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–45 (HarperPress [UK], October 2007) ISBN 0-00-721982-2 (re-titled Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45 for US release Knopf ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3)
Finest Years: Churchill as Warlord 1940–45 (London, HarperPress, 2009) ISBN 978-0-00-726367-7 (re-titled Winston's War: Churchill, 1940–1945 for US release by Knopf, 2010, ISBN 978-0-307-26839-6)
All Hell Let Loose: The World At War 1939–1945 (London, HarperPress, 29 September 2011) ISBN 978-0-00-733809-2 (re-titled Inferno: The World At War, 1939–1945 for US release by Knopf, 1 November 2011, ISBN 978-0-307-27359-8. 729 pp)
Catastrophe: Europe Goes to War 1914 (London, Knopf Press, 24 September 2013) ISBN 978-0307597052, 640 pp.
The Secret War: Spies, Codes And Guerrillas 1939–45 (London: William Collins, 2015) ISBN 9780007503742
Vietnam: An Epic Tragedy 1945–1975 (William Collins, 2018) ISBN 978-0062405678
Chastise: The Dambusters Story 1943 (William Collins, 2019) ISBN 9780008280529
Operation Pedestal: The Fleet that Battled to Malta 1942 (William Collins, 2021) ISBN 978-0008364946
Abyss: The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 (William Collins, 2022) ISBN 978-0008364991
Operation Biting: The 1942 Parachute Assault to Capture Hitler's Radar (William Collins, 2024) ISBN 978-0008642167
Sword: D-Day Trial by Battle (William Collins, 2025) ISBN 978-0008699758
=== Countryside writing ===
Outside Days (Michael Joseph, 1989) ISBN 0-7181-3330-7
Scattered Shots (Macmillan, 1999) ISBN 0-333-77103-6
Country Fair (HarperCollins, October 2005) ISBN 0-00-719886-8. 288 pp
=== Anthology ===
The Oxford Book of Military Anecdotes (ed.) (Oxford University Press, 1985) ISBN 0-19-214107-4
Soldiers: Great Stories of War and Peace (William Collins, 2021) ISBN 978-0008454227
=== Journalism ===
== Filmography ==
Wellington Bomber, 2010 BBC documentary
The Necessary War, 2014 BBC documentary on the Centennial of the beginning of the First World War.
== See also ==
Clan Macdonald of Sleat
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Appearances on C-SPAN
Max Hastings at IMDb
Max Hastings on Journalisted
"Hastings, Sir Max (Macdonald), (born 28 Dec. 1945), author and journalist". Who's Who. Oxford University Press. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U19444. ISBN 978-0-19-954088-4. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
Profile, debretts.com; accessed 2 April 2014.
Archive of Hastings' articles, The Guardian; accessed 2 April 2014.
Interview re "Editor: A Memoir", guardian.co.uk; accessed 2 April 2014.
Profile, pritzkermilitary.org; accessed 2 April 2014.
Interview on Inferno, Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 16 November 2011; accessed 2 April 2014.
Winston's War, Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 17 March 2010; accessed 2 April 2014.
Interview on Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45, Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 1 May 2008; accessed 2 April 2014
Interview on Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945], Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 30 November 2004; accessed 2 April 2014. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_V._Allred#:~:text=He%20was%20nominated%20by%20President,commission%20on%20February%2023%2C%201939. | James V. Allred | James Burr V. Allred (March 29, 1899 – September 24, 1959) was the 33rd governor of Texas. He later served, twice, as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas.
== Early life ==
Born on March 29, 1899, in Bowie, Texas, the son of Renne Allred Sr. and Mary Magdalene (Henson), Allred graduated from Bowie High School in 1917. He enrolled at Rice Institute (now Rice University) but withdrew for financial reasons. He then served with the United States Immigration Service. Allred served in the United States Navy from 1918 to 1919. In 1921, he received a Bachelor of Laws from Cumberland School of Law (then part of Cumberland University, now part of Samford University).
== Career ==
=== Law ===
Allred began a private law practice in Wichita Falls, Texas, in 1921. From 1923 to 1926, he served as district attorney in the city. He returned to private practice in 1926 before becoming Attorney General of Texas in 1931.
=== Governor of Texas ===
Allred was elected Governor of Texas in the 1934 gubernatorial election and served until 1939. He was an ardent Democrat and supporter of the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
=== District court ===
Allred received a recess appointment to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas on July 11, 1938, but he declined the appointment.
On January 5, 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated Allred to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas, to a new seat authorized by 52 Stat. 584. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 16, 1939, and received his commission on February 23, 1939. His service ended on May 15, 1942, due to his resignation.
Allred was an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate from Texas in 1942. He then returned to private practice in Houston, Texas, from 1943 to 1949.
Allred was nominated by President Harry S. Truman on September 23, 1949, to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas, to a new seat authorized by 63 Stat. 493. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 12, 1949, and received his commission on October 13, 1949.
== Death ==
During a court session on September 24, 1959, Allred called recess at 11:00 a.m. due to feeling ill. He entered Mercy Hospital in Laredo, Texas, where he died at 4:50 p.m. from a coronary occlusion. His funeral, held at Wichita Falls Christian Church on September 28, 1959, was visited by Governor Price Daniel, Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, Senator Ralph Yarborough, Representative Homer Thornberry, and former Governor Dan Moody.
== Legacy ==
The James V. Allred Unit, a Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) state prison for men in Wichita Falls, Texas, is named for Allred.
== Note ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
"Ex-Governor Allred Dies After Seizure". The Dallas Morning News, September 25, 1959, sec. I, p. 1.
"Fiery Allred Got Into Politics Early". The Dallas Morning News, September 25, 1959, sec. I, p. 3.
"James V. Allred of U.S. Bench, 60; Federal Judge for South Texas Dies – Served Two Terms as Governor, '35–39". The New York Times, September 25, 1959. (Subscription required for access to full article.)
"Joe Betsy Allred, widow of former governor, dies". The Dallas Morning News, June 9, 1993, p. 30A.
== External links ==
Allred, James Burr V (1899–1959) from the Handbook of Texas Online
Legislative Messages of Hon. James V. Allred, Governor of Texas 1935–1939, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
Allred, James V. at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
James V. Allred at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%C3%A3o_Arena#:~:text=It%20was%20inaugurated%20on%2023,a%20period%20of%2010%20years.&text=The%20arena%20(bottom)%20located%20next%20to%20the%20Est%C3%A1dio%20do%20Drag%C3%A3o. | Dragão Arena | The Dragão Arena (formerly named Dragão Caixa for sponsorship reasons) is an indoor arena located in Porto, Portugal, that houses the basketball, handball and roller hockey teams of FC Porto. It was inaugurated on 23 April 2009 and has a capacity of 2,179 spectators. The construction project was done in partnership with Portuguese state-owned bank Caixa Geral de Depósitos, which secured the naming rights for a period of 10 years.
The arena was designed by Manuel Salgado, the architect of the Estádio do Dragão. It was projected to house the club's basketball, handball and roller hockey teams under the same roof for the first time since 2001, when the previous ground – Pavilhão Americo de Sá – was demolished ahead of the stadium construction works.
== References ==
== External links ==
FC Porto |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metformin | Metformin | Metformin, sold under the brand name Glucophage, among others, is the main first-line medication for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, particularly in people who are overweight. It is also used in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome, and is sometimes used as an off-label adjunct to lessen the risk of metabolic syndrome in people who take antipsychotic medication. It has been shown to inhibit inflammation, and is not associated with weight gain. Metformin is taken by mouth.
Metformin is generally well tolerated. Common adverse effects include diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain. It has a small risk of causing low blood sugar. High blood lactic acid level (acidosis) is a concern if the medication is used in overly large doses or prescribed in people with severe kidney problems.
Metformin is a biguanide anti-hyperglycemic agent. It works by decreasing glucose production in the liver, increasing the insulin sensitivity of body tissues, and increasing GDF15 secretion, which reduces appetite and caloric intake.
Metformin was first described in the scientific literature in 1922 by Emil Werner and James Bell. French physician Jean Sterne began the study in humans in the 1950s. It was introduced as a medication in France in 1957. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2023, it was the second most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 85 million prescriptions. In Australia, it was one of the top 10 most prescribed medications between 2017 and 2023.
== Medical uses ==
Metformin is used to lower blood glucose in those with type 2 diabetes. It has also been used to help with metabolic abnormalities in polycystic ovary syndrome, and as a second-line agent for infertility in those with polycystic ovary syndrome.
=== Type 2 diabetes ===
The American Diabetes Association and the American College of Physicians both recommend metformin as a first-line agent to treat type 2 diabetes. It is as effective as repaglinide and more effective than all other oral drugs for type 2 diabetes.
==== Efficacy ====
Treatment guidelines for major professional associations, including the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, the European Society for Cardiology, and the American Diabetes Association, describe evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of metformin as equivocal. A 2020 Cochrane systematic review did not find enough evidence of reduction of cardiovascular mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction or non-fatal stroke when comparing metformin monotherapy to other glucose-lowering drugs, behavior change interventions, placebo or no intervention.
The use of metformin reduces body weight in people with type 2 diabetes in contrast to sulfonylureas, which are associated with weight gain. Some evidence shows that metformin is associated with weight loss in obesity in the absence of diabetes. Metformin has a lower risk of hypoglycemia than the sulfonylureas, although hypoglycemia has uncommonly occurred during intense exercise, calorie deficit, or when used with other agents to lower blood glucose. Metformin modestly reduces low density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels.
In individuals with prediabetes, a 2019 systematic review comparing the effects of metformin with other interventions in the reduction of risk of developing type 2 diabetes found moderate-quality evidence that metformin reduced the risk of developing type 2 diabetes when compared to diet and exercise or a placebo. However, when comparing metformin to intensive diet or exercise, moderate-quality evidence was found that metformin did not reduce risk of developing type 2 diabetes and very low-quality evidence was found that adding metformin to intensive diet or exercise did not show any advantage or disadvantage in reducing risk of type 2 diabetes when compared to intensive exercise and diet alone. The same review also found one suitable trial comparing the effects of metformin and sulfonylurea in reducing the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in prediabetic individuals, however, this trial did not report any patient-relevant outcomes.
=== Polycystic ovary syndrome ===
In those with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), tentative evidence shows that metformin use increases the rate of live births. This includes those who have not been able to get pregnant with clomiphene. Metformin does not appear to change the risk of miscarriage. A number of other benefits have also been found both during pregnancy and in nonpregnant women with PCOS. In an updated Cochrane review on metformin versus placebo/no treatment before or during IVF/ICSI in women with PCOS no conclusive evidence of improved live birth rates was found. In long GnRH-agonist protocols there was uncertainty in the evidence of improved live birth rates but there could be increases in clinical pregnancy rate. In short GnRH-antagonist protocols metformin may reduce live birth rates with uncertainty on its effect on clinical pregnancy rate. Metformin may result in a reduction of OHSS but could come with a greater frequency of side effects. There was uncertainty as to metformin's impact on miscarriage. The evidence does not support general use during pregnancy for improving maternal and infant outcomes in obese women.
The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommended in 2004 that women with PCOS and a body mass index above 25 be given metformin for anovulation and infertility when other therapies fail to produce results. UK and international clinical practice guidelines do not recommend metformin as a first-line treatment or do not recommend it at all, except for women with glucose intolerance. The guidelines suggest clomiphene as the first medication option and emphasize lifestyle modification independently from medical treatment. Metformin treatment decreases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in women with PCOS who exhibited impaired glucose tolerance at baseline.
In Poland, metformin is listed as an approved and reimbursed treatment for PCOS.
=== Diabetes and pregnancy ===
A total review of metformin use during pregnancy compared to insulin alone found good short-term safety for both the mother and baby, but safety in the longer term is unclear. Several observational studies and randomized controlled trials found metformin to be as effective and safe as insulin for the management of gestational diabetes. Nonetheless, several concerns have been raised and evidence on the long-term safety of metformin for both mother and child is lacking. Compared with insulin, women with gestational diabetes treated with metformin gain less weight and are less likely to develop pre-eclampsia during pregnancy. Babies born to women treated with metformin have less visceral fat, and this may make them less prone to insulin resistance in later life. The use of metformin for gestational diabetes resulted in smaller babies compared to treatment with insulin. However, despite initially lower birth weight, children exposed to metformin during pregnancy had accelerated growth after birth, and were heavier by mid-childhood than those exposed to insulin during pregnancy. This pattern of initial low birth weight followed by catch-up growth that surpasses comparative children has been associated with long-term cardiometabolic disease.
A systematic review and meta-analysis of metformin, published in 2024, found that it is safe and effective in managing gestational diabetes or diabetes in pregnancy with no adverse impact on the mother or the child after eleven years of childbirth.
=== Weight change ===
Metformin use is typically associated with weight loss. It appears to be safe and effective in counteracting the weight gain caused by the antipsychotic medications olanzapine and clozapine. Although modest reversal of clozapine-associated weight gain is found with metformin, primary prevention of weight gain is more valuable.
=== Use with insulin ===
Metformin may reduce the insulin requirement in type 1 diabetes, albeit with an increased risk of hypoglycemia.
== Contraindications ==
Metformin is contraindicated in people with:
Severe renal impairment (estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) below 30 mL/min/1.73 m2)
Known hypersensitivity to metformin
Acute or chronic metabolic acidosis, including diabetic ketoacidosis (from uncontrolled diabetes), with or without coma
== Adverse effects ==
The most common adverse effect of metformin is gastrointestinal irritation, including diarrhea, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and increased flatulence. Metformin is more commonly associated with gastrointestinal adverse effects than most other antidiabetic medications. The most serious potential adverse effect of metformin is lactic acidosis; this complication is rare, and seems to be related to impaired liver or kidney function. Metformin is not approved for use in those with severe kidney disease, but may still be used at lower doses in those with kidney problems.
=== Gastrointestinal ===
Gastrointestinal upset can cause severe discomfort; it is most common when metformin is first administered, or when the dose is increased. The discomfort can often be avoided by beginning at a low dose (1.0 to 1.7 g/day) and increasing the dose gradually, but even with low doses, 5% of people may be unable to tolerate metformin. Use of slow or extended-release preparations may improve tolerability.
Long-term use of metformin has been associated with increased homocysteine levels and malabsorption of vitamin B12. Higher doses and prolonged use are associated with increased incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency, and some researchers recommend screening or prevention strategies.
==== Vitamin B12 ====
Metformin treatment has been associated with reductions in vitamin B12 in certain people. Left untreated, vitamin B12 deficiencies can lead to serious health problems including neurological problems and anemia. Although more research is needed to understand the mechanisms of this association, it is suggested that people who take metformin monitor their vitamin B12 levels and if low, begin supplementation. In most cases of deficiencies if the person's deficiency can be corrected with exogenous administration of vitamin B12, they can continue their metformin treatment.
=== Lactic acidosis ===
Lactic acidosis rarely occurs with metformin exposure during routine medical care. Rates of metformin-associated lactic acidosis are about nine per 100,000 persons/year, which is similar to the background rate of lactic acidosis in the general population. A systematic review concluded no data exists to definitively link metformin to lactic acidosis.
Metformin is generally safe in people with mild to moderate chronic kidney disease, with a proportional reduction of metformin dose according to severity of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and with periodic assessment of kidney function, (e.g., periodic plasma creatinine measurement). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends avoiding the use of metformin in more severe chronic kidney disease, below the eGFR cutoff of 30 mL/minute/1.73 m2. Lactate uptake by the liver is diminished with metformin use because lactate is a substrate for hepatic gluconeogenesis, a process that metformin inhibits. In healthy individuals, this slight excess is cleared by other mechanisms (including uptake by unimpaired kidneys), and no significant elevation in blood levels of lactate occurs. Given severely impaired kidney function, clearance of metformin and lactate is reduced, increasing levels of both, and possibly causing lactic acid buildup. Because metformin decreases liver uptake of lactate, any condition that may precipitate lactic acidosis is a contraindication. Common causes include alcoholism (due to depletion of NAD+ stores), heart failure, and respiratory disease (due to inadequate tissue oxygenation); the most common cause is kidney disease.
Metformin-associated lactate production may also take place in the large intestine, which could potentially contribute to lactic acidosis in those with risk factors. The clinical significance of this is unknown, though, and the risk of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is most commonly attributed to decreased hepatic uptake rather than increased intestinal production.
=== Overdose ===
The most common symptoms following an overdose include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, tachycardia, drowsiness, and rarely, hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia. Treatment of metformin overdose is generally supportive, as no specific antidote is known. Extracorporeal treatments are recommended in severe overdoses. Due to metformin's low molecular weight and lack of plasma protein binding, these techniques have the benefit of removing metformin from the blood plasma, preventing further lactate overproduction.
Metformin may be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in a forensic death investigation. Blood or plasma metformin concentrations are usually in a range of 1–4 mg/L in persons receiving therapeutic doses, 40–120 mg/L in victims of acute overdosage, and 80–200 mg/L in fatalities. Chromatographic techniques are commonly employed.
The risk of metformin-associated lactic acidosis is also increased by a massive overdose of metformin, although even quite large doses are often not fatal.
=== Interactions ===
The H2-receptor antagonist cimetidine causes an increase in the plasma concentration of metformin by reducing clearance of metformin by the kidneys; both metformin and cimetidine are cleared from the body by tubular secretion, and both, particularly the cationic (positively charged) form of cimetidine, may compete for the same transport mechanism. A small double-blind, randomized study found the antibiotic cephalexin to also increase metformin concentrations by a similar mechanism; theoretically, other cationic medications may produce the same effect.
Metformin also interacts with anticholinergic medications, due to their effect on gastric motility. Anticholinergic drugs reduce gastric motility, prolonging the time drugs spend in the gastrointestinal tract. This impairment may lead to more metformin being absorbed than without the presence of an anticholinergic drug, thereby increasing the concentration of metformin in the plasma and increasing the risk for adverse effects.
== Pharmacology ==
=== Mechanism of action ===
The molecular mechanism of metformin is not completely understood. Multiple potential mechanisms of action have been proposed: inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (complex I), activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), inhibition of glucagon-induced elevation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) with reduced activation of protein kinase A (PKA), complex IV–mediated inhibition of the GPD2 variant of mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (thereby reducing the contribution of glycerol to hepatic gluconeogenesis), and an effect on gut microbiota.
Metformin exerts an anorexiant effect in most people, decreasing caloric intake. Metformin decreases gluconeogenesis (glucose production) in the liver. Metformin inhibits basal secretion from the pituitary gland of growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, and expression of proopiomelanocortin, which in part accounts for its insulin-sensitizing effect with multiple actions on tissues including the liver, skeletal muscle, endothelium, adipose tissue, and the ovaries. The average person with type 2 diabetes has three times the normal rate of gluconeogenesis; metformin treatment reduces this by over one-third.
Activation of AMPK was required for metformin's inhibitory effect on liver glucose production. AMPK is an enzyme that plays an important role in insulin signaling, whole-body energy balance, and the metabolism of glucose and fats. AMPK activation is required for an increase in the expression of small heterodimer partner, which in turn inhibited the expression of the hepatic gluconeogenic genes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose 6-phosphatase. Metformin is frequently used in research along with AICA ribonucleotide as an AMPK agonist. The mechanism by which biguanides increase the activity of AMPK remains uncertain: metformin increases the concentration of cytosolic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) (as opposed to a change in total AMP or total AMP/adenosine triphosphate) which could activate AMPK allosterically at high levels; a newer theory involves binding to PEN-2. Metformin inhibits cyclic AMP production, blocking the action of glucagon, and thereby reducing fasting glucose levels. Metformin also induces a profound shift in the faecal microbial community profile in diabetic mice, and this may contribute to its mode of action possibly through an effect on glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion.
In addition to suppressing hepatic glucose production, metformin increases insulin sensitivity, enhances peripheral glucose uptake (by inducing the phosphorylation of GLUT4 enhancer factor), decreases insulin-induced suppression of fatty acid oxidation, and decreases the absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract. Increased peripheral use of glucose may be due to improved insulin binding to insulin receptors. The increase in insulin binding after metformin treatment has also been demonstrated in patients with type 2 diabetes.
AMPK probably also plays a role in increased peripheral insulin sensitivity, as metformin administration increases AMPK activity in skeletal muscle. AMPK is known to cause GLUT4 deployment to the plasma membrane, resulting in insulin-independent glucose uptake. Some metabolic actions of metformin do appear to occur by AMPK-independent mechanisms, however, AMPK likely has a modest overall effect and its activity is not likely to directly decrease gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Metformin has indirect antiandrogenic effects in women with insulin resistance, such as those with PCOS, due to its beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity. It may reduce testosterone levels in such women by as much as 50%. A Cochrane review, though, found that metformin was only slightly effective for decreasing androgen levels in women with PCOS.
Metformin also has significant effects on the gut microbiome, such as its effect on increasing agmatine production by gut bacteria, but the relative importance of this mechanism compared to other mechanisms is uncertain.
Due to its effect on GLUT4 and AMPK, metformin has been described as an exercise mimetic.
=== Pharmacokinetics ===
Metformin has an oral bioavailability of 50–60% under fasting conditions, and is absorbed slowly. Peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) are reached within 1–3 hours of taking immediate-release metformin and 4–8 hours with extended-release formulations. The plasma protein binding of metformin is negligible, as reflected by its very high apparent volume of distribution (300–1000 L after a single dose). Steady state is usually reached in 1–2 days.
Metformin has acid dissociation constant values (pKa) of 2.8 and 11.5, so it exists very largely as the hydrophilic cationic species at physiological pH values. The metformin pKa values make it a stronger base than most other basic medications with less than 0.01% nonionized in blood. Furthermore, the lipid solubility of the nonionized species is slight as shown by its low logP value (log(10) of the distribution coefficient of the nonionized form between octanol and water) of −1.43. These chemical parameters indicate low lipophilicity and, consequently, rapid passive diffusion of metformin through cell membranes is unlikely. As a result of its low lipid solubility, it requires the transporter SLC22A1 for it to enter cells. The logP of metformin is less than that of phenformin (−0.84) because two methyl substituents on metformin impart lesser lipophilicity than the larger phenylethyl side chain in phenformin. More lipophilic derivatives of metformin are presently under investigation to produce prodrugs with superior oral absorption than metformin.
Metformin is not metabolized. It is cleared from the body by tubular secretion and excreted unchanged in the urine; it is undetectable in blood plasma within 24 hours of a single oral dose. The average elimination half-life in plasma is 6.2 hours. Metformin is distributed to (and appears to accumulate in) red blood cells, with a much longer elimination half-life: 17.6 hours (reported as ranging from 18.5 to 31.5 hours in a single-dose study of nondiabetics).
Some evidence indicates that liver concentrations of metformin in humans may be two to three times higher than plasma concentrations, due to portal vein absorption and first-pass uptake by the liver in oral administration.
== Chemistry ==
Metformin hydrochloride (1,1-dimethylbiguanide hydrochloride) is freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, but almost insoluble in acetone, ether, or chloroform. The pKa of metformin is 12.4. The usual synthesis of metformin, originally described in 1922, involves the one-pot reaction of dimethylamine hydrochloride and 2-cyanoguanidine over heat.
According to the procedure described in the 1975 Aron patent, and the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia, equimolar amounts of dimethylamine and 2-cyanoguanidine are dissolved in toluene with cooling to make a concentrated solution, and an equimolar amount of hydrogen chloride is slowly added. The mixture begins to boil on its own, and after cooling, metformin hydrochloride precipitates with a 96% yield. Excess addition of hydrogen chloride results in the formation of the more soluble metformin dichloride salt, a recently reported impurity.
=== Impurities ===
In December 2019, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced that it learned that some metformin medicines manufactured outside the United States might contain a nitrosamine impurity called N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), classified as a probable human carcinogen, at low levels. Health Canada announced that it was assessing NDMA levels in metformin. The European Medicines Agency provided an update on NDMA in metformin.
In February 2020, the FDA found NDMA levels in some tested metformin samples that did not exceed the acceptable daily intake.
In February 2020, Health Canada announced a recall of Apotex immediate-release metformin, followed in March by recalls of Ranbaxy metformin and in March by Jamp metformin.
In May 2020, the FDA asked five companies to voluntarily recall their sustained-release metformin products. The five companies were not named, but they were revealed to be Amneal Pharmaceuticals, Actavis Pharma, Apotex Corp, Lupin Pharma, and Marksans Pharma Limited in a letter sent to Valisure, the pharmacy that had first alerted the FDA to this contaminant in metformin via a Citizen Petition.
In June 2020, the FDA posted its laboratory results showing NDMA amounts in metformin products it tested. It found NDMA in certain lots of ER metformin and is recommending companies recall lots with levels of NDMA above the acceptable intake limit of 96 nanograms per day. The FDA is also collaborating with international regulators to share testing results for metformin.
In July 2020, Lupin Pharmaceuticals pulled all lots (batches) of metformin after discovering unacceptably high levels of NDMA in tested samples.
In August 2020, Bayshore Pharmaceuticals recalled two lots of tablets.
The FDA issued revised guidelines about nitrosamine impurities in September 2024.
== History ==
The biguanide class of antidiabetic medications, which also includes the withdrawn agents phenformin and buformin, originates from the plant Goat's rue (Galega officinalis) also known as Galega, French lilac, Italian fitch, Spanish sainfoin, Pestilenzkraut, or Professor-weed. (The plant should not be confused with plants in the genus Tephrosia which are highly toxic and sometimes also called Goat's rue.) Galega officinalis has been used in folk medicine for several centuries. G. officinalis itself does not contain biguanide medications which are chemically synthesized compounds composed of two guanidine molecules and designed to be less toxic than the plant-derived parent compounds guanidine and galegine (isoamylene guanidine).
Metformin was first described in the scientific literature in 1922, by Emil Werner and James Bell, as a product in the synthesis of N,N-dimethylguanidine. In 1929, Slotta and Tschesche discovered its sugar-lowering action in rabbits, finding it the most potent biguanide analog they studied. This result was ignored, as other guanidine analogs such as the synthalins, took over and were themselves soon overshadowed by insulin.
Interest in metformin resumed at the end of the 1940s. In 1950, metformin, unlike some other similar compounds, was found not to decrease blood pressure and heart rate in animals. That year, Filipino physician Eusebio Y. Garcia used metformin (he named it Fluamine) to treat influenza; he noted the medication "lowered the blood sugar to minimum physiological limit" and was not toxic. Garcia believed metformin to have bacteriostatic, antiviral, antimalarial, antipyretic, and analgesic actions. In a series of articles in 1954, Polish pharmacologist Janusz Supniewski was unable to confirm most of these effects, including lowered blood sugar. Instead, he observed antiviral effects in humans.
French diabetologist Jean Sterne studied the antihyperglycemic properties of galegine, an alkaloid isolated from G. officinalis, which is related in structure to metformin, and had seen brief use as an antidiabetic before the synthalins were developed. Later, working at Laboratoires Aron in Paris, he was prompted by Garcia's report to reinvestigate the blood sugar-lowering activity of metformin and several biguanide analogs. Sterne was the first to try metformin on humans for the treatment of diabetes; he coined the name "Glucophage" (glucose eater) for the medication and published his results in 1957.
It was introduced as a medication in France in 1957. Metformin became available in the British National Formulary in 1958. It was sold in the UK by a small Aron subsidiary called Rona.
Broad interest in metformin was not rekindled until the withdrawal of the other biguanides in the 1970s. Metformin was approved in Canada in 1972, but did not receive approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for type 2 diabetes until 1994. Produced under license by Bristol-Myers Squibb, Glucophage was the first branded formulation of metformin to be marketed in the U.S., beginning on 3 March 1995. Generic formulations are available in several countries.
The US FDA granted the application for metformin orphan drug designation. The European Medicines Agency granted orphan drug status to metformin.
== Society and culture ==
=== Environmental impact ===
Metformin and its major transformation product guanylurea are present in wastewater treatment plant effluents and regularly detected in surface waters. Guanylurea concentrations above 200 μg/L have been measured in the German river Erpe, which are amongst the highest reported for pharmaceutical transformation products in aquatic environments.
=== Formulations ===
Metformin is the British Approved Name (BAN), the United States Adopted Name (USAN), and the International Nonproprietary Name (INN). It is sold under several brand names. Common brand names include Glucophage, Riomet, Fortamet, and Glumetza in the US. In other areas of the world, there is also Obimet, Gluformin, Dianben, Diabex, Diaformin, Metsol, Siofor, Metfogamma and Glifor. There are several formulations of metformin available on the market, and all but the liquid form have generic equivalents.
==== Combination with other medications ====
When used for type 2 diabetes, metformin is often prescribed in combination with other medications. Several medications are available as fixed-dose combinations, with the potential to reduce pill burden, decrease cost, and simplify administration.
===== Thiazolidinediones (glitazones) =====
====== Rosiglitazone ======
A combination of metformin and rosiglitazone was released in 2002, and sold as Avandamet by GlaxoSmithKline, or as a generic medication. Formulations are 500/1, 500/2, 500/4, 1000/2, and 1000 mg/4 mg of metformin/rosiglitazone.
In 2009, it was the most popular metformin combination.
In 2005, the stock of Avandamet was removed from the market, after inspections showed the factory where it was produced was violating good manufacturing practices. The medication pair continued to be prescribed separately, and Avandamet was again available by the end of that year. A generic formulation of metformin/rosiglitazone from Teva received tentative approval from the FDA and reached the market in early 2012.
However, following a meta-analysis in 2007, that linked the medication's use to an increased risk of heart attack, concerns were raised over the safety of medicines containing rosiglitazone. In September 2010, the European Medicines Agency recommended that the medication be suspended from the European market because the benefits of rosiglitazone no longer outweighed the risks.
It was withdrawn from the market in the UK and India in 2010, and in New Zealand and South Africa in 2011. From November 2011 until November 2013 the FDA did not allow rosiglitazone or metformin/rosiglitazone to be sold without a prescription; moreover, makers were required to notify patients of the risks associated with its use, and the drug had to be purchased by mail order through specified pharmacies.
In November 2013, the FDA lifted its earlier restrictions on rosiglitazone after reviewing the results of the 2009 RECORD clinical trial (a six-year, open-label randomized control trial), which failed to show elevated risk of heart attack or death associated with the medication.
====== Pioglitazone ======
The combination of metformin and pioglitazone (Actoplus Met, Piomet, Politor, Glubrava) is available in the US and the European Union.
===== DPP-4 inhibitors =====
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors inhibit dipeptidyl peptidase-4 and thus reduce glucagon and blood glucose levels.
DPP-4 inhibitors combined with metformin include a sitagliptin/metformin combination (Janumet), a saxagliptin/metformin combination (Kombiglyze XR, Komboglyze), and an alogliptin/metformin combination (Kazano, Vipdomet).
Linagliptin combined with metformin hydrochloride is sold under the brand name Jentadueto. As of August 2021, linagliptin/metformin is available as a generic medicine in the US.
===== SGLT2 inhibitors =====
There are combinations of metformin with the SGLT2 inhibitors dapagliflozin, empagliflozin, and canagliflozin.
===== Sulfonylureas =====
Sulfonylureas act by increasing insulin release from the beta cells in the pancreas.
A 2019 systematic review suggested that there is limited evidence if the combined use of metformin with sulfonylurea compared to the combination of metformin plus another glucose-lowering intervention, provides benefit or harm in mortality, severe adverse events, macrovascular and microvascular complications. Combined metformin and sulfonylurea therapy did appear to lead to a higher risk of hypoglycemia.
Metformin is available combined with the sulfonylureas glipizide (Metaglip) and glibenclamide (US: glyburide) (Glucovance). Generic formulations of metformin/glipizide and metformin/glibenclamide are available (the latter is more popular).
===== Meglitinide =====
Meglitinides are similar to sulfonylureas, as they bind to beta cells in the pancreas, but differ by the site of binding to the intended receptor and the drugs' affinities to the receptor. As a result, they have a shorter duration of action compared to sulfonylureas and require higher blood glucose levels to begin to secrete insulin. Both meglitinides, known as nateglinide and repanglinide, are sold in formulations combined with metformin. A repaglinide/metformin combination is sold as Prandimet, or as its generic equivalent.
===== Triple combination =====
The combination of metformin with dapagliflozin and saxagliptin is available in the United States as Qternmet XR.
The combination of metformin with pioglitazone and glibenclamide is available in India as Accuglim-MP, Adglim MP, and Alnamet-GP; and in the Philippines as Tri-Senza.
The combination of metformin with pioglitazone and lipoic acid is available in Turkey as Pional.
== Research ==
Metformin is a pleiotropic drug, with extensive off-target activity beyond its antidiabetic effect. Much of this has been attributed to its action on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), although other mechanisms have been proposed. Metformin has been studied for its effects on multiple other conditions, including:
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
Premature puberty
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease in people with diabetes
Aging
=== Aging and life extension ===
Metformin is under investigation that it may be an agent that delays aging; it may increase longevity in some animal models (e.g., C. elegans and crickets). This effect may be mediated by insulin and carbohydrate regulation, similar to its effects on diabetes. Whether metformin may help extend life, even in otherwise healthy people, remains unknown; a 2021 review of the literature found it is likely to improve healthspan, i.e., the number of years spent in good health, rather than lifespan overall.
A 2017 review found that people with diabetes who were taking metformin had lower all-cause mortality. They also had reduced cancer and cardiovascular disease compared with those on other therapies. In people without diabetes, metformin does not appear to reduce the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease.
=== Cancer ===
The potential anti-cancer effects of metformin are believed to be mediated through multiple pathways, particularly involving AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation and IGF-1R modulation. Research has focused particularly on stomach cancer, with evidence of protective impact (reducing the risk of cancer) and improving survival rates among patients in whom cancer has already developed. Despite promising findings, evidence is still preliminary and there is no consensus on its preventive and therapeutic role.
=== COVID-19 ===
A study found a benefit using metformin to reduce the occurrence of long COVID.
It is unclear if there is a reduced risk of death using metformin to treat people with COVID-19.
=== Neurological and neurodegenerative disorders ===
There has been extensive research into the potential neuroprotective effects of metformin in developmental and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, certain types of epilepsy, and fragile X syndrome, with mixed results.
Preliminary studies have examined whether metformin can reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease and whether there is a correlation between type 2 diabetes and the risk of Alzheimer's disease.
While metformin may reduce body weight in persons with fragile X syndrome, whether it improves neurological or psychiatric symptoms is uncertain.
=== Derivatives ===
A derivative HL156A, also known as IM156, is a potential new drug for medical use.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
"Nitrosamine impurities in medications: Guidance". Health Canada. May 2024.
"Nitrosamine impurities". European Medicines Agency (EMA). October 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblorrico | Pueblorrico | Pueblorrico is a municipality in Colombia, located in the southwest subregion of the Department of Antioquia. It borders the municipalities of Salgar and Tarso to the north, Jericó to the east, Andes to the south, and Ciudad Bolívar and Hispania to the west.
== History ==
In 1540, a Spanish lieutenant from the conquering troop of Marshal Jorge Robledo was tasked with exploring the territories along the Cauca River, starting from the city of Arma towards the north. This expedition explored a large area of what is now known as Southwest Antioquia, including the lands of present-day Pueblorrico.
In 1825, a group of settlers from the city of Medellín, led by Gabriel Echeverri, offered to purchase vast lands in this area from the government, successfully negotiating the transaction. Subsequently, another settler named Santiago Santamaría inherited the land.
Around 1869, the locality was designated as a corregimiento (subdivision) and later, in 1907, as a parish.
In 1911, it separated from the municipality of Jericó and was designated as a municipal fraction. Despite attempts to rename the district, the name Pueblorrico persisted through generations, apparently because the first Spanish conquerors who set foot on the land found indigenous people with considerable amounts of gold and named it accordingly.
Pueblorrico boasts beautiful landscapes, several picturesque streams, and access to a natural reserve.
== General Information ==
Discoverers: Spanish troops of Jorge Robledo.
Foundation: October 3, 1866.
Municipal status: March 16, 1911.
Founders: Settlers.
Nickname: Sweet Municipality and Peaceful Haven of Southwest Antioquia.
=== Districts ===
The municipality has 22 districts, which are:
Barcino
California
Cascabelito
Castalia
Corinto A
Corinto B
El Cedrón
Hoyo Grande
La Berrío
La Envidia
La Gómez
La Pica
La Unión
Lourdes
Morrón
Mulatico
Mulato
Patudal
San Francisco
Santa Bárbara
Sevilla
Sinaí
== Demographics ==
=== Historical Population ===
Total Population: 8,664 (2018)
Urban Population: 4,450
Rural Population: 4,214
Literacy Rate: 83.5% (2005)
Urban area: 87.4%
Rural area: 79.6%
=== Ethnography ===
According to the figures presented by DANE from the 2005 census, the ethnic composition of the municipality is:
Mestizos and Whites: 91.9%
Blacks: 6.6%
Indigenous: 1.5%
== Economy ==
Agriculture: coffee, plantain, cassava, panela, corn, and beans.
Livestock: cattle, pigs, and horses.
Commerce: includes the marketing of products from the primary, secondary, and service sectors.
== Festivals ==
Trapiche and Coffee Festival, first long weekend in June.
Farmer's Day Fair.
Youth Home Festival / November Farmer's Festival.
== Points of Interest and Tourism ==
=== Ecological and Natural Destinations ===
El Salto De Los Monos Waterfall: 15 minutes from the town along the paved road connecting with the neighboring municipality of Tarso, near the chapel of the El Cedrón district, featuring an impressive 80-meter drop.
La Pirámide Hill: Close to the municipal seat, ideal for reconnecting with nature and rejuvenating, perfect for a picnic. It gets its name from a pyramid-shaped structure located there.
El Cedrón Valley Indigenous Petroglyph: Located in the El Cedrón district, this symbolic design carved into rock by indigenous peoples in ancient times is the only one identified in the entire municipality.
La Trocha Ecological Reserve: A cloud forest with a great diversity of flora and fauna, suitable for bird watching and hiking with trails of varying difficulty.
=== Religious and Pilgrimage Sites ===
El Gólgota Hill: The town's guardian hill, a pilgrimage site offering visibility of 60% of the nearby Southwest from its summit, located 50 minutes from the municipal seat.
Cristo Rey Hill: Suitable for slow tourism, providing a view of the entire municipal seat, with a monument honoring Cristo Rey.
El Asomadero: A pilgrimage point with a monument honoring the Virgin of Carmen, patron saint of drivers in Colombia and Venezuela, and one of the most revered advocations among the people of Pueblorrico.
San Antonio de Padua Parish Church: Construction began in 1931 and completed in 1965, featuring three naves, with the tower and belfry over the central one.
=== Urban and Historical Points of Interest ===
Joaquín López Gaviria Cultural House: Named after the town's founder, it is a cultural and artistic reference for the municipality, housing various arts schools.
"100 Years of Pueblorrico" Mural: A mural carved into a ravine representing different economic factors of the municipality, notable figures, and tourist sites, created by local artist William Peláez Agudelo for the centennial celebration of Pueblorrico's establishment as a municipality in 1911.
Historical Museum and Municipal Library: Displays ancient and classic pieces narrating the history, culture, and traditions of Pueblorrico. The municipal library offers a large collection of historical and educational books for the community. The museum is part of the Antioquia Museum Network.
Simón Bolívar Main Park: A park that provides a modern look to the municipality while preserving its tradition, featuring a statue honoring “The Mule Driver.”
Jairo Alberto Gallego Sports Complex: A recreational and sports center with a micro-soccer field, covered coliseum, soccer stadium, outdoor gym, children's playground, children's pool, and semi-Olympic pool.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist) | Alexei Abrikosov (physicist) | Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov (Russian: Алексе́й Алексе́евич Абрико́сов; June 25, 1928 – March 29, 2017) was a Soviet, Russian and American theoretical physicist whose main contributions are in the field of condensed matter physics. He was the co-recipient of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics, with Vitaly Ginzburg and Anthony James Leggett, for theories about how matter can behave at extremely low temperatures.
== Education and early life ==
Abrikosov was born in Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, on June 25, 1928, to a couple of physicians: Aleksey Abrikosov and Fani (née Wulf). His mother was Jewish. After graduating from high school in 1943, Abrikosov began studying energy technology. He graduated from Moscow State University in 1948. From 1948 to 1965, he worked at the Institute for Physical Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where he received his Ph.D. in 1951 for the theory of thermal diffusion in plasmas, and then his Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences (a "higher doctorate") degree in 1955 for a thesis on quantum electrodynamics at high energies. Abrikosov moved to the US in 1991 and lived there until his death in 2017, in Palo Alto, California. While in the US, Abrikosov was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2000, and in 2001, to be a foreign member of the Royal Society.
== Career ==
From 1965 to 1988, he worked at the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics (USSR Academy of Sciences). He has been a professor at Moscow State University since 1965. In addition, he held tenure at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology from 1972 to 1976, and at the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys from 1976 to 1991. He served as a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1987 to 1991. In 1991, he became a full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
In two works in 1952 and 1957, Abrikosov explained how magnetic flux can penetrate a class of superconductors. This class of materials are called type-II superconductors. The accompanying arrangement of magnetic flux lines is called the Abrikosov vortex lattice.
Together with Lev Gor'kov and Igor Dzyaloshinskii, Abrikosov has written an iconic book on theoretical solid-state physics, which has been used to train physicists in the field for decades.
From 1991 until his retirement, he worked at Argonne National Laboratory in the U.S. state of Illinois. Abrikosov was an Argonne Distinguished Scientist at the Condensed Matter Theory Group in Argonne's Materials Science Division. When he received the Nobel Prize, his research was focused on the origins of magnetoresistance, a property of some materials that change their resistance to electrical flow under the influence of a magnetic field.
== Honours and awards ==
Abrikosov was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1966, the Fritz London Memorial Prize in 1972, and the USSR State Prize in 1982. In 1989 he received the Landau Prize from the Academy of Sciences, Russia. Two years later, in 1991, Abrikosov was awarded the Sony Corporation's John Bardeen Award. The same year he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He shared the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics. He was also a member of the Royal Academy of London, a fellow of the American Physical Society, and in 2000 was elected to the prestigious National Academy of Sciences. Other awards include:
== Personal life ==
Abrikosov was the son of the physicians Alexei Ivanovich Abrikosov (1875-1955) and his second wife, Fania Davidovna Woolf (1895—1965). Through his father, Abrikosov was the nephew of the martyred Catholic nun Anna Abrikosova (1882-1936).
His sister was Maria Alekseevna Abrikósova (1929-1998), physician.
He married Svetlana Yuriyevna Bunkova and had 3 children.
He died in California on 29 March 2017 at the age of 88.
== Books ==
Abrikosov, Alexey; Gor'kov, Lev; Dzyaloshinskii, Igor (1975). Methods of Quantum Field Theory in Statistical Physics. London, U.K.: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0199232727.
Abrikosov, Alexey (1988). Fundamentals of the Theory of Metals. Amsterdam: North Holland. ISBN 978-0444870940.
== See also ==
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
== References ==
== External links ==
Quotations related to Alexei Abrikosov (physicist) at Wikiquote
Alexei Abrikosov on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture on December 8, 2003 Type II Superconductors and the Vortex Lattice
M. R. Norman, "Aleksei A. Abrikosov", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2018) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velma_Springstead | Velma Springstead | Velma Springstead (22 August 1906 – 27 March 1927) was a Canadian track and field athlete. Springstead won the gold medal in high jump during the 1925 Canadian Track and Field Championships and became a member of the first women's track and field team of Canada to compete internationally. After her death, Springstead was posthumously honoured with the creation of the Velma Springstead Trophy and was inducted into the Hamilton Sports Hall of Fame in 2011.
== Early life and education ==
Springstead was born on 22 August 1906 in Hamilton, Ontario.
== Career ==
In July 1925, Springstead participated in a track and field qualification held at Varsity Stadium for the Amateur Athletic Union of Canada. Her performance earned her a spot on the first women's track and field team of Canada to compete in an international event. The following month, Springstead was third in the high jump event alongside a fourth place finish in the hurdles event at a 1925 track and field meet in London, England. After the meet, Springstead was presented a trophy by Lord Decies for her courage.
The same year, Springstead won gold at the 1925 Canadian Track and Field Championships in the high jump event. Outside of her athletic career, Springstead worked for Calvin Presbyterian Church as a teacher and was a secretary for Tuckett Tobacco Company.
== Death ==
On 27 March 1927, Springstead died of pneumonia in Hamilton, Ontario.
== Awards and honours ==
After her death, the Velma Springstead Trophy was created to award the best Canadian sportswoman of the year. In 2011, Springstead was posthumously inducted into the Hamilton Sports Hall of Fame.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Supranational_2013 | Miss Supranational 2013 | Miss Supranational 2013 was the fifth Miss Supranational pageant, held at the Minsk Sports Palace in Minsk, Belarus on 6 September 2013. This is the first edition of the pageant to be held outside of Poland.
Ekaterina Buraya of Belarus crowned Mutya Johanna Datul of the Philippines as Miss Supranational 2013 at the end of the event. She is the first Filipino and Asian to be crowned Miss Supranational.
Contestants from eighty-three countries and territories competed in this year's pageant. The pageant was hosted by Ivan Podrez, Denis Kuryan, and Yekaterina Buraya.
== Results ==
=== Placements ===
=== Continental Queens of Beauty ===
=== Special awards ===
== Contestants ==
Eighty-three contestants competed for the title.
== Notes ==
Debut
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lennon%27s_psychedelic_Rolls-Royce#:~:text=In%20December%201977%2C%20Lennon%20and,for%20a%20%24250%2C000%20tax%20credit. | John Lennon's psychedelic Rolls-Royce | John Lennon's psychedelic Rolls-Royce is an art car created in 1967 and later displayed in many museums.
After previously owning a used Rolls-Royce, John Lennon of the Beatles ordered a new bespoke Rolls-Royce Phantom V limousine in December 1964. Originally painted matte black, the car was delivered six months later in June 1965. When Lennon was in Spain filming How I Won the War in 1966, the car was damaged, including scuffing of its finish. Lennon decided to have the car repainted bright yellow and decorated with motifs from Romany decorative arts. Artist Steve Weaver embellished the car with elaborate, bright swirls and floral motifs in the psychedelic style associated with the Beatles in that era, and the vehicle became a sensation.
Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono donated it to the Cooper-Hewitt Museum for a tax deduction in 1977, and it has been widely exhibited ever since. When sold in 1985, it was the most expensive automobile ever to be auctioned at that time. The limousine is now owned by the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, British Columbia.
== Background ==
The Beatles were formed in Liverpool in 1960, and by 1962, their line-up was solidified when Ringo Starr joined the band. Beatlemania began in the United Kingdom in 1963, and rapidly spread to the United States and then worldwide in 1964, and all the members of the band quickly became very wealthy.
John Lennon purchased a used black and maroon Rolls-Royce limousine in July 1964. By December, he decided to buy a new one.
== Original purchase ==
In December 1964, Lennon ordered the Phantom V from R.S. Mead Ltd, a dealer located in Maidenhead. The Phantom V was the most expensive Rolls-Royce model at that time. The chassis was built in Crewe, Cheshire, and the carriage work was done by Mulliner Park Ward, a Rolls-Royce subsidiary in Willesden.
The finished car was delivered 3 June 1965, at R.S. Mead. It is nineteen feet ten inches (6.05 m) long, six feet seven inches (2.01 m) wide, and weighs almost three metric tons (3.0 long tons; 3.3 short tons). "Traditional amenities" included "the 6.23-litre V8 engine, black leather upholstery, cocktail cabinet with fine wood trim, writing table, reading lamps, a seven-piece his-and-hers black-hide luggage set, and a Perdio portable television." Unusual features included a refrigerator in the trunk (boot) and tinted windows. All exterior parts of the vehicle were painted matte black, except for the distinctive chrome Rolls-Royce grille, which the company was not willing to produce in black. Lennon did not have a driving licence when he ordered the car but got it within a few months. He was a poor driver, though, and hired Les Anthony as his driver and bodyguard. The Beatles rode the limousine to Buckingham Palace on 26 October 1965, to receive their MBE honours from Queen Elizabeth II.
== First renovation in December 1965 ==
In December 1965, Lennon wrote a seven-page memo describing various modifications to the Rolls-Royce that he wanted. A new back seat was installed that could be converted into a double bed, and large ashtrays were installed in the armrests. A Philips "floating" record player was installed, that had a suspension system "that prevented the needle from jumping when the car was in use." A Philips 8-track tape player, an upgraded Sony TV set and a bulky radio telephone were also installed. Lennon was particularly fond of the new public address system, which allowed him to shout out to passersby, and play various sound effects.
== Second renovation, April–May 1967 ==
In late 1966, Lennon spent six weeks acting in the film How I Won the War, much of which was filmed on location in Almería, Spain. Les Anthony drove the Rolls-Royce to and from Spain. While in Spain, Lennon frequently spent extended periods of spare time sitting in the back of the car, smoking marijuana and working on the song that became the hit single "Strawberry Fields Forever". Roads in the area were in poor condition and very sandy. As a result, the car's exhaust pipes, undercarriage and matte black paint job were damaged. The structural damage was repaired quickly, but Lennon devoted more time to planning the repainting, which was inspired in part by the artwork associated with Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Accounts differ as to who gave Lennon the idea, with some crediting Ringo Starr and others Dutch designer of psychedelic art, Marijke Koger. Koger and her associates in the design collective "The Fool" had previously repainted a gypsy caravan that Lennon purchased as a birthday gift for his young son Julian.
On 8 April 1967, Lennon visited J.P. Fallon Ltd. to make design decisions. The car was sprayed bright yellow using latex paint. Steve Weaver was the artist who painted the ornate decorations. Weaver charged £290 (equivalent to £6,649 in 2023) for the job, and the car was ready to be picked up on 25 May, the day before
the release of the widely acclaimed album, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The driver Anthony said, "The first time I drove it, I was followed by hordes of photographers and Pathé news".
The car's inaugural voyage was on 28 May, when Lennon and eight friends were driven to an album release and housewarming party at the new home of Brian Epstein, where the Sgt. Pepper's album was played interspersed with Procol Harum and their hit single "A Whiter Shade of Pale", which had been released two weeks earlier.
Lennon delighted in telling an anecdote about how an older woman had lost her temper upon seeing the psychedelic Rolls-Royce, saying, according to Lennon, "You swine! How dare you do that to a Rolls-Royce!", and how she had struck the car with her umbrella.
In 1968, Lennon purchased another Phantom V, this one painted white. In 1970, Lennon and his second wife, Yoko Ono, moved the car from London to New York.
The car appeared at Lennon's 31st birthday party in Syracuse, New York, in October 1971, and was loaned out to other musicians including Elton John and Bob Dylan and members of bands such as the Rolling Stones and the Moody Blues.
== Critical reception ==
Rolling Stone described the design as a "lurid Romany floral/zodiac hybrid", adding that the design consisted of "red, orange, green and blue art nouveau swirls, floral side panels and Lennon's astrological symbol, Libra, on the roof" painted on a background that the Daily Mail described as "shrieking yellow". The Royal BC Museum described the design as "Romany Gypsy style, with elements of the psychedelic era." British GQ called its base "a shade of not-so-mellow yellow" and finished with "a combo of Romany swirls, floral motifs and a zodiac sign for good measure." Montecristo magazine in Vancouver described "its bright chrome yellow body and floral side panels of dahlias and delphiniums", adding "Its bonnet and boot are decorated with colourful curlicue scrollwork, and its roof sports a stylized symbol of Libra, the zodiac sign of its first owner."
CTV News called it a "classic car of epic proportions" and "art on wheels"
describing its "bright, Romany-inspired floral design" and quoted a museum curator calling it a "magical object". HotCars in Quebec called it "probably one of the most famous art cars ever made".
== Donation, auction and subsequent ownership ==
In December 1977, Lennon and Ono donated the limousine to the Cooper-Hewitt Museum, a Manhattan branch of the Smithsonian Institution, for a $250,000 tax credit. Lennon was murdered by an obsessed fan in New York in December 1980. As late as 1987, Ono and the estate of John Lennon were disputing the size of the tax credit with the Internal Revenue Service, which repeatedly claimed that the car was worth no more than $100,000 when it was donated.
In June 1985, the Cooper-Hewitt Museum decided to sell the car, which was auctioned by Sotheby's in New York, and it was purchased by Canadian businessman Jim Pattison for US$2,299,000. According to Sotheby's, this was the highest auction price for a car at that time. Pattison used it to promote Expo 86 in Vancouver. In 1987, Pattison donated the car to the Province of British Columbia, where it was exhibited at the Transportation Museum of British Columbia until 1993. It was then transferred to the Royal British Columbia Museum, and has remained the property of that institution ever since.
== Exhibitions ==
The vehicle was briefly displayed at the National Museum of History and Technology, now known as the National Museum of American History, in 1978. The car was then shown at the "Ornament in the 20th Century" exhibit at the Cooper-Hewitt Museum in New York, held from October 1978 to January 1979.
After Pattison bought the car in 1985, he showed it at several Ripley's Believe it or Not! Museums that he owned, and then displayed it at Expo 86. He then donated the vehicle to the Province of British Columbia.
The vehicle was exhibited from March 2013 to March 2014 in Montréal, at the Pointe-à-Callière Museum, as part of an exhibition called "The Beatles in Montréal".
In 2015, it was shown at the Pacific National Exhibition in Vancouver for the "Magical Mystery Tour: A Beatles Memorabilia Exhibition". In July and August 2017, Lennon's psychedelic limousine was part of "The Great Eight Phantoms", an exhibition of Rolls-Royces at Bonhams in London.
Except when it is loaned out for exhibits elsewhere, the car is often displayed by the Royal British Columbia Museum.
== Maintenance ==
The yellow base coat applied to the car is a common latex house paint as opposed to an automotive-grade paint. As a result, the paint is very fragile, and museum curators are very cautious when caring for the vehicle. They never use polishing cloths on the painted surfaces, and touch up any minor paint losses with tiny brushes. According to the Royal British Columbia Museum, "in order to maintain the moving parts, the Royal BC Museum must run the vehicle at least once a year. Each time the vehicle is moved, doors and hoods opened or closed, and the engine vibrates, the paint is put at risk. Care for the John Lennon Rolls-Royce has been a delicate balancing act between keeping the moving parts in order and preserving the delicate paint."
The car had been stored for long periods without proper maintenance, which resulted in old fuel clogging the carburetors. After the fuel system was cleaned and some electrical and brake system work was completed in 2020, "it purrs like a kitten in a creamery now", according to a mechanic who helps maintain it.
== References ==
== External links ==
Bonhams – Preliminary artwork by Steve Weaver |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Munson_Runge | Mary Munson Runge | Mary Munson Runge (1928 – January 8, 2014) was the first female, the first African American, and the first employee community pharmacist to be elected president of the American Pharmacists Association (APhA).
== Early life and family ==
Runge was born in 1928 in Donaldsonville, Louisiana. Runge's father, John Harvey Lowery, was a pharmacy owner and a physician, notable for running the first pharmacy in Donaldsonville. He was generally regarded as one of the most successful entrepreneurs in Donaldsonville, and was highly charitable with his considerable wealth.
== Career ==
=== Pharmacy practice ===
Runge graduated from the Xavier University of Louisiana College of Pharmacy in 1948. At the time, she was one of the few females in the profession of pharmacy. After graduating from college, Runge moved to California and practiced hospital pharmacy for 21 years. In 1971, she became a community pharmacist at Sylvester Flower's Apothecary. The practice was located in Oakland, California, serving needy patient areas. Runge is quoted to have said, "The greatest experience was helping poor African American people who couldn't even pay for their medicine. Pharmacy gave me an opportunity to help people who needed help."
=== Professional service ===
Runge served in leadership positions within numerous professional organizations. She was president of the Northern California Society of Hospital Pharmacists in 1963 and the California Society of Hospital Pharmacists in 1967. She served on the California State Board of Pharmacy, and was the president of the California Pharmacists Association in 1974. Runge served as the first female APhA representative to the American College of Pharmaceutical Education (ACPE) from 1972 to 1982. In 1979, Runge was sworn in as the president of the American Pharmacists Association (APhA). As an African American female, her appointment ended a 126-year history of Caucasian males serving as APhA's president. Notably, she was also the first employee community pharmacist to have been a president of APhA, rather than an owner of a community pharmacy. As part of her tenure as APhA president, Runge formally created the APhA Task Force on Women in Pharmacy, as well as APhA's Office of Women's Affairs. Her two terms ended in 1981.
She served on federal committees, including the Institute of Medicine Pharmacy Advisory Panel for the study of the costs of educating healthcare professionals, the National Academy of Sciences in 1974, the Reagan-Bush Health Policy Advisory Committee in 1980, the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (what would later become the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), and the Prescription Drug Payment Review Commission.
Runge retired in 1994.
=== Awards ===
Runge received honorary doctorates from the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy (Doctor of Science) and Ohio Northern University (Doctor of Pharmacy) in recognition of her work for the profession. She was named Pharmacist of the Year in 1978 by the California Pharmacists Association. Runge was inducted into the California Pharmacists Association Hall of Fame in 1997. In 1996, she received the Hugo H. Schaefer Award from APhA.
== Death ==
Runge died on January 8, 2014. Her memorial service was held on Saturday, February 15 at the First United Methodist Church in Modesto, California. APhA created a posthumous scholarship in her name.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Runge's address to the American Pharmacists Association, as its president |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Brown_(critical_theory) | Bill Brown (critical theory) | Bill Brown is the Karla Scherer distinguished service professor in American culture at the University of Chicago, where he teaches in the department of English language and literature, the department of visual arts, and the college. He previously held the Edward Carson Waller distinguished service professorship in humanities and the George M. Pullman professorship, and served as the chair of the University's English language and literature department from 2006-2008. After a brief term as the deputy dean for academic and research initiatives in the division of the humanities, Brown was recruited to be the new deputy provost for the arts in 2014. As deputy provost, Brown oversees the programming and future of UChicago Arts, serves on the arts steering committee, and chairs the UChicago art institutions subcommittee. He also serves on a number of other committees across campus - including the executive committee of the Karla Scherer Center for the Study of American Culture - and is the principal investigator for the object cultures project at The Chicago Center for Contemporary Theory (3CT). He has co-edited the University of Chicago's peer-reviewed literary journal, Critical Inquiry, since 1993.
Professor Brown's work focuses on American literature, with his second book, A Sense of Things, looking at the representation of objects in 19th-century American literature. His interests have since progressed to modernism. He also has a long-standing interest in popular culture, and has written about Toy Story and Westerns, among other facets of American life. His major theoretical work, however, is on Thing theory, which borrows from Heidegger's object/thing distinction to look at the role of objects that have become manifest in a way that sets them apart from the world in which they exist. He edited a special issue of Critical Inquiry on this subject, which won the CELJ award for Best Special Issue of an academic journal in 2002. His essay, "The Dark Wood of Postmodernity: Space, Faith, Allegory," which treats religious themes in the work of Marxian cultural theorist Frederic Jameson and in postmodern culture generally, was awarded the Modern Language Association's William Riley Parker Prize in 2005.
Brown has a B.A. from Duke University, an M.A. in creative writing (poetry) from Stanford University, and a Ph.D. from Stanford University's Modern Thought and Literature program. He has been teaching at the University of Chicago since 1989.
== Selected publications ==
Other Things (The University of Chicago Press, 2015)
"The Obsolescence of the Human," Cultures of Obsolescence (Palgrave, forthcoming, 2015)
"The Recentness of Things," And Another Thing (2014)
"The Origin of the American Work of Art," American Literary History (Winter 2013)
"Anarchéologie: Object Culture, Circa Now," The Way of the Shovel (Chicago Museum of Contemporary Art, 2013)
"The Bodies of Things," Bodies and Things in Nineteenth-Century Writing (2012)
"Commodity Nationalism and the Lost Object," The Pathos of Authenticity (2010)
"Textual Materialism," PMLA (January 2010)
"Objects, Other, and Us (The Re-fabrication of Things)," Critical Inquiry (2010)
"Counting (Arts and Disciplines)," Critical Inquiry (2009)
"Materiality," Critical Terms for Media Studies (Chicago, 2009)
"Now Advertising: Late James," Henry James Review (2009)
"Reweaving the Carpet," New Literary History Archived 2016-10-29 at the Wayback Machine (2009)
"Object Relations in an Expanded Field," differences (Fall 2006)
"Reification, Reanimation, and the American Uncanny," Critical Inquiry (Winter 2005)
"The Dark Wood of Postmodernity: Space, Faith, Allegory," PMLA (May 2005)
"The Matter of Dreiser's Modernity," The Cambridge Companion to Theodore Dreiser (2004)
A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature (University of Chicago Press, 2003)
"The Secret Life of Things: Virginia Woolf and the Matter of Modernism," Aesthetic Subjects (Minnesota, 2003)
Things, a special issue of Critical Inquiry (Fall 2001)
"How To Do Things With Things-A Toy Story," in Critical Inquiry (Summer 1998)
Reading the West: An Anthology of Dime Novels (Bedford Books, 1997)
"Global Bodies / Postnationalities: Charles Johnson's Consumer Culture," Representations (Spring 1997)
The Material Unconscious: American Amusement, Stephen Crane, and the Economies of Play (Harvard, 1996)
"Science Fiction, the World's Fair, and the Prosthetics of Empire, 1910-1915," Cultures of U.S. Imperialism (Duke, 1993)
"The Meaning of Baseball in 1992 (With Notes on the Post-American)," Public Culture (Fall 1991)
== External links ==
Webpage on University of Chicago website
Excerpt from How to Do Things with Things (A Toy Story), Summer 1998 Archived 2012-03-16 at the Wayback Machine
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_UEFA_Champions_League_final | 2006 UEFA Champions League final | The 2006 UEFA Champions League final was an association football match between Barcelona of Spain and Arsenal of England at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, Paris, France, on Wednesday, 17 May 2006. It was the final match of the 2005–06 season of Europe's primary cup competition, the UEFA Champions League. Barcelona were appearing in their fifth final, having won the competition once in 1992, while it was Arsenal's first (and to date, only) final appearance and the first appearance by a club from London.
Each club progressed through the group stage and three knockout rounds to reach the final, playing 12 matches in total. Barcelona won their group and progressed to the final after beating Chelsea, Benfica and Milan, respectively. Arsenal won their group to move into the knockout stage, and progressed without conceding a goal against Real Madrid, Juventus and Villarreal, respectively.
A crowd of 79,500 watched as Jens Lehmann was sent off early in the game. Despite this setback, Arsenal took the lead through Sol Campbell towards the end of the first half. After an hour, Henrik Larsson came on for Barcelona and was involved in both of their goals. Barcelona equalised through Samuel Eto'o near the end of the second half, and a few minutes later, Juliano Belletti scored to give Barcelona a 2–1 victory.
== Background ==
It was the first time Arsenal had appeared in the European Cup final, which also made them the first club from London to do so. Arsenal's appearance in the match came six years to the day since their last European final, when they faced Galatasaray in the 2000 UEFA Cup final; they lost on penalties after the match had finished goalless after extra time. Of the players who featured in that final, only Thierry Henry and Dennis Bergkamp remained at the club, while Sylvinho, who had featured for Arsenal in the final, was now a Barcelona player. Barcelona were appearing in the final for the fifth time; their last appearance was a 4–0 loss to Milan in 1994. Two more losses preceded the 1994 final (1961 and 1986), and their only success in the competition came in 1992 when they beat Sampdoria. Barcelona went into the final as domestic league champions, having won La Liga a fortnight earlier. They were regarded as the best side on the continent because they possessed players such as Ronaldinho and Samuel Eto'o. Barcelona player Deco dismissed the notion of Barcelona being favourites, insisting they would not be complacent: "Milan were winning 3–0 last year against Liverpool and ended up losing in the end. We need to be serious, calm and fully concentrated so that we don't make any errors".
Neither side had been beaten en route to the final, with Arsenal only conceding two goals in their 12 matches before the final, including ten successive matches without conceding. This set the record for the longest time without a conceding a goal, having played 919 minutes since conceding against Ajax in the group stage. Barcelona, on the other hand, had scored 114 goals in all competitions before the final. The two finalists were guaranteed a financial windfall from their progress to the final. Arsenal would receive a revenue of around €37.3 million if they won and approximately €34.7 million if they lost. Barcelona would earn €31.5 million from revenue if they won, and around €28.9 million if they were to lose. Included in the total for participating in the final, the UEFA Champions League winners would collect approximately €6.4 million, with the runners-up receiving approximately €3.8 million. The final marked the appearance of a new trophy following Liverpool's triumph over Milan the previous year. As Liverpool won the competition for the fifth time they were entitled to keep the trophy, creating the need for a new one.
== Venue ==
UEFA awarded the right to host the final to the Stade de France in Saint-Denis after considering its merits in terms of capacity, stadium infrastructure and dossiers including city and airport agreements and promotional plans. UEFA also conducted a variety of site visits. The Stade de France had previously staged the 2000 UEFA Champions League final between Real Madrid and Valencia, which Madrid won 3–0. Saint-Denis was chosen to host the final in recognition of the 50th anniversary of the first European Cup final in 1956, held in nearby Paris at the Parc des Princes, now home of Paris Saint-Germain. The Parc des Princes also hosted the 1975 and 1981 European Cup finals, the 1978 and 1995 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup finals, and the 1998 UEFA Cup final.
== Route to the final ==
Teams qualified for the Champions League group stage, either directly or through three preliminary rounds, based on both their position in the preceding domestic league and the strength of that league. Both Arsenal and Barcelona entered the competition in the group stages: Arsenal by finishing second in the 2004–05 FA Premier League, and Barcelona by winning La Liga. The group stages were contested as eight double round robin groups of four teams, with the top two qualifying for the knockout stage. Knockout matches were decided based on home and away matches, with the away goals rule, extra time and penalty shootouts as tiebreakers if needed.
== Pre-match ==
=== Related events ===
Barcelona showed the match live from their Mini Estadi on a 70-metre (230 ft) television screen for an estimated audience of 15,276. Before the final, an estimated 1.2 million people descended into the streets of Barcelona, as the team toured the city on two open-top double-decker buses to celebrate winning La Liga.
=== Officials ===
On the morning of the final it emerged that the assistant referee for the game Ole Hermann Borgan had posed for photographs in a Barcelona shirt for Drammens Tidende, a Norwegian newspaper. After initially sticking by the official, UEFA eventually decided to replace him with fellow Norwegian Arild Sundet. Norway's head of refereeing Rune Pedersen stated: "It is an unwritten rule that referees should not do anything that can doubt their impartial stance".
=== Team selection ===
Barcelona were expected to line up in a 4–2–3–1 formation, with Ronaldinho, Ludovic Giuly and Deco supporting Samuel Eto'o who would be deployed as the lone striker. They had doubts about the fitness of Lionel Messi going into the final. He had pulled a thigh muscle during the second leg of their match with Chelsea, and had not played since, though he was included in the 22-man squad for the final. Barcelona coach Frank Rijkaard stated he would leave it late before deciding whether to select him. Despite being included in the squad, Messi did not feature in the final. Arsenal were expected to line up in a 4–5–1 formation, with Thierry Henry as the sole striker. There was much discussion about whether José Antonio Reyes would take the place of Robert Pires on the left of midfield. It had been announced before the match that this would be Pires' last match as he had agreed to join Villarreal next season.
Ultimately, Barcelona fielded a 4–3–3 formation with Mark van Bommel and Edmílson lining up in midfield alongside Deco, ahead of Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. Lionel Messi did not feature in the matchday squad, despite returning from injury and featuring in the 22-man squad, while Henrik Larsson was among the substitutes in potentially his last game for the club. Arsenal fielded a 4–4–1–1 formation, which saw Emmanuel Eboué replace the injured Lauren, and Ashley Cole return at left-back to make only his third appearance in the competition that season due to injury. Thierry Henry was deployed as the lone striker, with Freddie Ljungberg playing off his shoulder.
== Match ==
=== Summary ===
==== First half ====
As both teams' first-choice kits featured a shade of red, Arsenal wore their yellow away strip, while Barcelona wore their traditional blue and maroon striped kit. Arsenal won the coin toss and Barcelona kicked off. Barcelona almost immediately came under pressure when Thierry Henry shot straight at Barcelona goalkeeper Víctor Valdés, who conceded a corner. From the resulting corner Arsenal had another chance again courtesy of Henry, whose shot was again saved by Valdés. The next attack in the seventh minute resulted in Arsenal goalkeeper Jens Lehmann saving from Ludovic Giuly after he shot from a narrow angle. Four minutes later Barcelona were awarded a free-kick 35 yards from goal; Ronaldinho shot wide of the goal.
With 18 minutes played, Lehmann became the first player to be sent off in a European Cup final after he brought down Samuel Eto'o outside the Arsenal box. Giuly subsequently put the ball in the back of the net, but the goal was not allowed due to the foul. Arsenal substituted Robert Pires for Manuel Almunia, their substitute goalkeeper. The free-kick was sent wide by Ronaldinho. Following Lehmann's dismissal Barcelona exerted more pressure on Arsenal, to the point where Emmanuel Eboué was cautioned for a high tackle.
In the 37th minute Arsenal overcame their numerical disadvantage to score when Sol Campbell headed in from a Thierry Henry free-kick following Carles Puyol's foul on Emmanuel Eboué. Some believed that Eboué was guilty of diving. Arsenal held onto their lead for the remainder of the half. Barcelona's best chance came from Eto'o, whose shot hit the post via a save from Almunia.
==== Second half ====
At half-time, Barcelona replaced Edmílson, who had picked up an injury in the first half, with Andrés Iniesta. Almunia saved a shot from Iniesta six minutes into the half.
After 61 minutes, Barcelona substituted Van Bommel for Larsson. Minutes later, Alexander Hleb received a pass from Henry but shot wide of the goal. Arsenal began to press forward and both Henry and Ljungberg saw shots saved; Henry then had another chance to score after being put through by Hleb, but he shot straight at Valdés. Following this attack, Oleguer was replaced by Juliano Belletti, and Arsenal replaced Cesc Fàbregas with Mathieu Flamini.
Next, Iniesta sent a pass through the inside-left channel to Larsson whose one-touch, right-footed lay-off quickly released Eto'o to equalise for Barcelona. Four minutes later, Larsson was again the provider, playing a one-two with Belletti in the inside-right channel, before the Brazilian full-back shot right-footed through Almunia's legs to score at the near post.
The remaining minutes saw Arsenal replace Hleb with Reyes in an attempt to equalise, but Barcelona had the best chance during this period, only for Giuly to hit his shot straight at Almunia. Following this, Larsson impeded the Arsenal goalkeeper and was cautioned. The match finished soon after with Barcelona winning 2–1. With this defeat, Arsenal became the first English club and third overall – after Hamburger SV and Fiorentina – to have been runner-up in all three major European competitions (European Champion Clubs' Cup/UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League, and the now-defunct Cup Winners' Cup).
=== Details ===
=== Statistics ===
== Post-match ==
Barcelona captain Carles Puyol collected the trophy from UEFA president Lennart Johansson as Barcelona celebrated their second European Cup triumph.
Much of the discussion after the match centred around referee Terje Hauge's decision to send off Lehmann. Football pundit Mark Lawrenson stated: "The game changed when Arsenal goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was sent off". Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger agreed: "When Jens Lehmann got sent off, that left us with 70 minutes to play with ten against eleven, against a team that retains the ball very well". He refused to openly criticise this decision, although he did criticise the decision to award Barcelona's first goal, as he felt that Samuel Eto'o was offside. Wenger was also adamant that his young side would bounce back from the defeat. One person who did criticise the referee was Thierry Henry, stating: "I was kicked all over the place. I expected the referee to do his job. I don't think he did". There was much discussion after the match over whether Henry would remain with Arsenal or move to Barcelona, whom he had been linked with a move to over the past months. Arsène Wenger was asked post match if Henry would leave, to which the Arsenal manager replied: "I don't know. I don't think so". However, on 19 May, Henry signed a new four-year contract with Arsenal, ending the speculation about a possible move to Barcelona.
Henrik Larsson, who provided the two assists for the goals, was delighted with the triumph and had no regrets over deciding to leave Barcelona after the match: "I want to play football. I feel I haven't played as much as I would love to because of the great players we have at Barcelona". Fellow Barcelona player Giovanni van Bronckhorst was emotional as he won against his former club: "It's special to win the final, and even more special to do it against your old team". Samuel Eto'o, scorer of Barcelona's first goal, cited Liverpool's comeback against Milan as inspiration for Barcelona's victory: "After having seen what Liverpool did last year, we told ourselves not to throw in the towel. We followed Liverpool's example". Barcelona manager Frank Rijkaard praised the role of goalkeeper Victor Valdés in their victory, stating that he made a number of important saves to keep them in the match: "Valdes played a decisive role. He saved us at crucial moments".
Thierry Henry paid tribute to Larsson's contribution to Barcelona's win after the game, saying, "People always talk about Ronaldinho, Eto'o, Giuly and everything, but I didn't see them today, I saw Henrik Larsson. He came on, he changed the game, that is what killed the game. Sometimes you talk about Ronaldinho and Eto'o and people like that; you need to talk about the proper footballer who made the difference, and that was Henrik Larsson tonight." Henry also remarked, "You have to remember that Barcelona is a team. It's not Eto'o, it's not Ronaldinho. On Wednesday, the man who made the difference was Henrik Larsson. You have to give him credit for that because when he came on he made some amazing runs around the box and he showed he is a team player. You saw two times he fed the ball back to people and that's what I always talk about, he is a team player. He did that against us, even though the first goal was a close offside decision." Larsson's introduction giving Barcelona the cutting edge required to overcome Arsenal was noted by international press.
As a result of winning the Champions League, Barcelona would face Sevilla, the winners of the UEFA Cup, in the UEFA Super Cup. Played on 25 August 2006, the match was won 3–0 by Sevilla. Barcelona's victory meant they would also participate in the FIFA Club World Cup. Receiving a bye in the first round, they beat Mexicans Club América 4–0 in the semi-finals to progress to the final where they faced Copa Libertadores champions Internacional of Brazil, who won 1–0.
== See also ==
2006 UEFA Cup final
2006 UEFA Women's Cup final
2005–06 Arsenal F.C. season
2005–06 FC Barcelona season
Arsenal F.C. in European football
FC Barcelona in international football
== References ==
== External links ==
UEFA Champions League Finals official site
Official Site (Archived) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kip_Fulbeck | Kip Fulbeck | Lawrence Keith "Kip" Fulbeck is an American artist, spoken word performer, filmmaker and author. Fulbeck's work explores identity politics.
His mixed race ethnic background is English, Welsh, Irish and Cantonese. He is best known for his work addressing Hapa and multiracial identity and as the creator of The Hapa Project.
Fulbeck attended UCLA, Dartmouth College and the University of California, San Diego, where he was a four-year NCAA All-American Swimmer and 1988 Athlete of the Year. He earned his MFA from UCSD in 1992.
== Art ==
Fulbeck's artwork includes video, spoken word, photography and slam poetry. He has exhibited and performed in over 20 countries and has been featured on CNN, MTV, PBS and The Today Show. He has directed twelve films (including Banana Split; Some Questions for 28 Kisses; Sex, Love, & Kung Fu; and Lilo & Me), published four books and keynoted scores of conferences and festivals nationwide. He is a prominent speaker on the college circuit.
Much of Fulbeck's work is autobiographical, combining personal stories with political activism, pop culture and stand-up comedy.
== Exhibitions ==
Fulbeck's group and solo exhibition record is expansive. Group exhibitions include the Whitney Museum of American Art ('93 Biennial), Getty Museum (California Video), Science Museum of Minnesota (Race: Are We So Different?), Singapore International Film Festival, Bonn Videonale, Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Made in California), World Wide Video Festival and Sydney International Film Festival. Solo exhibitions include the Japanese American National Museum (2006 & 2010), Space180 Gallery, Ghettogloss Gallery, A/P/A Institute, Invisible NYC Gallery, the University of North Carolina, the Field Museum, the Oregon Nikkei Legacy Center and the Asia Society Houston.
== Influences ==
Fulbeck studied Visual Arts at the University of California, San Diego with David Antin, Eleanor Antin, Allan Kaprow, Lisa Lowe, Martha Rosler and Phel Steinmetz.
== Published works ==
Fulbeck's first book, a fictional autobiography entitled Paper Bullets was published in 2001 by the University of Washington Press. His second, a photographic book entitled Part Asian, 100% Hapa was published in 2006 by Chronicle Books. It features a foreword by Sean Lennon and an afterword by Paul Spickard. Many of the photographs from this book were featured in a solo show of the same name at the Japanese American National Museum in 2006. The show is currently touring nationally.
Permanence: Tattoo Portraits (also by Chronicle Books) was published in 2008, and features photographic portraits and handwritten personal statements by tattooed individuals from all walks of life including celebrities Margaret Cho, Kat Von D, Slash, Scott Ian, Joan Jett, Tera Patrick, Scott Weiland, Paul Stanley and Jeffrey Sebelia.
Fulbeck's fourth book entitled Mixed: Portraits of Multiracial Kids, was published by Chronicle Books in March 2010 and features a foreword by Dr. Maya Soetoro-Ng and an afterword by Cher. An accompanying solo exhibition exhibited at the Japanese American National Museum.
Fulbeck is represented by the Faye Bender Literary Agency.
== Teaching ==
Fulbeck teaches as a Professor of Art at the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he initiated and taught the first Spoken Word course ever offered as part of a collegiate art program's core curriculum. He received the UCSB Academic Senate's Distinguished Teaching Award in 2009, and has been named an Outstanding Faculty Member four times by the Office of Residential Life. He is also an affiliate faculty in Asian American Studies and Film & Media Studies at UCSB, and has taught as a visiting professor of Asian American Studies at the University of California, Berkeley.
== Additional activities ==
Fulbeck is extensively tattooed, and wears the work of Horitaka, Horitomo, and Horiyoshi III. He is also a multiple national champion and world-ranked masters swimmer, ocean lifeguard, and junior-lifeguard instructor. In 2010, he was named Athlete of the Year by the Santa Barbara Athletic Round Table. He received his black belt in shotokan karate from Steve Ubl. An avid guitar player, he produces videos for the Seymour Duncan company.
== References ==
== External links ==
Kip Fulbeck Artist Site
TODAY Show feature on Kip Fulbeck on YouTube
MTV feature on Kip Fulbeck on YouTube
Pacific Fusion segment on Kip Fulbeck on YouTube
CNN segment on Kip Fulbeck
CNN's Betty Nguyen interviews Kip Fulbeck about Hapa identity
Kip Fulbeck slamming at the Boston Convention Center on YouTube
Kip Fulbeck in the Video Data Bank
"Kip Fulbeck: Part Asian, 100% Hapa" at the Japanese American National Museum
kip fulbeck: part asian, 100% hapa – An Artist's Thoughts
Seymour Duncan feature produced by Kip Fulbeck on YouTube
Kip Fulbeck at IMDb
mixedkids.com Project Site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Moog | Robert Moog | Robert Arthur Moog ( MOHG; May 23, 1934 – August 21, 2005) was an American engineer and electronic music pioneer. He was the founder of the synthesizer manufacturer Moog Music and the inventor of the first commercial synthesizer, the Moog synthesizer, which debuted in 1964. In 1970, Moog released a more portable model, the Minimoog, described as the most famous and influential synthesizer in history. Among Moog's honors are a Technical Grammy Award, received in 2002, and an induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
By 1963, Moog had been designing and selling theremins for several years while working toward a PhD in engineering physics at Cornell University. He developed his synthesizer in response to demand for more practical and affordable electronic-music equipment, guided by suggestions and requests from composers. Moog's principal innovation was the voltage-controlled oscillator, which uses voltage to control pitch. He also introduced fundamental synthesizer concepts such as modularity, envelope generation and the pitch wheel. He is credited with introducing synthesizers to a wider audience and influencing the development of popular music.
Moog pursued his work as a hobby, and he is regarded as a poor businessman. His only patent was on his transistor ladder filter design; commentators have speculated that he would have become extremely wealthy had he patented his other innovations, but that their availability in the public domain helped the synthesizer industry flourish.
In 1971, Moog sold Moog Music to Norlin Musical Instruments, where he remained as a designer until 1977. In 1978, he founded the company Big Briar, and in 2002 he renamed it Moog Music after reacquiring the rights to the name. In later years, Moog taught at the University of North Carolina at Asheville and continued designing instruments for the revived Moog Music. He died at the age of 71 in Asheville from a brain tumor.
== Early life and education ==
Robert Moog was born at Flushing Hospital in New York City on May 23, 1934. His father was George Conrad Moog, of German descent. His mother was Shirley (Jacobs) Moog, of Polish-Jewish descent. He was raised in Flushing, Queens.
When he was a boy, Moog's mother forced him to study the piano. He was active in the Boy Scouts, and especially enjoyed spending time with his father, a Consolidated Edison engineer, visiting Manhattan's Radio Row and working on radio and electronics projects. He became fascinated by the theremin, an electronic instrument controlled by moving the hands over radio antennae. In 1949, at the age of 14, he built a theremin from plans printed in Electronics World.
He graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1952. He earned a Bachelor of Science in physics from Queens College of the City University of New York in 1955, and a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering from the Columbia University School of Engineering and Applied Science under a 3-2 engineering program in 1957. He earned a PhD in engineering physics from Cornell University in 1965.
== Career ==
=== Theremins and R.A. Moog Co. ===
In 1953, Moog produced his own theremin design, and in the following year, he published an article on the theremin in Radio and Television News. That same year, he founded R.A. Moog Co., building theremins and theremin kits in his parents' home and selling them via mail order. In 1956, Moog and his father visited Raymond Scott's Manhattan Research facility, and Scott purchased a Moog Model 305 theremin. Scott rewired the Moog theremin to be controlled by a keyboard, dubbing his creation the Clavivox. Moog married in 1958 and continued building and selling theremin kits from his own home in Ithaca, before establishing the company's first commercial space at 41 East Main Street in Trumansburg, New York in 1963, all while continuing to pursue his postgraduate education.
=== Moog synthesizer ===
At Cornell, Moog began work on his first synthesizer components with composer Herb Deutsch. At the time, synthesizers were enormous, room-filling instruments; Moog hoped to build a more compact synthesizer that would appeal to musicians. He believed that practicality and affordability were the most important parameters.
In 1964, Moog began creating the Moog modular synthesizer. It was composed of separate modules that created and shaped sounds, connected by patch cords. Previous synthesizers, such as the RCA Mark II, had created sound from hundreds of vacuum tubes. Instead, Moog used recently available silicon transistors with an exponential relationship between input voltage and output current. With these, he created the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), which generates a waveform with a pitch that could be adjusted by changing the voltage. Similarly, he used voltage to control loudness with voltage-controlled amplifiers (VCAs). One innovative feature was its envelope, which controls how notes swell and fade. According to the Guardian, Moog's 1964 paper Voltage-Controlled Music Modules, in which he proposed the Moog synthesizer modules, invented the modern concept of the analog synthesizer.
Moog debuted the instrument at the 1964 Audio Engineering Society convention in New York. It was much smaller than other synthesizers, such as the RCA Synthesizer introduced a decade earlier, and much cheaper, at US$10,000, as compared to the six-figure sums of other synthesizers. Whereas the RCA Synthesizer was programmed with punchcards, Moog's synthesizer could be programmed with knobs and patch cables and played via keyboard, making it attractive to musicians. New Scientist described it as the first commercial synthesizer.
At this time, Moog and then Fred Cochran constructed the so-called Moogtonium for the composer Max Brand. It is still operational and exhibited in the Langenzersdorf Museum near Vienna (Austria).
Moog described himself as a toolmaker designing things for his users, not himself. His development was driven by requests and suggestions from various musicians, including Deutsch (who devised the instrument's keyboard interface), Richard Teitelbaum, Vladimir Ussachevsky (credited with devising the ADSR envelope shape), and Wendy Carlos. His other early customers included choreographer and composer Alwin Nikolais and composer John Cage. Universities established electronic music studios with Moog synthesizers. In 1970, Moog released the portable fixed-architecture Minimoog, described as the most famous and influential synthesizer in history.
=== Company decline ===
Though commentators have praised Moog's engineering abilities, some have also described him as a poor businessman. Moog had pursued the development of his synthesizer as a hobby, stressing that he was regarded as a businessman but had not known what a balance sheet was. He likened the experience to a theme park ride: "You know you're not going to get hurt too badly because nobody would let you do that, but you're not quite in control."
Moog only patented his filter design; David Borden, one of the first users of the Minimoog, felt that if Moog had patented his pitch wheel design, he would have become extremely wealthy. According to Sound on Sound, if Moog had created a monopoly on other synthesizer ideas that he created, such as modularity, envelope generation and voltage control, "it's likely the synth industry as we know it today would never have happened."
Beginning in 1971, Moog Music absorbed investors, merged with Norlin Musical Instruments and moved to "less than ideal" premises near Buffalo, New York, amid a debilitating recession. Moog remained employed as a designer at the company until 1977. He said that he would have left earlier if his contract had not required him to remain employed there for four years to cash his stock. By the end of the decade, Moog Music was facing competition from cheaper, easier-to-use instruments by competitors including ARP, Aries, Roland, Sequential Circuits, and E-mu.
=== Big Briar, return of Moog Music ===
In 1978, Moog moved to North Carolina and founded a new electronic instrument company, Big Briar. He also worked as a consultant and vice president for new product research at Kurzweil Music Systems from 1984 to 1988. In the early 1990s, he was a research professor of music at the University of North Carolina at Asheville. In 2002, he renamed Big Briar to Moog Music after retrieving the rights to the name. In later years, he continued to design electronic instruments, including a touchscreen-operated piano.
== Personal life and death ==
Moog married Shirley May Leigh on June 15, 1958. They had four children, Laura (1961), Renée (1963), Michelle (1967), and Matthew (1970). They divorced in 1994. On May 19, 1996 Moog married Ileana Grams.
Moog was diagnosed with a glioblastoma multiforme brain tumor on April 28, 2005. He died on August 21, 2005, at the age of 71 in Asheville, North Carolina. He was survived by his second wife Ileana, four children, one stepdaughter and five grandchildren.
== Legacy ==
Moog has had a lasting influence on music. The BBC describes him as a pioneer of synthesized sound. According to the Guardian, his inventions "changed the complexion of the pop and classical music worlds." Moog's name became so associated with electronic music that it was sometimes used as a generic term for any synthesizer.
Moog's awards include honorary doctorates from Polytechnic Institute of New York University (New York City), Lycoming College (Williamsport, Pennsylvania) and Berklee College of Music. He received a Grammy Trustees Award for lifetime achievement in 1970, the Polar Music Prize in 2001 and a Special Merit/Technical Grammy Award in 2002. In 2012, to celebrate Moog's birthday, Google created an interactive version of the Minimoog as its Google Doodle. In 2013, Moog was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
=== Museum ===
On July 18, 2013, Moog's widow Ileana Grams-Moog announced plans to donate Moog's archives, maintained by the Bob Moog Foundation, to Cornell University. The foundation offered her $100,000 but Grams-Moog would not sell the archives. She felt that Cornell could provide better access for researchers and that the foundation had not made enough progress toward a planned museum to be worthy of maintaining the collection. The foundation responded that it had sufficiently preserved the collection and had made efforts to improve storage, although it could not yet afford to build the museum.
In August 2019, the Bob Moog Foundation opened the Moogseum, a museum dedicated to Moog's work, in Asheville, North Carolina. The displays include rare theremins, prototype synthesizer modules and Moog's documents.
=== Media ===
Moog has been the subject of books about his life and work, including the 2004 book Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog Synthesizer by Trevor Pinch and Frank Trocco and the 2023 biography Switched On: Bob Moog and the Synthesizer Revolution by Albert Glinsky. Moog had contributed the foreword to Glinsky's first book, Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage, about Leon Theremin, who was a principal inspiration to Moog.
Moog was also the subject of Moog, a 2004 documentary directed by Hans Fjellestad, who said that Moog "embodies the archetypal American maverick inventor."
== References ==
== External links ==
Moog Music — official website
The Bob Moog Memorial Foundation for Electronic Music
The Moogseum
Robert Moog discography at Discogs
Moog Archives illustrated history of company and products
Moog resources bibliography
Dr. Robert Moog interview at NAMM Oral History Program |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer_Rashid | Engineer Rashid | Sheikh Abdul Rashid (born 19 August 1967), better known as Engineer Rashid, is an Indian politician, and currently member of Lok Sabha representing Baramulla constituency in Jammu and Kashmir, India. In September 2024, he was released on interim bail to campaign during the assembly elections.
Earlier he was a member of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly, from the Langate constituency in Handwara. He is the founder and patron of the Jammu and Kashmir Awami Ittehad Party. He is famous for his speeches and is known as the Pain of Al-Baen (Plough) which is the symbol of National Conference.
== Early life ==
Rashid was born c. 1967 in his hometown Langate. He got involved with Kashmiri secessionist politics as a teenager, and joined the Abdul Ghani Lone-led People's Conference in 1978. In 1987, the People's Conference was a leading member of the Muslim United Front which fought the 1987 election on an Islamist agenda. The election saw widespread rigging, and is mentioned as a prime factor in the rise of Kashmir insurgency two years later.
Rashid obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in 1988, and a diploma in civil engineering two years later.
He worked for over a decade as an engineer in the state government-run Jammu and Kashmir Projects Construction Corporation. He is seen as a simple man, dressed in Khan suit, taking public transportation and occasionally hitching rides on motor cycles.
== Political career ==
Rashid transitioned from a career in construction engineering to politics in 2008, winning the Langate constituency as an independent candidate in the 2008 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election and retained it in the 2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election. Rashid subsequently established the Jammu and Kashmir Awami Ittehad Party. Despite facing imprisonment on terror-funding charges, he secured a significant victory over former Chief Minister Omar Abdullah in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, underscoring his substantial grassroots support and political influence in the region. Rashid defeated former and current chief minister of Jammu & Kashmir Omar Abdullah in 2024 Lok Sabha election from Baramulla Lok Sabha constituency.
== Arrests ==
In the year 2005, Rashid was arrested by the SOG in Srinagar for supporting militants and subsequently jailed for three months and 17 days. He was charged with committing anti-national activities, and was kept in Cargo, Humhama and Raj bagh prisons. Later the Chief Judicial Magistrate of Srinagar dropped all charges against him on humanitarian grounds. According to Rashid he was arrested by a motley group of counter-insurgents that worked closely with the state police, who took him to an interrogation centre, where he was "interrogated." After five months of custody, he negotiated his release, paying ₹1.14 lakhs.
In August 2019, he was arrested under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) on terror funding charges. He contested the 2024 parliamentary election from jail and won. However, he remained in jail, and had no opportunity to attend the parliament.
On 11 September 2024, he was granted interim bail until 2 October, allowing him to campaign for the 2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election.
On 1 October 2024, his interim bail, which was earlier until 2 October was further extended by Patiala house court, Delhi until 12 October 2024, allowing him to witness the results of the 2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election . His bail was again extended till 28 October 2024 and after the interim bail expired he was sent back to jail.
== Attacks ==
On 8 October 2015 Engineer Rashid was assaulted by BJP MLAs inside the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly for hosting a party where he served beef on the lawns of the government circuit with a view to oppose the controversial central Government order banning the consumption of beef in India.
He was also attacked with black ink in Press Club New Delhi by BJP cadets a day after his critical comments regarding the lynching of a Kashmiri truck driver in Udhampur.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surajbhan_Singh | Surajbhan Singh | Surajbhan Singh (born 5 March 1965) is an Indian politician and former Member of Parliament. He was elected to the Lok Sabha from Bihar contesting on a ticket from Lok Janshakti Party (LJP). Currently he is debarred from contesting due to conviction in the Rami Singh farmer murder case.
== Personal life ==
Singh was born on 5 March 1965 in Mokama into a poor farming family. He had two brothers. His wife, Veena Devi, was an MP from Munger parliamentary constituency on a Lok Janshakti Party. His son Ashutosh died in a car accident on Greater Noida Expressway on 27 October 2018.
== Political career ==
He started his career in politics by contesting Assembly election against Dilip Singh, the sitting Minister in Government of Bihar and the elder brother of politician Anant Kumar Singh in 2000 and defeated him by a huge margin. At the time of fighting the 2000 elections, police records credited him with 26 criminal cases ranging across Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. After he was elected an independent MLA from the Mokama Assembly constituency (Patna district) then became MP of Balia, Bihar, on a LJP ticket. In 2009, he is convicted in Brij Behari Prasad Murder Case but in 2014 he along 9 accused had been acquitted by the High Court. He is debarred from contesting due to conviction in the Rami Singh murder case of 2008.
In October 2025, Singh joined Rashtriya Janata Dal after resigning from Rashtriya Lok Janshakti Party where he was a member for four years.
== Murder trial ==
Singh was alleged to have shot and killed Rami Singh, a resident of Madhurapur village in Begusarai district on 16 January 1992. On 24 June 2008, he was found guilty by a Bihar court. After that he went to jail. On Sunday, 10 May 2009 unidentified men shot dead the main witness Naga Singh and his grandson near Barauni in Begusarai.
== See also ==
Ritlal Yadav
Pradeep Mahto
Vijay Kumar Shukla
Prakash Shukla
Rajan Tiwari
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Wutip_(2019) | Typhoon Wutip (2019) | Typhoon Wutip, known in the Philippines as Tropical Depression Betty, was the most powerful February typhoon on record, surpassing Typhoon Higos of 2015. The third tropical cyclone, second tropical storm, and the first typhoon of the 2019 Pacific typhoon season, Wutip originated from a low-pressure area on February 16, 2019, that generally tracked westward, passing just south of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), before organizing into a tropical depression on February 18. The depression was later classified a tropical storm a day later, attaining the name Wutip from the Japan Meteorological Agency. The storm gradually intensified as it turned northwest, before it underwent rapid intensification on February 23, while passing to the southwest of Guam, and reached its first peak intensity. With winds of 270 km/h (165 mph) estimated by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center, Wutip became the first Category 5-equivalent super typhoon on record in the month of February. Wutip underwent an eyewall replacement cycle shortly afterward and weakened. The storm finished its cycle on February 24, rapidly intensifying once again. Wutip reached a secondary peak intensity the following day, again attaining Category 5-equivalent winds. Thereafter, Wutip rapidly weakened for the rest of its lifespan from strong vertical wind shear, before dissipating over the Philippine Sea on March 2.
As tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued and citizens sought shelter, Typhoon Wutip crossed the FSM and inflicted significant damage towards its agriculture and infrastructure, contaminating water sources across the affected islands with its floods and leaving 11,575 people in need of food. Later on, Wutip induced power outages in Guam and caused damage that added to the total of over $3.3 million (2019 USD). The Northern Mariana Islands received minor impact, and there were no casualties reported in any of the affected areas nonetheless. In response to the effects, both the FSM and Guam received aid from international governments and organizations.
== Meteorological history ==
Around mid-February 2019, a large mass of cumulonimbus clouds accumulated near the Marshall Islands. Initially disorganized, the slow-moving cluster consolidated into a more cohesive system. On February 16, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) detected the system as a low-pressure area shifting westward. While southeast of Kosrae, vigorous convergence of trade winds north of the tropical disturbance spawned sporadic convection, or thunderstorms. The convection broadened over the system's large but weak circulation, as the disturbance situated over an area of low vertical wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures of 28–29 °C (82–84 °F), conditions which are conducive for tropical cyclogenesis. After more organizing, the JMA identified the system as a tropical depression on February 18, shortly before the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) assigned it the numeral identifier 02W the next day, when the storm had improved its convective banding around the defined circulation. As the storm developed from high ocean heat content (OHC) and outflow, the JMA and JTWC simultaneously ranked the newborn cyclone a tropical storm at 18:00 UTC, with the former giving it the name Wutip.
On February 20, Wutip evolved into a severe tropical storm after attaining 10-minute sustained winds of 95 km/h (60 mph), before strengthening into a typhoon by 18:00 UTC, according to the JMA, as a central dense overcast began to surface. With Wutip moving west-northwestward alongside a subtropical ridge to the north, improvement in organization became apparent with an eye formation detected on microwave imagery; on this basis, the JTWC upgraded Wutip to a typhoon early on February 21. The storm continued to significantly intensify over warm waters as rainbands tightened towards the deepened core. Its motion also mitigated the effects of wind shear, and additionally, a ragged eye emerged on satellite imagery. The very compact system then steered in a general northwestward direction, with the eye occasionally appearing throughout February 22. Despite a decrease in sea surface temperatures, low wind shear combined with an excellent poleward outflow channel commenced a period of rapid intensification on February 23. While southwest of Guam, Wutip presented a compact eyewall, and achieved its initial peak intensity at 12:00 UTC; the JMA estimated 10-minute sustained winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) and the lowest barometric pressure of 920 hPa (27.17 inHg) around that time. The JTWC operationally estimated 1-minute sustained winds of 250 km/h (155 mph), re-classifying Wutip as a super typhoon; however, post-season analysis determined that it had attained winds of 270 km/h (165 mph) two hours prior—making Wutip equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.
A moat—a clear ring outside the eyewall—separated the inner core from deep banding features, indicating the onset of an eyewall replacement cycle. During the process, the western portion eroded off the well-defined but warming eyewall as the eye cooled down, signaling a weakening trend. Development was further hampered by dry air entrainment and the storm's entrance to an environment of low OHC; conditions in the upper troposphere however, remained favorable. The moat separating the primary and secondary eyewall then became ill-defined. Upon completion the next day, the eyewall thickened, and its associated convection was replenished and reorganized, becoming well-defined and annular, resuming a trend of rapid intensification. Wutip again became a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon in 06:00 UTC of February 25, reaching a secondary peak intensity with 10-minute winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) and atmospheric pressure of 935 hPa (27.61 inHg) assessed by the JMA, and 1-minute winds of 260 km/h (160 mph) assessed by the JTWC. Although maintaining deep convective rings, Wutip did not hold this intensity for long, and by the following day, weakened to below super typhoon strength. Cloud tops warmed up as the eye became cloud-filled. Following a significant increase in vertical wind shear, Wutip's structure began to rapidly deteriorate, no longer exhibiting an eye.
The storm decelerated from a neutral point as it entered the southern edge of the westerlies, meeting higher levels of unfavorable wind shear. An upper-level trough situated to the west of the storm also reinforced wind shear, further disrupting convection, despite the robust outflow. By 12:00 UTC of February 27, Wutip had weakened back into a severe tropical storm. Convection later decreased significantly, prompting the JTWC to downgrade Wutip to tropical storm status. As Wutip turned west-northwestward, deep convection detached from the storm and dissipated, preventing additional development. By February 28, wind shear had completely exposed the well-organized circulation. The JMA downgraded Wutip to a tropical storm at 00:00 UTC, before downgrading it further to a tropical depression six hours later, though the JTWC had already assessed Wutip as a tropical depression beforehand. On the same day, Wutip crossed the 135°E boundary of the Philippine Area of Responsibility, receiving the local name Betty from the PAGASA—the national weather agency for the Philippines. The JTWC discontinued advisories on Wutip, whereas the JMA continued monitoring the depression until it had dissipated near east of the Philippines on March 2.
=== Records ===
Wutip was the most powerful typhoon in the month of February on record, surpassing Typhoon Higos of 2015, while also being the longest-lasting typhoon of that month as well. In addition, Wutip is the first and only tropical cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere with Category 5-equivalent winds during the month. Only seven Category 4- or Category 5-equivalent typhoons were recorded in the months of January and February since the late 1940s, including three other storms in February that attained Category 4 strength.
== Preparations and impact ==
=== Federated States of Micronesia ===
Tropical storm watches and warnings were issued for the states of Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Yap of the Federated States of Micronesia by the National Weather Service (NWS) office in Tiyan, Guam, as Tropical Depression 02W approached the island nation on February 19; the tropical storm warning for Faraulep in Yap was later canceled. The advisories were upgraded to typhoon watches and warnings after the tropical depression had intensified into Tropical Storm Wutip on February 20, with forecasts stating that Wutip would soon strengthen into a typhoon. A Special Weather Statement was also released, advising residents to monitor the situation and take note of instructions. While schools, community halls, and gymnasiums were all used as shelter, some shelters did not provide food and water or proper restrooms.
Wutip passed over Chuuk, Pohnpei and Yap States with winds of more than 160 km/h (100 mph)—equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane—from February 19 to 22, and damaged or destroyed approximately 160 houses and displaced 165 people in Chuuk and Yap. In Pohnpei State, primary and secondary power lines were damaged. Besides having fallen trees, the main island of Pohnpei was entirely left without power before having it restored. The command post of Chuuk State was activated on February 20–21 under an issued executive order, as falling trees, flooding, and damage towards homes were being reported on the 21st. Displaced people were moved to typhoon shelters and also to families residing more inland, away from the shorelines. In Pattiw, 54 homes were destroyed and at least 69 were damaged. Schools were closed down as an effect of major damage as displaced families sheltered in them. In some of the affected islands of Yap, schools also sustained damage. Satellite imagery analysis after the storm revealed extensive damage to vegetation and limited damage to structures of the Northwest Islands.
The Northwest Islands and Mortlock Islands had over 90% of their crops damaged, likewise to Nukuoro of Pohnpei State; the main crop, taro, rottened and became no longer edible, though some of it was salvaged. Water sources for the outer islands of Houk, Puluwat, Tamatam and Pulap, along with the Mortlock Islands, were rendered undrinkable, contaminated by saltwater from the flooding. In Houk, sea water flooding killed vegetation, including taro, breadfruit and coconut—the main diet for the inhabitants besides fish. Wutip flooded a taro plantation in Oneop and downed breadfruit and banana trees with its winds. Structures there were unroofed and one structure had collapsed. Across the state of Yap, infrastructure, including dispensaries, and crops were damaged. Residents of Satawal, Lamotrek, Elato, Faraulep, and Piig necessitated water assistance, as their drinking sources were soon to be exhausted. Despite no casualties, Wutip ruined many crops with the saltwater floods it produced and, with the water sources contaminated, induced a high possibility of disease outbreaks in the affected areas. Overall, Wutip caused heavy preliminary damage in infrastructure and agriculture that cost at least $2 million.
=== Guam ===
The NWS announced a tropical storm watch for Guam on February 21. Guam was still reeling from Typhoon Mangkhut in the previous year as hundreds fled to emergency shelters; over 430 children and adults sought refuge at five different emergency shelters. Public schools were closed in preparation of Wutip on February 22. The same day, Cope North, an annual military exercise that takes place around Guam, was paused "as a precautionary measure due to hazardous and potentially damaging winds," according to the Pacific Air Forces. The NWS also upgraded the watch to a tropical storm warning on that day. A team of 18 from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) assisted Guam with emergencies. Civil defense officials warned Guam residents that winds between 64–72 km/h (40–45 mph) and rainfall up to 15.24 cm (6.00 in) were expected, and advised them to stay indoors until the storm had passed. Lieutenant Governor Josh Tenorio put Guam and the military bases under Condition of Readiness (COR) 2, before upgrading it to COR 1. About 25 flights to and from Guam were canceled, leading to the loss of 4,993 seats.
As Wutip's rainbands began affecting the island, a heavy outer rainband remained largely in place over the southern side for several hours, and exhibited the meteorology phenomena training. Wutip was the first typhoon to affect Guam in the month of February since Typhoon Irma in 1953. On February 23, Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport recorded 107 mm (4.21 in) of rain from the storm, resulting in a flash flood warning being announced, while also setting a record for that date. The Guam Power Authority reported isolated power outages occurring across Guam. Wutip made its closest point of approach on the 24th, when it was about 266 kilometers (165 mi) southwest of the island. Wutip dumped 430 mm (17 in) of rain in Inarajan, 300 mm (12 in) in Dandan, and 150 to 200 mm (6 to 8 in) elsewhere on the island. Maximum sustained winds of 65–70 km/h (40–45 mph) and gusts of 115 km/h (70 mph) persisted throughout the night into early February 25, as seas remained hazardous. In Santa Rita, manholes were overflowed by flooding. Merizo also endured inundation, though it was noted as "nothing too bad" by its mayor's office. Inarajan experienced more significant damage, with obstructed roads and many downed trees and power lines along with major flooding. Preliminary damage in infrastructure for Wutip totaled over $1.3 million. No injuries or serious damages were reported, and the COR 1 was canceled by the lieutenant governor along with brigadier general Gentry Boswell, placing Guam under COR 4, the normal condition of readiness. The Guam Department of Education later reopened all of its 41 schools.
=== Northern Mariana Islands ===
Tropical storm watches were in effect across the islands of Saipan, Tinian, and Rota. Families were still residing in tents due to the effects from Typhoon Yutu of last year, and were encouraged to seek emergency shelter; a total of 83 individuals took shelter during Wutip's passage. President of the Asian Football Confederation, Salman bin Ibrahim Al Khalifa, was set to visit Saipan on February 25, but postponed the visit in precaution of Wutip. The tropical storm watch in Rota was later upgraded to a typhoon warning but was canceled by Lieutenant Governor Arnold Palacios on February 24, when Wutip headed towards a different direction from the islands and no longer posed a threat. Winds of 55–70 km/h (35–45 mph) and gusts of 70–90 km/h (45–55 mph) swept across the village of Songsong and waves of 4.9–6.1 m (16–20 ft) to as high as 7.6 m (25 ft) surfed along the east- and south-facing reefs, leading to coastal flooding. No injuries were reported, and public roadways across the islands remained clear of debris. As a result, schools were reopened across the Mariana Islands on February 25. Palacios stated that climate change is a reality as demonstrated by Wutip, for the typhoon season for the region was not until another month.
== Aftermath ==
The Governor of Chuuk Johnson Elimo and the Governor of Yap Henry Falan both declared a state of emergency on February 22, in addition to a declaration from the President of the Federated States of Micronesia Peter M. Christian. On February 26, a team of 13 from the government of Chuuk was deployed at Pattiw to supply food and water, with the support of the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the Red Cross. Elimo later revised his declaration on March 2, emphasizing the extensive damages Wutip had caused to infrastructure, food crops, and water sources. Damage assessments were commenced throughout the affected areas. On March 11, FSM President Christian issued a disaster declaration and requested international assistance, releasing $100,000 from the country's emergency fund. U.S. Chargé d'affaires Heather Coble declared a disaster the following day, allowing the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), FEMA, and the federal government of the FSM to initiate a damage assessment and relieve activities supporting agriculture and food security.
The damage assessment took place from March 18 to April 4, with assistance from the IOM. It found along with infrastructure damage, that agriculture production was damaged across 30 islands, leaving 11,575 people food insecure. Shipments containing rice, vegetables, and cooking oil were sent to the Mortlock Islands of Chuuk State. Approximately $450,000 from USAID's Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, New Zealand Embassy, and Australian Aid, was mobilized to contribute efforts and for purchasing food baskets, aiding 9,295 people and the other 2,280 who suffered moderate crop damage. On March 31, a multinational team aboard USNS Brunswick arrived at the Lower Mortlock Islands to support recovery efforts as part of Pacific Partnership 2019. Because of their Compact of Free Association between the national governments, U.S. President Donald Trump declared Wutip a disaster on May 7, making funding for emergency relief and reconstruction assistance available, after Christian had requested a disaster declaration on April 17. With this funding, the Catholic Relief Services provided agricultural rehabilitation and the IOM gave food assistance to the areas affected by Wutip. The USAID division in the Philippines reconstructed 136 homes and 39 public structures. Relief and reconstruction funding from USAID totaled more than $22.3 million.
Guam Governor Lou Leon Guerrero requested a major disaster declaration on March 25, due to the impact the Mariana Islands had from Wutip during February 23–25. Between April 2–5, damage assessments were conducted around areas of Guam, determining if the damage was severe enough for the necessity of federal assistance. On May 7, Donald Trump approved the disaster declaration, and made public assistance towards Guam available for eligible local governments and certain non-profit organizations to support the relief efforts. Tracy A. Haynes was appointed by Trump as the Federal Coordinating Officer for recovery operations across Guam. FEMA gave $722,298.51 in public assistance and $146,376.80 for hazard mitigation.
== See also ==
Weather of 2019
Tropical cyclones in 2019
Other systems named Wutip
Other systems named Betty
Typhoon Keith (1997) – A Category 5-equivalent super typhoon that affected some of the same areas in 1997
Typhoon Maysak (2015) – The most powerful pre-April typhoon on record; struck Micronesia and the Philippines
Typhoon Jelawat (2018) – An early-season Category 4-equivalent super typhoon from 2018, which affected some of the same areas
Typhoon Yutu (2018) – A powerful Category 5-equivalent super typhoon that devastated Saipan and Tinian in the Northern Mariana Islands during the previous year
Typhoon Surigae (2021) – The most powerful April typhoon on record
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
02W.WUTIP from the United States Naval Research Laboratory
General Information of Typhoon Wutip (1902) from Digital Typhoon
JMA Best Track Data of Typhoon Wutip (1902) (in Japanese)
JMA Best Track (Graphics) of Typhoon Wutip (1902) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Emerson_Bashen | Janet Emerson Bashen | Janet Rita Bashen (née Emerson; born February 12, 1957) is an American entrepreneur, business consultant, and software inventor. Bashen is best known for patenting a web-based EEO software application, LinkLine, now known as Nalikah, to assist with equal employment opportunity investigations and claims tracking. Bashen is regarded as the first African American woman to obtain a web-based software patent.
== Personal life ==
Janet Rita Emerson was born on February 12, 1957, in Mansfield, Ohio to James Lucker Emerson Sr., a garbage collector, and Ola Mae Emerson, a nurse. Emerson's family moved to Huntsville, Alabama, where Emerson went to a segregated elementary school until the fifth grade when she entered Fifth Avenue School, a previously segregated school in Huntsville, Alabama.
She married George Steven Bashen in 1988. They have two children.
== Career ==
Bashen attended Alabama A&M a Historical Black College and University but did not graduate. Emerson enrolled in the University of Houston and graduated with a degree in Legal Studies and Government. Dr. Bashen attended Harvard University. Bashen is also a graduate of Tulane Law School. Bashen received a doctorate from USC's Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work.
After graduating from the University of Houston, Bashen worked for an insurance company handling claims related to Equal Employment Opportunities. Bashen would later receive a $5,000 loan from her mother and in 1994, began her own company, Bashen Corporation, to investigate discrimination claims filed by employees.
As her company grew, Bashen became aware of the need for better ways of storing and accessing the data related to claims. With her cousin, Donnie Moore, a Tufts University computer science graduate, Bashen began developing a software. This was the genesis for the software Nalikah, previously known as LinkLine. In January 2006, Bashen was awarded a Patent No. 6,985,922, B1, making her the first African-American woman to earn a web-based software patent.
=== Congressional testimony ===
In May 2000, Bashen testified before the U.S. House of Representatives that civil rights and employee misconduct investigations should be exempt from the Fair Credit Reporting Act.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Almy | Mary Almy | Mary Almy (1883–1967) was an American architect, and a partner at Howe, Manning & Almy, Inc., one of the first architecture firms founded by women in the United States and specializing in domestic architecture. She studied architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1917 to 1919.
== Early life and education ==
Almy grew up in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She had polio as a child and walked with crutches throughout her life. In 1905 she graduated from Radcliffe College. She worked as a teacher before developing an interest in architecture. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919 after three years of study. Due to academic policies in place at the time, female students were not accepted into the four-year program in Architecture, but limited to the two-year degree program in architectural drafting at MIT. Prior to her education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Almy designed a summer home for her family on Cape Cod.
== Career ==
Almy worked as a drafter at a London based architectural firm called Collcutt and Hamp, for two years. In the 1920s, she became a drafter for the Boston firm owned by Lois Lilley Howe and Eleanor Manning, who had also attended MIT. In 1926, she became a member of the American Institute of Architects and a partner at Howe, Manning & Almy, Inc. Upon becoming partner at the firm, she took over the position of chief draftsman. Despite surviving the Great Depression, the firm closed in 1937 after Howe retired. Manning and Almy continued in private practice. Almy also worked with landscape architect Henrietta Pope.
== Works ==
== Legacy ==
Mary Almy's papers reside in the collection for Howe, Manning and Almy at MIT. The Almy family papers are located at the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe College. Howe, Manning, and Almy were the subject of a dissertation defended in 1976 at Boston University by Gail Morse.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandrov_Ensemble | Alexandrov Ensemble | The Alexandrov Ensemble (Russian: Ансамбль Александрова, romanized: Ansambl' Aleksandrova), commonly known as the Red Army Choir in the West, is an official army choir of the Russian armed forces. Founded during the Soviet era, the ensemble consists of a male choir, an orchestra, and a dance ensemble.
The Ensemble has entertained audiences both in Russia and throughout the world, performing a range of music including folk tunes, hymns, operatic arias and popular music. The group's repertoire has included The Volga Boatmen's Song, Katyusha, Kalinka, and Ave Maria.
It is named for its first director, Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov (1883–1946). Its formal name since 1998 has been A. V. Alexandrov Academic Song and Dance Ensemble of the Russian Army (Russian: Академи́ческий анса́мбль пе́сни и пля́ски Росси́йской А́рмии и́мени А. В. Алекса́ндрова, romanized: Akademíchesky ansámbl′ pésni i plyáski Rossýskoy Ármii ímeni A. V. Aleksándrova), shortened to Academic Ensemble (Russian: Академи́ческий анса́мбль, romanized: Akademíchesky ansámbl′) on second reference.
On 25 December 2016, its artistic director, Valery Khalilov, and 63 other members of the Ensemble were killed in the Russian Defence Ministry aircraft crash of a 1983 Tupolev Tu-154 into the Black Sea just after takeoff from the southern resort city of Sochi, Russia. The Red Army Choir singers and dancers were en route to Syria to entertain Russian troops there for Orthodox Christmas celebrations.
== Name ==
At the establishment, in 1928, the choir was named Red Army Song Ensemble of the M. V. Frunze Red Army Central House (Russian: Анса́мбль красноарме́йской пе́сни Центра́льного до́ма Кра́сной А́рмии и́мени М. В. Фру́нзе, romanized: Ansámbl′ krasnoarméyskoy pésni Tsentrál′nogo dóma Krásnoy Ármii ímeni M. V. Frúnze). In 1935, it was renamed Red-Bannered Red Army Song and Dance Ensemble of the USSR (Russian: Краснознамённый анса́мбль красноарме́йской пе́сни и пля́ски СССР, romanized: Krasnozamyónny ansámbl′ krasnoarméyskoy pésni i plyáski SSSR).
In 1949 the ensemble was officially named the A. V. Alexandrov Twice Red-bannered and Red-starred Song and Dance Ensemble of the Soviet Army (Дважды Краснознамённый ордена Красной Звезды ансамбль песни и пляски Советской Армии имени А. В. Александрова Russian: Два́жды Краснознамённый о́рдена Кра́сной Звезды́ анса́мбль пе́сни и пля́ски Сове́тской А́рмии и́мени А. В. Алекса́ндрова, romanized: Dvázhdy Krasnoznamyonny órdena Krásnoy Zvezdý ansámbl′ pésni i plyáski Sovétskoy Ármii ímeni A. V. Aleksándrova). In 1978 the word "academic" was added to the title (A. V. Alexandrov Twice Red-bannered and Red-starred Academic Song and Dance Ensemble of the Soviet Army). After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the ensemble received its present name in 1998.
== History ==
=== Early years ===
Born into a peasant family, Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov became the first artistic director of the ensemble, choirmaster, conductor, teacher and the public figure who wrote the music to the State Anthem of the Soviet Union. He came from a musical background of hymns and folk songs, could play the viola and had perfect pitch, so he sang in the church choir and performed at festivals. He was heard singing at the village school by PA Zalivuhin, a soloist in the choir at Kazan Cathedral, St. Petersburg. Zalivuhin persuaded Alexandrov's parents to let the child go to Saint Petersburg to learn music. In 1898, the young peasant boy became a pupil of the Saint Petersburg Court Chapel.
There are two recorded histories of the ensemble: possibly separate elements of the same history. The first says that the initiator of the ensemble was Felix Nikolaevich Danilovich, a theatre director. The first director of the ensemble was chosen from three of Moscow's conductors: Danilin, Chesnokov and Alexandrov. Seen in isolation this would signify that A. V. Alexandrov was not the creator of the ensemble. In this version the first troupe is named as follows. Singers: Tkachenko, Zyukov, Samarin, Rozanov, Koltypin, Tolskov, Golyaev, Charov. Dancers: Maximov, Svetlov. Bayanist: Surdin.
The second version says that the ensemble was formed out of the Frunze Red Army Central House in 1928. There is also a story that Stalin then asked Alexandrov to relocate the choir to Moscow.
==== Development ====
During World War II, the ensemble gave over 1500 performances at both Soviet fronts, entertaining troops about to go into battle, at gun emplacements, airfields, and in hospitals.
=== Under Boris Alexandrovich Alexandrov ===
Following the death of Alexander Alexandrov, the ensemble was taken over by his son, Boris Alexandrovich Alexandrov. Under his leadership, the ensemble gained fame outside the Soviet Union, making extensive tours worldwide. Boris Alexandrov retired in 1987, and was succeeded by People's Artist of Russia Igor Agafonnikov the same year, with Anatoly Maltsev as the ensemble chief. He retired as the principal conductor in 1994; he died that year and was buried in Moscow at the Novodevichy Cemetery.
Under B. A. Alexandrov, the ensemble was highly disciplined. Boris's party trick was to leave the stage and allow the ensemble to perform "En Route" alone. Members were positioned so that they could not all watch one orchestral leader, and this appeared to be a trick, but there was no trick at all. Leonid Kharitonov remembers:
The Ensemble members were so disciplined and experienced that they could feel the rhythm simultaneously and could sing and play together automatically, without the conductor... In Canada during one concert Alexandrov left the Ensemble to perform alone for half an hour.
Major Vladimir Alexandrov (1910–1978), brother of Boris Alexandrov, also composed for the ensemble. He served as Orchestral Director and Conductor. Vladimir Gordeev was the principal conductor on the 1988 UK tour.
==== 1948 Berlin Peace Concert ====
In 1948 much of Berlin was still ruined after World War II, and the city was divided into four occupation zones, controlled by the USSR, France, the UK and the United States. This was before the Berlin Wall was built, and it was still possible to travel between zones. An American officer suggested a concert in the Gendarmenmarkt (in the Soviet zone at the time), and the French zone commander supported the suggestion. The musicians were to be provided by the USSR, and the Alexandrov Ensemble was chosen. A temporary stage was set up in the square, with flowers all along the front. 30,000 people came to stand and watch for three hours. In 1994, towards the end of his life, Boris Alexandrov said:
"The visit to Germany was unforgettable. It is dominant in the history of the ensemble. It was necessary to make a new creative leap – from wartime military music to postwar relaxing harmony. It was important, and the transition had to be managed on many fronts, including getting the Ensemble back into its original pre-war role, performing the classics and singing folk songs. Before the war the Ensemble had 200 professional singers; following the war it was down to 60."
A previous tour to East Germany had been cancelled due to the sudden death of Alexander Alexandrov in 1946 in Potsdam, when in his bed was found an annotated copy of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9, showing that A. Alexandrov had been preparing the final chorus for a performance. Now Boris, his son, was ready to follow his father's plan. The 1948 peace concert was to consist of German opera extracts and Russian folk songs (Nightingales, Zemlyanka and Roads); and after an intervention by the tenor Victor Nikitin, some German folk songs were also included. The people joined in, singing Heidenröslein, and Nikitin sang Kalinka three times in a row. The concert was very successful, and very moving.
A sound recording of the concert was made, and pressed in 1985 under the Radio DDR 1 label. This is listed on the Alexandrov Ensemble discography page.
However the Berlin Peace Concert did not happen in isolation. It was part of a series of punishing yearly tours to war-torn areas. The main tour season during and just after World War II appears to have run from June to October – perhaps because the large troupe usually had to perform outdoors, to accommodate large audiences. The August 1948 Berlin concert occurred two-thirds of the way through a tour to (20 June to 18 July) Prague, Most, Brno, Bratislava, Ostrava, Žilina and Košice in Czechoslovakia; then apparently without a break (18 July to 10 October) Dresden, Weimar, Magdeburg, Stendal, Schwerin, Potsdam, Berlin, Rathenow, Leipzig, Halle, Lane, Erfurt, Chemnitz, Frankfurt an der Oder and Schwarzenberg in Germany.
=== After 1991 ===
Today, the ensemble is led by Honoured Artist of Russia Vyacheslav Korobko, who has been leading it since 2003.
Until 1969, the standard uniform for the ensemble choir, soloists and orchestra was the tunic and riding breeches. On 1 January 1970, this was changed to dress uniform, and there have been further variations to the dress uniform as used by the ensemble since 1970.
==== Eurovision Song Contest 2009 ====
The choir were the interval act in the first semi-final of Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow, alongside t.A.T.u who performed "Not Gonna Get Us".
==== 2016 plane crash ====
On 25 December 2016, a Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 carrying 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble Choir went down 1.5 km (0.93 mi) off the coast of Sochi, Russia while en route to Latakia, Syria for a Christmas celebration with the troops deployed at Khmeimim military base. The plane crashed with no survivors. Of the 92 passengers and crew on board, 64 were members of the Alexandrov Ensemble.
After 5 weeks, the choir was reformed anew in time for Defender of the Fatherland Day celebrations on 18 February 2017. That first concert in weeks marks also the birth of a new era for the Ensemble, with its first international tour following the crash with concerts not just in Russia but also in select European countries. Most of the new members joined through auditions held on 15 and 27 January 2017 by the Ministry of Defense of Russia. Since 7 June 2016, Colonel Gennadiy Sachenyuk became artistic director then main conductor and Head of the Ensemble since 24 March 2017.
==== 2018 90th Anniversary ====
On 12 October 2018, the Ensemble celebrated the 90th anniversary of its foundation at a special event at the Bolshoi Theatre. Following this event, the leader of the Ensemble Colonel Gennadiy Sachenyuk announced a worldwide tour. The Ensemble performed concerts produced by Thierry Wolf in various countries including France, Switzerland, Belgium, Serbia, the Czech Republic and China. In December 2019, they celebrated Christmas in Montreal during a week of seven concerts at La Maison Symphonique.
==== 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine ====
Following the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, the tour Alexandrov Ensemble was supposed to have in the Czech Republic has been canceled, while individual members of the choir have faced disqualifications from competitions such as Operalia.
== Composition ==
=== Soloists ===
Most notable soloists:
Evgeny Belyaev
Victor Ivanovich Nikitin
Leonid Kharitonov
Mark Reizen
Georgi Pavlovich Vinogradov
Vadim Anayev
Ivan Bukreev
V. Chetverikov
=== Chorus ===
Current members of the choir are listed here.
The choir consists mainly of vocal sections of tenor, baritone, and bass. In some of the pieces they perform, these sections are divided into as many as eight different vocal lines. From the early 1950s until at least 1965 a typical full division (which varied from song to song) was as follows: (1) countertenors; (2) first tenors; (3) second tenors; (4) baritones; (5) first bass; (6) second bass; (7) basso profundos.
=== Orchestra ===
The orchestra, in what became a typical composition for later generations of military ensembles in the Soviet Union, has a mixed composition of Russian traditional instruments and western instruments, including the balalaika, the domra, the bayan, the double bass, woodwinds, brass, and percussion instruments. A great guest balalaika player was Boris Stepanovich Feoktistov (Борис Степанович Феоктистов) (1910–1988). In the West his most famous recording is Kamarinskaya (1963).
A. Molostov is the trumpet soloist in "Dark Eyes" in vintage recordings.
The bayan-player Victor Gridin is a past member of the orchestra.
=== Dancers ===
Among the dances staged by the ensemble are Zaparozhtsi Dance, Cossack's Cavalry Dance, Festive March, Dance of the Cossacks, Soldier's Dance, and Sailor's Dance. Some of these are performed by mixed dancers, while others, such as Cossack's Cavalry Dance, are performed by male dancers only.
The ballet is under the direction of Lev Nikolaevich Kulikov National Artist of Russia, the main ballet master, and maintains the heights of choreographic art with honour. The priority in its repertoire is taken by the military compositions: Matroskaya barynya, Kazachiya cavalry plyaska, Festive march, Invitation to dance and others. The ballet performs a lot of Russian folk dances. The classical repertoire contains Poloveckie plyasky from the opera Prince Igor written by Alexander Borodin. This is from our dance classics, but we always update the dance repertoire. (Leonid Ivanovich Malev, current Director of the Ensemble, interviewed by Russia Beyond the Headlines 1 Dec 2008)
=== Current line-up ===
The artistic director was Valery Khalilov but he, and 63 other members of the Ensemble, were killed in an aircraft crash on 25 December 2016. The chief choreographer is People's Artist of Russia L. Kulikov; the chief administrator is Honoured Artist of Russia VG Kadin, the choreographer and coach is the Honoured Artist of Russia V. Ermolin; head dresser is Honoured Worker of Culture A. Kormilitsyn; soloists are VI Shtefutsa and EM Labkovsky; with SV Ivanov, PD Bogachev, VP Maystruk, AA Gvozdetsky, BM Mizyuk: all Honoured Artist of Russia.
In the choir are YA Lysenko, Y. Shtrunov, IM Pirogov, IS Sobolev, IF Volkov, OV Filimonov, AN Savitsky, VA Nagorny, VP Kokarev, AA Hristachev, JN Deynekin, VM Bolonenko, VN Antonov, AN Stritenko, AA Toschev: all Honoured Artist of Russia; and VS Buzlov, SP Lapik, VF Orthodox, GU Razgasimov, V. Chekin, MD Mochalina.
In the orchestra are AA Mogulkin, Y. Savkin, MG Chervov, PD Shchennikov, NI Diakov, AI Egorov, VM Predelin: all Honoured Artist of Russia. Vocal coaches are People's Artist of Russia, laureate of competitions, MI Glinka and PI Tchaikovsky, Professor KP Lisovsky. The Principal Concertmaster is Honoured Artist of Russia V. Brodsky.
In the ballet are GD Pavlyuchenko, IV Konygina, P.U. Khmelnitski: all Honoured Artist of Russia.
In 2019, the Ensemble touring all over the world with famous soloist as Valery Gavva or Vadim Ananeev but also young soloists such as Alexander Kruze or Maxim Maklakov, former soloit of Kraznodar Opera or very young talent such as Sergey Kuznetsov. Under the direction of conductor Gennadiy Sachenyuk
=== Composers and directors ===
==== Directors of the Ensemble and orchestra, and Assistant Conductors ====
1928–1946 – Major General Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov, People's Artist of the Soviet Union, founding artistic director and conductor of the Ensemble, awarded the Stalin Prize, composed the State Anthem of the Soviet Union and various other songs for the ensemble
1946–1987 – Major General Boris Alexandrovich Alexandrov, Hero of Socialist Labor, People's Artist of the Soviet Union, awarded both the Lenin Prize and the Stalin Prize, son of the founder, composer and led the ensemble on a number of national and international engagements
1987–1992 – Professor Colonel Anatoly Maltsev, People's Artist of Russia, led the Ensemble through the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the armed forces, served as Assistant Conductor until 1987
1992–1993 – Colonel Igor Germanovich Agafonnikov (until 1992 conductor and artistic director for the orchestra, also served as deputy and relief conductor)
1993–2002 – Colonel Dmitry Vasilyevich Somov
1994–2002 – Colonel Victor A. Fedorov, Choir Master and relief conductor
2003–2016 – Colonel Leonid Malev, Honoured Artist and Honoured Cultural Worker, responsible for the choir's renewed international tours including a memorable concert at the Vatican in 2004
2008–2012 – Prof. Colonel Igor Raevskiy, People's Artist of Russia, Honoured Artist of Belarus, awarded the State Prize of Czechoslovakia
2012–2016, 2017–present – Colonel Gennady Ksenafontovich Sachenyuk, Honoured Cultural Worker of Russia, current artistic director, Principal Conductor and Head of the Ensemble
2016 (May–December) – Prof. Lieutenant General Valery Khalilov, People's Artist of Russia, highest-ranking officer to serve as Artistic Director
Second conductor, Lieutenant Colonel Nikolay Kirillov, People's Artist of Russia, Chief Conductor and assistant director of the ensemble
Choirmaster- Sergey Sokolov.
Present days – 13 September 2019, Gennadiy Sachenyuk, nicknamed the Maestro, Conductor and Director of the Ensemble since 2016, was honored with the highest level medal for Russian artist.
==== Composers and assistant directors ====
Kostiantyn Dankevych (1905–1984): a Ukrainian who was director of Songs and Dance of the Red Army Choir in Tbilisi, and wrote Poem of Ukraine.
Lev Knipper (1898–1974) who composed Polyushko Pole, and Viktor Gusev (1909–1944) who wrote the lyrics.
Pavlo Virsky who was artistic director of the Alexandrov Ensemble dancers from 1942, for many years.
Samuel Pokrass (1897–1939) who wrote White Army, Black Baron or Red Army is Strongest; lyrics by P. Grigoriev.
== The repertoire ==
In 2006 and 2007, in Moscow and in Vladikavkaz, Grozny, the ensemble performed a New Year fairy tale show for children, Ivan the Good, Ivan the Brave, about a soldier helping to save New Year's Day.
In 2008, the 80th anniversary of the ensemble, director Leonid Malev said:
Of course everything depends on the repertoire which is quite large – more than two thousand works. Depending on the concert we choose a special repertoire. We have a rule that we try not to break. In any country we sing 2–3 songs in the native language of the people who live there. As a rule it helps to find a rapport with, and the appreciation of, the audience. And for us it is some kind of musical gift, to honour the host country and its people. For instance in Canada when we sang the National Anthem of Russia people stood up to show respect to our country, and when we finished we sang their country's anthem "O Canada".
A million people in our country and abroad like songs like "Kalinka", "Katyusha", "Smuglyanka" and the other songs of the military years as well as "The Day of the Victory", "Dark Eyes", "Vecherny zvon" and "Podmoskovnye vechera". All these songs are known because of the Alexandrov folk song and dance company and people want to hear these songs at every concert. They are not just part of our history; they are great masterpieces. It is interesting that "Svyaschennaya Voyna", written by Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov in 1941, helped Soviet soldiers to protect their Motherland and is still popular in Slovakia, Poland and Bulgaria. Those audiences listen to it standing up and it touches their hearts and souls.
For our concerts we search for new musical works because you can't live only in the past. But to tell you the truth it's impossible to imagine our concerts without works of Russian and West-European classical music (Beethoven, Bach, Tchaikovsky and Mussorgsky), they are part of human history. But our repertoire contains not only songs of the military years and folk songs, arias from operas, songs of the world and spiritual music but also new songs such as Iliya Reznik's "To Serve Russia", and those written by Eduard Hanka, Kim Breytburg, Sergey Sashin and other modern composers and poets.
—Director Leonid Ivanovich Malev, 1 December 2008
== The Children's Choir School ==
The Alexandrov children's choir school was founded in 2007. Malev said about the school:
It's not a secret that the more you work with children, the greater their prospect of achievement in society. We approached the Ministry of Defence with an appeal to organize this choir and it was approved. October 1st 2007 was the opening day of the Aleksandrovcy creative school for musical and aesthetic education for children. This became an important event in the year of the Ensemble's 80th anniversary.
The first night of the boys' Aleksandrovcy Choir on December 26th at the Cadets' Gold Epaulette Ball went like clockwork. After that night they participated in many concerts. The latest was on Poklonnaya Hill in memory of the Beslan tragedy, as part of City Day on the 3rd and 7th of September. It should be mentioned that we have an excellent director of the school Nina Anatolievna Putilina who puts all her soul into raising this worthy generation.
We do a lot in order to raise the new generation with regard to physical, spiritual and moral health. Here children begin at the beginning of vocal music and literary speaking; they absorb the best practice of their teachers.
The children's choir has become an integral part of the Ensemble's life and takes part in its important concerts. We plan to have tours together.
== Films ==
The ensemble under the direction of Boris Alexandrov can be heard singing It's a Long Way to Tipperary in the 1981 film Das Boot. Members of the ensemble are seen performing The Internationale in New York's Grand Central Station in Peter Miller's 2000 documentary The Internationale. Several films have been made of the ensemble's performances: see Alexandrov Ensemble discography.
== Awards for the ensemble ==
For global recognition of high art: The Global Team Award
From the French Academy of Records, for the best record: Gold Disk (1961)
From the French company Chant Du Monde, for record sales: Gold disk (1964)
Order of the Mongolian Combat Merit (1964)
Czechoslovak Order of the Red Star (1965)
From the Dutch company N.O.K, for record sales: Gold disk (1974)
Two awards of the Order of the Red Banner
The honorary title of academy (1979)
== See also ==
Alexandrov Ensemble choir
Alexandrov Ensemble soloists
Alexandrov Ensemble discography
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Tribute to the lost members of the Ensemble by former soloist Leonid Kharitonov, 26 December 2016 In Russian with English subtitles
Russia Beyond the Headlines: Interview with Leonid Malev 2008 Archived 11 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Hastings | Max Hastings | Sir Max Hugh Macdonald Hastings (; born 28 December 1945) is a British journalist and military historian, who has worked as a foreign correspondent for the BBC, editor-in-chief of The Daily Telegraph, and editor of the Evening Standard. He is also the author of thirty books, most significantly histories, which have won several major awards. Hastings currently writes a bimonthly column for Bloomberg Opinion and contributes to The Times and The Sunday Times.
== Early life ==
Hastings' parents were Macdonald Hastings, a journalist and correspondent, and Anne Scott-James, sometime editor of Harper's Bazaar. He was educated at Charterhouse and University College, Oxford, which he left after a year.
== Career ==
Hastings moved to the United States, spending a year (1967–68) as a Fellow of the World Press Institute, following which he published his first book, America, 1968: The Fire This Time, an account of the US in its tumultuous election year. He became a foreign correspondent and reported from more than sixty countries and eleven wars for BBC1's Twenty-Four Hours current affairs programme and for the Evening Standard in London.
Hastings was the first person accompanying the British Task Force to enter Port Stanley on the last day of the 1982 Falklands War. After ten years as editor and then editor-in-chief of The Daily Telegraph, he returned to the Evening Standard as editor in 1996 and remained there until his retirement in 2002. Hastings was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 2002 Birthday Honours for services to journalism. He was elected a member of the political dining society known as The Other Club in 1993.
He has presented historical documentaries for the BBC and is the author of many books, including Bomber Command, which earned the Somerset Maugham Award for non-fiction in 1980. Both Overlord and The Battle for the Falklands won the Yorkshire Post Book of the Year prize. He was named Journalist of the Year and Reporter of the Year at the 1982 British Press Awards, and Editor of the Year in 1988. In 2010 he received the Royal United Services Institute's Westminster Medal for his "lifelong contribution to military literature", and the same year the Edgar Wallace Award from the London Press Club.
In 2012, he was awarded the US$100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award, a lifetime achievement award for military writing, which includes an honorarium, citation and medallion, sponsored by the Chicago-based Tawani Foundation. Hastings is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, and the Royal Historical Society. He was President of the Campaign to Protect Rural England from 2002 to 2007.
In his 2007 book Nemesis: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45 (known as Retribution in the United States), the chapter on Australia's role in the last year of the Pacific War was criticised by the chief of the Returned and Services League of Australia and one of the historians at the Australian War Memorial, for allegedly exaggerating discontent in the Australian Army. Dan van der Vat in The Guardian called it "even-handed", "refreshing" and "sensitive" and praised the language used. The Spectator called it "brilliant" and praised his telling of the human side of the story.
Hastings wrote a column for the Daily Mail between 2002 and 2008 and often contributes articles to other publications such as The Guardian, and The Sunday Times. He also currently writes a bimonthly column for Bloomberg Opinion.
== Personal life ==
Hastings lives near Hungerford, Berkshire, with his second wife, Penelope (née Levinson), whom he married in 1999. Hastings has a surviving son and daughter by his first wife, Patricia Edmondson, to whom he was married from 1972 until 1994. In 2000, his 27-year-old first son, Charles, died by suicide in Ningbo, China. He dedicated his book Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–45, which was published in 2007, to Charles's memory.
== Political views ==
Hastings has at different times voted for all three major British political parties. He announced his support for the Conservative Party at the 2010 general election, having previously voted for the Labour Party at the 1997 and 2001 general elections. He said that "four terms are too many for any government" and described Gordon Brown as "wholly psychologically unfit to be Prime Minister".
In August 2014, Hastings was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.
In June 2019, Hastings described Boris Johnson, the Conservative Party leadership candidate, as "unfit for national office, because it seems he cares for no interest save his own fame and gratification ... [his] premiership will almost certainly reveal a contempt for rules, precedent, order and stability ... If the price of Johnson proves to be Corbyn, blame will rest with the Conservative party, which is about to foist a tasteless joke upon the British people – who will not find it funny for long." He continued along this line of argument throughout the Johnson premiership and he said that "the experiment in celebrity government to which the Conservative Party committed us has failed, and is seen by the world to have failed. The foremost task for a successor is to restore Britain's reputation as a serious country."
In his Bloomberg column on 14 February 2021, Hastings wrote that the United Kingdom's future was unlikely to be long-term. He advocated a United Ireland but said he was against Scottish and Welsh independence. Hastings was widely criticised for stating in the article that the Welsh language was of "marginal value" and that Wales could not succeed as an independent country because it was "dependent on English largesse". Huw Edwards said there were several factual errors in Hastings' points, while Fergus Llewelyn Turtle responded: "For the non-English part of the UK that is ... the most integrated with England, it's pretty astonishing how many English commentators have exactly zero political clue about Wales."
In March 2021, Hastings wrote that the prospect of a showdown between the United States and China over Taiwan was becoming increasingly likely.
== Select bibliography ==
=== Reportage ===
America 1968: The Fire this Time (Gollancz, 1969) ISBN 0-575-00234-4
Ulster 1969: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland (Gollancz, 1970) ISBN 0-575-00482-7
The Battle for the Falklands (with Simon Jenkins) (Michael Joseph, 1983) ISBN 0-7181-2228-3, (Norton, 1983) ISBN 0-393-01761-3
=== Biography ===
Montrose: The King's Champion (Gollancz, 1977) ISBN 0-575-02226-4
Yoni: Hero of Entebbe: Life of Yonathan Netanyahu (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980) ISBN 0-297-77565-0
=== Autobiography ===
Going to the Wars (Macmillan, 2000) ISBN 0-333-77104-4
Editor: A Memoir (Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0-333-90837-6
Did You Really Shoot the Television?: A Family Fable (London, HarperPress, 2010) ISBN 978-0-00-727171-9
=== History ===
Bomber Command (Michael Joseph, 1979) ISBN 0-7181-1603-8
The Battle of Britain (with Len Deighton) (Jonathan Cape, 1980) ISBN 0-224-01826-4
Das Reich: Resistance and the March of the Second SS Panzer Division Through France, June 1944 (Michael Joseph, 1981) ISBN 0-7181-2074-4, (Henry Holt & Co, 1982) ISBN 0-03-057059-X
Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy (Simon & Schuster, 1984) ISBN 0-671-46029-3
Victory in Europe: D-Day to VE-Day (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985) ISBN 0-297-78650-4 (Little Brown & C, 1992) ISBN 0-316-81334-6
The Korean War (Michael Joseph, 1987) ISBN 0-7181-2068-X, (Simon & Schuster, 1987) ISBN 0-671-52823-8
Armageddon: The Battle for Germany 1944–45 (Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 0-333-90836-8
Warriors: Exceptional Tales from the Battlefield (HarperPress [UK], 2005) ISBN 978-0-00-719756-9
Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–45 (HarperPress [UK], October 2007) ISBN 0-00-721982-2 (re-titled Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45 for US release Knopf ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3)
Finest Years: Churchill as Warlord 1940–45 (London, HarperPress, 2009) ISBN 978-0-00-726367-7 (re-titled Winston's War: Churchill, 1940–1945 for US release by Knopf, 2010, ISBN 978-0-307-26839-6)
All Hell Let Loose: The World At War 1939–1945 (London, HarperPress, 29 September 2011) ISBN 978-0-00-733809-2 (re-titled Inferno: The World At War, 1939–1945 for US release by Knopf, 1 November 2011, ISBN 978-0-307-27359-8. 729 pp)
Catastrophe: Europe Goes to War 1914 (London, Knopf Press, 24 September 2013) ISBN 978-0307597052, 640 pp.
The Secret War: Spies, Codes And Guerrillas 1939–45 (London: William Collins, 2015) ISBN 9780007503742
Vietnam: An Epic Tragedy 1945–1975 (William Collins, 2018) ISBN 978-0062405678
Chastise: The Dambusters Story 1943 (William Collins, 2019) ISBN 9780008280529
Operation Pedestal: The Fleet that Battled to Malta 1942 (William Collins, 2021) ISBN 978-0008364946
Abyss: The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 (William Collins, 2022) ISBN 978-0008364991
Operation Biting: The 1942 Parachute Assault to Capture Hitler's Radar (William Collins, 2024) ISBN 978-0008642167
Sword: D-Day Trial by Battle (William Collins, 2025) ISBN 978-0008699758
=== Countryside writing ===
Outside Days (Michael Joseph, 1989) ISBN 0-7181-3330-7
Scattered Shots (Macmillan, 1999) ISBN 0-333-77103-6
Country Fair (HarperCollins, October 2005) ISBN 0-00-719886-8. 288 pp
=== Anthology ===
The Oxford Book of Military Anecdotes (ed.) (Oxford University Press, 1985) ISBN 0-19-214107-4
Soldiers: Great Stories of War and Peace (William Collins, 2021) ISBN 978-0008454227
=== Journalism ===
== Filmography ==
Wellington Bomber, 2010 BBC documentary
The Necessary War, 2014 BBC documentary on the Centennial of the beginning of the First World War.
== See also ==
Clan Macdonald of Sleat
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Appearances on C-SPAN
Max Hastings at IMDb
Max Hastings on Journalisted
"Hastings, Sir Max (Macdonald), (born 28 Dec. 1945), author and journalist". Who's Who. Oxford University Press. 2007. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U19444. ISBN 978-0-19-954088-4. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
Profile, debretts.com; accessed 2 April 2014.
Archive of Hastings' articles, The Guardian; accessed 2 April 2014.
Interview re "Editor: A Memoir", guardian.co.uk; accessed 2 April 2014.
Profile, pritzkermilitary.org; accessed 2 April 2014.
Interview on Inferno, Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 16 November 2011; accessed 2 April 2014.
Winston's War, Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 17 March 2010; accessed 2 April 2014.
Interview on Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45, Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 1 May 2008; accessed 2 April 2014
Interview on Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945], Pritzker Military Museum & Library, 30 November 2004; accessed 2 April 2014. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adh%C3%A9mar_Jean_Claude_Barr%C3%A9_de_Saint-Venant | Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant | Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant (French pronunciation: [ademaʁ ʒɑ̃ klod baʁe də sɛ̃ vənɑ̃]; 23 August 1797 – 6 January 1886) was a mechanician and mathematician who contributed to early stress analysis and also developed the unsteady open channel flow shallow water equations, also known as the Saint-Venant equations that are a fundamental set of equations used in modern hydraulic engineering. The one-dimensional Saint-Venant equation is a commonly used simplification of the shallow water equations. Although his full surname was Barré de Saint-Venant, in mathematical literature other than French he is known as Saint-Venant. His name is also associated with Saint-Venant's principle of statically equivalent systems of load, Saint-Venant's theorem and for Saint-Venant's compatibility condition, the integrability conditions for a symmetric tensor field to be a strain.
In 1843 he published the correct derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations for a viscous flow and was the first to "properly identify the coefficient of viscosity and its role as a multiplying factor for the velocity gradients in the flow". Even though he published before Stokes, the equations do not bear his name.
Barré de Saint-Venant developed a version of vector calculus similar to that of Grassmann (now understood as exterior differential forms) which he published in 1845. A dispute arose between Saint-Venant and Grassmann over priority for this invention. Grassmann had published his results in 1844, but Barré de Saint-Venant claimed he had developed the method in 1832.
Barré de Saint-Venant was born at the château de Fortoiseau, Villiers-en-Bière, Seine-et-Marne, France.
His mother was Marie-Thérèse Josèphe Laborie (born Saint-Domingue, 1769). His father was Jean Barré de Saint-Venant, (1737–1810), a colonial officer of the Isle of Saint-Domingue (later Haiti). Barré de Saint-Venant would follow in his father's footsteps in science, entering the École Polytechnique, in 1813 at sixteen years old, and studying under Gay-Lussac. Graduating in 1816 he worked for the next 27 years as an engineer, initially his passion for chemistry led him a post as a élève-commissaire (student commissioner) for the Service des Poudres et Salpêtres (Powders and Saltpeter Service) and then as a civil engineer at the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées. He married in 1837, Rohaut Fleury from Paris. Following a disagreement on an issue of road with the Municipal Administration of Paris, he was suddenly retired as "Chief Engineer, second class", on 1 April 1848. In 1850 Saint-Venant won a contest to be appointed the chair of Agricultural Engineering at the Agronomic Institute of Versailles, a post he occupied two years.
He went on to teach mathematics at the École des Ponts et Chaussées (National school of Civil Engineering) where he succeeded Coriolis.
In 1868, at 71 years old, he was elected to succeed Poncelet in the mechanics section of the Académie des Sciences, and continued research work for a further 18 years. He died in January 1886 at Saint-Ouen, Loir-et-Cher. Sources differ on his date of death: gives 6 January whereas 22 January. In 1869 he was given the title 'Count' (comte) by Pope Pius IX.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Photography_Awards#2020 | International Photography Awards | The International Photography Awards are a group of awards for professional, non-professional and student photographers on a global scale which are awarded annually at the Lucie Awards gala. The winners of the main categories are invited to attend the gala to compete for the main award of International Photographer of the Year, receiving a Lucie statue and a cash prize of $10,000.
== History ==
The International Photography Awards were created by Hossein Farmani as part of the mission of the Lucie Foundation. They were initially presented in December 2003 at the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Los Angeles, California, at the Lucie Awards gala produced by Golden Globe nominee, Michelle Burstin.
In addition to honoring photographers, the Lucie Awards also showcase the finalists and winners of the International Photography Awards (Lucie Foundation's sister-effort) annual photography competition, presenting over $15,000 in cash prizes and two distinct titles: The International Photographer of the Year (given to a professional) and the Discovery of the Year (awarded to a non-professional).
In 2012, the Moving Image Photographer of the Year category was added, where six finalists competed to receive a Lucie statue and $2,500.
== Annual ceremonies and honorees ==
=== 2025 ===
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Jonathan Knowles
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Piotr Zbierski
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Romain Thiery
Book Photographer Of the Year – Autori Multipli
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Abdelrahman Alkahlout
Event Photographer Of the Year – Savadmon Avalachamveettil
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Julia Fullerton-Batten
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Sho Otani
People Photographer Of the Year – Natasha Pszenicki
Special Photographer Of the Year – Pedro Luis Ajuriaguerra Saiz
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Todd Antony
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Natalie Vorontsoff
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Yehor Lemzyakoff
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Mohammad Awadh
Book Photographer Of the Year – Markus Naarttijarvi
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Sebastian Piorek
Event Photographer Of the Year – Yu Ling Ho
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Marie Sueur
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Ilene Meyers
People Photographer Of the Year – Ilona Schong
Special Photographer Of the Year – Monia Marchionni
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Kohei Kawashima
=== 2024 ===
International Photographer of the Year – Charles Niell Jr. Chaz
Discovery of the Year – Malgorzata Fober
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Tom Franks
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Drew Gardner
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Gleici Rufatto
Book Photographer Of the Year – Sebastian Copeland
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Mustafa Hassona
Event Photographer Of the Year – Charles Niell Jr. Chaz
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Paul Szimák
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Benjamin Yavar
People Photographer Of the Year – Maryam Firuzi
Special Photographer Of the Year – Dale May
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Peter Muller
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Andrea Paolini Merlo
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Blake Burton
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Kiyoshi Karimizu
Book Photographer Of the Year – Yuji Haikal
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Jakub Laichter
Event Photographer Of the Year – Mark Fromson
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – César Guardia Alemañi
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Malgorzata Fober
People Photographer Of the Year – Renee Barron
Special Photographer Of the Year – Yukihito Ono
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Markus Naarttijarvi
=== 2023 ===
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Thomas Broening
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Edgar Martins
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Gang Wang
Book Photographer Of the Year – 93 photojournalists
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Wolfgang Schwan
Event Photographer Of the Year – Nabil West
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Julia Fullerton-Batten
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Barbara and Maciej Noskowski
People Photographer Of the Year – Allison Hunter
Special Photographer Of the Year – Horst Kistner
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Finn O’Hara
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Yuliy Vasilev
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Daniela Balestrin
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Steffen Reichardt
Book Photographer Of the Year – Jan Schölzel
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Or Adar
Event Photographer Of the Year – Thamarong Wanarithikul
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Bevil Templeton-Smith
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Claudia Gaupp
People Photographer Of the Year – Carlo Marrazza
Special Photographer Of the Year – Daniil Kobizskiy
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Tony Law
=== 2022 ===
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Jodie Mann
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Lukasz Spychala
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Ramin Barzegar
Book Photographer Of the Year – Ed Kashi
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Paula Bronstein
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Juan Carlos
Event Photographer Of the Year – Alessandro Iasevoli
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Nils Riedweg
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Lars Beusker
People Photographer Of the Year – Aaron Anderson
Special Photographer Of the Year – Martin Stranka
Sports Photographer Of the Year – James Lightbown
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Sandro Miller
=== 2021 ===
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – John Huet
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Angélique Boissière
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Julia Anna Gospodarou
Book Photographer Of the Year – Delphine Blast
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Bob Newman
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Mel D. Cole
Event Photographer Of the Year – Chong Kok Yew
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Mikael Owunna
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Liselotte Schuppers
People Photographer Of the Year – Art Streiber
Special Photographer Of the Year – Howard Schatz
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Andre Magarao
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Shilpa Narayanan
Nature and Astrophotography Of the Year – Gary W. Lopez
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Antonio Coelho
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Chris Round
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – César Cedano
Book Photographer Of the Year – Sue Park
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Joanna Borowiee
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Sharwar Hussain
Event Photographer Of the Year – Brian Wotring
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Jiale Liu
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Javier Rupérez
People Photographer Of the Year – Elisa Miller
Special Photographer Of the Year – Bernd Schirmer
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Masatoshi Ujihara
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Aitor del Arco
=== 2020 ===
International Photographer of the Year – Julia Fullerton-Batten
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Mike Dodd
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Paulius Makauskas
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Jesus M.Chamizo
Book Photographer Of the Year – Sebastian Copeland
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Nicolo Filippo Rosso
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Kiran Ridley
Event Photographer Of the Year – Katja Ogrin
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Chloe Meynier
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Ari Rex
Nature and Astrophotography Of the Year – Gary W. Lopez
People Photographer Of the Year – Brian Hodges
Special Photographer Of the Year – Sawyer Russel
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Howard Schatz
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Iwona Podlasinska
=== 2019 ===
The 18th Annual Lucie Awards were postponed and will be rescheduled.
International Photographer of the Year – Mustafa Hassona
Discovery of the Year – Mikkel Hørlyck
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Jonathan Knowles
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Snezhana Von Büdingen
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Evgeny Stetsko
Book Photographer Of the Year – Joey L.
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – K. M. Asad
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Mustafa Hassona
Event Photographer Of the Year – Sandro Miller
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – David Knox
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Tom Putt
People Photographer Of the Year – Evgeny Stetsko
Special Photographer Of the Year – James Ritchie
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Kohei Ueno
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Jean Bérard
=== 2018 ===
The 2018 awards ceremony was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 28, 2018.
International Photographer of the Year – Tawny Chatmon
Discovery of the Year – Mohammad Rakibul Hasan
First Place winners in different categories were:
Special – James Rushforth
Advertising, Sandro Miller
Book, Randal Ford
Architecture, Stephan Zirwes
Sports, Divyakant Solanki
Moving image, Emily Kassie
Deeper Perspective, Barry Salzman
People, Tawny Chatmon
Editorial, Rasmus Flindt Pedersen
Event, Mia Collis
Fine Art, Rodd Owen
Nature, Melissa Cormican
=== 2017 ===
The 2017 edition of the Lucie Awards was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 29, 2017.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year– Lebohang Kganye
International Photographer of the Year – Alex Telfer
Discovery of the Year – Mariano Belmar
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Giles Clarke
=== 2016 ===
The Lucie Awards in 2016, was held on October 23 at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year -Lily Gilboy
International Photographer of the Year – Marinka Masséus
Discovery of the Year – David Nam Lip LEE
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Andrea Star Reese
=== 2015 ===
For the third year, the 2015 Awards ceremony was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 27, 2015.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Kerry Payne Stailey
International Photographer of the Year – Maxim Dondyuk
Discovery of the Year – Ville Kansanen
Deeper Perspective of the Year – David Jay
Honorable Mention(s) of the Year – Haider Ali (haidertonight)
=== 2014 ===
The Lucie Awards ceremony in 2014 was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on November 22.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Yannick Wegner
International Photographer of the Year – Sandro Miller
Discovery of the Year – Vyacheslav Mishchenko
Deeper Perspective of the Year – K M Asad
=== 2013 ===
The 2013 awards ceremony was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 27, 2013.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Carson Davis Brown
International Photographer of the Year – Brooks Kraft
Discovery of the Year – Carlotta Cardana
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Ebrahim Noroozi
=== 2012 ===
The 2012 awards ceremony returned to its root, being held at the International Ballroom at the Beverly Hilton Hotel, the site of the first awards ceremony, in Los Angeles on October 8, 2012.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Mark Bramley
International Photographer of the Year – Alinka Echeverría
Discovery of the Year – Viktoria Sorochinski
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Fernando Moleres
=== 2011 ===
The 2011 awards ceremony was held at the Rose Theater, Jazz at the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 24, 2011.
International Photographer of the Year – Majid Saeedi
Discovery of the Year – Anna di Prospero
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Daniel Beltrá
=== 2010 ===
The 2010 awards ceremony was held at the Alice Tully Hall at the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 27, 2010.
International Photographer of the Year – Jim Krantz
Discovery of the Year – Kristina Kostadinova
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Rodney Rascona
=== 2009 ===
The 2009 awards ceremony was held at the Alice Tully Hall at the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 19, 2009.
International Photographer of the Year – Nadav Kander
Discovery of the Year – Elliott Wilcox
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Rachel Papo
=== 2008 ===
The 2008 awards ceremony was held at the Avery Fisher Hall in the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 30, 2008.
International Photographer of the Year – Brent Stirton
Discovery of the Year – John Delaney
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Justin Maxon
=== 2007 ===
The 2007 awards ceremony was held at the Avery Fisher Hall in the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 15, 2007.
International Photographer of the Year – Massimo Mastrorillo
Discovery of the Year – Larry Louie
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Charlie Crane
=== 2006 ===
The 2006 awards ceremony was held at the American Airlines Theater in New York City on October 30, 2006.
International Photographer of the Year – Gerd Ludwig
Discovery of the Year – Ghada Khunji
=== 2005 ===
The 2005 awards ceremony was held at the American Airlines Theater in New York City on October 17, 2005.
International Photographer of the Year – Jim Fiscus
Discovery of the Year – Carol Watson
=== 2004 ===
The 2004 awards ceremony changed location and time of year, held at the American Airlines Theater in New York City on October 18, 2004.
International Photographer of the Year – Timothy White
Discovery of the Year – Marrigje De Maar
=== 2003 ===
The 2003 awards ceremony was the first, held at the International Ballroom of the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Los Angeles, California on December 7, 2003.
International Photographer of the Year – Chris Frazer Smith
Discovery of the Year – Robert Vizzini
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Tae-young_(footballer,_born_1982) | Kim Tae-young (footballer, born 1982) | Kim Tae-young (Korean: 김태영; born January 17, 1982) is a South Korean professional footballer playing for Ang Thong. On November 9, 2008, he scored K-League's historic 10,000th goal against his own net.
== References ==
== External links ==
Kim Tae Young – K League stats at kleague.com (in Korean and English) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Graham_Lough#:~:text=He%20was%20a%20close%20friend,in%20Kensal%20Green%20cemetery%2C%20London. | John Graham Lough | John Graham Lough (8 January 1798 – 8 April 1876) was an English sculptor known for his funerary monuments and a variety of portrait sculpture. He also produced ideal classical male and female figures.
== Life ==
John Graham Lough was born at Black Hedley Port, Greenhead near Consett, County Durham, one of eleven children born to William Lough of Aycliff, County Durham and Barbara Clementson of Dalton, Northumberland. His father was a farmer near Hexham and he may himself have worked as a farmer in his youth. He was later apprenticed to a stonemason, at Shotley Field near Newcastle upon Tyne. He later found work in Newcastle as an ornamental sculptor and carved the decorations on the building of the city's Literary and Philosophical Society.
Lough came to London by sea in 1825 to study the Elgin Marbles at the British Museum. He took lodgings in a first floor in Burleigh Street, above a greengrocer's shop, and there commenced to mould his colossal statue of Milo of Croton based on his studies of the Elgin Marbles and the work of Michelangelo. In 1826 he joined the Royal Society Schools with the support of John Thomas Smith and became the protégé of the painter Benjamin Haydon. The following year he exhibited the completed statue. (A later 1863 bronze version survives at Blagdon, Northumberland). It so impressed London society that it brought him scores of patrons and established his career.
He began exhibiting ideal figures and heads at the Royal Academy from 1826. Between 1834 and 1838, he spent a period in Rome where his portrait style was influenced by Neo-classicism.
Lough received a provisional commission to carve four granite lions for the base of Nelson's Column. However, in 1846, after consultations with the column's designer, William Railton, he withdrew from the project, unwilling to work under the constraints imposed by the architect The commission was later given to Edwin Landseer who, with assistance from the sculptor Carlo Marochetti, carried out the work in bronze, finally completing it in 1867.
He was a close friend of the surgeon Campbell De Morgan who sat with Lough as he lay dying of pneumonia. A bust of De Morgan by Lough was given to the Middlesex Hospital medical school and is on display there. Lough is buried in Kensal Green cemetery, London.
One of his younger brothers, Thomas, was a talented musician, artist, and poet, best known for "The Ramshaw Flood" (1848), but declined into vagrancy and poverty, dying at Lanchester Workhouse only a year after John Graham's death.
== Works ==
Lough's public works include a statue of Lord Collingwood in Tynemouth, a memorial to Thomas Noon Talfourd, in the Shire Hall, Stafford, and the bronze George Stephenson memorial of 1862, opposite the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers Newcastle upon Tyne.
In London, he produced the monuments to Henry Montgomery Lawrence and to Bishop Middleton in St Paul's Cathedral, and made the Queen Victoria and Prince Albert for the Royal Exchange. In Canterbury Cathedral, he was responsible for the monuments to Bishop Broughton, and to Lt Col Frederick Mackeson.
Lough produced many ideal works on classical, historical and literary themes, including a series of marble statues of Shakespearean subjects for his chief patron Matthew, 4th Baronet Ridley.
Although he was a prolific sculptor, he was also a controversial one, as his work divided opinion about its merits. The Literary Gazette was a fervent supporter, proclaiming his first exhibition as a demonstration of his "extraordinary genius" and a later sculptural group as a work which "nineteen out of twenty people would prefer ... to any other work in the exhibition." The Art Journal was just as fervently critical, damning his statue of Queen Victoria for the Royal Exchange as "an odiously coarse production, in which not one feature of the Queen is recognisable", and of such "gross vulgarity" that it exceeded "the worst production that has ever been publicly exhibited."
== Bibliography ==
John Lough (Author), Elizabeth Merson (Contributor), John Graham Lough, 1798–1876: A Northumbrian Sculptor Boydell & Brewer Inc (1987) ISBN 0-85115-480-8
== References ==
Sources
Biography of John Graham Lough at The Grove Dictionary of Art. Retrieved May 2007
John Graham Lough Archived 7 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Short Biography at Tiscali Myweb. Retrieved May 2007
Biography of John Graham Lough The Consett Story Written and Compiled By Consett Lions' Club Volume One. December 1963 . Retrieved May 2007
Birthplace Photo County Durham Archive. Retrieved May 2007
John Graham Lough: A Transitional Sculptor T. S. R. Boase, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 23, No. 3/4 (Jul. – Dec. 1960), pp. 277–290. At JSTOR. Retrieved May 2007
North East honours its neglected sculptor – the Guardian review of Lough exhibition at Hatton Gallery, Newcastle University, December 2011
== External links ==
Media related to John Graham Lough at Wikimedia Commons
19 artworks by or after John Graham Lough at the Art UK site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Rugby_Europe_Championship#Table | 2022 Rugby Europe Championship | The 2022 Rugby Europe Championship was the sixth Rugby Europe Championship, the annual rugby union for the top European national teams outside the Six Nations Championship, and the 52nd edition of the competition (including all its previous incarnations as the FIRA Tournament, Rugby Union European Cup, FIRA Nations Cup, FIRA Trophy and European Nations Cup).
The 2022 Championship was contested by Georgia, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia and Spain.
Georgia enter the tournament as defending champions. They topped the table after winning all of their matches in the 2021 tournament, claiming their 13th title and 10th Grand Slam as a result.
As in several other sports, Russia were disqualified after Week 3 due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
This year's edition of the Rugby Europe Championship doubles as the second year of the 2023 Rugby World Cup qualifiers for the European region. The winner and runner-up of the two-year cycle automatically qualify for the tournament as Europe 1 and Europe 2 respectively while the team in third place advances to the final qualification tournament as Europe 3.
== Participants ==
== Table ==
== Fixtures ==
=== Week 1 ===
Touch judges:
George Selwood (England)
Mike Woods (England)
Television match official:
Rowan Kitt (England)
Touch judges:
Manuel Bottino (Italy)
Leonardo Masini (Italy)
Television match official:
Emanuele Tomo (Italy)
Touch judges:
Ludovic Cayre (France)
Stéphane Boyer (France)
Television match official:
Denis Grenouillet (France)
=== Week 2 ===
Touch judges:
Federico Vedovelli (Italy)
Filippo Bertelli (Italy)
Television match official:
Stefano Roscini (Italy)
Touch judges:
Cédric Marchat (France)
Stéphane Crapoix (France)
Television match official:
Patrick Pechambert (France)
Touch judges:
Oisin Quinn (Ireland)
Nigel Correll (Ireland)
Television match official:
Leo Colgan (Ireland)
=== Week 3 ===
Touch judges:
Riccardo Angelucci (Italy)
Simone Boaretto (Italy)
Television match official:
Alan Falzone (Italy)
Touch judges:
Graeme Ormiston (Scotland)
Jonny Perriam (Scotland)
Television match official:
Neil Paterson (Scotland)
Georgia awarded 4 points.
=== Week 4 ===
Netherlands awarded 4 points.
Touch judges:
Gareth Newman (Wales)
Mark Butcher (Wales)
Television match official:
Elgan Williams (Wales)
Touch judges:
David Beun (France)
Christophe Bultet (France)
Television match official:
Eric Briquet-Campin (France)
=== Week 5 ===
Touch judges: Ru Campbell (Scotland) Bob Nevins (Scotland) Television match official: Andrew Mac Menemy (Scotland)
Portugal awarded 4 points.
Touch judges: Ben Breakspear (Wales) Ian Davies (Wales) Television match official: Jon Mason (Wales)
== International broadcasters ==
== See also ==
Rugby Europe International Championships
Antim Cup
Kiseleff Cup
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohinder_Amarnath | Mohinder Amarnath | Mohinder Amarnath Bhardwaj (born 24 September 1950) is a former Indian cricketer and cricket analyst. He is the son of Lala Amarnath, the first post-independence captain of India. Mohinder was the vice captain of the Indian team that won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, where he was the player of the final. He was also a part of the Indian squad which won the 1985 World Championship of Cricket.
Mohinder is commonly mentioned by players and cricket pundits as the best Indian batsman against express pace. In 2009, he received the C. K. Nayudu Lifetime Achievement Award, the highest honour Indian board can bestow on a former player.
== Early life ==
Mohinder was born on 24 September 1950 in Patiala as the second eldest son of Lala Amarnath and Kailash Kumari. His elder brother, Surinder is a former international cricketer while his younger brother Rajinder is a former first-class cricketer. He also has two sisters, Kamala and Dolly.
== Education ==
Mohinder Amarnath did his schooling at MB High School Mandir Marg Delhi. He went to SGTB Khalsa College, Delhi University for his graduation.
== Career ==
Mohinder made his debut against Australia at Chennai in December 1969,
as a quick-bowling all rounder. At his peak he was a top order batsman who mainly played at No. 3 for India, and was both an attacking and defensive batsmen who reinvented himself several times over the course of his career. He was also handy with the ball, bowling swingers and cutters with great skill and control. He had a unique run-up where he slowed down as he reached the bowling crease. Behind his seemingly lethargic demeanor were nerves of steel.
Mohinder Amarnath played 69 Tests scoring 4,378 runs at a batting average of 42.50, with 11 hundreds and 24 fifties, and claimed 32 wickets at a bowling average of 55.68 apiece. In 85 One Day Internationals, he scored 1,924 runs at an average of 30.53 and a highest score of 102 n.o. and claimed 46 wickets at 42.84 apiece.
== Accolades ==
Fiery fast bowlers Imran Khan of Pakistan and Malcolm Marshall of West Indies have praised his batsmanship, courage and ability to endure and master pain. In 1982–83 Mohinder played 11 Test matches against Pakistan (5) and the West Indies (6) and scored over 1000 runs in the two series.
In his book "Idols", Indian legend and compatriot Sunil Gavaskar described Mohinder Amarnath as the finest batsman in the world.
Mohinder made his first test century at Perth at the WACA (the fastest and bounciest wicket in the world) batting against Jeff Thomson. He followed this test century with another 10 more against top class fast bowling.
Imran Khan regarded Mohinder so highly that in his book "All Round View" he went on record to say that in the 1982–83 season, Mohinder was quite simply the best batsman in the world. Imran further went on to state that Mohinder should have played non-stop for India right from his debut in 1969 to the time he retired. (After his debut series in 1969, he had to wait until 1975 to make it into the team).
== 1982–83 series in Pakistan ==
This series saw Imran Khan at his lethal best, supported by the canny Sarfraz Nawaz. In match after match India crumbled against the fiery pace of Pakistan, losing the Second, third and fourth tests 3–0 . Imran Khan who took 40 wickets in the series was jointly awarded "Man of the Series" with Mohinder Amarnath. The catastrophic series for India hastened the end of the career of master batsman Gundappa Viswanath. Mohinder Amarnath was the sole saving grace for the Indian batting line-up for the series as a whole. (An aside – Sunil Gavaskar carried his bat in one innings of the series. Sunil Gavaskar scored 434 runs ).
== 1983 World Cup Performance ==
Mohinder Amarnath is noted for his performance in the 1983 Cricket World Cup. He was awarded "Man of the Match" in the final and semi-final, playing a star role in leading India to their first ever One Day International title and first World Cup win.
In the semi-final against England his accurate seam bowling fetched him the top-order wickets of David Gower and Mike Gatting. He gave away only 27 runs in his 12 overs, for an average of a miserly 2.25 an over, the lowest among all Indian bowlers. Returning to bat, he scored 46 runs to give India a solid foundation. He was named the Man of the Match.
In the final, India batted first against the West Indies which arguably boasted the world's best bowling attack comprising Malcolm Marshall, Michael Holding, Andy Roberts and Joel Garner. India did not fare well, with the entire team being dismissed for a paltry score of 183 in 54.4 overs, well short of the allotted 60 overs. Amarnath's calm and composed batting against West Indian fast bowling gave the Indian innings some much needed stability. He occupied the crease for the longest period (80 balls) and scored 26 runs. Though normally in limited over matches a long stint at the crease is not necessarily a good thing, given that India did not last the entire 60 overs Amarnath's innings gave the batsmen at the other end the opportunity to score. Krishnamachari Srikkanth top-scored with 38 runs, followed by Sandeep Patil (27 runs). After the poor batting performance India's chances were deemed almost non-existent. However, the Indian bowling exploited the weather and pitch conditions, conducive for swing bowling perfectly to bowl out the West Indies for just 140, thus winning the finals by 43 runs. Amarnath and Madan Lal were the joint highest wicket takers with 3 wickets each. As he had been in the semi-final, Amarnath was once again the most economical bowler, conceding only 12 runs in his 7 overs for an average of 1.71 per over. Again, just like the semi-final, Amarnath was declared the Man of the Match. Amarnath also had the distinction of bagging the match winning wicket. As the vice-captain of the team, he held the World Cup aloft in a famous photograph along with his captain and friend, Indian cricketing legend Kapil Dev.
== Trials and tribulations ==
Except for the period 1982–83, Mohinder never held a steady place in the Indian Test side and would frequently get dropped. Mohinder is known as the Comeback Man of Indian Cricket. During his two decades at the top, he was dropped from the Indian side on several occasions and each time he fought his way back with sterling performances, playing excellent domestic cricket and making it hard for the national selectors to ignore him.
He was well known for his batting technique, temperament and skill. He even experimented with a side-on batting stance, where one foot was placed at an angle to the crease, giving the body had a more open stance with a better view of the bowler.
== Character and Courage ==
Amarnath was noted for his personality, courage and determination. West Indian cricketing great Vivian Richards called him "one of the nicest men to have ever played the game" and former Australian Test opening batsman David Boon said "Concede didn't seem to be in his vocabulary".
Gideon Haigh writing in The Age says: "In an era replete with fast bowling and unrestricted in use of the bouncer, he never stopped hooking – despite many incentives to do so. He received a hairline fracture of the skull from Richard Hadlee, was knocked unconscious by Imran Khan, had teeth knocked out by Malcolm Marshall and was hit in the jaw so painfully by Jeff Thomson in Perth that he could eat only ice cream for lunch. 'What separated Jimmy from the others,' Michael Holding said, 'was his great ability to withstand pain . . . A fast bowler knows when a batsman is in pain. But Jimmy would stand up and continue.' ".
In the Bridgetown Test during India's tour of the West Indies in 1982–83, Amarnath had to retire for stitches after being hit on the head. On returning to the game, he faced one of history's most lethal fast bowlers Michael Holding. It was a given that Holding would try to intimidate Amarnath by bowling a bouncer, and indeed he did so. While most would expect that a batsman in such a situation would do the prudent thing and duck, instead Amarnath stood his ground and hooked the ball to the boundary. However the West Indies bowling attack comprising Malcolm Marshall at his best, Michael Holding, Winston Davis and Wayne Daniel would wreak their most lethal vengeance upon Amarnath during their 1983/84 tour of India by restricting him to only 1 run in six innings, during which Holding scalped Amarnath three times for a duck. Amarnath had scores of 0,0,0,1,0,0 and was hence dropped just months after his career-high success at the 1983 World Cup.
He played an important role in famous chase in Queen's Park Oval, Port of Spain, Trinidad in 1976 tour. He made 85 in the second innings taking India to the brink of historic win.
Amarnath was noted for his conflicts with the Indian cricketing political establishment, famously having called the selectors a "bunch of jokers". This often resulted in his exclusion from the Indian team also.
== Trivia ==
Mohinder had some unique dismissals. He is the only Indian who has been dismissed on handling the ball. He was dismissed on 9 February 1986 also making him the first one to be dismissed for handling the ball in One-Day Internationals. He is also the only Indian to be dismissed for obstructing the field in One-Day Internationals. He has also been dismissed 'hit wicket'.
He is the only International Cricketer in the world to be given out both for handling the ball and obstructing the field in his career
He displayed the unique superstition of carrying a red handkerchief visibly in his trouser pocket while batting.
== Cricket Coaching ==
Mohinder Amarnath presented a popular weekly cricket coaching TV programme in the late 80s/early 90s. The program went by the name of 'Cricket with Mohinder Amarnath'. It featured technique presentation and discussion with guest speakers who were mostly Indian national team members at the time. It had a decent following among the youth of that time who were hooked to cricket especially after Reliance Cup was held in India in 1987, given that the program was available on the national channel Doordarshan thus taking cricket to the masses. The title song of this program 'Khel hi hain hamara jeevan...' was very catchy. Young Sachin Tendulkar, at 15 years old, was interviewed by Amarnath for the program. Sachin was playing wonderfully in the domestic leagues, and was showing enormous potential. After a year, he was inducted into the Indian team for the Pakistan tour.
== Personal life ==
Mohinder Amarnath is married to Inderjit Amarnath, and they have one daughter.
== In popular culture ==
The 2021 Hindi film 83, based on India's 1983 World Cup victory, features Saqib Saleem as Amarnath, and Amarnath himself as his father, Lala. Amarnath also played the role of a cricket coach to Saleem's character, Viraj Sharma, in the 2016 film Dishoom.
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Mohinder Amarnath at ESPNcricinfo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Pierre_Tiolier#:~:text=The%20first%20competition%20of%20the%20Prix%20de%20Rome%20was%20for%20a%20stone%20engraving%20of%20the%20seated%20Emperor%20Napoleon%20crowned%20with%20laurels.%5B2%5D%20On%2025%20June%201805%20Nicolas%2DPierre%20Tiolier%2C%20the%20sole%20candidate%2C%20won%20the%20prize | Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier | Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier (9 May 1784 – 25 September 1843) was a French sculptor and engraver of coins and medals.
== Life ==
Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier was the son of Pierre-Joseph Tiolier (1763–1819).
He was born in Paris.
He was a pupil of his father and of the engraver Romain-Vincent Jeuffroy (1749–1826) and the sculptor Claude Dejoux (1732–1816).
The first competition of the Prix de Rome was for a stone engraving of the seated Emperor Napoleon crowned with laurels.
On 25 June 1805 Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier, the sole candidate, won the prize.
As a prize winner, Tiolier lived at the Villa Medici in Rome from 1806 to 1811.
He made a portrait of Raphael.
Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier succeeded his father as 16th general engraver of coins in September 1816.
He held his position until the end of December 1842.
Tolier was a Freemason. He was knighted in 1821.
He engraved the seals of Louis XVIII, Charles X, and the Order of the Holy Spirit, and also engraved medals for Louis-Philippe.
Besides engraving coins and medals, Tiolier was a sculptor and engraver in stone.
He was made a knight of the Legion of Honor in July 1825.
Tiolier died in Paris in 1843 and is buried in the 25th division of the Père Lachaise Cemetery.
He was succeeded as Graveur Général by Jacques-Jean Barre.
He had one son and one daughter, but they left no descendants.
== References ==
== Sources ==
== External links ==
Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier in American public collections, on the French Sculpture Census website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fabry#:~:text=The%20city%20of%20Bern%2C%20where,extraordinary%20court%20surgeon%20Cosmas%20Slot. | Wilhelm Fabry | Wilhelm Fabry (also William Fabry, Guilelmus Fabricius Hildanus, or Fabricius von Hilden) (25 June 1560 − 15 February 1634), often called the "Father of German surgery", was the first educated and scientific German surgeon. He is one of the most prominent scholars in the iatromechanics school and author of 20 medical books. His Observationum et Curationum Chirurgicarum Centuriae, published posthumously in 1641, is the best collection of case records of the century and gives clear insight into the variety and methods of his surgical practice. He developed novel surgical techniques and new surgical instruments. He also wrote a notable treatise on burns.
Fabry was born in Hilden. In 1579, he became Badergeselle ('surgeon's mate') in Düsseldorf of the extraordinary court surgeon Cosmas Slot.
He developed a device for operating eye tumours. On 25 July 1587, he married Marie Colinet (or Fabry), daughter of Eustache Colinet, a Genevese printer. She was a Swiss midwife–surgeon who improved the techniques of cesarean section delivery. She helped her husband in his surgical practice and was the first (in 1624) to use a magnet to extract metal from a patient's eye (a technique still in use today). Fabry wrote a detailed description of the procedure in his Centuriae and, although he explicitly mentioned his wife as having invented it, was given credit for the discovery.
From 1602 to 1615, Fabry was a city surgeon in Payerne, Switzerland, and Lausanne. He was then made city surgeon (Stadtarzt) of Bern by appointment of the city council, a role he held until the year of his death.
The city of Bern, where he died, named a street after him (Hildanusstrasse), using one of the Latin versions of his name.
His birth town named the city museum (featuring surgical instruments and the like) after him, honoured him with a bronze bust in the market place, and named streets after himself and after his wife.
== Works ==
De Dysenteria : Liber unus: In quo hujus Morbi Causae, Signa, Prognostica, & Praeservatio continentur: Item, quomodo Symptomata, quae huic Morbo supervenire solent, sint removenda. de Bry / Galler, Oppenheimii 1616 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
== References ==
== Resources ==
Georg Becker, Wilhelm Fabry von Hilden (Niederbergische Beiträge vol. 6, ed. Heinrich Strangmeier), Wuppertal 1957 (German)
JONES E (1960). "The Life and Works of Guilhelmus Fabricius Hildanus (1560–1634): Part I". Med Hist. 4 (2): 112–34 contd. doi:10.1017/s0025727300025217. PMC 1034546. PMID 14407687.
JONES EW (1960). "The Life and Works of Guilhelmus Fabricius Hildanus (1560–1634): Part Ii". Med Hist. 4 (3): 196–209. doi:10.1017/s0025727300025321. PMC 1034897. PMID 14407702. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenin_Prize | Lenin Prize | The Lenin Prize (Russian: Ленинская премия, Leninskaya premiya) was one of the most prestigious awards of the Soviet Union for accomplishments relating to science, literature, arts, architecture, and technology. It was originally created on June 23, 1925, and awarded until 1934. During the period from 1935 to 1956, the Lenin Prize was not awarded, being replaced largely by the Stalin Prize. On August 15, 1956, it was reestablished, and continued to be awarded on every even-numbered year until 1990. The award ceremony was April 22, Vladimir Lenin's birthday.
The Lenin Prize is different from the Lenin Peace Prize, which was awarded to foreign citizens rather than to citizens of the Soviet Union, for their contributions to the peace cause. Also, the Lenin Prize should not be confused with the Stalin Prize or the later USSR State Prize. Some persons were awarded both the Lenin Prize and the USSR State Prize.
On April 23, 2018, the head of the Ulyanovsk Oblast, Sergey Morozov, reintroduced the Lenin Prize for achievements in the humanities, literature, and art to coincide with the 150th birthday of Lenin in 2020.
== Awardee ==
Note: This list is incomplete, short, and differs in detail from the complete and much longer Russian list, and is in chronological order. (See Russian Wikipedia.)
Nikolai Kravkov (1926, Medicine)
Aleksandr Chernyshyov (1930, radio engineering)
Nikolay Demyanov (1930, chemistry)
Sergei Sergeyev-Tsensky (1955, writer)
Andrei Sakharov (1956, physics)
Giorgi Melikishvili (1957, Historian)
Dmitry Nalivkin (1957, geology)
Dmitry Okhotsimsky (1957, space science)
Pyotr Novikov (1957, mathematics, for proving the undecidability of the word problem for groups)
Sergei Prokofiev (1957, music, posthumously, for his Symphony No. 7)
Dmitri Shostakovich (1958, music composition)
Nikolay Bogolyubov (1958, physics)
Mikhail Leontovich (1958, physics)
Mikhail Shumayev (1958, physics)
Grigory Chukhray (1959, contribution to the arts - Ballad of a Soldier)
Vladimir Veksler (1959, physics)
Mikhail Sholokhov (1960, literature, for And Quiet Flows the Don)
Aleksandr Bereznyak (1961, for P-15 missile)
Sviatoslav Richter (1961, pianist)
Juhan Smuul (1961, literature)
Aleksei Pogorelov (1962, mathematics)
Korney Chukovsky (1962, for his book, Mastery of Nekrasov)
Nikolai Nevsky (1962, for his posthumous book Tangut Philology)
Volodymyr Marchenko (1962, mathematics)
Chinghiz Aitmatov (Чингиз Айтматов, 1963, literature)
Hanon Izakson (Ханон Ильич Изаксон, 1964, farm machinery)
Mikhail Kalashnikov (Михаи́л Тимофе́евич Кала́шников, 1964, AK-47 assault rifle)
Vladimir Kotelnikov, 1964, (Sampling Theory)
Innokenty Smoktunovsky (Иннокентий Смоктуновский, 1965, acting)
Vladimir Igorevich Arnol'd, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (Влади́мир И́горевич Арно́льд, Ленинская премия, 1965, mathematics)
Alexander Sergeevich Davydov (1966, physics)
Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov (Алексей Алексеевич Абрикосов, 1966, physics)
Alexander Sergeevich Davydov (1966, physics)
Antonina Fedorovna Prikhot'ko (1966, physics)
Emmanuel Rashba (Эммануил Иосифович Рашба, 1966, physics)
Vladimir L'vovich Broude (1966, Physics)
Igor Grekhov (1966, Semiconductor Technology)
Mikhail Kim (1966, hydraulic engineering)
Igor Moiseyev (Игорь Моисеев, 1967, dance)
Ilya Lifshitz (1967, physics)
Mikhail Svetlov (Михаил Светлов, 1967, poetry, posthumously, for the book Verses of the Last Years)
Valery Panov (1969, dance)
Yevgeny Vuchetich (Евгений (Eugene) Вучетич, 1970, sculpture)
Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk (1970, holography)
Agniya Barto (Агния Львовна Барто, 1972, poetry?)
Yuri Ozerov (director) for his work Liberation (film series), 1972
Yuri Bondarev writer, for his work Liberation (film series), 1972
Igor Slabnevich Cinematographer for his work Liberation (film series), 1972
Alexander Myagkhov Art Director for his work Liberation (film series), 1972
Konstantin Simonov (Константин Симонов, 1974, poetry)
Vladimir Lobashev (1974, physics)
Mikhail Simonov (Михаил Симонов, 1976, aircraft designer)
Gavriil Ilizarov (1979, medicine)
Anatol Zhabotinsky (Oscillating chemical reactions, 1980)
Boris Pavlovich Belousov (Oscillating chemical reactions, 1980)
Otar Taktakishvili (1982, music composition)
Boris Babaian (Борис Арташеcович Бабаян, 1987 for Elbrus-2 supercomputer)
Vladimir Teplyakov (1988, for the development of the RFQ)
Eugene D. Shchukin (1988, physical-chemical mechanics)
Kaisyn Kuliev (Кулиев Кайсын Шуваевич, 1990, Man.Bird.Tree. Poetry. Post-mortem)
Alykul Osmonov (Алыкул Осмонов, Kyrgyz poet and literary modernizer)
Irena Sedlecká (Sculpture)
Olga Avilova (Surgeon)
Yekaterina Alexandrovna Ankinovich (Geologist)
Natalia Shpiller (1951, opera singer)
== Lenin Prize winners in Science ==
=== Nuclear Physics ===
1988 year
Rudolf M. Muradyan
For a series of innovative works “New quantum number – color and establishment of dynamical regularities in the quark structure of elementary particles and atomic nuclei” published during 1965 – 1977.
=== Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy ===
1958 year
Alexander M. Andrianov
Lev Andreevich Artsimovich (Лев Андреевич Арцимович)
Olga A. Bazilevskaya
Stanislav I. Braginskiy
Igor' N. Golovin
Mikhail A. Leontovich
Stepan Yu. Lukyanov
Samuil M. Osovets
Vasiliy I. Sinitsin
Nikolay V. Filippov
Natan A. Yavlinskiy
For research of powerful pulse discharges in gas for production of the high-temperature plasma, published in years.
1964 year
Aleksandr Emmanuilovich Nudel'man (Александр Эммануилович Нудельман)
For a series of innovative automatic cannons.
1966 year
Yuri Raizer
1972 year
Vsevolod A. Belyaev
Oleg Borisovich Firsov (Олег Борисович Фирсов)
For a series of work "Elementary processes and non-elastic scattering at nuclear collisions”.
Vadim I. Utkin
1978 year
Vladilen S. Letokhov and Veniamin P. Chebotayev
1982 year
Viktor V. Orlov
For the work on fast neutron reactors.
1984 year
Valentin F. Demichev
For production of special chemical compounds and development of conditions of their application.
1984 year
Boris B. Kadomtsev
Oleg P. Pogutse
Vitaliy D. Shafranov
For a series of work "The theory of thermonuclear toroidal plasma".
=== Mathematics ===
1976 year
Nikolai Krasovski
Alexander B. Kurzhanski
Yury Osipov
A. Subbotin
=== Physiology ===
1965 year
Sergei S. Bryukhonenko (posthumously)
== Lenin Prize winners in Technology ==
=== Aircraft construction ===
For his work on Advanced Rocket and Aircraft propulsion systems, Sergei Tumansky was awarded the prize in 1957
For their work on the MiG 25 Heavy Interceptor:
R A Belyakov, General designer
N Z Matyuk, chief project engineer
I S Silayev, Gorkii aircraft factory director (later Minister of Aircraft Industry)
F Shukhov, engine project chief
F Volkov, radar project chief
A V Minayev, Deputy Minister of Aircraft Industry who headed task force 'Det 63' that was sent to Egypt in 1971.
=== Other ===
Nadezhda A. Agaltsova
== See also ==
List of general science and technology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Wallis_Myers#:~:text=In%201900%20Myers%20married%20Lilian,Myers%3A%20A%20testament%20to%20tennis. | A. Wallis Myers | Arthur Wallis Myers (24 July 1878 – 17 June 1939) was an English tennis correspondent, editor, author and player. He was one of the leading tennis journalists of the first half of the 20th century.
== Family life ==
Myers was son of the Rev. John Brown Myers, secretary of the Baptist Missionary Society, and Agnes Traphena (née Nutter). He attended the Watford Endowed School and The Leys School in Cambridge.
In 1900 Myers married Lilian Gentry, daughter of Captain George Gentry, of Maldon, Essex. The couple had seven children, the youngest of whom, Prue, wrote a tribute to her father entitled A. Wallis Myers: A testament to tennis.
== Playing career ==
He was a keen tennis player himself and was active mainly in amateur doubles competition. In April 1906 he won the doubles title with New Zealander Anthony Wilding at the Championships of Barcelona. He also won the Monte Carlo doubles championship in 1910 and 1921.
In mixed doubles competition, Myers competed at Monte Carlo in 1909 and later at the 1914 World Hard Court Championships with Phyllis Satterthwaite, reaching the semi-finals. He also teamed up with Molla Bjurstedt Mallory for the 1923 Monte Carlo tournament.
Also in 1923 he won the doubles title at the South of France Championships. He was the captain of British tennis teams on tour in Europe, South Africa and India.
== Journalism ==
Myers was the editor of the Ayers Lawn Tennis Almanack beginning in 1908. The following year he began work as the lawn tennis correspondent of The Daily Telegraph, a position he held until his death in 1939. He also served as lawn tennis editor of The Field and he wrote several books on tennis including a biography of four-time Wimbledon champion Anthony Wilding who was killed in the First World War. During that war Myers served in the Ministry of Information.
In 1924 he founded the International Lawn Tennis Club of Great Britain with Lord Balfour, former Prime Minister and later a Member of the Cabinet, as its first President.
== Honours ==
Myers was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1920 New Year Honours, dated 30 March 1920, for his work at the Ministry of Information.
He was appointed Chevalier (Knight) of the Legion of Honour by French President Paul Doumer on 29 April 1932 for his service to the game of tennis.
== Bibliography ==
Lawn tennis at home and abroad (1903) (online)
The complete lawn tennis player (1908) (online)
Leaders of lawn tennis (1912) (online)
C.B. Fry : the man and his methods (1912)
The story of the Davis Cup (1913)
Captain Anthony Wilding (1916) (online)
Twenty years of lawn tennis : some personal memories (1921) (online)
Fifty years of Wimbledon : the story of the lawn tennis championships (1926)
Lawn tennis, its principles & practice: a player's guide to modern methods (1930)
Memory's parade (1932)
== References ==
== External links ==
A. Wallis Myers at the Association of Tennis Professionals |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gvulot | Gvulot | Gvulot (Hebrew: גְּבוּלוֹת, lit. 'Borders') is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the north-western Negev desert, it falls under the jurisdiction of Eshkol Regional Council. In 2023 it had a population of 438. Gvulot is located about 120 m above sea level.
== History ==
The village was established on land owned by the Jewish National Fund (JNF) on 12 May 1943 by immigrants from Romania and Turkey, who were members of the "Kibbutz Eretz Israel Gimel" group of Hashomer Hatzair, with financial assistance from Keren Hayesod. Initially named Mitzpe Gvulot (Hebrew: מִצְפֶּה גְּבוּלוֹת, lit. 'Borders lookout'), it was the first of the three lookouts, the others being Beit Eshel and Revivim. It was the second modern Jewish settlement in the Negev and the first in the Gaza area. Its purpose was to guard JNF land, as well as to research the soil and climate of the region and assess their suitability for agriculture.
It was recognised as a kibbutz in 1946. Before the 1948 Arab–Israeli War it was divided into two—a small cluster of families in its post-war location, and the rest in the nearby military base. During the war, the base served the 8th Brigade. After the war, in 1949, all the residents moved to Gvulot's present location, about 1.5 km south of the base.
Duran Duran lead singer Simon Le Bon worked on Kibbutz Gvulot. While here he wrote early lyrics for "Careless Memories", “The Chauffeur”, "Sound of Thunder", "Tel Aviv".
An anareboic waste plant is being built between Gvulot and Tzeelim.
== See also ==
11 points in the Negev, Zionist settlement project
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Charles_Frank | Frederick Charles Frank | Sir Frederick Charles Frank (6 March 1911 – 5 April 1998) was a British theoretical physicist. He is best known for his work on crystal dislocations, including (with Thornton Read) the idea of the Frank–Read source of dislocations. He also proposed the cyclol reaction in the mid-1930s, and made many other contributions to solid-state physics, geophysics, and the theory of liquid crystals.
== Early life and education ==
He was born in Durban, South Africa, although his parents returned to England soon afterwards. He was educated at Thetford Grammar School and Ipswich School and went on to study chemistry at Lincoln College, Oxford, gaining a doctorate at the university's Engineering Laboratory.
== Career ==
Prior to World War II, he worked as a physicist in Berlin and as a colloid chemist in Cambridge. During World War II he joined the Chemical Defence Experimental Station at Porton Down, Wiltshire, but in 1940 was transferred to the Air Ministry's Assistant Directorate of Intelligence (Science) and spent the rest of the war with the Air Ministry. Due to his work he was made Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1946.
After the war he moved to the University of Bristol Physics Department to do research in solid state physics, but switched to research on crystal dislocation. His work with Keith Burton and Nicolás Cabrera was to demonstrate the role dislocations played in the growth of crystals.
Apart from crystal defects, his wide-ranging research interests at Bristol included the mechanical properties of polymers, the theory of liquid crystals, the mechanics of the interior of the Earth, and the origin of biological homochirality.
He was appointed Reader in 1951, Melville Wills Professor in 1954 and Henry Overton Wills Professor and Director of the H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory in 1969. He retired in 1976 but remained active in attending conferences, writing papers and corresponding with colleagues well into the 1990s. He edited the Farm Hall Transcripts from Operation Epsilon well into his eighties.
== Honours and awards ==
Frank was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1954, delivering the Bakerian Lecture in 1973. He was knighted in 1977. He was also awarded honorary degrees by seven universities.
In 1963 he won the Fernand Holweck Medal and Prize.
In 1967 he was awarded the A. A. Griffith Medal and Prize. He was also a member of the Materials Science Club Awards Sub-Committee which selected the Griffith medallist for 1972 (L. R. G. Treloar).
In 1994 he was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal, its highest honour, "in recognition of his fundamental contribution to the theory of crystal morphology, in particular to the source of dislocations and their consequences in interfaces and crystal growth; to fundamental understanding of liquid crystals and the concept of disclination; and to the extension of crystallinity concepts to aperiodic crystals."
== Personal life ==
He married Maita Asche in 1940.
== References ==
== External links ==
Oral history interview transcript with Charles Frank on 12 April 1985, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Rugova#:~:text=As%20part%20of%20his%20studies%2C%20he%20spent%20two%20years%20(1976%E2%80%931977)%20at%20the%20%C3%89cole%20Pratique%20des%20Hautes%20%C3%89tudes%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Paris%2C%20where%20he%20studied%20under%20Roland%20Barthes.%5B | Ibrahim Rugova | Ibrahim Rugova (Albanian pronunciation: [ibɾahim ɾugova]; 2 December 1944 – 21 January 2006) was a Kosovo-Albanian politician, scholar, and writer, who served as the President of the partially recognised Republic of Kosova, serving from 1992 to 2000 and as President of Kosovo from 2002 until his death in 2006. He oversaw a popular struggle for independence, advocating a peaceful resistance to Yugoslav rule and lobbying for U.S. and European support, especially during the Kosovo War.
He founded the political party Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) in 1989. The LDK, which had the support of 90% of the ethnic Albanian population of Kosovo, advocated for Kosovo's independence by peaceful means. The party established a shadow government that provided basic government and social services to the Kosovo Albanian population, including education and health care, in effect creating a parallel state. In May 1992, Rugova was elected President of this parallel state. In March 2002, with a United Nations mission administering Kosovo, he was elected President of Kosovo. He held this position until his death in January 2006, and was posthumously declared a Hero of Kosovo. He is sometimes referred to as Ati Kombit ("Father of the Nation") in Kosovo. He is also referred to as the Gandhi of the Balkans due to his strategy of non-violent resistance.
== Family and early life ==
Ibrahim Rugova was born on 2 December 1944 in Crnce, Istok to a family that is a branch of the Kelmendi Albanian clan. At this time, the majority of Kosovo was unified with Albania (controlled by Benito Mussolini's Italy since 1941, and later by the Germans from 1943). Yugoslav control was re-established towards the end of November 1944 when the area was liberated by the Bulgarian Army and Yugoslav partisans who defeated Albanian collaborators. His father Ukë Rugova and his paternal grandfather Rrustë Rugova were summarily executed in January 1945 by Yugoslav communists. Rugova finished primary school in Istok and high school in Peć, graduating in 1967.
He went to the newly established University of Prishtina, where he was a student in the Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Albanian Studies and participated in the 1968 Kosovo Protests. He graduated in 1971 and re-enrolled as a research student concentrating on literary theory. As part of his studies, he spent two years (1976–1977) at the École Pratique des Hautes Études of the University of Paris, where he studied under Roland Barthes. He received his doctorate in 1984. As a student, he participated in a civil rights movement for the Albanians and formally joined the Communist League of Yugoslavia. He was active as a journalist throughout the 1970s, editing the student newspaper Bota e Re ("New World") and the magazine Dituria ("Knowledge"). He also worked in the Institute for Albanian Studies in Prishtina as a research fellow. He published a number of works on literary theory, criticism and history as well as his own poetry. In 1988, he was elected president of the Kosovo Writers Union.
He strongly emphasized the heritage of ancient Dardania, an independent kingdom and later-turned Roman province that included modern-day Kosovo, to strengthen the country's identity and to promote his policy of closer relations with the West.
=== Personal life ===
Rugova was married to Fana Rugova and had three children.
== Presidency ==
As president, Rugova continued to support his non-violent path to independence even as proponents of an armed resistance formed the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) to counter increasing Serbian oppression on the ethnic Albanians. In 1998, Rugova secured a second term as president, but was placed at odds with the KLA as the Kosovo War broke out. In 1999, he participated in the failed Rambouillet talks, as a member of the Kosovar delegation, seeking an end to the hostilities. Having resided in the capital Prishtina during his entire presidency, Rugova was taken prisoner by the state authorities after NATO began its U.S.-led aerial campaign against Yugoslav forces in Kosovo. Rugova was exiled to Rome in May 1999 and returned to Kosovo in the summer of that year, shortly after the end of the war.
Rugova remained nominal president of the republic with Bujar Bukoshi as his Prime Minister; meanwhile, Hashim Thaçi, a former KLA commander, had been leading a provisional government since April that year. Effective power, however, was in the hands of the United Nations administration. In 2000, Rugova and Thaçi agreed to relinquish their positions and to work on creating provisional institutions of self-government until Kosovo's final status was decided. Rugova was elected president of Kosovo by the newly formed parliament in 2002 and again in 2005. While his pre-war popularity had certainly diminished, he remained the most powerful leader in the country until his death from lung cancer in 2006.
== Political career ==
The 1980s saw escalating tension within Kosovo with dissatisfaction by Serbs regarding their treatment at the hands of the Kosovan authorities, and resentment from those same authorities towards the lack of powers devolved to them from Belgrade, Yugoslavia's capital. Since 1974, the Socialist Republic of Serbia's local authority had no constitutional rule over Kosovo. In 1989, unilateral measures taken by Serbian President Milošević shattered Kosovo's autonomy by reverting it to its pre-1974 status.
A harsh system was imposed, leading to widespread violations of human rights and the repression of dissenters. An estimated 130,000 Kosovo Albanians were sacked from their jobs and the police in particular were almost completely purged of Albanians. There were numerous reports of extrajudicial beatings, torture and killings, attracting strong criticism from human rights groups and other countries. Kosovo's intellectuals also opposed the changes; Rugova was one of signatories of the "Appeal of 215 Kosovo Intellectuals" against Milošević's decision to change Kosovo's status. After demanding changes to the constitution, he was expelled from the Communist Party.
Rugova entered politics in 1989, when he assumed the leadership of the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), a newly formed political party that opposed the nullification of Kosovo's autonomy in the former Yugoslavia. The new party was an overwhelming success and within months, 700,000 people – virtually the entire adult population of Kosovo Albanians – had joined.
Kosovo Albanians boycotted Yugoslav and Serbian elections on the grounds that they would legitimise the Milošević government, and they also questioned its veracity. In May 1992, separate elections were held in Kosovo. Rugova won the first presidential election in the Republic of Kosova, an unrecognised state declared in secret by members of Kosovo's former assembly within Yugoslavia. An underground Kosovo Assembly was founded with Bujar Bukoshi acting as Prime Minister from the safe distance of Germany. The local Serbian government responded by arresting 112 of the 120 members of the assembly and six members of the Kosovo government and charging them with "counter-revolutionary activity."
The LDK established a shadow government and a parallel social system to the Serbian one to provide their own education and health services to the ethnic Albanian population. The shadow government's activities were mostly funded by the overseas Kosovo Albanian diaspora, based primarily in Germany and the United States. However, Rugova's government was recognised officially only by the government of Albania.
In 1991 the Yugoslav wars began following Slovenia and Croatia declaring themselves independent from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. By the summer of 1992, Yugoslavia was fully absorbed with the wars in Croatia and Bosnia, and had no spare military capacity to deal with conflicts elsewhere. Rugova supported Kosovo's independence but strongly opposed the use of force as a means of achieving it, fearing a Bosnia-style bloodbath. He instead advocated a policy of Gandhi-like passive resistance, stating on a visit to London that
The slaughterhouse is not the only form of struggle. There is no mass humiliation in Kosovo. We are organised and are operating as a state. It is easy to take to the streets and to head towards suicide, but wisdom lies in eluding a catastrophe.
The Serbian and Yugoslav governments subjected LDK activists and members to considerable harassment and intimidation, and argued that the shadow government was an illegal organisation. However, they did not try to shut down the LDK completely and they allowed him to travel abroad. It seems likely that Milošević saw Rugova as being useful in averting an uprising in Kosovo. The Yugoslav government would have found such a situation difficult to contain at the same time as supporting simultaneous wars in Croatia and Bosnia.
For his part, Rugova stuck to a hard line throughout the 1990s, rejecting any form of negotiation with Serbia's authorities other than on achieving outright independence of Kosovo. A compromise, or a setback in the eyes of his critics, came in 1996 when he reached an agreement with Serbia over educational facilities, under which the parallel shadow education system would not be integrated with that of Serbia.
=== The slide to war ===
Rugova's strategy of passive resistance attracted widespread support from the Kosovo Albanian population, who had seen the carnage wrought in Croatia and Bosnia and was wary of facing a similar situation. However, the Dayton Agreement of 1995, which ended the Bosnian War, seriously weakened Rugova's position. The agreement failed to make any mention of Kosovo and the international community made no serious efforts to resolve the province's ongoing problems. Radicals among the Kosovo Albanian population began to argue that the only way to break the impasse was to launch an armed uprising, in the belief that this would force the outside world to intervene. They blamed Rugova's policy of non-violence for Kosovo's failure to achieve independence. On 1 September 1996, Rugova and Slobodan Milošević signed the Milošević-Rugova education agreement in an attempt to resolve issues regarding the education of Kosovo Albanian children.
In 1997, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) emerged as a fighting force and began carrying out attacks and assassinations against Serbian civilians, paramilitia and security forces as well as Albanians deemed to be "collaborators". The Serbian response was, as the KLA had predicted, forceful and often indiscriminate. By 1998, the KLA had grown into a full-scale guerrilla army, 100,000 Kosovo Albanians were refugees and the province was in a state of virtual civil war. Rugova was re-elected president in the same year and was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament. However, he was by now clearly being eclipsed by the KLA. This was highlighted in February 1999 when he was passed over in favour of the KLA's political chief Hashim Thaçi, who was chosen by the underground Kosovo Assembly to head the Kosovo Albanian negotiating team in the discussions on the aborted Rambouillet Agreement.
At the end of March 1999, after negotiations at Rambouillet had broken down, NATO launched Operation Allied Force to impose a resolution of the Kosovo War. Rugova spent the first few weeks of the war under virtual house arrest, along with his family, in Pristina. At the start of April 1999, Rugova was forcefully taken to Belgrade, where he was shown on Serbian state television meeting Milošević and calling for an end to the war.
Rugova was allowed to leave Kosovo for temporary exile in Italy in early May 1999, not long before the war ended. He attracted further criticism for his slowness to return to Kosovo – it was not until July that he arrived back in the province. Nonetheless, he received a hero's welcome and returned to political life under the new United Nations administration in Kosovo.
=== Post-war ===
Despite the political damage suffered by Rugova during the war, he soon regained public esteem and won a decisive victory against his political rivals in the KLA. The guerrillas had been welcomed as liberators by Kosovo Albanians but subsequently alienated many by the perception that they were engaging in organised crime, extortion and violence against political opponents and other ethnic groups in Kosovo. When elections were held in Kosovo in October 2000, the LDK won a landslide victory with 58% of the vote. Its nearest rival, Hashim Thaçi's KLA-linked Democratic Party of Kosovo, polled only 27%. On Monday, 4 March 2002, Rugova was appointed president by the Kosovo Assembly. Rugova lived to see the Constitution of Kosovo adopted by a freely elected democratic Parliament.
As the new President of Kosovo – this time formally acknowledged as such by the international community – Rugova continued to campaign for Kosovo's full independence. However, he insisted that it had to be achieved by peaceful means and with the agreement of all parties. He also pursued a policy of very close relations with the United States, as well as with the European Union. His incremental approach was criticised by radicals, but he sought to bring along the supporters of the former KLA; in November 2004, he appointed Ramush Haradinaj, the former commander of the KLA, as Prime Minister. The following month, Rugova was again elected president by the Kosovo Assembly. Nonetheless, he still encountered violent opposition. On 15 March 2005, he escaped —unhurt —an attempted assassination when a bomb exploded in a waste container as his car passed by.
Rugova demonstrated a number of unusual traits during his time as president. He was readily identifiable by the silk neckscarf that he wore as a display of oppression in Kosovo and was known for his habit of giving visitors samples from his rock collection. His presents were carefully graded; the size of a crystal could reflect Rugova's feelings about the outcome of a meeting, prompting diplomats to compare notes afterwards about the size of the rocks presented to them. He was also a chain-smoker, and it may have been this habit that caused his eventual fatal condition.
== Death ==
On 30 August 2005, Rugova left Kosovo and went to the United States Air Force Landstuhl Military Hospital in Germany for medical treatment after earlier treatment in Pristina and Camp Bondsteel, the main US base in Kosovo and the second-biggest in Europe. After a week at Landstuhl he returned to Kosovo. On 5 September 2005, he announced that he was suffering from lung cancer, but said that he would not be resigning from the post of president. He underwent chemotherapy, conducted by U.S. Army doctors, at his residence in Pristina but the treatment failed to resolve the cancer. He died four months later, on 21 January 2006. He was buried without religious rites on 26 January at a funeral attended by regional leaders and a crowd estimated to be half a million people.
There have been rumors that Rugova converted to Catholicism just before he died. These rumors have never been confirmed by his family nor other source, and one of his closest associates, Sabri Hamiti, in an essay published on the first anniversary of his death, refuted them. He said that Rugova referred to himself as a ‘symbolic Muslim’. The Chancellor of the Catholic Church of Kosovo, Don Shan Zefi, in an interview for Kosovo's national television, said that there is no evidence of Rugova's conversion to Catholicism or baptism. Zefi denied that he had baptized Rugova. Though he had a state funeral service, the head of the Islamic Community of Kosovo, together with many imams conducted Islamic funeral prayers for Rugova. His grave, located at a hilltop in Prishtina, is oriented perpendicular to Mecca, in accordance with Muslim tradition.
== Books by and about Ibrahim Rugova ==
Prekje lirike, [Lyrical Touches], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1971;:
Kah teoria, [Towards Theory], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1978;
Bibliografia e kritikës letrare shqiptare 1944–1974, [Bibliography of Albanian Literary Criticism 1944–1974], Instituti Albanologjik, Pristina, 1976 (together with Isak Shema),
Kritika letrare (nga De Rada te Migjeni), [Literary Criticism], anthology with commentary, Rilindja, Pristina, 1979 (together with Sabri Hamiti);
Strategjia e kuptimit, [Strategy of Meaning], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1980;
Vepra e Bogdanit 1675–1685, [Bogdani's Oeuvre 1675–1685], monograph study, Rilindja, Pristina, 1982;
Kahe dhe premisa të kritikës letrare shqiptare 1504–1983, [Directions and Premises of Albanian Literary Criticism 1504–1983], monograph study, Instituti Albanologjik, Pristina, 1986;
Refuzimi estetik', [Aesthetic Rejection], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1987;
Pavarësia dhe demokracia, [Independence and Democracy], interviews and other occasional pieces, Fjala, Pristina, 1991;
Çështja e Kosovës, [The Kosovo Issue], (together with Marie-Françoise Allain and Xavier Galmiche), Dukagjini, Peć, 1994; translation of the original La question du Kosovo – entretiens avec Marie-Francoise Allain et Xavier Galmiche, Preface de Ismail Kadare, Paris, 1994;
Ibrahim Rugova: “La frêle colosse du Kosovo” , Desclée de Brouwer, Paris, 1999;
Kompleti i veprave të Ibrahim Rugovës në tetë vëllime [Ibrahim Rugova's Oeuvre in eight volumes], Faik Konica, Pristina, 2005.
On the first anniversary of Rugova's death, the Kosovo Presidency published a book entitled President Rugova, with a Preface by President Fatmir Sejdiu (‘The First Statesman of Kosovo’) and a long introduction by Sabri Hamiti (‘Memento for Rugova’). The book collects some of the President's major speeches/addresses as a leader and statesman.
Rugova: Vizioni nacional", a publicistic book by Vehbi Miftari, „AIKD”, 2007
"Rugova: The symbol of independence", a publicistic book by Vehbi Miftari „AIKD”, 2008
"Rugova – mendimi, kultura, politika", a book by Vehbi Miftari, 2010
The Winter Of Great Despair by Jeton Kelmendi
== Honours ==
1995 Peace Prize of Paul Litzer Foundation, Denmark.
1996 Honorary Doctorate of University of Paris VIII: Vincennes—Saint-Denis, France
1998 Sakharov Prize of the European Parliament.
1998 Homo Homini Award for human rights activism, People in Need
1999 Peace Prize, City of Münster
1999 Honorary Citizen of the Cities of Venice, Milan and Brescia (Italy).
2000 Peace Prize of the Democratic Union of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.
2003 Prize European Senator of Honour.
2004 Honorary Doctorate of Tirana University.
2006 National Flag Order (posthumously), by President of Albania Alfred Moisiu
2007 Order "Hero of Kosovo" (posthumously), by President of Kosovo Fatmir Sejdiu
2013 R7 Motorway in Kosovo linking with Albania was named after him
== Notes ==
== See also ==
Democratic League of Kosovo
History of Kosovo
Kosovo Liberation Army
Operation Allied Force
== References ==
== Sources ==
Obituaries:
The Economist on Ibrahim Rugova, 26 January 2006
Ibrahim Rugova, The Guardian obituary
Independence leader Rugova given hero's funeral, The Guardian
Kosovo Albanians Mourn Pro-Independence Leader, The New York Times
Ibrahim Rugova, Kosovo Albanian Leader, Is Dead, The New York Times
(in English) "Ibrahim Rugova – Profile", Vreme News Digest Agency No 257, 7 September 1996
San Francisco Chronicle, 22 January 2006
The Times, The Guardian, The Independent, Financial Times – 23 January 2006
Kola, Paulin (2003). The Search for Greater Albania. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-664-7.
Vera Didanović (15 September 2005). "Umeren političar, ekstreman cilj". Vreme. 767.
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Official website of the President of Kosovo
(in Albanian) Book of Condolence Archived 5 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine
(in Albanian) Democratic League of Kosovo
(in Albanian) Assembly of Kosovo
(in Spanish) Extended bio by CIDOB Foundation
Kosovo Albanians mourn lost leader |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Dukes_of_Hazzard_episodes | List of The Dukes of Hazzard episodes | This is a list of episodes for the 1979–1985 CBS action-adventure/comedy series The Dukes of Hazzard. The show ran for seven seasons and a total of 147 episodes. Many of the episodes followed a similar structure: "out-of-town crooks pull a robbery, Duke boys blamed, spend the rest of the hour clearing their names, the General Lee flies and the squad cars crash". Also, almost every episode would begin with the Duke boys driving along in the General Lee, whether running an errand or just out on a leisurely drive, and inadvertently stumbling upon one of the sheriff's speed traps.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (1979) ===
=== Season 2 (1979–80) ===
Starting with this season, a new closing sequence was introduced. This time, it shows the General Lee and Enos' police car going around in circles. This remained in use until the end of the series in 1985. Also at the beginning of this season, the show is now produced by Lou Step Productions.
=== Season 3 (1980–81) ===
This season consisted of 21 episodes.
Season 3 brought a big change to the show. Sonny Shroyer, who played the part of Deputy Enos Strate, was leaving the show to star in a short-lived Dukes of Hazzard spin-off series, called Enos. Rosco's pet dog Flash was introduced in this season. Flash would stay until the end of the series in 1985.
In the first episode, Enos was written out of the show as moving to California to take a job with the Los Angeles Police Department. This is the last season to use the Season 2 closing theme.
During the opening credits, Enos is out, and Cletus Hogg (Rick Hurst) is in.
=== Season 4 (1981–82) ===
In this season, starting with "Goodbye, General Lee" Warner Bros. starts producing the "General Lee" chargers where we start seeing the light tan interiors, wide push bar and more consistent appearances.
=== Season 5 (1982–83) ===
Byron Cherry and Christopher Mayer were promoted to opening titles starting with this season.
Beginning with season 5, over a royalties dispute, John Schneider (Bo Duke) and Tom Wopat (Luke Duke) were fired from the series. They were replaced by their cousins Coy Duke and Vance Duke. The show's ratings nosedived and, after 18 episodes, Wopat and Schneider were hired back. As a result, they both ended up starring again in the remaining 4 episodes of the season.
Vance and Coy last appear in episode 19, and are not even mentioned after their departure from the series.
According to the series bible, Luke and Bo's 18-episode absence was due to their competing (and, ultimately, winning big) in the NASCAR circuit. Their return episode has the distinction of featuring all four Duke boys, as a way to make a natural transition and maintain the continuity of the series.
This season consisted of 22 episodes.
Sonny Shroyer returns as Enos for the rest of the series after the cancellation of the spin-off Enos.
=== Season 6 (1983–84) ===
=== Season 7 (1984–85) ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Dukes of Hazzard at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Italian_Open_(tennis) | 2022 Italian Open (tennis) | The 2022 Italian Open (also known as the Rome Masters or the Internazionali BNL d'Italia for sponsorship reasons) was a professional tennis tournament played on outdoor clay courts at the Foro Italico in Rome, Italy. It was the 79th edition of the Italian Open and was classified as an ATP Tour Masters 1000 event on the 2022 ATP Tour and a non-mandatory event on the 2022 WTA Tour. First-seeded Novak Djokovic and Iga Świątek won the singles title.
== Finals ==
=== Men's singles ===
Novak Djokovic defeated Stefanos Tsitsipas, 6–0, 7–6(7–5)
This was Djokovic's 87th ATP singles title, and first of the year.
=== Women's singles ===
Iga Świątek defeated Ons Jabeur, 6–2, 6–2
This was Świątek's 8th WTA singles title, and fifth of the year.
=== Men's doubles ===
Nikola Mektić / Mate Pavić defeated John Isner / Diego Schwartzman, 6–3, 6–7(6–8), [12–10]
=== Women's doubles ===
Veronika Kudermetova / Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova defeated Gabriela Dabrowski / Giuliana Olmos 1–6, 6–4, [10–7]
== Points and prize money ==
=== Point distribution ===
=== Prize money ===
*per team
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
ATP tournament profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Howard,_13th_Duke_of_Norfolk | Henry Howard, 13th Duke of Norfolk | Henry Charles Howard, 13th Duke of Norfolk, (12 August 1791 – 18 February 1856), styled Earl of Surrey between 1815 and 1842, was a British Whig politician and peer.
== Background ==
Norfolk was the son of Bernard Edward Howard, 12th Duke of Norfolk, and Lady Elizabeth, daughter of Henry Belasyse, 2nd Earl Fauconberg. He gained the courtesy title Earl of Surrey when his father succeeded as Duke of Norfolk in 1815. George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan was his half brother from his mother’s second marriage with the 2nd Earl of Lucan
== Political career ==
On 4 May 1829 Norfolk, then Earl of Surrey, was elected to the House of Commons for Horsham. When he took his seat he became the first Roman Catholic to sit in the House after Catholic emancipation. Surrey held the Horsham seat until 1832, and then represented West Sussex between 1832 and 1841. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1837 and served under Lord Melbourne as Treasurer of the Household between 1837 and 1841. In the latter year he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his father's junior title of Baron Maltravers, and served briefly under Melbourne as Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard between July and August 1841. The following year he succeeded his father in the dukedom of Norfolk.
When the Whigs returned to office under Lord John Russell in 1846, Norfolk was made Master of the Horse, a position he retained until the government fell in 1852. He later served as Lord Steward of the Household in Lord Aberdeen's coalition government between 1853 and 1854. He was invested as a Knight of the Garter in 1848.
In 1854, Norfolk agreed to lease land to Sheffield Cricket Club near Bramall Lane for ninety-nine years, a site which is now home to Sheffield United.
== Family ==
Norfolk married Lady Charlotte Sophia Leveson-Gower, daughter of George Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland, in 1814. They had five children:
Henry Granville Fitzalan-Howard, 14th Duke of Norfolk (1815–1860).
Edward George Fitzalan-Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Glossop (1818–1883).
Lady Mary Charlotte Howard (1822–1897), married Thomas Foley, 4th Baron Foley.
Lord Bernard Thomas Fitzalan-Howard (1825–1846).
Lady Adeliza Matilda Fitzalan-Howard (1829–1904), married in 1855 her second cousin, Lord George Manners.
By royal licence dated 26 April 1842, Howard added "Fitzalan" before his children's surnames (but not his own), so they all became Fitzalan-Howard, which surname their male-line descendants have borne ever since. Their ancestor, Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, married Mary FitzAlan (daughter and heiress of Henry Fitzalan, 12th Earl of Arundel) in 1555. Norfolk died in February 1856, aged 64, and was succeeded in the dukedom by his eldest son, Henry; his wife Charlotte died in July 1870.
== References ==
== External links ==
Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Henry Howard
"Howard, Henry Charles" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Norfolk, Earls and Dukes of" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 742–744. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shohidul_Islam | Shohidul Islam | Shohidul Islam (born 5 January 1995) is a Bangladeshi cricketer who plays for Dhaka Metropolis. He made his international debut for the Bangladesh cricket team in November 2021. In July 2022, he was suspended from playing in any form of cricket for ten months, backdated to 28 May 2022, due to a doping violation.
== Domestic career ==
He made his Twenty20 (T20) debut on 21 November 2016 playing for Chittagong Vikings in the 2016–17 Bangladesh Premier League. In November 2018, bowling for Central Zone in the 2018–19 Bangladesh Cricket League, he took his maiden five-wicket haul in first-class cricket. He was the leading wicket-taker for Central Zone in the tournament, with eighteen dismissals in four matches. In August 2019, he was one of 35 cricketers named in a training camp ahead of Bangladesh's 2019–20 season. In November 2019, he was selected to play for the Khulna Tigers in the 2019–20 Bangladesh Premier League.
In March 2021, in the opening round of the 2020–21 National Cricket League, he scored his maiden century in first-class cricket, with 106 runs for Dhaka Metropolis.
== International career ==
In April 2021, he was named in Bangladesh's preliminary Test squad for their away series against Sri Lanka. In May 2021, Shohidul was named in Bangladesh's preliminary One Day International (ODI) squad for their home series against Sri Lanka.
In November 2021, he was named in Bangladesh's Twenty20 International (T20I) squad for their series against Pakistan. He made his T20I debut on 22 November 2021, for Bangladesh against Pakistan. Later the same month, he was added to Bangladesh's Test squad, also for their series against Pakistan. He was also named in Bangladesh's Test squad for their series against New Zealand. In March 2022, he was named in Bangladesh's Test squad for their series against South Africa. In May 2022, he was again named in Bangladesh's Test squad, this time for their series against the West Indies.
== See also ==
List of Dhaka Metropolis cricketers
== References ==
== External links ==
Shohidul Islam at ESPNcricinfo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebrand_(DC_Comics)#Alex_Sanchez | Firebrand (DC Comics) | Firebrand is a name of several characters appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics.
== Fictional character biography ==
=== Rod Reilly ===
Published by Quality Comics from August 1941 to November 1942, Rod Reilly was the bored and wealthy socialite son of a steel tycoon, who decided to fight crime with his servant and friend, "Slugger" Dunn. Originally drawn by Reed Crandall, Firebrand appeared in Police Comics, issues #1 through 13, at which time his series was canceled. Firebrand's costume consisted of a transparent shirt and red pants, with a bandana mask covering the top half of his face. He uses a lariat, and can climb buildings using vacuum cups.
After DC purchased Quality Comics, Firebrand was largely left on the sidelines until the mid-1970s, when he joined the Freedom Fighters. He was killed in a fight with the Silver Ghost, but that occurred only in a photocopied issue of Cancelled Comic Cavalcade, which was never released to public and thus unsure as to whether it is considered part of the current DC Universe.
When DC collected most of their characters into the All-Star Squadron, it was retconned that Rod had been injured in the surprise attack and replaced by his sister, Danette Reilly.
In All-Star Squadron #5 (1981), Danette discovers that Rod is Firebrand while staying at his penthouse. Musing about Rod's relationship with his bodyguard, Slugger Dunn, she wonders "though what a confirmed bachelor playboy like my brother needed with a bodyguard, I never understood", and then finds a hidden closet that leads her to think that "from the look of these clothes, I didn't know my brother quite as well as I thought I did!".
=== Danette Reilly ===
Volcanologist Danette Reilly is the sister of Rod Reilly, the first Firebrand. First introduced in a special "All-Star Squadron" preview in Justice League of America #193 (August 1981), Danette was studying volcanos north of Hawaii when she was kidnapped by the time-travelling villain Per Degaton and the sorcerer Wotan. During her escape, Wotan hit her with a magical blast and hurled her into a pit of lava. The combination of his magic and the lava not only allowed her to survive, but gave her the power to control heat and project fire blasts . Her powers surfaced after she discovered her brother Rod's costume and put it on. As Rod had been injured during the attack, Danette decided to become the new Firebrand. Due to Degaton going back to future when he was defeated, the All-Star Squadron forgot his attack. Originally, she was quite racist towards the Japanese, but she visited her brother in hospital and he revealed he had been saved from death by a soldier whose parents were from Japan, and who later died from his wounds. Firebrand realized she had been racist and would show more respect towards those from Japan.
Danette appeared in Crisis on Infinite Earths, wherein she was briefly rejoined by her former lover, the reluctant supervillain Cyclotron. Cyclotron, although deceased, phased into her time to assist her. Danette assumed partial custody of his daughter Terri, along with fellow hero the Atom.
In Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E. (2000), Firebrand was revealed to have been killed by the Dragon King. She has largely remained dead since. During the Absolute Power event (2024), Firebrand's spirit is revealed to be held inside the Well of Souls in Themyscira and is used as a power source by the Amazo android Paradise Lost.
Her name is a homage to creator Roy Thomas' wife, Danette Thomas.
The Quality Comics heroine Wildfire was originally intended to play a major role in the All-Star Squadron but DC objected on the basis of her name, which she shared with the Legion of Super-Heroes member. Instead, Danette Reilly was introduced into the series.
Firebrand was ranked 67th in Comics Buyer's Guide's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list.
=== Alex Sanchez ===
In February 1996, DC introduced a third Firebrand, former police detective Alejandro 'Alex' Sanchez. After nearly dying in an explosion that destroyed his apartment, Sanchez undergoes experimental surgery to restore his mobility. The surgery is paid for by local philanthropist Noah Hightower, who later approaches Sanchez with a special opportunity. Hightower offers Sanchez a suit of advanced armor which, when combined with the implants, gives him enhanced strength and speed for up to four hours. After Sanchez's partner is attacked during an investigation, he agrees to become the superhero Firebrand. In addition to enhanced strength, Sanchez's armor emits green flame, which gives him a demonic appearance.
Sanchez's storyline reflected concerns about racial injustice in America, and violence suffered by people of color.
Sanchez's tenure as Firebrand lasted only nine issues of his self-titled comic. He reappears in JSA: Secret Files #2, where he is killed by a Checkmate knight in Roulette's arena.
=== Andre Twist ===
In April 2006, Andre Twist was introduced in The Battle for Blüdhaven. He gains control over fire after his exposure to Chemo being dropped on the city. He also appears in the limited series, Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters, as a member of the new Freedom Fighters. Andre carries a bo staff, and has some measure of athletic and martial arts ability.
In the 2007 Freedom Fighters series, Firebrand strikes up a relationship with Red Bee and is distraught when she is taken over by an alien insectoid race. Together, the Freedom Fighters save Red Bee and repel the insectoid's invasion. In the 2010 Freedom Fighters series, Firebrand is killed by Charles Lane, the grandson of the Jester.
=== Janet Fals ===
The fifth Firebrand, Janet Fals, appeared in The Unexpected, released in June 2018.
Janet was killed during the Dark Multiverse invasion, but her father used his CIA connections to bring her back to life, releasing her remains to Civil Solutions, a futurist arms developer, who resurrected her with a new heart called the "Conflict Engine". The device requires her to start fights to stay alive, meaning she could not return to her old life or identity. She quenches her needs by fighting in underground matches as Firebrand.
She had a flirtation with Joy, a female receptionist at V.A. Hospital in Mammoth City. Janet Fals/Firebrand's creator Steve Orlando has confirmed that she is a lesbian.
== Powers and abilities ==
An olympic-level athlete and superb hand-to-hand combatant, the Rod Reilly Firebrand possessed no true super-powers, but he was personally trained by ex-heavyweight boxer "Slugger" Dunn to the height of physical perfection.
== In other media ==
An amalgamated incarnation of Danette Reilly / Firebrand appears in the Young Justice episode "Humanity", voiced by Vanessa Marshall. This version is an android codenamed Red Inferno that T. O. Morrow created to infiltrate the Justice Society of America in the 1930s, though she overcame her programming and seemingly died taking an energy blast from Dragon King meant for the Flash. In the present, an android double of Morrow rebuilds Red Inferno and sends her alongside Red Torpedo to capture Red Tornado. However, Red Tornado convinces his fellow androids stop Red Volcano before he causes the Yellowstone Caldera to erupt. Red Inferno and Torpedo sacrifice themselves to help Red Tornado avert the eruption.
The Rod Reilly, Danette Reilly, and Alex Sanchez incarnations of Firebrand appear as character summons in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
== References ==
== External links ==
Firebrand I Index
Firebrand I Profile
Rod Reilly at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Danette Reilly at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Alex Sanchez at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Andre Twist at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Firebrand (1941) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on July 25, 2016. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinti_Prize | Vinti Prize | The Calogero Vinti Prize is awarded by the Italian Mathematical Union to an Italian mathematician not exceeding the age of 40, in recognition of his/her contributions to the field of Mathematical Analysis. The prize is entitled to the memory of the Italian mathematician Calogero Vinti and is awarded on the occasion of the Italian Mathematical Union conference every four years.
Further prizes of the Italian Mathematical Union are the Caccioppoli Prize, the Bartolozzi Prize and the Stampacchia Medal.
== Prize winners ==
A list of the winners of the prize up to the year 2022 is the following one:
1998 Riccardo De Arcangelis
2002 Susanna Terracini
2006 Stefano Bianchini
2010 Massimiliano Berti
2015 Ulisse Stefanelli
2019 Filippo Santambrogio
2022 Emanuele Nunzio Spadaro
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_Music_Hall_of_Fame | Gospel Music Hall of Fame | The Gospel Music Hall of Fame, created in 1972 by the Gospel Music Association, is a hall of fame dedicated exclusively to recognizing meaningful contributions by individuals and groups in all forms of gospel music.
== Inductees ==
This is an incomplete list of those inducted into the GMA's Gospel Music Hall of Fame, listed alphabetically with the year of induction. Many of these were honored posthumously for their contribution in gospel music.
=== Individuals ===
=== Groups ===
=== Charities and organizations ===
== Notes ==
== See also ==
List of music museums
Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame
== References ==
== Sources ==
″International Gospel Music Hall of Fame″, in W. K. McNeil, Encyclopedia of American Gospel Music, Taylor & Francis, 2013, pages 193-196.
Dana Lackey, ″Gospel Music Hall of Fame and Museum″, in African American Family, June 2004.
Marylynn G. Ewitt, ″Gospel Music Hall of Fame and Museum with Sing Praises″, in The Oakland Press, December 13, 1998.
== External links ==
Gospel Music Association Hall of Fame (list of all inductees Archived 2021-09-18 at the Wayback Machine) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musikari_Kombo#:~:text=Born%20in%20Bungoma%20District%2C%20he,School%20for%20his%20secondary%20education. | Musikari Kombo | Musikari Nazi Kombo (born March 13, 1944) is a Kenyan politician who serves as a nominated Member of Parliament.
Born in Bungoma District, he attended Misikhu Primary School for his elementary education, then proceeded to Rakwaro Primary School, and finally moved to Mumias where he completed his primary education. He then attended Nyeri High School for his secondary education. He undertook his undergraduate studies at the University of Nairobi, majoring in economics.
He was first elected as a Member of Parliament representing Webuye Constituency in 1992. He also served in the Government as Assistant Minister for Planning and Minister for Regional Development. He took over the Local Government Ministry in late 2003. He lost his seat as MP for Webuye in the 2007 general election, in which he was defeated by the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) candidate Alfred Sambu.
As of June 2015, Kombo is the Chairman of FORD-Kenya.
== Personal life ==
Musikari Kombo hails from the larger Luhya community Bukusu sub tribe Balunda clan (descendants of Mulunda, believed to have migrated into Congo from East Africa).
He is a Catholic by religion.
== References ==
== External links ==
[1] http://thinkexist.com/quotes/musikari_kombo/
[2] [3] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_to_Stay#:~:text=In%20August%202015%2C%20Aldrin%2C%20in,Mars%20before%20the%20year%202040. | Mars to Stay | Mars to Stay missions propose that astronauts sent to Mars for the first time should intend to remain there. Unused emergency return vehicles would be recycled into settlement construction as soon as the habitability of Mars becomes evident to the initial pioneers. Mars to Stay missions are advocated both to reduce cost and to ensure permanent settlement of Mars. Among many notable Mars to Stay advocates, former Apollo astronaut Buzz Aldrin has been particularly outspoken, suggesting in numerous forums "Forget the Moon, Let’s Head to Mars!" and, in June 2013, Aldrin promoted a crewed mission "to homestead Mars and become a two-planet species". In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a "master plan", for NASA consideration, for astronauts, with a "tour of duty of ten years", to colonize Mars before the year 2040. The Mars Underground, Mars Homestead Project / Mars Foundation, Mars One (defunct in 2019), and Mars Artists Community advocacy groups and business organizations have also adopted Mars to Stay policy initiatives.
The earliest formal outline of a Mars to Stay mission architecture was given at the Case for Mars VI Workshop in 1996, during a presentation by George Herbert titled "One Way to Mars".
== Proposals ==
=== Arguments for settlement missions ===
Since returning the astronauts from the surface of Mars is one of the most difficult parts of a Mars mission, the idea of a one-way trip to Mars has been proposed several times. Space activist Bruce Mackenzie, for example, proposed a one-way trip to Mars in a presentation "One Way to Mars – a Permanent Settlement on the First Mission" at the 1998 International Space Development Conference, arguing that since the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense if the astronauts were not required to return to Earth, the first mission to Mars should be a settlement, not a visit.
Paul Davies, writing in The New York Times in 2004, made similar arguments. Under Davies' plan, an initial colony of four astronauts equipped with a small nuclear reactor and a couple of rover vehicles would make their own oxygen, grow food, and even initiate building projects using local raw materials. Supplemented by food shipments, medical supplies, and replacement gadgets from Earth, the colony would be indefinitely sustained.
=== Original Aldrin plan ===
Under Mars to Stay mission architectures, the first humans to travel to Mars would typically be in six-member teams. After this initial landing, subsequent missions would raise the number of persons on Mars to 30, thereby beginning a Martian settlement. Since the Martian surface offers some of the natural resources and elements necessary to sustain a robust, mature, industrialized human settlement—unlike, for example the Moon—a permanent Martian settlement is thought to be the most effective way to ensure that humanity becomes a space-faring, multi-planet species.
A Mars to Stay mission following Aldrin's proposal would enlist astronauts in the following timeline:
Age 30: an offer to help settle Mars is extended to select pioneers
Age 30–35: training and social conditioning for long-duration isolation and time-delay communications
Age 35–65: development of sheltered underground living spaces
Age 65: an offer to return to Earth or retire on Mars is given to first-generation settlers
As Aldrin has said, "who knows what advances will have taken place. The first generation can retire there, or maybe we can bring them back."
=== "To Boldly Go: A One-Way Human Mission to Mars" ===
An article by Dirk Schulze-Makuch (Washington State University) and Paul Davies (Arizona State University) from the 2010 article The Human Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet highlights their mission plans as:
No base on the Moon is needed. Given the broad variety of resources available on Mars, the long-term survival of Martian settlers is much more feasible than Lunar settlers.
Since Mars affords neither an ozone shield nor magnetospheric protection, robots would prepare a basic modular base inside near-surface lava tubes and ice caves for the human settlers.
A volunteer signing up for a one-way mission to Mars would do so with the full understanding that they will not return to Earth; Mars exploration would proceed for a long time on the basis of outbound journeys only.
The first human contingent would consist of a crew of four, ideally (if budget permits) distributed between two two-man spacecraft for mission redundancy.
Over time humans on Mars will increase with follow-up missions. Several subsurface biospheres would be created until there were 150+ individuals in a viable gene pool. Genetic engineering would further contribute to the health and longevity of settlers.
The astronauts would be sent supplies from Earth regularly. This proposal was picked up for discussion in a number of public sources.
=== Mars One ===
A proposal for a one-way human settlement mission to Mars was put forward in 2012 by the Mars One, a private spaceflight project led by Dutch entrepreneur Bas Lansdorp to establish a permanent human colony on Mars.
Mars One was a Dutch not-for-profit foundation, a Stichting.
The proposal was to send a communication satellite and pathfinder lander to the planet by 2018 and, after several stages, land four humans on Mars for permanent settlement in 2027.
A new set of four astronauts would then arrive every two years. 200,000 applications were started; about 2,500 were complete enough for consideration, from which one hundred applicants were chosen. Further selections were planned to narrow this down to six groups of four before training began in 2016. It was hoped that a reality television show, participant fees, and donations would generate the funding for the project.
The project was criticized by experts as a 'scam' and as 'delusional'. On January 15, 2019, a court decision was settled to liquidate the organization, sending it into bankruptcy administration.
=== Strive to Stay: Emergency Return Only ===
In response to feedback following the EarthLight Institute's "Mars Colony 2030" project at NewSpace 2012 and the announcement of Mars One, Eric Machmer proposed conjunction-class missions be planned with a bias to stay (if low gravity, radiation, and other factors present no pressing health issues), so that, if at the end of each 550-day period during a conjunction-class launch window no adverse health effects were observed, settlers would continue research and construction through another 550-day period. In the meantime, additional crews and supplies would continue to arrive, starting their own 550-day evaluation periods. Health tests would be repeated during subsequent 550-day periods until the viability of human life on Mars was proven. Once settlers determine that humans can live on Mars without negative health effects, emergency return vehicles would be recycled into permanent research bases.
== Initial and permanent settlement ==
Initial explorers leave equipment in orbit and at landing zones scattered considerable distances from the main settlement. Subsequent missions therefore are assumed to become easier and safer to undertake, with the likelihood of back-up equipment being present if accidents in transit or landing occur.
Large subsurface, pressurized habitats would be the first step toward human settlement; as Dr. Robert Zubrin suggests in the first chapter of his book Mars Direct, these structures can be built as Roman-style atria in mountainsides or underground with easily produced Martian brick. During and after this initial phase of habitat construction, hard-plastic radiation and abrasion-resistant geodesic domes could be deployed on the surface for eventual habitation and crop growth. Nascent industry would begin using indigenous resources: the manufacture of plastics, ceramics and glass could be easily achieved.
The longer-term work of terraforming Mars requires an initial phase of global warming to release atmosphere from the Martian regolith and to create a water-cycle. Three methods of global warming are described by Zubrin, who suggests they are best deployed in tandem: orbital mirrors to heat the surface; factories on the ground to pump halocarbons into the atmosphere; and the seeding of bacteria that can metabolize water, nitrogen and carbon to produce ammonia and methane (these gases would aid in global warming). While the work of terraforming Mars is on-going, robust settlement of Mars would continue.
Zubrin, in his 1996 book (revised 2011) The Case for Mars, acknowledges any Martian colony will be partially Earth-dependent for centuries. However, Zubrin suggests Mars may be profitable for two reasons. First, it may contain concentrated supplies of metals equal to or of greater value than silver, which have not been subjected to millennia of human scavenging; it is suggested such ores may be sold on Earth for profit. Secondly, the concentration of deuterium—an extremely expensive but essential fuel for the as-yet non-existent nuclear fusion power industry—is five times greater on Mars. Humans emigrating to Mars, under this paradigm, are presumed to have an industry; it is assumed the planet will be a magnet for settlers as wage costs will be high. Because of the labor shortage on Mars and its subsequent high pay-scale, Martian civilization and the value placed upon each individual's productivity is proposed as a future engine of both technological and social advancement.
== Risks ==
In the fifth chapter of "Mars Direct", Zubrin addresses the idea that radiation and zero-gravity are unduly hazardous. He claims cancer rates do increase for astronauts who have spent extensive time in space, but only marginally. Similarly, while zero-gravity presents challenges, near total recovery of musculature and immune system vitality is presumed by all Mars to Stay mission plans once settlers are on the Martian surface. Several experiments, such as the Mars Gravity Biosatellite, have been proposed to test this hypothetical assumption, but until humans have lived in Martian gravity conditions (38% of Earth's), human long-term viability in such low gravity will remain only a working assumption. Back-contamination—humans acquiring and spreading hypothetical Martian viruses—is described as "just plain nuts", because there are no host organisms on Mars for disease organisms to have evolved.
In the same chapter, Zubrin rejects suggestions the Moon should be used as waypoint to Mars or as a preliminary training area. "It is ultimately much easier to journey to Mars from low Earth orbit than from the Moon and using the latter as a staging point is a pointless diversion of resources." While the Moon may superficially appear a good place to perfect Mars exploration and habitation techniques, the two bodies are radically different. The Moon has no atmosphere, no analogous geology and a much greater temperature range and rotational period of illumination. It is argued Antarctica, deserts of Earth, and precisely controlled chilled vacuum chambers on easily accessible NASA centers on Earth provide much better training grounds at lesser cost.
== Public reception ==
"Should the United States space program send a mission to Mars, those astronauts should be prepared to stay there," said Lunar astronaut Buzz Aldrin during an interview on "Mars to Stay" initiative. The time and expense required to send astronauts to Mars, argues Aldrin, "warrants more than a brief sojourn, so those who are on board should think of themselves as pioneers. Like the Pilgrims who came to the New World or the families who headed to the Wild West, they should not plan on coming back home." The Moon is a shorter trip of two or three days, but according to Mars advocates it offers virtually no potential for independent settlements. Studies have found that Mars, on the other hand, has vast reserves of frozen water, all of the basic elements, and more closely mimics both gravitational (roughly 1⁄3 of Earth's while the moon is 1⁄6) and illumination conditions on Earth. "It is easier to subsist, to provide the support needed for people there than on the Moon." In an interview with reporters, Aldrin said Mars offers greater potential than Earth's satellite as a place for habitation:
If we are going to put a few people down there and ensure their appropriate safety, would you then go through all that trouble and then bring them back immediately, after a year, a year and a half? ... They need to go there more with the psychology of knowing that you are a pioneering settler and you don't look forward to go back home again after a couple of years.
A comprehensive statement of a rationale for "Mars to Stay" was laid out by Buzz Aldrin in a May 2009 Popular Mechanics article, as follows:
The agency's current Vision for Space Exploration will waste decades and hundreds of billions of dollars trying to reach the Moon by 2020—a glorified rehash of what we did 40 years ago. Instead of a steppingstone to Mars, NASA's current lunar plan is a detour. It will derail our Mars effort, siphoning off money and engineering talent for the next two decades. If we aspire to a long-term human presence on Mars—and I believe that should be our overarching goal for the foreseeable future—we must drastically change our focus. Our purely exploratory efforts should aim higher than a place we've already set foot on six times. In recent years my philosophy on colonizing Mars has evolved. I now believe that human visitors to the Red Planet should commit to staying there permanently. One-way tickets to Mars will make the missions technically easier and less expensive and get us there sooner. More importantly, they will ensure that our Martian outpost steadily grows as more homesteaders arrive. Instead of explorers, one-way Mars travelers will be 21st-century pilgrims, pioneering a new way of life. It will take a special kind of person. Instead of the traditional pilot/scientist/engineer, Martian homesteaders will be selected more for their personalities—flexible, inventive and determined in the face of unpredictability. In short, survivors.
The Mars Artists Community has adopted Mars to Stay as their primary policy initiative. During a 2009 public hearing of the U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee at which Dr. Robert Zubrin presented a summary of the arguments in his book The Case for Mars, dozens of placards reading "Mars Direct Cowards Return to the Moon" were placed throughout the Carnegie Institute. The passionate uproar among space exploration advocates—both favorable and critical—resulted in the Mars Artists Community creating several dozen more designs, with such slogans as, "Traitors Return to Earth" and "What Would Zheng He Do?"
In October 2009, Eric Berger of the Houston Chronicle wrote of "Mars to Stay" as perhaps the only program that can revitalize the United States' space program:
What if NASA could land astronauts on Mars in a decade, for not ridiculously more money than the $10 billion the agency spends annually on human spaceflight? It's possible ... relieving NASA of the need to send fuel and rocketry to blast humans off the Martian surface, which has slightly more than twice the gravity of the moon, would actually reduce costs by about a factor of 10, by some estimates.
Hard Science Fiction writer Mike Brotherton has found "Mars to Stay" appealing for both economic and safety reasons, but more emphatically, as a fulfillment of the ultimate mandate by which "our manned space program is sold, at least philosophically and long-term, as a step to colonizing other worlds". Two-thirds of the respondents to a poll on his website expressed interest in a one-way ticket to Mars "if mission parameters are well-defined" (not suicidal).
In June 2010, Buzz Aldrin gave an interview to Vanity Fair in which he restated "Mars to Stay":
Did the Pilgrims on the Mayflower sit around Plymouth Rock waiting for a return trip? They came here to settle. And that's what we should be doing on Mars. When you go to Mars, you need to have made the decision that you're there permanently. The more people we have there, the more it can become a sustaining environment. Except for very rare exceptions, the people who go to Mars shouldn't be coming back. Once you get on the surface, you're there.
An article by Dirk Schulze-Makuch (Washington State University) and Paul Davies (Arizona State University) from the book The Human Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet summarizes their rationale for Mars to Stay:
[Mars to stay] would obviate the need for years of rehabilitation for returning astronauts, which would not be an issue if the astronauts were to remain in the low-gravity environment of Mars. We envision that Mars exploration would begin and proceed for a long time on the basis of outbound journeys only.
In November 2010, Keith Olbermann started an interview with Derrick Pitts, Planetarium Director at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, by quoting from the Dirk Schulze-Makuch and Paul Davies article, saying, "The Astronauts would go to Mars with the intention of staying for the rest of their lives, as trailblazers of a permanent human Mars colony." In response to Olbermann's statement that "the authors claim a one-way ticket to Mars is no more outlandish than a one-way ticket to America was in 1620", Pitts defends Mars to Stay initiatives by saying "they begin to open the doors in a way that haven't been opened before".
In a January 2011 interview, X Prize founder Peter Diamandis expressed his preference for Mars to Stay research settlements:
Privately funded missions are the only way to go to Mars with humans because I think the best way to go is on "one-way" colonization flights and no government will likely sanction such a risk. The timing for this could well be within the next 20 years. It will fall within the hands of a small group of tech billionaires who view such missions as the way to leave their mark on humanity.
In March 2011, Apollo 14 pilot Edgar Mitchell and Apollo 17's geologist Harrison Schmitt, among other noted Mars exploration advocates published an anthology of Mars to Stay architectures titled, A One Way Mission to Mars: Colonizing the Red Planet. From the publisher's review:
Answers are provided by a veritable who's who of the top experts in the world. And what would it be like to live on Mars? What dangers would they face? Learn first hand, in the final, visionary chapter about life in a Martian colony, and the adventures of a young woman, Aurora, who is born on Mars. Exploration, discovery, and journeys into the unknown are part of the human spirit. Colonizing the cosmos is our destiny. The Greatest Adventure in the History of Humanity awaits us. Onward to Mars!
August 2011, Professor Paul Davies gave a plenary address to the opening session of the 14th Annual International Mars Society Convention on cost-effective human mission plans for Mars titled "One-Way Mission to Mars".
== New York Times op-eds ==
"Mars to Stay" has been explicitly proposed by two op-ed pieces in The New York Times.
Following a similar line of argument to Buzz Aldrin, Lawrence Krauss asks in an op-ed, "Why are we so interested in bringing the Mars astronauts home again?" While the idea of sending astronauts aloft never to return may be jarring upon first hearing, the rationale for one-way exploration and settlement trips has both historical and practical roots. For example, colonists and pilgrims seldom set off to the New World with the expectation of a return trip. As Lawrence Krauss writes, "To boldly go where no one has gone before does not require coming home again."
If it sounds unrealistic to suggest that astronauts would be willing to leave home never to return ... consider the results of several informal surveys I and several colleagues have conducted recently. One of my peers in Arizona recently accompanied a group of scientists and engineers from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on a geological survey. He asked how many would be willing to go on a one-way mission into space. Every member of the group raised their hand.
Additional immediate and pragmatic reasons to consider one-way human space exploration missions are explored by Krauss. Since much of the cost of a voyage to Mars will be spent on returning to Earth, if the fuel for the return is carried on board, this greatly increases the mission mass requirement – that in turn requires even more fuel. According to Krauss, "Human space travel is so expensive and so dangerous ... we are going to need novel, even extreme solutions if we really want to expand the range of human civilization beyond our own planet." Delivering food and supplies to pioneers via uncrewed spacecraft is less expensive than designing an immediate return trip.
In an earlier 2004 op-ed for The New York Times, Paul Davies says motivation for the less expensive, permanent "one-way to stay option" arises from a theme common in "Mars to Stay" advocacy: "Mars is one of the few accessible places beyond Earth that could have sustained life [... and] alone among our sister planets, it is able to support a permanent human presence."
Why is going to Mars so expensive? ... It takes a lot of fuel to blast off Mars and get back home. If the propellant has to be transported there from Earth, costs of a launching soar.
Without some radical improvements in technology, the prospects for sending astronauts on a round-trip to Mars any time soon are slim, whatever the presidential rhetoric. What's more, the president's suggestion of using the Moon as a base — a place to assemble equipment and produce fuel for a Mars mission less expensively — has the potential to turn into a costly sideshow. There is, however, an obvious way to slash the costs and bring Mars within reach of early human exploration. The answer lies with a one-way mission.
Davies argues that since "some people gleefully dice with death in the name of sport or adventure [and since] dangerous occupations that reduce life expectancy through exposure to hazardous conditions or substances are commonplace", we ought to not find the risks involved in a Mars to Stay architecture unusual. "A century ago, explorers set out to trek across Antarctica in the full knowledge that they could die in the process, and that even if they succeeded their health might be irreversibly harmed. Yet governments and scientific societies were willing sponsors of these enterprises." Davies then asks, "Why should it be different today?"
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Buzz Aldrin and Leonard David (2013). Mission to Mars: My Vision for Space Exploration. National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-4262-1017-4. (at BuzzAldrin.com)
When Will We Land on Mars? by Dr. Wernher von Braun (Popular Science: March 1965) (Google Books link)
Human Mars Mission, Weights and Mass Properties, (PDF) (October 1999)
Austere Human Mission to Mars. NASA – JPL (H. Price et al.) Minimalist Mars Design Reference Mission (Space 2009 AIAA Conference Paper)
== External links ==
'Mars to Stay' Facebook Page
Mars Artists Community
Mars Homestead Project
Develop Space
International Mars Society |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_G%C3%A5rding | Lars Gårding | Lars Gårding (7 March 1919 – 7 July 2014) was a Swedish mathematician. He made notable contributions to the study of partial differential equations and partial differential operators. He was a professor of mathematics at Lund University in Sweden from 1952 to 1984. Together with Marcel Riesz, he was a thesis advisor for Lars Hörmander. In physics, he is known for postulating the Gårding–Wightman axioms of quantum field theory.
== Biography ==
Gårding was born in Hedemora, Sweden but grew up in Motala, where his father was an engineer at the plant. He began to study mathematics in Lund in 1937, first with the intention of becoming an actuary.
His doctorate thesis, which was written under the supervision of Marcel Riesz, was first on group representations in 1944, but in the following years he changed his research focus to the theory of partial differential equations. He held the professorship of mathematics at Lund University from 1952 until retirement in 1984.
Gårding's interest was not limited to mathematics, but also in art, literature and music. He played the violin and the piano. He published a book on bird songs and calls in 1987, a result of his interest in birdwatching.
He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1953 and of the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters in 1985.
Gårding died on 7 July 2014, aged 95.
== Selected works ==
Books
1977. Encounter with Mathematics, 1st Edition.
2012. Encounter with Mathematics, softcover reprint of the 1st 1977 edition. Springer ISBN 978-1-4615-9641-7
Articles
Atiyah, Michael Francis; Bott, Raoul; Gårding, Lars (1970), "Lacunas for hyperbolic differential operators with constant coefficients. I", Acta Mathematica, 124: 109–189, doi:10.1007/BF02394570, MR 0470499, Zbl 0191.11203
Atiyah, Michael Francis; Bott, Raoul; Gårding, Lars (1973), "Lacunas for hyperbolic differential operators with constant coefficients. II", Acta Mathematica, 131: 145–206, doi:10.1007/BF02392039, MR 0470500
== References ==
== External links ==
Lars Gårding at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
"Lars Gårding's books". MacTutor. (with extracts from book reviews and prefaces) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Lithuania | Prime Minister of Lithuania | The prime minister of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Ministras Pirmininkas, lit. 'Minister-Chairman', colloquially also referred to as the premier Lithuanian: premjeras) is the head of government of Lithuania. The prime minister is appointed by the president with the assent of the Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas. The modern office of prime minister was established in 1990, when Lithuania declared its independence, although the official title was "Chairperson of the Council of Ministers" until 25 November 1992.
Historically, the title of prime minister was also used between 1918 and 1940. This was during the original Republic of Lithuania, which lasted from the collapse of the Russian Empire until the country's annexation by the Soviet Union.
== List ==
=== Lithuanian Provisional Governing Commission (1812) ===
=== Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940) ===
Following the ultimatum in June 1940, the forces of Soviet Union entered Lithuania, prompting President Antanas Smetona to flee the country. Antanas Merkys, who assumed the position of acting president in accordance with the constitution, soon announced he had taken over the Presidency on a permanent basis and appointed Justas Paleckis, favored by the Soviet authorities, as the Prime Minister ahead of the "people's government". Merkys soon resigned, allowing Paleckis to assume the post of acting president as well. The presidency of Merkys is not recognized as legitimate in modern Lithuania and Paleckis is not listed as an interwar Prime Minister in government sources.
=== Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1990) ===
=== Provisional Government of Lithuania (1941) ===
=== Republic of Lithuania (1990–present) ===
From 11 March 1990 after adopting the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
Political parties and affiliations:
Sąjūdis
LDDP
TS / TS-LKD
LLS
LSDP
LVŽS
== See also ==
Lists of office-holders
Grand Chancellor of Lithuania
== Timeline ==
== References ==
== External links ==
(in Lithuanian) Official site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_(footballer,_born_1983) | Michael (footballer, born 1983) | Michael Anderson Pereira da Silva (born February 16, 1983) better known as simply Michael, is a Brazilian former professional footballer who played as a left midfielder.
== Career ==
Michael started his professional career in Santo André, and soon moved to Cruzeiro, however after 1 season he moved to São Paulo playing for Palmeiras. After two seasons with Palmeiras in July 2007, Michael signed a three-year deal with Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv.
Michael debuted for Dynamo on 22 July against Arsenal Kyiv and managed to score a double in his debut.UPL Round 2 Silva made his UEFA Champions League debut in a group stage game against Italian team Roma. Most of the autumn and winter 2007 Michael was injured and was undergoing treatment in Brazil, however he has recovered and returned since. On 13 May 2009, he moved on loan from Dynamo Kyiv to Botafogo until 31 December 2009.
Michael moved from Kyiv to Portuguesa on 23 May 2011.
== Career statistics ==
(Correct as of December 23, 2010)
according to combined sources on the Flamengo official website and Flaestatística.
== References ==
== External links ==
Michael at WorldFootball.net
(in Ukrainian) Michael's profile at Dynamo's official website
sambafoot
Michael adds depth to Dynamo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babanango#:~:text=Babanango%20is%20a%20small%20town%20located%20about%2058%20kilometers%20north%2Dwest%20of%20Melmoth%5B2%5D%20in%20the%20KwaZulu%2DNatal%20Province%20of%20South%20Africa.%20Founded%20in%201904 | Babanango | Babanango is a small town located about 58 kilometers north-west of Melmoth in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Founded in 1904, the town takes its name from the nearby stream and mountain. It is home to the recently established big five game reserve, Babanango Game Reserve, which has brought the community together as a conservation initiative.
== Etymology ==
The exact origin of the name 'Babanango' is uncertain, and many possible origins have been proposed. The commonly accepted version comes from the Zulu words 'baba nango'. The popular story goes that many years ago a small Buthelezi child got lost on the slopes of the mist-shrouded hill and when an elder brother found him he shouted, "baba, nango", meaning "Father, there he is".
== History ==
eMakhosini, located in the Mkhumbane Valley on the banks of a tributary of the White Umfolozi River near the town of Babanango, is the site of one of Zulu king King Dingane kaSenzangakhona's great royal kraals, UmGungundlovu, where Piet Retief and his Voortrekkers were massacred in 1838. The name "Mgungundlovu" is said to mean "the place of the elephant", and the name eMakhosini means "At the place of the chiefs". The settlement of Babanango was originally part of a land grant to European farmers in 1885 by King Dinizulu for their support after his father's death the year before.
== Culture ==
The town's name is the title of the song "Baba Nango" on Juluka's sixth album Work For All.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari_Bansha_Acharya#:~:text=Hari%20Bansha%20Acharya%20was%20born,Acharya%20and%20mother%20Ganesh%20Kumari. | Hari Bansha Acharya | Hari Bansha Acharya (Nepali: हरिवंश आचार्य) is a Nepalese actor, comedian, director, singer and writer.Hari Bansha Acharya, widely revered and regarded as the greatest comic comedian of all time in Nepalese Tele and movie industry, is known for his method acting. He is one half of the comedy duo MaHa Jodi along with fellow artist Madan Krishna Shrestha. He is known for his performance as Arjun in the 1997 patriotic drama film Balidaan. His performance in the series Madan Bahadur Hari Bahadur as "Hari Bahadur" is well recognized. He also wrote and performed in the film Shatru Gatey.
== Personal life ==
Hari Bansha Acharya was born on 27 Kartik 2014 BS (13 November 1957 AD) in Gairidhara, Kathmandu, to father Homanjaya Acharya and mother Ganesh Kumari. He met his first wife, Meera, in 1982. He has two sons, Trilok Acharya and Mohit Acharya. His first wife, Meera Acharya, suffered from heart disease, and died in 2011. He married his second wife Ramila Pathak in 2012. In 2015, Acharya established The Meera Centre, named for his late wife. The centre provides health and educational services with the aim of contributing to the holistic development of children under five years.
== Career ==
Acharya performed with Hari Prasad Rimal and Jitendra Mahat Avilashi in 2031 BS (1974 AD) on Radio Nepal, then the only radio station in Nepal. In 2032 BS (1975 AD), he joined Rastriya Naach Ghar. He had participated in Gaijatra Mahotsav in 2034 BS (1977 AD). Before performing with Madan Krishna Shrestha and becoming a part of the MAHA Jodi, he worked in the entertainment field for almost six years.
Acharya has also played in films. Lovipapi, Filim, Rajamati, Silu, Balidaan, Je Bho Ramrai bho, and Tah ta Sarhai Bigris Ni Badri are some of his popular films that were immensely popular in the Nepali film industry. His performance in Balidaan is considered to be his one of the finest performance. Some of his remarkable comedy series like Lal Purja, Pandra Gatay, Bhakunde Bhoot, Series of Hari Bahadur and Madan Bahadur, 50/50, and Dashain ko Chyangra, will be cherished by Nepalese even after many years. After 17 years Acharya and Shrestha starred in 2074 multistarrer comedy-drama Satru Gate whose story was written by Acharya. The film became a commercial success and is one of the highest grossing Nepali film ever.
Acharya and his comedy duo are active in social life and were very much noted for their effort in the April Uprising in Nepal, which dethroned the monarchy. The duo was touted for the Presidency by some spheres of the Nepalese population.
== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
All films are in Nepali language or else noted
=== Television programs ===
=== Theater programs ===
== Radio programs ==
== Music ==
Songs
Hari Bansha Acharya (album)
== Publications ==
Gold Medal — published by Kathmandu Publication
Mahasan — published by Sajha Prakashan
Neparujinno Kurasito Seuji (Social and Political Life of Nepal)
China Harayeko Manchhe (autobiography)
Hari Bahadur (novel)
== Positions held ==
Ambassador, UN World Food Program Nepal
Chairman, Kathmandu Animal Treatment Centre
Founder, Jana Andolan Health Relief Fund (established during 2nd People's Movement in 2062–2063 BS)
Executive Director, MaHa Sanchar, Kathmandu
Vice President, Kathmandu Model Hospital (PHECT)
Honorary Life Member, Nepal Association of Victoria Sydney, Australia (20 June 1998)
Honorary Member, Nepal Film Artist National Association
Founder board member, Tilganga Eye Centre, Kathmandu
board member, Spinal Injury Organisation, Kathmandu
board member, Campion Associates, Kathmandu
Member, Rotary Club of Tripureshwor, Kathmandu
Member, Nepal Russia Friendship Society, Kathmandu
Member, Nepal Music Association, Kathmandu
== Awards and honours ==
NEFTA awards
OFA awards
Honoured in Hasya Byangya Hijo Aaja Bholi 2070
Jagadamba Shree Puraskar
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Hari Bansha Acharya at IMDb
== Further reading ==
Neupane, Amar (2015). Karodaun Kasturi. Kathmandu: Fineprint Books. ISBN 9789937893145. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaki_Tsuji#: | Masaki Tsuji | Masaki Tsuji (辻 真先, Tsuji Masaki; born March 23, 1932 in Nagoya) is a Japanese anime screenwriter, mystery writer, manga author, travel critic, essayist, professor as well as mystery fiction novels writer. Tsuji was most active in the business from the 1960s through the 1980s, and worked as a script writer on many popular anime television series for Mushi Production, Toei Animation, and Tokyo Movie Shinsha.
He is well known for his association with the animated adaptations of the works of Osamu Tezuka and Go Nagai.
In April 2007, Tsuji headed Japan's first international anime research lab as part of Digital Hollywood University. On December 4, 2007, Tsuji was given a lifetime achievement award at the 11th Japan Media Arts Festival. On September 24, 2008, Tsuji won a Special Award in the 13th Animation Kobe for his writing work.
== Filmography ==
== See also ==
Honkaku Mystery Writers Club of Japan
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese)
Masaki Tsuji at IMDb
Masaki Tsuji at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_last_words | List of last words | A person's last words, their final articulated words stated prior to death or as death approaches, are often recorded because of the decedent's fame, but sometimes because of interest in the statement itself. (People dying of illness are frequently inarticulate at the end, and in such cases their actual last utterances may not be recorded or considered very important.) Last words may be recorded accurately, or, for a variety of reasons, may not. Reasons can include simple error or deliberate intent. Even if reported wrongly, putative last words can constitute an important part of the perceived historical records or demonstration of cultural attitudes toward death at the time.
Charles Darwin, for example, was reported to have disavowed his theory of evolution in favor of traditional religious faith at his death. This widely disseminated report served the interests of those who opposed Darwin's theory on religious grounds. However, the putative witness had not been at Darwin's deathbed or seen him at any time near the end of his life.
Cultural traditions around the world ascribe special significance to words uttered at or near death, but the form and content of reported last words may depend on cultural context. There is a tradition in Hindu and Buddhist cultures of an expectation of a meaningful farewell statement; Zen monks by long custom are expected to compose a poem on the spot and recite it with their last breath. In Western culture particular attention has been paid to last words which demonstrate deathbed salvation – the repentance of sins and affirmation of faith.
== Chronological list of last words ==
In rising chronological order, with death date specified. If relevant, also the context of the words or the circumstances of death are specified. If there is controversy or uncertainty concerning a person's last words, this is described in footnotes. For additional suicide notes, see Suicide note.
=== Pre-5th century ===
"Wash me well, hold me to your breast, protect me from the earth (lying against) your breast."
— Ḫattušili I, Hittite king (17th century BC), probably addressing his wife or favorite concubine and expressing his fear of death while being gravely ill.
"Draw thy sword, and slay me, that men say not of me, A woman slew him."
("שְׁלֹף חַרְבְּךָ וּמוֹתְתֵנִי--פֶּן-יֹאמְרוּ לִי, אִשָּׁה הֲרָגָתְהוּ")
— Abimelech, king of Shechem (12th century BC). Mortally wounded in battle by a stone thrown by a woman, he asked his armor-bearer to kill him.
"Let me die with the Philistines."
("תָּמוֹת נַפְשִׁי עִם-פְּלִשְׁתִּים")
— Samson, judge of the Israelites (c. 1078 BC), prior to bringing down pillars of the Philistine temple and killing 3000 people along with himself
"Draw thy sword, and thrust me through therewith; lest these uncircumcised come and thrust me through, and abuse me."
("שְׁלֹף חַרְבְּךָ וְדָקְרֵנִי בָהּ, פֶּן-יָבוֹאוּ הָעֲרֵלִים הָאֵלֶּה וּדְקָרֻנִי וְהִתְעַלְּלוּ-בִי")
— Saul, king of Israel (c. 1012 BC), to his servant during the Battle of Mount Gilboa
"My reputation carried me safe through Greece, but the envy it excited at home has been my ruin."
— Anacharsis, Scythian philosopher (6th century BC), mortally wounded with an arrow by his brother, King Caduidas
"You know that during the long time I have been in the world, I have said and done many things; upon mature reflection, I find nothing of which I have cause to repent, excepting a case which I will now submit to your decision, that I may know whether I have acted properly or not.
"On a certain occasion, I chanced to be one of three who sat in judgment on one of my own good friends, who, according to the laws, should have been punished with death. I was greatly embarrassed. One of two things was inevitable—either to violate the law or condemn my friend. After careful consideration, I devised this expedient. I delivered with such address all the most plausible arguments in behalf of the accused, that my two colleagues found no difficulty in acquitting him, and yet I, myself, condemned him to death without assigning any reason for my conduct. Thus I discharged two duties, those of friend and judge; yet I feel in my conscience something which makes me doubt whether my conduct was not criminal."
— Chilon of Sparta, philosopher (6th century BC), speaking to his friends before his death
"It is better to perish here than to kill all these poor beans."
— Pythagoras, Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of Pythagoreanism (495 BC), refusing to escape with his students from the Crotonians through a fava bean field
"All compounded things are subject to vanish. Strive with earnestness."
("वयधम्मा सङखार्आ अप्पमादेन सम्पादेथा")
— Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha, Shakya sage who founded Buddhism (c. 483 BC)
"Heaven has turned against me. No wise ruler arises, and no one in the Empire wishes to make me his teacher. The hour of my death has come."
— Confucius, Chinese philosopher who founded Confucianism (479 BC)
"Can you turn rainy weather into dry?"
— Heraclitus, Greek philosopher (c. 475 BC), asking his physicians for relief from dropsy
"For, no Athenian, through my means, ever wore mourning."
— Pericles, Greek statesman (429 BC), discussing with his friends what his greatest accomplishment had been
"Give the boys a holiday."
— Anaxagoras, Greek philosopher (c. 428 BC), in response to citizens of Lampsacus asking how they could honor his memory
"This to the fair Critias."
— Theramenes, Athenian statesman (404 BC), after swallowing poison hemlock which he had been condemned to drink by Critias
"Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt."
("Κρίτων, ἔφη, τῷ Ἀσκληπιῷ ὀφείλομεν ἀλεκτρυόνα· ἀλλὰ ἀπόδοτε καὶ μὴ ἀμελήσητε")
— Socrates, Greek philosopher (399 BC), just before his death by ingestion of poison hemlock which he was forced to drink as a death sentence
"Men, it is good for me to die on this spot, where honor bids me; but for you, yonder your path lies. Hurry and save yourselves before the enemy can close with us."
— Anaxibius, Spartan admiral (388 BC), before being killed in Athenian ambush
"Then I die happy."
— Epaminondas, Greek general and statesman of Thebes (362 BC). He pulled out the weapon with which he had been impaled in battle once he heard the enemy was fleeing.
"But Alexander, whose kindness to my mother, my wife, and my children I hope the gods will recompense, will doubtless thank you for your humanity to me. Tell him, therefore, in token of my acknowledgement, I give him this right hand."
— Darius III, Achaemenid King of Kings of Persia (330 BC), to a man who gave him water as he was dying
"How can the teeth of wild beasts hurt me, without consciousness?"
("Quid mihi nocebunt ferārum dentes nihil sentienti.")
— Diogenes, Greek Cynic philosopher (323 BC), asking for his body to be thrown outside the city wall for animals to eat
"To the strongest."
("Τῷ κρατίστῳ")
— Alexander the Great, conqueror and king of Macedonia (c. 11 June 323 BC), when asked to whom his vast empire should belong after his death
"Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted."
— Demosthenes, Greek statesman and orator (12 October 322 BC), to Archias of Thurii; Demosthenes had taken poison to avoid arrest by Archias
"Ah! poor hump-back! thy many long years are at last conveying thee to the tomb; thou shalt soon see the palace of Pluto."
— Crates of Thebes, Cynic philosopher (c. 285 BC), surveying himself when about to die
"Now, farewell, and remember all my words!"
— Epicurus, Greek philosopher (270 BC); the majority of his writings are now lost
"I come, I come, why dost thou call for me?"
— Zeno of Citium, Greek philosopher and founder of Stoicism (c. 262 BC), quoting Aeschylus' play Niobe and striking the ground with his hand after sustaining a minor injury, which he considered a sign that he was about to die. He then killed himself.
"Weep not, friend, for me, who dies innocent, by the lawless act of wicked men. My condition is much better than theirs."
— Agis IV, king of Sparta (241 BC), prior to execution by strangulation
"O children, whither are you going?"
— Cratesiclea, queen of Sparta (219 BC), after seeing the children of her family executed prior to her own execution
"These, O Cephalon, are the wages of a king's love."
— Aratus of Sicyon, Hellenistic Greek politician and military commander (213 BC), after expectorating blood while allegedly being slowly poisoned on the orders of Philip V of Macedon, his former friend
"Do not disturb my circles!"
("Μή μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε!")
— Archimedes, Greek mathematician (c. 212 BC), to a Roman soldier who interrupted his geometric experiments during the capture of Syracuse, whereupon the soldier killed him
"Go and give the ass a drink of wine to wash down the figs."
— Chrysippus, Greek philosopher (c. 206 BC), before dying of laughter
"It is well that we have not been every way unfortunate."
— Philopoemen, Greek general and statesman (183 BC), sent a cup of poison to kill himself after being captured in battle. He asked the messenger with the poison about his cavalry and was told that most of them had escaped.
"Let us ease the Roman people of their continual care, who think it long to await the death of an old man."
("Liberemus diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum censent.")
— Hannibal, Carthaginian general (c. 182 BC), in a suicide note
"Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning; for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men."
— Ennius, writer and poet of the Roman Republic (c. 169 BC); lines dictated to be engraved on his memorial. Only fragments of his works now survive.
"It is a cold bath you give me."
— Jugurtha, king of Numidia (104 BC), being lowered by the Romans into a damp dungeon to starve to death
"When will the republic find a citizen like me?"
— Marcus Livius Drusus, Roman politician and reformer (91 BC), after being stabbed by unknown assassin
"Fear not true Pharisees, but greatly fear painted Pharisees."
— Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judea (c. 76 BC), to his wife
"O wretched head-band!—not able to help me even in this small thing!"
— Monime, wife of Mithridates VI (72/71 BC), after failing to hang herself by her crown's strings in fulfillment of her death sentence
"I am free and the subject of a free state."
— Dumnorix, Gallic chieftain, (c. 54 BC), before being killed by Roman cavalry.
"I am not mistaken, surely, in believing you to have been formerly my fellow-soldier."
— Pompey, Roman general and statesman (28 September 48 BC), to Lucius Septimius, one of his assassins
"The imperator is doing well."
("Imperator se bene habet")
— Metellus Scipio, Roman senator and military commander (46 BC), before committing suicide to evade capture following his defeat in the Battle of Hippo Regius.
"You too, my child?"
("Καὶ σὺ, τέκνον")
— Julius Caesar, Roman dictator (15 March 44 BC), discovering that his stepson Brutus was among his murderers.
"O wretched virtue! thou art a bare name! I mistook thee for a substance; but thou thyself art the slave of fortune."
— Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, Roman general and politician, conspirator in Julius Caesar's assassination (September 43 BC), quoting from Euripides prior to execution
"I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck. [...] What would you have done had you come to me as your first victim?"
("Accede, veterane, et, si hoc saltim potes recte facere, incide cervicem [...] 'quid, si ad me inquit primum venissetis?")
— Cicero, Roman statesman (7 December 43 BC), facing an assassin sent by an enemy
"Through too much fondness of life, I have lived to endure the sight of my friend taken by the enemy before my face."
— Gaius Cassius Longinus, Roman senator and general, one of Julius Caesar's assassins (3 October 42 BC), erroneously believing his comrade Titinius had been captured by Mark Antony's forces at the Battle of Philippi. Cassius then killed himself.
"Yes, indeed, we must fly; but not with our feet, but with our hands."
— Marcus Junius Brutus, Roman senator and assassin of Julius Caesar (23 October 42 BC), after defeat at the Battle of Philippi. He then bade his friends farewell before killing himself.
"You must not pity me in this last turn of fate. You should rather be happy in the remembrance of our love, and in the recollection that of all men I was once the most famous and the most powerful, and now, at the end, have fallen not dishonorably, a Roman by a Roman vanquished."
— Mark Antony, Roman politician and general (1 August 30 BC); to Cleopatra before his suicide
"Here thou art, then!"
("Τόσο εδώ!")
— Cleopatra, pharaoh of Egypt (12 August 30 BC), right before she reportedly committed suicide by letting an asp bite her
"Extremely well, and as became the descendant of so many kings."
— Charmion, servant to Cleopatra (12 August 30 BC), when one of Emperor Augustus' men asked her, "Was this well done of your lady, Charmion?" She then fell dead.
"Death twitches my ear. 'Live,' he says. 'I am coming.'"
— Virgil, Roman poet (21 September 19 BC)
"Have I played the part well? Then applaud, as I exit."
("Acta est fabula, plaudite.")
— Augustus, First Roman Emperor (19 August 14 AD)
"It is finished. \ Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit."
("τετέλεσται. / πάτερ, εἰς χεῖράς σου παρατίθεμαι τὸ πνεῦμά μου.")
— Jesus, founder of Christianity (c. 30 AD), right before his death by crucifixion
"Lord Jesus, receive my spirit. Lord, lay not this sin to their charge."
— Saint Stephen, early Christian deacon and protomartyr (c. 34 AD), while being stoned to death
"I am still alive!"
— Caligula, Roman emperor (24 January 41 AD), after being fatally stabbed
"It is not painful, Pætus."
("Non dolet, Paete!")
— Arria, Roman woman (42 AD), to her husband, Aulus Caecina Paetus. He had been condemned to death but given permission to kill himself; when he hesitated to do so, his wife stabbed herself first and handed the dagger to him.
"Strike here! Level your rage against the womb which gave birth to such a monster."
— Agrippina the Younger, mother of Nero (23 March 59 AD), to her murderer
"Asunder flies the man— / No single wound the gaping rupture seems, / Where trickling crimson flows the tender streams; / But from an opening horrible and wide / A thousand vessels pour the bursting tide: / At once the winding channel's course was broke, / Where wandering life her mazy journey took."
— Lucan, Roman poet (30 April 65 AD), forced to commit suicide after joining in a conspiracy against Nero. He died quoting lines from his own epic poem Pharsalia.
"Too late; is this your fidelity?"
("Sero... Haec est fides")
— Nero, Roman emperor (9 June 68 AD), to a soldier trying to save him after his suicide
"Strike, if it be for the Romans' good."
("Ferirent si ita e republica videretur.")
— Galba, Roman emperor (15 January 69 AD), prior to beheading by supporters of Otho
"Go and show yourself to the soldiers, lest they cut you to pieces for being accessory to my death."
— Otho, Roman emperor (16 April 69 AD), to a freedman, prior to committing suicide
"Yet I was once your Emperor."
— Vitellius, Roman emperor (22 December 69 AD), prior to his killing on the Gemonian stairs
"Woe, I think I'm turning into a god... An emperor should die on his feet."
("Vae, puto, deus fio... imperatorem stantem oportet mori.")
— Vespasian, Roman emperor (24 June 79 AD), ironically alluding to the Roman practice of posthumously deifying former emperors, before he collapsed and died when attempting to stand up.
"Fortune favors the bold. Make for where Pomponianus is."
— Pliny the Elder, Roman military commander and author (October 79 AD), after being advised to turn back from Herculaneum during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
"My life is taken from me, though I have done nothing to deserve it; for there is no action of mine of which I should repent, but one."
— Titus, Roman emperor (13 September 81 AD)
"Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!"
("שְׁמַע יִשְׂרָאֵל יְהוָה אֱלֹהֵינוּ יְהוָה אֶחָד")
— Rabbi Akiva, Jewish scholar and sage (28 September 135 AD), reciting the Shema Yisrael while being executed by the Romans
"O my poor soul, whither art thou going?"
— Hadrian, Roman emperor (10 July 138 AD)
"O Lord God Almighty, Father of Thy well-beloved Son, Jesus Christ, by whom we have received knowledge of Thee; God of angels, powers, and every creature that lives before Thee; I thank Thee that Thou hast graciously thought me worthy of this day and hour, that I may receive a portion in the number of Thy martyrs, and drink of Christ's cup, for the resurrection of both soul and body unto life eternal, in the incorruptibleness of the Holy Spirit. Among them may I be admitted this day, as an acceptable sacrifice, as Thou, O true and faithful God, hast prepared, foreshown, and accomplished. Wherefore, I praise Thee for all Thy mercies. I bless Thee. I glorify Thee, with Jesus Christ, Thy beloved Son, the Eternal, to Whom, with Thee and the Holy Spirit, be glory now and forever."
— Polycarp, Christian bishop of Smyrna (155 AD), prior to martyrdom by burning and spearing
"Equanimity."
("Æquanimitas.")
— Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor (7 March 161 AD), giving the password for the night-watch
"You may go home, the show is over."
— Demonax, Greek Cynic philosopher (c. 170 AD)
"Go to the rising sun, for I am setting. Think more of death than of me."
— Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor and philosopher (17 March 180 AD)
"But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?""
— Didius Julianus, Roman emperor (2 June 193 AD), to his assassin.
"Hurry, if anything remains for me to do."
("Adeste, si quid mihi restat agendum.")
— Septimius Severus, Roman emperor (4 February 211 AD)
"I am roasted,—now turn me, and eat me."
("Assatus est; jam versa et manduca.")
— Saint Lawrence, Christian deacon (10 August 258 AD), while being burned alive on a gridiron
"God be thanked."
— Cyprian, Christian bishop of Carthage and martyr (14 September 258 AD), sentenced to death by beheading
"I am making my last effort to return that which is divine in me to that which is divine in the Universe."
— Plotinus, Hellenistic philosopher (270 AD)
"And let my word be kept secret by you, so that no one knows the place but you alone. For in the resurrection of the dead I shall receive my body incorruptible once again from the Savior. Distribute my clothing. To Bishop Athanasius give the one sheepskin and the cloak on which I lie, which he gave to me new, but I have by now worn out. And to Bishop Serapion give the other sheepskin, and you keep the hair garment. And now God preserve you, children, for Antony is leaving and is with you no longer."
— Anthony the Great, Christian monk from Egypt (17 January 356 AD)
"How am I advanced, despising you that are upon the earth!"
— Marcus of Arethusa, Christian bishop and martyr (362 AD), hung up in a honey-smeared basket for bees to sting him to death
"And yet Thou hast conquered, O Galilean!"
("Vicisti, Galilaee.")
— Julian, Roman emperor (26 June 363 AD), mortally wounded in battle. He had rejected Christianity in favor of paganism; according to some accounts, he was assassinated by a Christian.
"In peace I will sleep with Him and take my rest."
— Saint Monica, mother of Augustine of Hippo (387 AD)
"My dear one, with whom I lived in love so long, make room for me, for this is my grave, and in death we shall not be divided."
— Severus of Ravenna, Bishop of Ravenna (c. 348 AD). According to a traditional story, Severus laid himself in his family tomb alongside his dead wife and daughter, then died.
"Old though he be, he is the best of all."
— Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (4 April 397 AD), when Simplician was mentioned as his possible successor
"What dost thou here, thou cruel beast?"
— Martin of Tours, third bishop of Tours (8 November 397 AD), to the Devil
=== 5th to 14th centuries ===
"Glory to God for all things! Amen."
("δόξα τῷ θεῷ πάντων ἕνεκεν")
— John Chrysostom, Early Church Father and Archbishop of Constantinople (14 September 407), while traveling deeper into exile
"And me as I am going towards the God of mine, and I thank His name, as the Lord gave me everything bless His name. And I am telling you, to stand firm on your faith and to search for death for Christ for His name and you will find the permanent glory. I for my life glorified you and all of our race. And do not insult our home and do not abandon the love of the Greeks."
("მე ესე რა წარვალ წინაშე ღმრთისა ჩემისა, და ვმადლობ სახელსა მისსა, რამეთუ არა დამაკლო გამორჩეულთა წმიდათა მისთა. აწ გამცნებ თქუენ, რათა მტკიცედ სარწმუნოებასა ზედა სდგეთ და ეძიებდეთ ქრისტესთჳს სიკუდილსა სახელსა მისსა ზედა, რათა წარუვალი დიდება მოიგოთ. მე ჴორციელებრითა დიდებითა გადიდენ თქუენ ნათესავთა ჩემთა. და სახლსა ჩუენსა ნუ შეურაცხჰყოფთ, და სიყუარულსა ბერძენთასა ნუ დაუტეობთ".)
— Vakhtang I, Georgian monarch (502/22), to his son Dachi.
"Here must I stop. What follows, let Baithen write."
— Columba, Irish abbot and missionary evangelist (8 June 597), ceasing to transcribe a Psalter
"Will you govern it any better?"
— Phocas, Eastern Roman emperor (3 October 610), to his successor Heraclius before being executed
"Oh God, the Friend Most High!" or "The prayer, the prayer! And fear Allah with regard to those whom your right hands possess"
("اللَّهُمَّ الرَّفِيقَ الأَعْلَى") or :("الصلاة ، الصلاة! واتقوا الله في من يملك يمينكم")
— Muhammad, Prophet of God in Islam (8 June 632)
"My children, these fearful forests and these barren rocks shall be adorned with cities and temples, where the name of Jesus shall be openly adored. Ye shall abandon your precarious and hard chase, and assemble together under temples lofty as those pines, and graceful as the crown of the palm.
"Here shall my Saviour be known in all the simplicity of his doctrines. Ah! would that I might witness it; but I have seen those things in a vision. But I faint! I am weary! My earthly journey is finished! Receive my blessing. Go! and be kind one to another."
— Goar of Aquitaine, priest and hermit (6 July 649), dying in Oberwesel, Austrasia
"I desire that whatever merits I may have gained by good works may fall upon other people. May I be born again with them in the heaven of the blessed, be admitted to the family of Mi-le, and serve the Buddha of the future, who is full of kindness and affection. When I descend again upon earth, to pass through other forms of existence, I desire at every new birth to fulfill my duties toward Buddha, and arrive at the end to the highest perfect intelligence."
— Xuanzang, Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler and translator (5 February 664)
"You brothers must get along like fish and water and never fight each other for titles. If not, you will surely become the laughingstock of our neighbors."
— Yŏn Kaesomun, military dictator and generalissimo of Goguryeo (c. 666), to his sons
"You speak truth, all is finished now. Glory to God."
— Bede, English Benedictine monk (26 May 735); to a scribe to whom he was dictating a translation of the Gospel of John
"Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit."
— Charlemagne, European monarch (28 January 814), quoting Jesus
"Out! out!"
("Huz! huz!")
— Louis the Pious, King of the Franks (20 June 840), after turning his face to the wall before dying
"The piglets would grunt if they knew how the old boar is suffering!"
("Gnyðja mundu grísir, ef þeir vissi, hvat inn gamli þyldi.")
— Ragnar Lodbrok, semi-legendary Norse chieftain (c. 850) after being cast into a snakepit by King Ælla of Northumbria
"Thou my dear son, set thee now beside me, and I will deliver thee true instructions. My son, I feel that my hour is coming. My countenance is wan. My days are almost done. We must now part. I shall to another world, and thou shalt be left alone in all my wealth. I pray thee (for thou art my dear child) strive to be a father, and a lord to thy people. Be thou the children's father, and the widow's friend. Comfort thou the poor, and shelter the weak; and, with all thy might, right that which is wrong. And, son, govern thyself, by law; then shall the Lord love thee, and God above all things shall be thy reward. Call thou upon him to advise thee in all thy need, and so shall he help thee, the better to compass that which thou wouldest."
— Alfred the Great, king of the Anglo-Saxons (26 October 899), to his son, Edward the Elder
"I have now reigned above fifty years in victory or peace; beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my enemies, and respected by my allies. Riches and honors, power and pleasure, have waited on my call, nor does any earthly blessing appear to have been wanting to my felicity. In this situation, I have diligently numbered the days of pure and genuine happiness which have fallen to my lot: they amount to Fourteen:—O man! place not thy confidence in this present world!"
— Abd al-Rahman III, first Caliph of Córdoba (15 October 961)
"You urge me in vain. I am not the man to provide Christian flesh for pagan teeth to devour, and it would be so acting if I delivered unto you that which the poor have laid by for their subsistence."
("Christianorum carnes paganis dentibus conterendas dare. Ego equidem id faciam, si quod paupertas ad vitem paraverat, vestries hoc morsibus abutendum tradam.")
— Ælfheah of Canterbury, Archbishop of Canterbury (19 April 1012), refusing to pay ransom before being killed by his Danish captors
"How shameful it is that I, who could not die in so many battles, should have been saved for the ignominious death of a cow! At least clothe me in my impenetrable breastplate, gird me with my sword, place my helmet on my head, my shield in my left hand, my gilded battle-axe in my right, that I, the bravest of soldiers, may die like a soldier."
— Siward, Earl of Northumbria (1055), dying of dysentery
"I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore I die in exile."
("Dilexi iustitiam et odivi iniquitatem propterea morior in exilio.")
— Pope Gregory VII (25 May 1085), in exile in Salerno due to his conflicts with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
"Then to our blessed Lady Mary, the mother of God, I commend myself. May she, by her holy intercessions, reconcile me to our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. God be merciful to—"
— William the Conqueror, King of England (9 September 1087), after hearing bell ringing Prime
"I shall not long hesitate between conscience and the Pope, for I shall soon appear in the presence of God, to be acquitted, I hope; to be condemned, I fear."
— Berengar of Tours, French Christian theologian (6 January 1088), dying in ascetic solitude on the island of Saint-Cosme near Tours
"Shoot, Walter, in the devil's name!"
— William II of England (2 August 1100), to Walter Tirel, who allegedly shot the king in a hunting accident
"Yes, if it be His will, I shall obey it willingly. But were He to let me stay with you a little longer till I have resolved a problem about the origin of the soul, I would gladly accept the boon; for I do not know whether anyone will work it out when I am gone. If I could but eat, I think I should pick up a little strength. I feel no pain in any part of my body; only I cannot retain nourishment, and that exhausts me."
— Anselm of Canterbury, Archbishop of Canterbury (21 April 1109)
"I wished to do more harm than I could."
("Plus volui nocere quam potui.")
— Ranulf Flambard, Norman Bishop of Durham and government minister (5 September 1128)
"I don't know."
("Je ne sais.")
— Peter Abelard, French philosopher and theologian (21 April 1142)
"May God's will be done."
— Bernard of Clairvaux, Burgundian abbot (20 August 1153), on being told he was dying
"Let us complete the Service of Offering, the rest of Holy Mass I will celebrate elsewhere!"
("Låt oss avsluta mässoffret, resten av gudstjänsten ska jag fira på annan ort!")
— Eric the Holy, Swedish king (18 May 1160) just before being decapitated by his successor Magnus Henriksson
"In death at last let me rest with Abelard."
— Héloïse, French nun, philosopher, writer, scholar and abbess (16 May 1163–64?)
"For the name of Jesus and the protection of the church I am ready to embrace death."
— Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (29 December 1170), to his murderers
"Lord, have mercy upon me. Wilt thou break a bruised reed?"
— Andronikos I Komnenos, Byzantine Emperor (12 September 1185), lynched by his former subjects
"Now let the world go as it will; I care for nothing more."
— Henry II of England (6 July 1189), on being told his son John was one of those conspiring against him
"When I am buried, carry my winding-sheet on the point of a spear, and say these words: Behold the spoils which Saladin carries with him! Of all his victories, realms, and riches, nothing remains to him but this."
— Saladin, first sultan of Egypt and Syria (4 March 1193)
"Youth, I forgive thee! Take off his chains, give him 100 shillings, and let him go."
— Richard I of England (6 April 1199), with reference to the young man who had mortally wounded him with a crossbow
"Under the feet of my friars."
— Saint Dominic, Castilian Catholic priest, founder of the Dominican Order, when asked where he wanted to be buried (6 August 1221)
"I have sinned against my brother, the ass."
— Francis of Assisi, Italian Catholic friar (3 October 1226)
"Let not my end disarm you, and on no account weep or keen for me, lest the enemy be warned of my death."
("Миний төгсгөлийг чамаас гуйхгүй, ямар ч шалтгаангүйгээр битгий уйлж, дуулгавартай байгаарай, дайсан минь миний үхлээс сэрэмжлүүлцгээе.")
— Genghis Khan, warlord and khan of Mongolia (18 August 1227)
"I see my God. He calls me to Him."
— Anthony of Padua, Portuguese Catholic priest and Franciscan friar (13 June 1231)
"Don't cut my face."
("Ikke hugg meg i ansiktet")
— Skule Bårdsson, Norwegian nobleman (24 May 1240), before being killed by supporters of King Haakon IV of Norway
"By the arm of St. James, it is time to die."
— Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester (4 August 1265), before dying at the Battle of Evesham
"O my mother! how deep will be thy sorrow at the news of this day!"
— Conradin, last direct heir of the House of Hohenstaufen (29 October 1268), prior to execution by beheading at the age of 16
"I will enter thy house. I will worship in Thy sanctuary."
— Louis IX of France (25 August 1270)
"I have written and taught much about this very holy Body, and about the other sacraments in the faith of Christ, and about the Holy Roman Church, to whose correction I expose and submit everything I have written."
— Thomas Aquinas, Italian dominican theologian and philosopher (7 March 1274), as he received his last rites
"I am on the way to Spires to visit the kings, my predecessors."
— Rudolf I of Germany (15 July 1291); he was buried at Speyer Cathedral
"Carry my bones before you on your march, for the rebels will not be able to endure the sight of me, alive or dead."
— Edward I of England (7 July 1307), to his son, Edward II of England, while dying during a war with Scotland
"Pope Clement, Chevalier Guillaume de Nogaret, King Philip! I summon you to the Tribunal of Heaven before the year is out!"
— Jacques de Molay, last Grand Master of the Knights Templar (11 or 18 March 1314), before being burned at the stake
"King of heaven, do thou have mercy on me, for the king of earth hath forsaken me."
— Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster (22 March 1322), before beheading for treason against his cousin, Edward II of England
"I have not told half of what I saw."
("Non ho detto metà di quello che ho visto.")
— Marco Polo, Venetian traveller in Asia (c. January 9, 1324), responding to skepticism about the content of his memoir, The Travels of Marco Polo
"I give thee thanks, O God, for all thy benefits, and with all the pains of my soul I humbly beseech thy mercy to give me remission of those sins I have wickedly committed against thee; and of all mortal men whom willingly or ignorantly I have offended, with all my heart I desire forgiveness."
— Edward the Black Prince, heir to the English throne (8 June 1376)
"Jesus."
— Edward III of England (21 June 1377), kissing a crucifix
"Ah, Jesus!"
— Charles V of France (16 September 1380)
"Because they are all under my command, they are sworn to do what I bid them."
— Wat Tyler, leader of the Peasants' Revolt (15 June 1381), prior to being killed by officers loyal to Richard II of England
"I am a dead man! Lord, have mercy upon me!"
— Gaston III, Count of Foix (1 August 1391)
=== 15th century ===
"Never yet has death been frightened away by screaming."
— Timur, Turco-Mongol conqueror, founder of the Timurid Empire (17–19 February 1405)
"We are now to sail home, at once!"
("Nu seglar vi hem, genast!")
— Margaret, Queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (28 October 1412) afflicted with the plague in Flensburg harbor
"O, holy simplicity!"
("O Sancta Simplicitas!")
— Jan Hus, Czech theologian and church reformer (6 July 1415). While being burned at the stake for heresy, he saw an old woman throw a small amount of brushwood onto the fire.
"O Lord God, Father Almighty, have mercy upon me, and be merciful unto mine offences, for thou knowest how sincerely I have loved Thy truth."
— Jerome of Prague, Czech scholastic philosopher and theologian (30 May 1416), burned for heresy
"Make my skin into drumheads for the Bohemian cause."
— Jan Žižka, Czech general (11 October 1424)
"I die content, after living the prescribed time, and leaving you, my sons, in affluence and health, placed in such a situation as, if you follow my example, will enable you to live honored and respected. I recall nothing in my life with so much pleasure as having given offence to no one, and having tried to serve all men as far as possible. I advise you to act thus, if you would live securely, accepting only those honors as the laws and favor of the state confer upon you; for it is the exercise of power that has been violently—not voluntarily—obtained, that occasions hatred and strife."
— Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, Italian banker (February 1429)
"Hold the cross high so I may see it through the flames!"
— Joan of Arc, French military leader and mystic (30 May 1431), while she was burning at the stake
"Fie on life! Speak no more of it to me."
("Fi de la vie! qu'on ne m'en parle plus.")
— Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (16 August 1445)
"O Gabriel, Gabriel, better would it have been for you to have been neither pope, nor cardinal, nor bishop, but to have finished your days as you commenced them, following peaceably in the monastery the exercises of your order."
— Pope Eugene IV (born Gabriele Condulmer) (23 February 1447)
"Will not all my riches save me? What, is there no bribing death?"
— Henry Beaufort (11 April 1447), Cardinal, Bishop of Winchester
"God forbid that I should live as an Emperor without an Empire. As my city falls, I will fall with it. Whosoever wishes to escape, let him save himself if he can, and whoever is ready to face death, let him follow me."
- Constantine XI (29 May 1453), Byzantine Empire, before charging into ottoman lines during the Fall of Constantinople, he was never seen again.
"Were I born the son of a farmer, and became a friar of the Abrojo, and not the king of Castile."
"Naciera yo hijo de un labrador e fuera fraile del Abrojo, que no rey de Castilla"
— John II of Castile (22 July 1454), King of Castile
"I was born as a lily in the garden, and like the lily I grew, as my age advanced / I became old and had to die, and so I withered and died."
— Pachacuti (c. 1471/1472), Sapa Inca and founder of the Inca Empire, poem composed on his deathbed
"Our Lady of Embrun, my good mistress, help me."
("Notre dame d'Embrun, ma bonne maitresse, aidez moi.")
— Louis XI, King of France (30 August 1483)
"Treason! treason!"
— Richard III of England (22 August 1485), when deserted by his best troops at the Battle of Bosworth Field
"I know only Jesus the crucified."
— Wessel Gansfort, Dutch theologian and humanist (4 October 1489)
"I hope never again to commit a mortal sin, nor even a venial one, if I can help it."
— Charles VIII of France (7 April 1498)
"My Lord died innocent of all crimes, for my sins; and shall not I willingly give my soul for the love of Him."
— Girolamo Savonarola, Italian Dominican friar (23 May 1498), when asked before his execution if he was resigned to death
=== 16th century ===
"All right, all right, I'm coming. Wait a moment."
("Va bene, va bene, arrivo. Aspettate un momento.")
— Pope Alexander VI (18 August 1503)
"Into Your hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit."
("In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum.")
— Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer (20 May 1506), quoting Jesus
"We heartily desire our executors to consider how behoofful it is to be prayed for."
— Henry VII of England (21 April 1509)
"I believe."
— Georges d'Amboise, French Roman Catholic cardinal and minister of state (25 May 1510)
"That is false. I always have served my king loyally and sought to add to his domains."
— Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Spanish explorer, governor and conquistador (January 1519), on hearing a herald call him a "usurper of the rights of the Crown" while on the way to his execution by decapitation
"I have offended God and mankind because my work did not reach the quality it should have."
("Ho offeso Dio e l'umanità perché il mio lavoro non ha raggiunto la qualità che dovrebbe avere.")
— Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist and scientist (2 May 1519), to King Francis I of France
"Happy."
— Raphael, Italian artist (6 April 1520)
"I confide to your care my beloved children, the most precious jewels I can leave you. The great monarch beyond the ocean will interest himself to see that they come into their inheritance, if you present before him their just claims. I know your master will do this, if for no other reason, then for the kindness I have shown the Spaniards, though it has occasioned my ruin. For all my misfortunes, Malinche, I bear you no ill will."
— Moctezuma II, Huey Tlatoani or Emperor of the Aztec Empire (29 June 1520), to Hernán Cortés (calling him by the name of his interpreter, La Malinche)
"I have been murdered; no remedy can prevent my speedy death."
— Pope Leo X (1 December 1521), rumored to have died by poison
"I am curious to see what happens in the next world to one who dies unshriven."
— Pietro Perugino, Italian artist (1523), declining the last rites
"I have already confessed my sins to God."
— Franz von Sickingen, German knight and Protestant leader (7 May 1523), when his chaplain asked if he wanted to confess prior to his death defending his castle
"At least I may die facing the enemy."
— Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, French knight (30 April 1524), mortally wounded at the Battle of the Sesia (1524)
"I desire to go to hell, and not to heaven. In the former place I shall enjoy the company of popes, kings, and princes, while in the latter are only beggars, monks, hermits, and apostles."
— Niccolò Machiavelli (21 June 1527), Italian Renaissance diplomat, philosopher and writer
"How long, Lord, shall darkness cover this land? How long wilt thou suffer this tyranny of men? Lord Jesus, receive my spirit."
— Patrick Hamilton, Scottish churchman (29 February 1528), while being burned at the stake
"Master Kyngston, I pray you have me commended to his Grace, and beseech him, in my behalf, to call to mind all things that have passed between us, especially concerning good Queen Katharine and himself, and then shall his Grace's conscience know whether I have offended him or not. He is a prince of most royal courage, and rather than miss any part of his will, he will endanger one-half of his kingdom; and, I do assure you, I have often knelt before him, sometimes for three hours together, to persuade him from his appetite, and could not prevail.
"And, Master Kyngston, had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs. But this is my just reward for my pains and study, not regarding my service to God, but only my duty to my Prince."
— Thomas Wolsey, English archbishop, statesman and cardinal (29 November 1530); to the Lieutenant of the Tower of London, after falling ill on the way to London under arrest for treason
"I give your brothers to your keeping. Be faithful to them and all the people."
— Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire and first Emperor of the Mughal dynasty (26 December 1530)
"I pray you, good people, be not the worse to these men on my account, as though they were the authors of my death."
— Thomas Bilney, English Christian martyr (19 August 1531). While he awaited burning for heresy, the friars and people present argued over who was responsible for Bilney's death; the friars threatened to withhold alms from the people if they were blamed
"Can this be considered a calamity? Well! they can, indeed, kill the body, but they are not able to kill the soul."
— Huldrych Zwingli, priest and leader of the Reformation in Switzerland (11 October 1531), mortally wounded at the Battle of Kappel
"O ye papists: behold, ye look for miracles, and here now ye may see a miracle, for in this fire I feel no more pain than if I were in a bed of down, but it is to me as sweet as a bed of roses."
— James Bainham, English lawyer and Protestant reformer (30 April 1532), while burning at the stake for heresy
"That is enough to last till I get to Heaven."
— William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (22 August 1532), when a servant told him he had thirty pounds left
"Father, into Thy hands I commend my spirit."
— Ludovica Albertoni, Italian noblewoman, professed member of the Third Order of Saint Francis (31 January 1533), quoting Jesus
"This is not my home."
— Ludovico Ariosto, Italian poet (6 July 1533)
"What have I done, or my children, that I should meet such a fate? And from your hands, too, you who have met with friendship and kindness from my people who have received nothing but benefits from my hands."
— Atahualpa, last Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire (26 July 1533), prior to execution by strangling
"Begone thou wretched beast, which hast utterly undone me."
("Abi perdita bestia, que me perdidisti.")
— Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German polymath and occultist (18 February 1535), to his black dog (allegedly his familiar)
"I die the King's good servant, and God's first."
— Thomas More, Lord High Chancellor of Britain (6 July 1535), prior to beheading for treason
"Mine eyes desire thee only. Farewell."
("Oculi mei te solum desiderant. Vale.")
— Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England (7 January 1536), closing her last letter to her former husband, Henry VIII of England
"Masters, I pray you pray for me, for I have deserved this death."
— Mark Smeaton, musician in the household of Queen Anne Boleyn (17 May 1536), prior to beheading for alleged treason and adultery
"Oh God, have pity on my soul. Oh God, have pity on my soul."
— Anne Boleyn, Queen of England (19 May 1536), prior to her execution by beheading
"Lord! Lord! make an end! make an end!"
("Domine! Domine! fac finem! fac finem!")
— Erasmus, Dutch Catholic priest and humanist scholar (12 July 1536)
"Lord, open the King of England's eyes."
— William Tyndale, English scholar and Bible translator (c. 6 October 1536), before being strangled and burned at the stake for heresy
"None but Christ! None but Christ!"
— John Lambert, English Protestant martyr (22 November 1538), while being burned at the stake
"May an avenger arise from my bones."
("Exariare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor.")
— Filippo Strozzi the Younger, Florentine banker (18 December 1538). He carved this line from Virgil's Aeneid on a mantelpiece with his sword as his suicide note.
"Death cannot destroy us, for it is destroyed already by Him for Whose sake we suffer."
— Jerome Russell, Franciscan friar (1539), burned for heresy in Scotland
"God be merciful to me, a sinner; Lord Jesus receive my spirit! Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam."
— Thomas Forret, vicar of Dollar, Clackmannanshire, burned for heresy (28 February/1 March 1539), quoting Psalm 51
"Did you envy my happiness?"
— Francisco de San Roman, Spanish merchant and Protestant martyr (1540). While burning at the stake, he moved his head in a way which caused the friars to believe he had recanted. Upon his removal from the flames, he asked them this question and was then returned to the fire.
"I die in the traditional faith."
— Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex (28 July 1540), prior to beheading for treason and heresy
"I trust in no good works that ever I did, but only in the death of Christ. I do not doubt but through Him to inherit the kingdom of Heaven. But imagine not that I speak against good works, for they are to be done, and verily they that do them not shall never enter into the kingdom of God."
— Robert Barnes, English reformer and Protestant martyr (30 July 1540), while being burned at the stake for heresy
"Blessed are they who suffer persecution for righteousness' sake."
— Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury (27 May 1541), quoting Matthew 5:10 while an incompetent executioner attempted to behead her
"Jesu!"
— Francisco Pizarro, Spanish conquistador (26 June 1541), after being stabbed by assassins
"Luis de Moscoso."
— Hernando de Soto, Spanish explorer and conquistador (21 May 1542), naming his successor
"It [the Crown of Scotland] came with a lass, and it will go with a lass."
("It came wi a lass, it'll gang wi a lass.")
— James V of Scotland (15 December 1542), on being informed of the birth of his daughter and successor, Mary, Queen of Scots
"Now, O Lord, set thy servant free."
— Nicolaus Copernicus, mathematician and astronomer (24 May 1543), paraphrasing Luke 2:29
"We are beggars, this is true."
("Wir sind Bettler, Hoc est Verum.")
— Martin Luther, German theologian who started the Protestant Reformation (18 February 1546)
"Lo! here is a token that I forgive thee; my heart, do thine office."
— George Wishart, Scottish Protestant reformer and martyr (1 March 1546), kissing one of his executioners on the cheek after the man asked for his forgiveness
"I am a priest; I am a priest! Fie! Fie! All is gone."
— David Beaton, Archbishop of St Andrews, final Scottish Cardinal prior to the Scottish Reformation (29 May 1546), during his assassination
"I came not hither to deny my Lord and Master."
— Anne Askew, English writer and poet (16 July 1546), when offered letter of pardon before being burned at the stake for heresy
"All is lost! Monks, monks, monks!"
— Henry VIII, King of England (28 January 1547)
"Farewell, and remember me."
— Margaret of Valois-Angoulême, Queen of Navarre (21 December 1549)
"Jesu, Maria!"
— George Martinuzzi, Archbishop of Esztergom (16 December 1551), while being assassinated
"Bring down the curtain, the farce is played out."
— François Rabelais, French writer and physician (1553)
"Lord take my spirit."
— Edward VI of England (6 July 1553)
"Jesus, Son of the eternal God, have mercy on me!"
— Michael Servetus, Spanish theologian, physician and humanist (27 October 1553), while being burned at the stake for heresy on a pyre of his own books
"Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit."
— Lady Jane Grey, de facto Queen of England and Ireland (12 February 1554), quoting Jesus prior to her beheading
"What I then said I unsay now; and what I now say is the truth."
— Thomas Wyatt the Younger, English politician and leader of Wyatt's rebellion (11 April 1554), exculpating Princess Elizabeth and Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon, prior to execution by beheading for treason
"Lord, receive my spirit."
— John Rogers, English clergyman, Bible translator and commentator (4 February 1555), prior to burning at the stake for heresy
"Welcome the cross of Christ! welcome everlasting life!"
— Laurence Saunders, English Protestant martyr (8 February 1555), kissing the stake at which he was to be burned
"If you love my soul, away with it!"
— John Hooper, Anglican Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester, Protestant martyr (9 February 1555), refusing a pardon prior to burning at the stake for heresy
"Merciful Father of heaven, for Jesus Christ my Savior's sake, receive my soul into Thy hand."
— Rowland Taylor, English Protestant martyr (9 February 1555), while being burned at the stake for heresy
"I am not afraid. Lord, Lord, Lord, receive my spirit!"
— William Hunter, English silk-weaver and Protestant martyr (27 March 1555), while being burned at the stake for heresy
"Be of good comfort, brother, for we shall have a merry supper with the Lord this night: if there be any way to heaven on horseback or in fiery chariots, this is it."
— John Bradford, English Reformer and Protestant martyr (1 July 1555), to John Leaf, a fellow martyr, prior to being burned at the stake
"Let the flames come near me. I cannot burn! I cannot burn!"
— Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London (16 October 1555). While burning at the stake for heresy, only his lower limbs burned away.
"Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle by God's grace in England as (I trust) shall never be put out."
— Hugh Latimer, former Bishop of Worcester (16 October 1555); to Nicholas Ridley while they were burning at the stake for heresy
"Like Peter, I have erred, unlike Peter, I have not wept."
("Erravi cum Petro, sed non flevi cum Petro.")
— Stephen Gardiner, English bishop and politician (12 November 1555)
"Lord Jesus, receive my spirit... I see the heavens open and Jesus standing at the right hand of God."
— Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (21 March 1556), alluding to Acts 7:56 prior to execution by burning
"Now I'm oiled. Keep me from the rats."
— Pietro Aretino, Italian writer and blackmailer (21 October 1556), after receiving the last rites
"Lord Jesu!"
— Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (8 January 1557)
"Lord, have mercy upon me! Pray, people, while there is time."
— Walter Milne, last Protestant martyr burned in Scotland before the Scottish Reformation (28 April 1558)
"Now, Lord, I go! Ay, Jesus!"
— Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (21 September 1558), looking at a crucifix
"After I am dead, you will find Calais written upon my heart."
— Mary I of England (17 November 1558). French forces had captured Calais from England earlier that year.
"Nothing else but heaven."
— Philip Melanchthon, German Lutheran reformer (19 April 1560), when asked if he wanted anything
"Farewell, thou who art so beautiful and so cruel; who killest me and whom I cannot cease to love."
("Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me tues et que je ne puis cesser d’aimer.")
— Pierre de Bocosel de Chastelard, French poet (22 February 1563), addressing the window of Holyrood Palace before being hanged for hiding under the bed of Mary, Queen of Scots
"I'm still learning."
("Ancora imparo.")
— Michelangelo, Italian artist and poet (18 February 1564)
"Thou, Lord, bruisest me; but I am abundantly satisfied, since it is from thy hand."
— John Calvin, French theologian and Protestant reformer, principal developer of Calvinism (27 May 1564)
"Tomorrow, at sunrise, I shall no longer be here."
("Vous ne me trouverez pas vivant au lever du soleil.")
— Nostradamus, French seer (2 July 1566), correctly predicting his death
"I desire to die and be with Christ."
— Roger Ascham, English scholar and didactic writer (30 December 1568)
"Victory! Victory!"
("Vittoria! Vittoria!")
— Bartolomeo Bartocci, Italian trader (25 May 1569), while burning at the stake for heresy
"I am he; respect my gray hairs, young man!"
— Gaspard II de Coligny, Admiral of France (24 August 1572), in response to one of his assassins asking, "Art thou Coligny?"
"Now it is come."
— John Knox, founder of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland (24 November 1572)
"Nurse, nurse, what murder! what blood! Oh! I have done wrong. God pardon me!"
— Charles IX of France (30 May 1574)
"Lord God, into Thy Holy Hands I commit my spirit."
("Herre Gud, uti dina heliga händer antvardar jag min anda.")
— Eric XIV, ex-King of Sweden (26 February 1577) when dying in prison from arsenic poisoning, quoting Jesus
"Royal freedom will only be lost with life"
("A liberdade real só há de perder-se com a vida")
— Sebastian of Portugal (4 August 1578), when being advised to surrender, and to hand over his sword to the victors of the Battle of Alcácer Quibir
"It matters little to me; for if I am but once dead they may bury me or not bury me as they please. They may leave my corpse to rot where I die if they wish."
— George Buchanan, Scottish historian and humanist scholar (28 September 1582), when his servant asked who would pay for his burial after Buchanan told him to distribute his property among the poor
"Over my spirit flash and float in divine radiancy the bright and glorious visions of the world to which I go."
— Teresa of Ávila, Spanish Carmelite nun, mystic and author (4 or 15 October 1582); last words uncertain
"Too late."
— Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (11 December 1582), on learning that the King was to visit him
"We are as neare to Heaven by sea as by land."
— Humphrey Gilbert, English adventurer and explorer (9 September 1583), prior to sinking of HMS Squirrel with all hands
"God have mercy upon me, and upon this poor nation."
("Mon Dieu, ayez pitié de mon âme; mon Dieu, ayez pitié de ce pauvre peuple.")
— William the Silent, Prince of Orange (10 July 1584), assassinated by Balthasar Gérard
"Jesus! I pardon you."
— Vittoria Accoramboni, Italian noblewoman (22 December 1585), kneeling before a crucifix
"The murder of the Queen had been represented to me as a deed lawful and meritorious. I die a firm Catholic."
— Anthony Babington, English gentleman, conspirator in the Babington Plot (20 September 1586), prior to being hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason
"Take it; thy need is greater than mine."
— Philip Sidney, English poet and soldier (17 October 1586), mortally wounded at the Battle of Zutphen, passing a cup of water to another wounded soldier
"O Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit."
("In manus, Domine, tuas commendo animam meam.")
— Mary, Queen of Scots (8 February 1587), quoting Jesus prior to execution by beheading
"Let the pulse beat as it may, we know the mercy of God will never fail."
— Frederick II of Denmark (4 April 1588)
"Absit mihi gloriari nisi in Cruce Domini Nostri Jesu Christi [Far from me to glory except in the cross of Jesus Christ]. Good people, I beseech God to send all felicity."
— George Beesley, English Roman Catholic priest and martyr (2 July 1591), prior to execution
"It is time for Matins."
— John of the Cross, Spanish Catholic priest and mystic (14 December 1591), dying at the stroke of midnight
"I know that my Redeemer liveth."
("Scio quod redemptor mios vivit.")
— John III, King of Sweden (17 November 1592)
"A bishop ought to die on his legs."
— John Woolton, Bishop of Exeter (13 March 1594)
"Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit."
— Torquato Tasso, Italian poet (25 April 1595), quoting Jesus
"Life or death is welcome to me; and I desire not to live, but so far as I may be serviceable to God and His church."
— William Whitaker, Calvinistic Anglican churchman, academic and theologian (4 December 1595)
"Do not announce my death."
("나의 죽음을 알리지 마라.")
— Yi Sun-sin, Korean naval commander (16 December 1598), telling his nephew to hide his death by gunshot from his soldiers to avoid demoralizing them during the Battle of Noryang
"I die a martyr and willingly — my soul shall mount up to heaven in this chariot of smoke."
— Giordano Bruno, Italian Dominican friar (17 February 1600), prior to burning at the stake for heresy
"Good Doctor, God hath heard my daily petitions, for I am at peace with all men, and He is at peace with me; and from that blessed assurance I feel that inward joy which this world can neither give nor take from me: my conscience beareth me this witness, and this witness makes the thoughts of death joyful. I could wish to live to do the Church more service, but cannot hope it, for my days are passed as a shadow that returns not."
— Richard Hooker, English priest and theologian (3 November 1600)
=== 17th century ===
"May I not seem to have lived in vain."
("Ne frustra vixisse videar.")
— Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer (24 October 1601), to his assistant Johannes Kepler
"All my possessions for a moment of time."
— Elizabeth I, queen regnant of England (24 March 1603)
"I cannot bear that any misunderstanding should subsist between you and those who have for so many years shared in my toils and been the companions of my glory."
— Akbar, third Mughal emperor (27 October 1605), to his nobles and his son, Jahangir; he then asked their forgiveness if he had ever wronged them
"Stand by me, Tom, and we will die together."
— Robert Catesby, leader of the Gunpowder Plot (8 November 1605). Catesby and Thomas Percy were shot by armed men led by Sir Richard Walsh.
"Now I am going."
— Paolo Farinati, Italian Mannerist painter (1606), on his deathbed. His wife replied, "I will bear you company, my dear husband," and also died.
"I begin to perceive and feel the joys of eternal life. I shall soon behold Him, who was sacrificed for men; I long for the blessed sight. All else is to me as dross: there is nothing that could make me wish to live one hour longer."
— Joseph Justus Scaliger, French Calvinist religious leader and scholar (21 January 1609)
"I am wounded."
— Henry IV of France (14 May 1610), while being assassinated by stabbing
"I receive absolution upon this condition."
— François Ravaillac, French Catholic zealot, assassin of Henry IV of France (27 May 1610), receiving conditional absolution prior to his execution due to his insistence that he had no accomplices
"Ease and pleasure quake to hear of death; but my life, full of cares and miseries, desireth to be dissolved."
— Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, English statesman (24 May 1612)
"I would say 'somewhat,' but I cannot utter it."
— Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (6 November 1612), when asked if he was in pain
"If there be here any hidden Catholics, let them pray for me, but the prayers of heretics I will not have."
— John Ogilvie (10 March 1615), hanged, drawn and quartered at Glasgow Cross because of having preached the Catholic religion, then illegal in Scotland, and for refusing to pledge allegiance to King James VI of Scotland.
"I am Sanada Nobushige, no doubt an adversary quite worthy of you, but I am exhausted and can fight no longer. Go on, take my head as your trophy."
— Sanada Yukimura, Japanese samurai warrior (3 June 1615), to his foes prior to his death at the Battle of Tennōji
"Already my foot is in the stirrup."
— Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish novelist (22 April 1616)
"Come Lord Jesu, come quickly, finish in me the work that Thou has begun; into Thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit, for Thou has redeemed me. O God of truth, save me Thy servant, who hopes and confides in Thee alone; let Thy mercy, O Lord, be shewn unto me; in Thee have I trusted, O Lord, let me not be confounded for ever."
— Robert Abbot, Anglican clergyman and academic (2 March 1617)
"All must die, but tis enough that the child liveth"
— Pocahontas (March 1617), dying of an unknown illness
"What dost thou fear? Strike, man, strike!"
— Walter Raleigh, English poet, soldier and courtier (29 October 1618), as he lay ready to be beheaded in the Old Palace Yard at the Palace of Westminster
"They sweat in extremes, for fear of the unwarlike; I am dying undisturbed"
("Illi in extremis prae timore imbellis sudor; ego imperturbatus morior.")
— Lucilio Vanini, Italian philosopher, physician and freethinker (9 February 1619), prior to execution by strangling and burning for atheism and blasphemy
"Make it short. Make it short."
("Maak het kort, maak het kort.")
— Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Dutch statesman (13 May 1619), to his executioner
"Oh, would to God I had never reigned! Oh, that those years I have spent in my kingdom I had lived a solitary life in the wilderness! Oh, that I had lived alone with God! How much more secure should I now have died! With how much more confidence should I have gone to the throne of God! What doth all my glory profit, but that I have so much the more torment in my death?"
— Philip III of Spain (31 March 1621)
"Now I have overcome."
— Johann Arndt, German Lutheran theologian (11 May 1621), to his wife
"Jesus, Jesus, Jesus."
— Robert Bellarmine, Italian Jesuit and Roman Catholic cardinal (17 September 1621)
"All my life I have carried myself gracefully."
— Rodrigo Calderón, Count of Oliva (21 October 1621), when his confessor chastised him for his attention to his appearance prior to his execution by beheading
"Be thou everlasting."
— Paolo Sarpi, Venetian historian, prelate, scientist, canon lawyer and statesman (15 January 1623), referring to Venice
"Thy creatures, O Lord, have been my books, but Thy Holy Scriptures much more. I have sought Thee in the fields and gardens, but I have found Thee, O God, in Thy Sanctuary—Thy Temple."
— Francis Bacon, English philosopher and statesman (9 April 1626)
"Blessed be God, though I change my place, I shall not change my company; for I have walked with God while living, and now I go to rest with God."
— John Preston, Anglican minister, master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge (20 July 1628)
"Villaine!"
— George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham (23 August 1628); to his assassin, John Felton, after being stabbed by him
"Hold your tongue; your wretched style only makes me out of conceit with them."
— François de Malherbe, French poet, critic and translator (16 October 1628), listening on his deathbed to his confessor describing the glories of heaven
"I am the man."
— John Felton, assassin of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham (29 November 1628), referring to the killing of Buckingham before being executed by hanging.
"I do bless.—May Jesus and Mary bless, rule and govern."
— Pierre de Bérulle, French Roman Catholic cardinal and statesman (2 October 1629), blessing his congregation while celebrating Mass
"It comes at last, the happy day: Let thanks be given to God in heaven, while we learn pleasure in His way."
— Agrippa d'Aubigné, French poet, soldier, propagandist and chronicler (29 April 1630)
"I were miserable, if I might not die."
— John Donne, English poet, scholar and soldier, Dean of St Paul's (31 March 1631)
"Now, God be with you, my dear children; I have breakfasted with you, and shall sup with my Lord Jesus Christ this night."
— Robert Bruce of Kinnaird, Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (27 July 1631)
"I have enough, brother; try to save your own life."
— Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (16 November 1632), mortally wounded at the Battle of Lützen (1632)
"I am now ready to die. Lord, forsake me not, now my strength faileth me; but grant me mercy for the merits of my Jesus. And now Lord—Lord, now receive my soul."
— George Herbert, Welsh-born poet, orator, and priest of the Church of England (1 March 1633)
"Thy kingdom come, thy will be done."
— Edward Coke, English barrister, judge and politician (3 September 1634)
"All right then, I'll say it. Dante makes me sick."
— Lope de Vega, Spanish playwright (27 August 1635)
"I have kept the faith once given to the saints; for the which cause I have also suffered these things; but I am not ashamed, for I know whom I have believed, and I am persuaded that He is able to keep that which I have committed to Him against that day."
— William Bedell, Anglican Lord Bishop of Kilmore (7 February 1642), dying from exposure after being imprisoned and tortured by rebels
"Absolutely, and I pray God to condemn me, if I have had any other aim than the welfare of God and the state."
— Cardinal Richelieu, French clergyman and statesman (4 December 1642), when asked whether he pardoned his enemies
"O Lord, save my country! O Lord, be merciful to—"
— John Hampden, English landowner and politician (24 June 1643), mortally wounded at the Battle of Chalgrove Field six days before his death
"It has been seventeen years since I ascended the throne. I, feeble and of small virtue, have offended against Heaven; the rebels have seized my capital because my ministers deceived me. Ashamed to face my ancestors, I die. Removing my imperial cap and with my hair disheveled about my face, I leave to the rebels the dismemberment of my body. Let them not harm my people!"
("朕自登基十七年，虽朕薄德匪躬，上干天怒，然皆诸臣误朕，致逆贼直逼京师。朕死，无面目见祖宗于地下，自去冠冕，以发覆面。任贼分裂朕尸，勿伤百姓一人。")
— Chongzhen Emperor, the last emperor of Ming dynasty (24 April 1644)
"Lord, receive my soul."
— William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (10 January 1645), spoken as the signal to the executioner at his beheading for treason
"Be serious."
— Hugo Grotius, Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian and writer (28 August 1645)
"Ungrateful traitors!"
— Masaniello, Italian fisherman and revolutionary leader (16 July 1647), to his assassins
"Ay! but I have been nearer to you, my friends, many a time, and you have missed me."
— George Lisle, Royalist leader in the English Civil War (28 August 1648), when the officer in charge of his firing squad said they would hit him
"Stay for the sign."
— Charles I of England (30 January 1649), asking for his executioner to await his signal before beheading him
"The covenant which I took, I own it and adhere to it. Bishops, I do not care for them. I never intended to advance their interests."
— James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose (21 May 1650), prior to execution by hanging, beheading and quartering
"Lord Jesus, receive me!"
— Eusebius Andrews, English royalist (22 August 1650), prior to execution by beheading for treason
"How sweet it is to rest!"
— John Taylor, English poet (December 1653)
"You see what is man's life."
— Pierre Gassendi, French philosopher, Catholic priest, astronomer and mathematician (24 October 1655)
"O Lord, forgive me specially my sins of omission."
— James Ussher, Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland (21 March 1656)
"It is not my design to drink or to sleep, but my design is to make what haste I can to be gone."
— Oliver Cromwell, English general and statesman, Lord Protector (3 September 1658)
"Ah! mes enfans, you cannot cry as much for me as I have made you laugh in my time! I never thought that it was so easy a matter to laugh at the approach of death."
— Paul Scarron, French poet, dramatist and novelist (6 October 1660)
"O, my poor soul, what is to become of thee? Whither wilt thou go?"
— Cardinal Mazarin, Italian cardinal, diplomat and politician (9 March 1661)
"I bless the Lord that he gave me counsel."
— Samuel Rutherford, Scottish pastor (29 March 1661)
"I die not only a Protestant, but with a heart-hatred of popery, prelacy, and all superstition. Lord Jesus, receive me into Thy glory."
— Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, Scottish nobleman (27 May 1661), before execution by beheading
"I take God to record upon my soul that I would not exchange this scaffold with the palace or mitre of the greatest prelate in Britain. The covenants, the covenants shall yet be Scotland's reviving."
— James Guthrie, Scottish Presbyterian minister (1 June 1661), prior to execution by hanging for high treason
"Jesus, oh Jesus, you are my God, my justice, my strength, my all."
— Marie Angélique Arnauld, Abbess of the Abbey of Port-Royal (6 August 1661)
"It is a bad cause which cannot bear the words of a dying man."
— Henry Vane the Younger, English politician, statesman and colonial governor (14 June 1662), prior to execution by beheading for treason
"My God, forsake me not."
— Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, physicist and theologian (19 August 1662)
"My heart is fixed, O God! my heart is fixed where true joy is to be found."
— Robert Sanderson, English theologian and casuist (29 January 1663)
"Abba, Father, accept this, Thy poor sinful servant, coming unto Thee through the merits of Jesus Christ. O pray, pray! praise, praise!"
— Archibald Johnston, Scottish judge and statesman (22 July 1663), before execution by hanging
"Monsieur de Montaigu, consider what I owe to God, the favor He has shown me, and the great indulgence for which I am beholden to Him. Observe how they are swelled; time to depart."
— Anne of Austria, former Queen of France (20 January 1666), looking at her formerly beautiful hands
"And now I begin my intercourse with God, which shall never be broken off. Farewell, father and mother, friends and relations; farewell, the world and all delights; farewell, sun, moon and stars! Welcome, God and Father; welcome, sweet Jesus Christ, the mediator of the new covenant; welcome, blessed Spirit of grace, the God of all consolation; welcome, glory; welcome, eternal life; and welcome, death."
— Hugh Mackail, Scottish martyr (22 December 1666), prior to execution by hanging
"My trust is in God."
— Jeremy Taylor, Anglican divine (13 August 1667)
"Vex me not with this thing, but give me a simple cross, that I may adore it, both as it is in itself and as I can figure it in my mind."
— Alonso Cano, Spanish painter, architect and sculptor (3 September 1667), asking a priest to take away a badly carved crucifix
"I shall have to ask leave to desist, when I am interrupted by so great an experiment as dying."
— William Davenant, English poet and playwright (7 April 1668), setting aside the manuscript of a new poem
"Far from well, yet far better than mine iniquities deserve."
— Richard Mather, Puritan minister (22 April 1669), when asked about his health
"Lord!"
— John Cosin, English churchman (15 January 1672), raising his hand
"Well, my friend, what news from the Great Mogul?"
— François de La Mothe Le Vayer, French writer (9 May 1672), to physician and traveler François Bernier, who had come to say goodbye to him
"Bad, bad! To judge by what I now endure, the hand of death grasps me sharply."
— Salvator Rosa, Italian artist and poet (15 March 1673), when asked how he was
"Death is the great key that opens the palace of Eternity."
— John Milton, English poet and intellectual (8 November 1674)
"I did not mean to be killed today."
("Je ne veux point être tué aujourd'hui.")
— Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne (27 July 1675), struck by a cannonball at the Battle of Salzbach
"I would never have married had I known that my time would be so brief. If I had known that, I would not have taken upon myself double tears."
— Alexis of Russia, Russian Tsar (8 February [O.S. 29 January] 1676)
"I have seen the glories of the world."
— Isaac Barrow, English Christian theologian and mathematician (4 May 1677)
"Well, ladies, if I were one hour in heaven, I would not be again with you, as much as I love you."
— Mary Rich, Countess of Warwick (12 April 1678)
"How beautiful!"
— Giovan Battista Nani, Venetian ambassador, librarian and historian (5 November 1678)
"I shall be happy."
— James Sharp, Archbishop of St Andrews (3 May 1679)
"Now I am about to take my last voyage, a great leap in the dark."
— Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher (4 December 1679)
"The only objection against the Bible is a bad life."
— John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet and courtier (26 July 1680)
"I do not fear death."
— Thomas Blood, Anglo-Irish officer and desperado (24 August 1680)
"I do forgive you."
— William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford (29 December 1680), to his executioner prior to beheading for alleged treason
"Now the bitterness of death is past."
— William Russell, Lord Russell (21 July 1683), after bidding farewell to his wife prior to execution by beheading for treason
"Stop. Change that to say, 'I am yet in the land of the dying, but I hope soon to be in the land of the living.'"
— John Owen, English Nonconformist church leader and theologian (24 August 1683), when his secretary had written "I am still in the land of the living" in a letter in his name
"I know that my Redeemer liveth. I die for the good old cause."
— Algernon Sidney, English politician (7 December 1683), prior to execution by beheading for treason
"My God, my Father, and my Friend, / Do not forsake me in the end."
— Wentworth Dillon, 4th Earl of Roscommon, Anglo-Irish landlord, Irish peer, and poet (18 January 1685), quoting from his own translation of the "Dies irae"
"I have been a most unconscionable time dying, but I beg you to excuse it."
— Charles II of England (6 February 1685)
"There are six guineas for you, and do not hack me as you did my Lord Russell. I have heard that you struck him three or four times. My servant will give you more gold if you do your work well."
— James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of Charles II of England (15 July 1685), to Jack Ketch, his executioner. Ketch was nervous and took several blows to behead Scott.
"Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit; for Thou hast redeemed me, Lord God of truth."
— James Renwick, Scottish minister (17 February 1688), before execution by hanging
"Take me, for I come to Thee."
— John Bunyan, English writer and preacher (31 August 1688)
"O, come in glory! I have long waited for Thy coming. Let no dark cloud rest on the work of the Indians. Let it live when I am dead. Welcome joy!"
— John Eliot, Puritan missionary to the American Indians, founder of Roxbury Latin School (21 May 1690)
"I need nothing but God, and to lose myself in the heart of Jesus."
— Margaret Mary Alacoque, French Roman Catholic nun, promoter of devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus (17 October 1690)
"Never heed; the Lord's power is over all weakness and death."
— George Fox, English Dissenter, founder of the Religious Society of Friends (13 January 1691)
"I know that it will be well with me."
— John Flavel, English Presbyterian clergyman and author (26 June 1691)
"Death, death. O I thank Him, I thank Him. The Lord teach you to die."
— Richard Baxter, English Puritan church leader, poet, hymnodist and theologian (8 December 1691)
"Nectare clausa suo, / Dignum tantorum pretium tulit illa laborum."
— Louise-Anastasia Serment, French natural philosopher and poet (1692). Quoting the Latin inscription on a Roman piece of amber trapping a bee; 'closed in her nectar, she receives the reward for all her labours'.
"You are a lyer; I am no more a Witch than you are a Wizard, and if you take away my Life, God will give you Blood to drink."
— Sarah Good, American woman accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials (29 July [O.S. 19 July] 1692), to Reverend Nicholas Noyes prior to execution by hanging
"More weight."
— Giles Corey, English-born American farmer (19 September 1692), before being pressed to death during the Salem witch trials
"Yes, like that, just like that, my royal friend, raise me upward, upward!"
("Ja, så, just så, min kunglige vän, res mig uppåt, uppåt!")
— Ulrica Eleanor the Elder, Queen of Sweden (26 July 1693) to her husband holding her
"Oh, that this were for Ireland."
— Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan, Irish soldier (21 August 1693), mortally wounded at the Battle of Landen
"Bring me wine."
— Suleiman I of Persia, Shah of Safavid Iran (29 July 1694), According to the French cleric, Martin Gaudereau.
"My Lord, why do you not go on? I am not afraid to die."
— Mary II of England (28 December 1694), when the clergyman reading the prayers for the sick paused due to being overcome by grief
"O death, where is thy—"
— Philip Henry, English Nonconformist clergyman and diarist (24 June 1696), quoting 1 Corinthians 15:55
"Debt!"
— Hortense Mancini, Duchesse de Mazarin, niece of Cardinal Mazarin and mistress of Charles II of England (2 July 1699), dying in financial ruin
"I am nothing."
— Charles II of Spain (1 November 1700)
=== 18th century ===
=== 19th century ===
=== 20th century ===
=== 21st century ===
== Ironic last words ==
"Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning; for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men."
— Ennius, writer and poet of the Roman Republic (c. 169 BC); lines dictated to be engraved on his memorial. Only fragments of his works now survive.
"Although dealing with the Japanese and the barbarians is not something that should be taken lightly, I fear that as peace is ingrained in you, the days growing longer, all matters be done lazily and slowly, so you should always be careful and watch out every day, so you do not give in to negligence."
— Sejong the Great, king of the Joseon Dynasty (30 March 1450). Korea would later be invaded and pillaged by the Japanese, and later, subjugated by the Manchus, who the Koreans considered 'barbarians'.
"Let all brave Prussians follow me!"
— Field Marshal Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin (6 May 1757), at the Battle of Prague, immediately before being struck by a cannonball and killed.
"I feel sleepy, and a moment of rest would do me good."
— Gustav III, King of Sweden (29 March 1792) 13 days after being shot in the back at a masquerade.
"Thomas Jefferson survives."
— John Adams, Founding Father and second president of the United States (4 July 1826), unaware that Jefferson had died earlier that same day.
"They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance..."
— General John Sedgwick (9 May 1864) at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House shortly before being shot and killed by enemy fire.
"Sergeant, the Spanish bullet isn't made that will kill me."
— Captain Buckey O'Neill (1 July 1898), one of Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders, just before being shot in the mouth prior to charge up Kettle Hill.
"I think I'm going to make it."
— Richard A. Loeb (28 January 1936), after being slashed 56 times with a razor in a prison fight.
"I'll show you that it won't shoot."
— Johnny Ace (25 December 1954), American musician, playing with a .32 caliber revolver.
"No, you certainly can't."
— John F. Kennedy, 35th president of the United States (22 November 1963), replying to co-passenger Nellie Connally saying, "You certainly can't say Dallas doesn't love you, Mr. President" while traveling through Dallas in a motorcade, shortly before he was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald.
"I know this beach like the back of my hand."
— Harold Holt, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (17 December 1967); he would subsequently disappear while swimming at Cheviot Beach, Victoria.
"What do you think I'm gonna do? Blow my brains out?"
— Terry Kath (23 January 1978), of the band Chicago, just before putting a supposedly unloaded semi-automatic 9mm pistol to his temple and pulling the trigger.
"I've got to be crazy to do this shot. I should've asked for a double."
— Vic Morrow, American actor (23 July 1982), prior to being killed along with two child actors during the filming of Twilight Zone: The Movie.
"I feel great."
— Pete Maravich, American basketball player (5 January 1988), before dying of an undiagnosed heart defect during a pickup game in Pasadena, California.
"I told u I was hardcore [...] u are so fucking stupid"
— Brandon Vedas (12 January 2003), American computer enthusiast talking on Internet Relay Chat (IRC) during a fatal drug overdose that ultimately killed him.
"You're a lifesaver, Andy."
— William Donaldson, British satirist and playboy (22 June 2005), to the caretaker of his building, who had collected pills for him on which he would later overdose.
"Well, I've got to be alive for it, haven't I?"
— Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and Prince Consort to Elizabeth II (9 April 2021), talking to his son, then Prince of Wales, Prince Charles, about Phillip's upcoming 100th birthday, which would have taken place two months and one day after his death.
"Even if you escape the torment of history, you will not be able to escape the wrath of Allah."
— Hasan Bitmez, Turkish MP (12 December 2023), after calling on the wrath of God on the State of Israel in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey before collapsing due to a heart attack. He would die two days later.
"Counting or not counting gang violence?"
— Charlie Kirk, American conservative political activist and author, founder and CEO of Turning Point USA (10 September 2025), in response to being asked "Do you know how many mass shooters there have been in America in the last 10 years?" while hosting an audience at Utah Valley University, immediately before being assassinated.
== Independently notable last words ==
This section is for last words that pass Wikipedia's notability guidelines and have therefore warranted their own article.
"Do not disturb my circles!" (Μή μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε!)
— Archimedes, Greek mathematician (c. 212 BC), to a Roman soldier who interrupted his geometric experiments during the capture of Syracuse, whereupon the soldier killed him
"You too, my child?" (Καὶ σὺ, τέκνον;)
— Julius Caesar, Roman dictator (15 March 44 BC), discovering that his stepson Brutus was among his murderers.
"It is finished." (τετέλεσται.)
— Jesus, founder of Christianity (c. 33 AD), right before his death by crucifixion.
"Never mind, it is good to die for our country." ("אין דבר, טוב למות בעד ארצנו")
— Joseph Trumpeldor, Jewish Zionist activist (1 March 1920), after being mortally wounded at the Battle of Tel Hai.
"Death to fascism! Freedom to the people!" (Smrt fašizmu, sloboda narodu!)
— Stjepan Filipović, Yugoslav communist (22 May 1942), seconds before execution by hanging.
"Are you guys ready? Let's roll."
— Todd Beamer, American passenger on United Airlines Flight 93 (11 September 2001), signaling the start of the revolt against the flight's hijackers, resulting in the plane crashing in the ensuing struggle for the controls, killing all 44 aboard.
"I can't breathe."
— Eric Garner, American former horticulturist (17 July 2014), after being put in a chokehold by an arresting NYPD shortly before losing consciousness and dying.
== See also ==
Last words, about the actual final utterings of dying patients
Black comedy
Lists of unusual deaths
Death poem
Last meal
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Read, Michael (January 16, 2019). "What People Actually Say Before They Die. Insights into the little-studied realm of last words". The Atlantic.
== External links ==
Quotations related to Last words at Wikiquote |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrienne_Nelson | Adrienne Nelson | Adrienne Camille Nelson (born 1967) is an American lawyer and jurist serving as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon since 2023. She previously served as a justice of the Oregon Supreme Court from 2018 to 2023 and as a judge on the Multnomah County Circuit Court from 2006 to 2018.
== Early life and education ==
Nelson was born in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1967, and grew up in southwestern Arkansas. She graduated from Gurdon High School in Gurdon, Arkansas, in 1985. Nelson's mother successfully sued her school district to allow Nelson to be valedictorian after her high school initially named a white student with a lower GPA to be valedictorian instead.
Nelson graduated from the University of Arkansas in 1990 with a Bachelor of Arts, summa cum laude, in English literature and criminal justice. She then attended the University of Texas School of Law, graduating in 1993 with a Juris Doctor.
== Legal career ==
Nelson moved to Portland, Oregon, in 1993, to be closer to her mother, who had previously relocated to the state. Nelson was a contract analyst for an insurance company for two years. She then worked as an attorney in private practice in Portland as a public defender, with Multnomah Defenders Inc, a non-profit public interest law firm, from 1996 to 1999, and for the law firm Bennett, Hartman, Morris & Kaplan LLP from 1999 to 2004. Nelson was a senior attorney in Student Legal and Mediation Services for Portland State University from 2004 to 2006. Nelson served as an adjunct professor at Lewis & Clark Law School from 2002 to 2005.
Nelson has been a member of the American Bar Association House of Delegates and the ABA Commission on Disability Rights. She received the Oregon Women Lawyers (OWLs) Judge Mercedes Deiz Award in 2003, and the Oregon State Bar President's Public Service Award in 2007. She has also served as president of the Multnomah Bar Foundation and president of the Oregon State Bar Foundation Board.
In 2021, a school in Happy Valley, Oregon was named after Nelson.
== Judicial service ==
=== Oregon circuit court ===
Governor Ted Kulongoski appointed Nelson as a judge on the Multnomah County Circuit Court in February 2006, to replace Sidney Galton. She was re-elected to a new six-year term in 2012.
=== Oregon Supreme Court ===
Governor Kate Brown appointed Nelson to the Oregon Supreme Court in January 2018, to replace justice Jack Landau, who retired on December 31, 2017. Nelson's term on the Supreme Court ended in January 2019, but she was elected to a full six year term in November 2018.
Nelson is the first African-American to serve on the Oregon Supreme Court, or on any state appellate court in Oregon.
=== United States district court ===
On July 14, 2022, President Joe Biden nominated Nelson to serve as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon. President Biden nominated Nelson to the seat vacated by Judge Michael W. Mosman, who assumed senior status on December 27, 2021. On October 12, 2022, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Judiciary Committee. On December 1, 2022, her nomination was reported out of committee by a 12–10 vote. On January 3, 2023, her nomination was returned to the President under Rule XXXI, Paragraph 6 of the United States Senate; she was renominated later the same day. On February 2, 2023, her nomination was reported out of committee by an 11–9 vote. On February 14, 2023, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 53–44 vote. On February 15, 2023, she was confirmed by a 52–46 vote. She received her judicial commission on February 23, 2023. She is the first African-American woman to serve on the United States District Court for the District of Oregon.
=== Notable cases ===
On December 10, 2024, Nelson issued an injunction blocking a merger between Kroger and Albertsons. The FTC sought to block the merger as a violation of antitrust law, arguing that a merger between the two companies would stifle competition.
== See also ==
List of African-American federal judges
List of African-American jurists
List of Oregon judges
== References ==
== External links ==
Adrienne Nelson at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Murungaru | Chris Murungaru | Christopher Ndarathi Mūrūngarū (born August 19, 1954, Nyeri, Kenya) is a former Kenyan politician, a former Member of Parliament for Kieni Constituency in Nyeri District and a former Minister of Transport.
When the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) Government took power from Kenya African National Union (KANU) in 2003, Dr Mūrūngarū was named Minister for Internal Security. He was later transferred to the Ministry of Transport in a cabinet reshuffle following revelation of the Anglo-Leasing scandal, allegations he didn't expressly deny. When President Mwai Kibaki reconstituted the cabinet following a humiliating defeat in the November 21, 2005 Kenyan constitutional referendum, he was dropped from the cabinet. He was a close ally of Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki.
== Anglo Leasing Scandal ==
Mūrūngarū has been embroiled in a conflict with the British Government following cancellation of his visa to enter the United Kingdom due to allegations of corruption in the Anglo-Leasing scandal. He has taken the British Government to court challenging the cancellation of his visa. He has hired prominent Kenyan lawyer Paul Muite and a group of British lawyers, Mr Rabinder Singh, a Queen's Counsel of Matrix Chambers, London, Mr Richard Stein, a senior partner in Leigh, Day and Company and Ms Tessa Hetherington, a junior counsel of Matrix, to represent him.
On November 23, 2005, President Mwai Kibaki of Kenya dissolved his cabinet following a humiliating defeat on a referendum on the proposed constitution of Kenya. The President and his key allies, including Mūrūngarū were campaigning for a 'Yes' vote on the constitution, which they lost, forcing the president to reconstitute his cabinet.
=== Fallout ===
On January 22, 2006, John Githongo named Mūrūngarū as one of three top politicians (along with Kiraitu Murungi, former Justice Minister and present Energy Minister, and Finance Minister David Mwiraria) as being involved in a financial scam involving up to US$600 million. On February 1, 2006, Finance Minister David Mwiraria announced that he was stepping down as a minister and a member of cabinet to pave way for investigation. The news was received with joy by many Kenyans, though some saw him as a scapegoat who had been sacrificed to protect a president whose support had been waning.
On January 16, 2006, President Kibaki allowed anti-corruption chief Aaron Ringera to request Mūrūngarū to declare and account for his wealth. Mūrūngarū has since moved to court to prevent the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission from investigating, saying fulfilling the commission's request would amount to self-incrimination.
Vice President Moody Awori announced on February 2, 2006 that he would not step down despite being adversely mentioned in the Anglo-Leasing scandal. He has insisted that he is innocent, and that nothing short of due process will make him resign his post. He has criticized by many people for defending those involved in the scandal before Parliament.
== Court battles ==
On February 17, 2006, the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission (KACC) arraigned Mūrūngarū in a Nairobi court charging him with failing to declare and account for his wealth. The Commission believed that Mūrūngarū had become too rich too quickly and was keen to investigate the source of his wealth, especially in relation to the Anglo-Leasing scandal. He denied refusing to declare his wealth, and was released on a bond of KSh200,000.
On December 1, 2006, the Kenyan High Court determined that KACC's notice to Mūrūngarū was not carried out according to the laid down law which subsequently led to the High Court quashing KACC's case against Mūrūngarū. The High Court did not however stop KACC from investigating Mūrūngarū or anyone else for corruption but insisted that any orders issued by the Commission be done so in a legal manner.
A society in Kenya under the banner of the Name and Shame Corruption Network (NASCON) held a demonstration in the streets of Nairobi to push for the resignation of more senior people in President Mwai Kibaki's administration. Key among them is civil service boss Francis Muthaura and Vice President Moody Awori.
In May 2022, the Court of Appeal in Kenya reduced the fine payable to Mūrūngarū by Githongo from KSh27 million (US$228,000) to KSh10 million (US$84,000). Mūrūngarū had successfully sued Githongo for leaking a dossier that implicated him (Mūrūngarū) in the Anglo Leasing scandal.
In what was considered an upset, Mūrūngarū was defeated by a comparatively obscure candidate in the Party of National Unity's primary elections for its parliamentary candidates in November 2007.
== See also ==
Anglo-Leasing scandal
Mwai Kibaki
Moody Awori
David Mwiraria
Kiraitu Murungi
Francis Muthaura
== External links ==
https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182114/http://www.parliament.go.ke/MPs/members_murungaru_dr_c.php
https://web.archive.org/web/20070317164531/http://www.timesnews.co.ke/02dec06/nwsstory/topstry.html
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tina_Turner | Tina Turner | Tina Turner (born Anna Mae Bullock; November 26, 1939 – May 24, 2023) was a singer, songwriter, actress, and author. Dubbed the "Queen of Rock 'n' Roll", Turner's vocal prowess and stage presence helped to break racial and gender barriers in rock music. She is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, with estimated sales of over 100 million records worldwide.
Turner rose to prominence in the 1960s as the lead vocalist of the husband-wife duo Ike & Tina Turner, known for their explosive live performances with the Ikettes and Kings of Rhythm. After years of marital abuse, she ended her personal and professional relationship with Ike Turner in the 1970s and embarked on a solo career. She made a comeback with her multi-platinum fifth solo album Private Dancer (1984), whose single "What's Love Got to Do with It" won the Grammy Award for Record of the Year and became her only number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100. Her worldwide chart success continued with the Top 10 singles "Better Be Good to Me", "Private Dancer", "We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)", "Typical Male", and "I Don't Wanna Fight".
Turner's Break Every Rule World Tour became the highest-grossing tour by a female artist of the 1980s and set a Guinness World Record for the then-largest paying audience in a concert (180,000). Her success as a live performer continued with the Wildest Dreams Tour, the first tour by a woman to earn $100 million, and the Twenty Four Seven Tour, the highest-grossing tour of 2000. In 2009, she retired from performing after completing the Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour. As an actress, Turner appeared in the feature films Tommy (1975), Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985) and Last Action Hero (1993). Her life was dramatized in the biographical film What's Love Got to Do with It (1993), based on her autobiography I, Tina: My Life Story (1986). She was also the subject of the jukebox musical Tina (2018) and the documentary film Tina (2021).
Turner received 12 Grammy Awards, including a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and three Grammy Hall of Fame inductions. Rolling Stone ranked her among the greatest artists and greatest singers of all time. She was the first black artist and first woman to appear on the cover of Rolling Stone and was the first female black artist to win an MTV Award. Turner has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame along with Ike Turner in 1991 and was later inducted as a solo artist in 2021. Turner was also a 2005 recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors.
== Early life ==
Turner was born Anna Mae Bullock on November 26, 1939, in Brownsville, Tennessee. She was the youngest daughter of Floyd Richard Bullock and his wife Zelma Priscilla (née Currie). The family lived in the rural unincorporated community of Nutbush, Tennessee, where Bullock's father worked as an overseer of the sharecroppers at Poindexter Farm on Highway 180; she later recalled picking cotton with her family at an early age. Bullock was African American. She believed she had a significant amount of Native American ancestry until she participated in the PBS series African American Lives 2 with Henry Louis Gates Jr.; Gates shared her genealogical DNA test estimates and traced her family timeline.
Bullock had two older sisters, Evelyn Juanita Currie and Ruby Alline Bullock, a songwriter. She was the first cousin once removed of bluesman Eugene Bridges. As young children, the three sisters were separated when their parents relocated to Knoxville, Tennessee, to work at a defense facility during World War II. Bullock went to stay with her strict, religious paternal grandparents, Alex and Roxanna Bullock, who were deacon and deaconess at the Woodlawn Missionary Baptist Church.
After the war, the sisters reunited with their parents and moved with them to Knoxville. Two years later, the family returned to Nutbush to live in the Flagg Grove community, where Bullock attended Flagg Grove Elementary School from first through eighth grade. As a young girl, Bullock enjoyed singing and acting, and she often performed in the streets for change so she could go to the movies. She sang in the church choir at Nutbush's Spring Hill Baptist Church.
In 1950, when Bullock was 11, her mother Zelma left the family without warning, seeking freedom from her abusive relationship with Floyd by relocating to St. Louis. Two years after her mother left the family, her father married another woman and moved to Detroit. Bullock and her sisters were sent to live with their maternal grandmother, Georgeanna Currie, in Brownsville, Tennessee. She stated in her autobiography I, Tina that she felt her parents did not love her and that she was not wanted. Zelma had planned to leave Floyd but stayed once she became pregnant. Bullock recalled: "She was a very young woman who didn't want another kid."
As a teenager, Bullock worked as a domestic worker for the Henderson family in Ripley, Tennessee. She was at the Henderson house when she was notified that her half-sister Evelyn had died in a car crash alongside her cousins Margaret Currie and Vela Evans, however Evans survived the car crash with injuries. A self-professed tomboy, Bullock joined both the cheerleading squad and the female basketball team at Carver High School in Brownsville, and "socialized every chance she got".
When Bullock was 16, her grandmother died, so she went to live with her mother in St. Louis. She graduated from Sumner High School in 1958. After high school, Bullock worked as a nurse's aide at Barnes-Jewish Hospital.
== Ike and Tina Turner ==
=== Origins: 1956–1959 ===
Bullock and her sister began to frequently attend nightclubs in St. Louis and East St. Louis. She first saw Ike Turner perform with his band the Kings of Rhythm at the Club Manhattan in East St. Louis. Bullock was impressed by his talent, recalling that she "almost went into a trance" watching him play. She asked Turner to let her sing in his band despite the fact that few women had ever sung with him. Turner said he would call her but never did. One night in 1956, Bullock got hold of the microphone from Kings of Rhythm drummer Eugene Washington during an intermission and she sang the B.B. King blues ballad, "You Know I Love You". Upon hearing Bullock sing, Ike Turner asked her if she knew more songs. She sang the rest of the night and became a featured vocalist with his band. During this period, he taught her the finer points of vocal control and performance. Bullock's first recording was in 1958 under the name Little Ann on the single "Boxtop". She is credited as a vocalist on the record alongside Ike and fellow Kings of Rhythm singer Carlson Oliver.
=== Early success: 1960–1965 ===
In 1960, Ike Turner wrote "A Fool in Love" for singer Art Lassiter. Bullock was to sing background with Lassiter's backing vocalists, the Artettes. Lassiter failed to show up for the recording session at Technisonic Studios. Since Turner had already paid for the studio time, Bullock suggested that she sing the lead. He decided to use Bullock to record a demo with the intention of erasing her vocals and adding Lassiter's at a later date. Local St. Louis disc jockey Dave Dixon convinced Turner to send the tape to Juggy Murray, president of R&B label Sue Records. Upon hearing the song, Murray was impressed with Bullock's vocals, later stating that "Tina sounded like screaming dirt. It was a funky sound". Murray bought the track and paid Turner a $25,000 advance for the recording and publishing rights. Murray also convinced Turner to make Bullock "the star of the show". Turner responded by renaming Bullock "Tina" because it rhymed with Sheena. He was inspired by Sheena, Queen of the Jungle and Nyoka the Jungle Girl to create her stage persona. Turner added his last name and trademarked the name "Tina Turner" as a form of protection; his idea was that if Bullock left him as his previous singers had, he could replace her with another "Tina Turner". However, family and friends still called her Ann.
Bullock was introduced to the public as Tina Turner with the single "A Fool in Love" in July 1960. It reached No. 2 on the Hot R&B Sides chart and No. 27 on the Billboard Hot 100. Journalist Kurt Loder described the track as "the blackest record to ever creep into the white pop charts since Ray Charles's gospel-styled 'What'd I Say' that previous summer". Another single from the duo, "It's Gonna Work Out Fine", reached No. 14 on the Hot 100 and No. 2 on the R&B chart in 1961, earning them a Grammy nomination for Best Rock and Roll Performance. Other singles Ike and Tina Turner released between 1960 and 1962 included the R&B hits "I Idolize You", "Poor Fool", and "Tra La La La La".
After the release of "A Fool in Love", Ike Turner created the Ike & Tina Turner Revue, which included the Kings of Rhythm and a girl group, the Ikettes, as backing vocalists and dancers. He remained in the background as the bandleader. Ike Turner put the entire revue through a rigorous touring schedule across the United States, performing 90 days straight in venues around the country. During the days of the Chitlin' Circuit, the Ike & Tina Turner Revue built a reputation as "one of the hottest, most durable, and potentially most explosive of all R&B ensembles", rivaling the James Brown Revue in terms of musical spectacle. Due to their profitable performances, they were able to perform in front of desegregated audiences in Southern clubs and hotels.
Between 1963 and 1965, the band toured constantly and produced moderately successful R&B singles. Tina Turner's first credited single as a solo artist, "Too Many Ties That Bind"/"We Need an Understanding", was released from Ike Turner's label Sonja Records in 1964. Another single by the duo, "You Can't Miss Nothing That You Never Had", reached No. 29 on the Billboard R&B chart. After their tenure at Sue Records, the duo signed with more than ten labels during the remainder of the decade, including Kent, Cenco, Tangerine, Pompeii, A&M, and Minit. In 1964, they signed to Warner Bros. Records and Bob Krasnow became their manager. On the Warner Bros. label, they achieved their first charting album with Live! The Ike & Tina Turner Show, peaking at No. 8 on the Billboard Hot R&B LP chart in February 1965. Their singles "Tell Her I'm Not Home", released on Loma Records, and "Good Bye, So Long", released on Modern Records, were top 40 R&B hits in 1965.
Tina Turner's profile was raised after several solo appearances on shows such as American Bandstand and Shindig! while the entire revue appeared on Hollywood a Go-Go. In 1965, music producer Phil Spector attended an Ike & Tina Turner show at a club on the Sunset Strip, and he invited them to appear in the concert film The Big T.N.T. Show.
=== Mainstream success: 1966–1975 ===
Impressed by the duo's performance on The Big T.N.T. Show, Phil Spector was eager to produce Tina Turner. Working out a deal with Ike & Tina Turner's manager Bob Krasnow, who was also head of Loma, Spector offered $20,000 for creative control over the sessions to produce Turner and have Ike & Tina Turner released from their contract with Loma. They signed to Spector's Philles label in April 1966 after Tina Turner had already recorded with him. Their first single on his label, "River Deep – Mountain High", was released in May 1966. Spector considered that record, with Turner's maximum energy over the "Wall of Sound", to be his best work. It was successful overseas, reaching No. 3 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 1 on Los 40 Principales in Spain, but it failed to go any higher than No. 88 on the Billboard Hot 100. The impact of the record gave Ike & Tina Turner an opening spot on the Rolling Stones UK tour in the fall of 1966. In November 1967, Turner became the first female artist and the first black artist to appear on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine.
The duo signed with Blue Thumb Records in 1968, releasing the album Outta Season in 1969. The album produced their charted cover of Otis Redding's "I've Been Loving You Too Long". Later that year they released The Hunter album. The title track, Albert King's "The Hunter", earned Turner a Grammy nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. The success of the albums led to the revue headlining in Las Vegas, where their shows were attended by a variety of celebrities including Sly Stone, Janis Joplin, Cher, James Brown, Ray Charles, Elton John, and Elvis Presley. Sammy Davis Jr. was particularly fond of Turner, and after she filmed an episode of The Name of the Game with him in Las Vegas he surprised her with a Jaguar XJ6.
As the decade came to an end, Ike & Tina Turner began performing at music festivals. Tina Turner's fashion evolved from formal dresses to minidresses and revealing outfits. She emerged as a sex symbol and was praised for her sensual performances.
In the fall of 1969, Ike & Tina Turner's profile in their home country was raised after opening for the Rolling Stones on their US tour. They gained more exposure from performances on The Ed Sullivan Show, Playboy After Dark, and The Andy Williams Show. The duo released two albums in 1970, Come Together and Workin' Together. Their cover of "I Want to Take You Higher" peaked at No. 34 on the Hot 100, whereas the original by Sly and the Family Stone had peaked at No. 38. The Come Together and Workin' Together albums marked a turning point in their careers in which they switched from their usual R&B repertoire to incorporate more rock tunes such as "Come Together", "Honky Tonk Woman", and "Get Back".
In early 1971, their cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival's "Proud Mary" became their biggest hit. The single reached No. 4 on the Hot 100 and sold more than a million copies, winning them a Grammy for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group. In July 1971, their live album, What You Hear Is What You Get, was released. It was recorded at Carnegie Hall and became their first certified Gold album. Later that year they had a top 40 R&B hit with "Ooh Poo Pah Doo". Their next three singles to chart, "I'm Yours (Use Me Anyway You Wanna)", "Up in Heah", and "Early One Morning" (a Little Richard cover) all peaked at No. 47 on the R&B chart.
In 1972, the Turners opened Bolic Sound recording studio near their home in Inglewood. After Liberty was absorbed into United Artists Records, they were assigned to that label. Around this time, Tina Turner began writing more songs. She wrote nine out of the ten tracks on their 1972 album Feel Good. In October 1972, Turner and the Ikettes performed at Star-Spangled Women, a political fundraiser for the 1972 presidential campaign of George McGovern, at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
The duo's 1973 hit single "Nutbush City Limits" (No. 22 Pop, No. 11 R&B), penned by Tina Turner, reached No. 1 in Austria, No. 4 in the UK, and the top 5 in several other countries. It was certified silver by the BPI for selling a quarter of a million in the UK. As a result of their success, they received the Golden European Record Award, the first ever given, for selling more than one million records of "Nutbush City Limits" in Europe. Their follow-up hits included "Sweet Rhode Island Red", and "Sexy Ida" in 1974.
In 1974, the duo released the Grammy-nominated album The Gospel According to Ike & Tina, which was nominated for Best Soul Gospel Performance. Ike also received a solo nomination for his single "Father Alone" from the album. Tina Turner's first solo album, Tina Turns the Country On!, earned her a nomination for Best R&B Vocal Performance, Female. That year, Tina Turner filmed the rock opera Tommy in London. She played the Acid Queen, a drug-addicted prostitute; her performance was critically acclaimed. Shortly after filming wrapped, Turner appeared on Ann-Margret's TV special. Following the release of Tommy in 1975, Tina Turner released another solo album: Acid Queen. The album reached No. 39 on the Billboard R&B chart. It produced the charting singles "Baby, Get It On" and a cover of Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love".
=== Split: 1976 ===
By the mid-1970s, Ike was heavily addicted to cocaine, which hindered his relationship with Tina. In 1976, they headlined at the Waldorf Astoria New York and signed a television deal with CBS-TV. Ike made plans for them to leave United Artists Records for a five-year deal with Cream Records for $150,000 per year; the deal was to be signed on July 5.
On July 1, the Turners flew from Los Angeles to Dallas, where the revue had a gig at the Statler Hilton in downtown. The couple got into a physical altercation on their way to the hotel with Tina defending herself and fighting Ike back physically. Shortly after arriving, Tina fled with only 36 cents and a Mobil card to the nearby Ramada Inn across the freeway. She filed for divorce on July 27, and it was finalized on March 29, 1978. After they disbanded, United Artists released two more albums credited to the duo: Delilah's Power (1977) and Airwaves (1978).
== Solo career ==
=== Early solo career: 1976–1982 ===
Following her separation from Ike, lawsuits mounted for canceled Ike & Tina Turner gigs. Turner earned income by appearing on TV shows such as The Hollywood Squares, Donny & Marie, The Sonny & Cher Show, and The Brady Bunch Hour. After receiving funding from Mike Stewart, an executive at United Artists Records, Turner returned to performing in order to pay off her debts. In 1977, she formed a new band and re-emerged with new costumes designed by Bob Mackie. She took her act to smaller venues and headlined a series of cabaret shows at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Later that year, she embarked on her first solo concert tour in Australia.
Turner and Tom Jones starred in an HBO TV special that was shot at the Warner Theatre in Washington, DC, in September 1978. Around that time, her third solo album, Rough, was released on United Artists with distribution in North America and Europe on EMI Records. That album, along with its 1979 follow-up, Love Explosion, which included a brief diversion to disco music, failed to chart, so United Artists and Turner parted ways. Without the premise of a hit record, she continued performing and headlined her second tour.
In 1979, Australian manager Roger Davies agreed to manage Turner after seeing her perform at the Fairmont Hotel in San Francisco. In early 1979, Turner worked in Italy as a regular performer on the Rete 1 TV series Luna Park, hosted by Pippo Baudo and Heather Parisi. Later that year, she embarked on a controversial five-week tour of South Africa during the apartheid regime. She later regretted the decision, stating that she was "naive about the politics in South Africa" at the time.
In October 1981, Rod Stewart attended Turner's show at the Ritz in New York City and invited her to perform "Hot Legs" with him on Saturday Night Live. In November, Turner opened three shows for the Rolling Stones during their 1981 American Tour. Turner performed in March 1982 in the Willem Ruis show (Netherlands), which resulted in the hit "Shame, Shame, Shame" reaching No. 47 in the Netherlands. In 1982 Turner's recording of the Temptations' "Ball of Confusion" for the UK production team B.E.F. became a hit in European dance clubs. In 1982, Turner also appeared on the album Music of Quality and Distinction Volume 1 by B.E.F., a side project of Heaven 17, singing "Ball of Confusion". She filmed a music video for "Ball of Confusion" that aired on the fledgling music video channel MTV, becoming one of the first black American artists to gain airtime on the channel. Also in 1982, Turner appeared as a special guest on Chuck Berry's television special performed at The Roxy in West Hollywood.
=== Career resurgence and superstardom: 1983–2000 ===
Until 1983, Turner was considered a nostalgia act, performing mostly at hotel ballrooms and clubs in the United States. During her second stint at the Ritz, she signed with Capitol Records in 1983. In November 1983, she released her cover of Al Green's "Let's Stay Together", which was produced by B.E.F. It reached several European charts, including No. 6 in the UK. In the US, the song peaked at No. 26 on the Billboard Hot 100, No. 1 on Hot Dance Club Songs, and No. 3 on Hot Black Singles.
Following the single's surprise success, Capitol Records approved a studio album. Turner had two weeks to record her Private Dancer album, which was released in May 1984. It reached No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and No. 2 in the United Kingdom. Private Dancer was certified 5× Platinum in the United States, and sold 10 million copies worldwide, becoming her most successful album. Also in May 1984, Capitol issued the album's second single, "What's Love Got to Do with It"; the song had previously been recorded by the pop group Bucks Fizz. Following the album's release, Turner joined Lionel Richie as the opening act on his tour.
On September 1, 1984, Turner achieved her first and only No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 with "What's Love Got to Do with It". The follow-up singles "Better Be Good to Me" and "Private Dancer" were both US top 10 hits. The same year, she duetted with David Bowie on a cover of Iggy Pop's "Tonight". Released as a single in November, it peaked at No. 53 in both the UK and the US. At his spring 1985 ready-to-wear runway show presented in fall of '84, Paris designer Karl Lagerfeld put his models in Tina Turner wigs and said he was "mad for her."
Turner culminated her comeback when she won three Grammys at the 27th Annual Grammy Awards, including the Grammy Award for Record of the Year for "What's Love Got to Do with It". In February 1985, she embarked on her second world tour to support the Private Dancer album. Two nights were filmed at Birmingham, England's NEC Arena and later released as a concert on home video. She was often dressed in clothes by designer Azzedine Alaïa for this tour and sometimes dedicated songs to him. During this time, she also contributed vocals to the USA for Africa benefit song "We Are the World".
Turner's success continued when she traveled to Australia to star opposite Mel Gibson in the 1985 post-apocalyptic film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome. The movie provided her with her first acting role in ten years; she portrayed the glamorous Aunty Entity, the ruler of Bartertown. Upon release, critical response to her performance was generally positive. The film was a global success, grossing more than $36 million in the United States. Turner later received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress for her role in the film. She recorded two songs for the film, "We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)" and "One of the Living"; both became hits, with the latter winning her a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. In July 1985, Turner performed at Live Aid alongside Mick Jagger. Their performance shocked observers when Jagger ripped her skirt off. Turner released a duet, "It's Only Love", with Bryan Adams. It was nominated for a Grammy Award, and the music video won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Stage Performance.
In 1986, Turner released her sixth solo album, Break Every Rule, which reached No. 1 in four countries and sold over five million copies worldwide within its first year of release. The album sold more than a million copies in the United States and Germany alone. The album featured the singles "Typical Male", "Two People", "What You Get Is What You See", and the Grammy-winning "Back Where You Started". Prior to the album's release, Turner published her autobiography I, Tina, which became a bestseller. That year, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Her Break Every Rule World Tour, which began in March 1987 in Munich, Germany, was the third highest-grossing tour by a female artist in North America that year. In January 1988, Turner performed in front of approximately 180,000 at Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, setting a Guinness World Record at the time for the largest paying concert attendance for a solo artist. In April 1988, Turner released the Tina Live in Europe album, which won a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. After taking time off following the end of the tour, she emerged with the Foreign Affair album in 1989. It reached No. 1 in eight countries, including in the UK (5× Platinum), her first number-one album there. The album sold over six million copies worldwide and included the international hit single "The Best".
In 1990, Turner embarked on her Foreign Affair European Tour, which drew in nearly four million spectators—breaking the record for a European tour that was previously set by the Rolling Stones. In October 1991 Turner released her first greatest hits compilation Simply the Best, which sold seven million copies worldwide. The album is her biggest seller in the UK, where it is certified 8× Platinum with more than two million copies sold.
In 1991, Ike & Tina Turner were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Ike Turner was incarcerated at the time and Tina Turner did not attend. Turner stated through her publicist that she was taking a leave of absence following her tour and she felt "emotionally unequipped to return to the U.S. and respond to the night of celebration in the manner she would want". Phil Spector accepted the award on their behalf.
In 1993, the semi-autobiographical film What's Love Got to Do with It was released. The film starred Angela Bassett as Tina Turner and Laurence Fishburne as Ike Turner; they received Best Actress and Best Actor Oscar nominations for their roles. While she was not heavily involved in the film, Turner contributed to the soundtrack for What's Love Got to Do with It, re-recording old songs and several new songs. The single "I Don't Wanna Fight" from the soundtrack was a top 10 hit in the US and UK. In 1993 Turner embarked on her What's Love? Tour, which visited primarily North America with a few shows in Australasia and Europe.
In 1995, Turner returned to the studio, releasing "GoldenEye", which was written by Bono and the Edge of U2 for the James Bond film GoldenEye. In 1996 Turner released the Wildest Dreams album, accompanied by her "Wildest Dreams Tour". In September 1999, before celebrating her 60th birthday, Turner released the dance-infused song "When the Heartache Is Over" as the leading single from her tenth and final solo album, Twenty Four Seven. The success of the single and the following tour helped the album become certified Gold by the RIAA. The Twenty Four Seven Tour was the highest-grossing tour of 2000, grossing over $120 million. Her two concerts at Wembley Stadium were recorded by the director David Mallet and released in the DVD One Last Time Live in Concert. At a July 2000 concert in Zurich, Switzerland, Turner announced that she would retire at the end of the tour.
=== Later career: 2001–2021 ===
In November 2004, Turner released All the Best, which debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 in 2005, her highest-charting album in the United States. The album went platinum in the US three months after its release and reached platinum status in seven other countries, including the UK.
In December 2005, Turner was recognized by the Kennedy Center Honors at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, DC, and was elected to join an elite group of entertainers.
In February 2006, Turner released "Teach Me Again", a duet single with Italian singer-songwriter Elisa that was recorded for the anthology film All the Invisible Children. The whole revenue from the single's sales was donated to charity projects for children led by the World Food Programme and UNICEF.
Turner made a public comeback in February 2008 at the Grammy Awards, where she performed alongside Beyoncé. In addition, she won a Grammy as a featured artist on River: The Joni Letters.
In October 2008, Turner embarked on her first tour in nearly ten years with the Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour. In support of the tour, Turner released a greatest hits compilation. The tour was a huge success and became one of the bestselling tours in history. In 2009, Turner officially retired from performing.
In 2009, Turner co-founded a global music foundation, Beyond Foundation, with Swiss Christian musician Regula Curti and Swiss Tibetan Buddhist Dechen Shak-Dagsay. Turner co-released four albums of spiritual or uplifting music released through projects with Beyond: Buddhist and Christian Prayers (2009), Children (2011), Love Within (2014), and Awakening (2017). As of 2023, the Swiss Beyond Foundation remains active and enables the collaboration of musical artists from different parts of the world.
In April 2010, mainly due to an online campaign by fans of Rangers Football Club, Turner's 1989 hit, "The Best", returned to the UK singles chart, peaking at No. 9. This made Turner the first female recording artist in UK chart history to score top 40 hits in six consecutive decades (1960s–2010s). In 2011, Beyond's second album Children – With Children United in Prayer followed and charted again in Switzerland. Turner promoted the album by performing on TV shows in Germany and Switzerland. In April 2013, Turner appeared on the cover of the German issue of Vogue magazine at the age of 73, becoming the oldest person to be featured on the cover of Vogue. In February 2014, Parlophone Records released a new compilation titled Love Songs.
In December 2016 Turner announced that she had been working on Tina, a musical based on her life story, in collaboration with Phyllida Lloyd and Stage Entertainment. The show opened at the Aldwych Theatre in London in April 2018 with Adrienne Warren in the lead role. Warren reprised her role on Broadway in the fall of 2019.
Turner received the 2018 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and her second memoir, My Love Story, was released in October 2018. In 2020, she came out of retirement to collaborate with Norwegian producer Kygo on a remix of "What's Love Got to Do with It". With this release, she became the first artist to have a top 40 hit in seven consecutive decades in the UK.
In 2020, Turner released her third book, Happiness Becomes You: A Guide to Changing Your Life for Good. She co-wrote the book with American author Taro Gold and Swiss singer Regula Curti. It was chosen by Amazon's editors as a Best Nonfiction book of 2020. In 2021, Turner appeared in the documentary film Tina directed by Dan Lindsay and T. J. Martin.
In October 2021, Turner sold her music rights to BMG Rights Management for an estimated $50 million, with Warner Music still handling distribution of her music. Later that month, Turner was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist, accepting her award via satellite from her home near Zurich, Switzerland.
== Personal life ==
=== Relationships and marriages ===
==== Early relationships ====
While still in Brownsville, Turner fell in love for the first time with Harry Taylor. They met at a high school basketball game. Taylor initially attended a different school, but he relocated to be near her. In 1986, she told Rolling Stone: "Harry was real popular and had tons of girlfriends, but eventually I got him, and we went steady for a year." Their relationship ended after she discovered that Taylor had married another girl who was expecting his child.
After moving to St. Louis, Turner and her sister Alline became acquainted with Ike Turner's Kings of Rhythm. Alline dated the band's drummer, Eugene Washington, and Tina dated the band's saxophonist, Raymond Hill. After Tina became pregnant during her senior year of high school, she moved in with Hill, who lived with Ike Turner. She recalled, "I didn't love him as much as I'd loved Harry. But he was good-looking. I thought, 'My baby's going to be beautiful.'" Their relationship ended when Hill left the band after he broke his ankle during a wrestling match with Kings of Rhythm singer Carlson Oliver. Hill returned to his hometown of Clarksdale before their son Craig was born in August 1958, leaving Turner to become a single parent.
==== Ike Turner ====
Turner likened her early relationship with Ike Turner to that of a "brother and sister from another lifetime". They were platonic friends from the time they met in 1956 until 1960. Their affair began while Ike was with his live-in girlfriend Lorraine Taylor. They became intimate when Bullock went to sleep with Turner after another musician threatened to go into her room.
After recording "A Fool in Love" in 1960, a pregnant Turner told Ike that she did not want to continue their relationship; he responded by striking her in the head with a wooden shoe stretcher. Turner recalled that this incident was the first time he "instilled fear" in her, but she decided to stay with him because she "really did care about him".
Following the birth of their son Ronnie in October 1960, Ike and Tina Turner moved to Los Angeles in 1962 and married in Tijuana. In 1963, Ike purchased a house in the View Park area. They brought their son Ronnie, Turner's son Craig, and Ike's two sons with Lorraine (Ike Jr. and Michael) from St. Louis to live with them. She later revealed in I, Tina that Ike was violent and promiscuous throughout their marriage, which led to her suicide attempt in 1968 by overdosing on Valium pills. She said, "It was my relationship with Ike that made me most unhappy. At first, I had really been in love with him. Look what he'd done for me. But he was totally unpredictable." Later on, in his old age, Ike was diagnosed with bipolar disorder.
By the mid-1970s, Ike was heavily addicted to cocaine, which hindered his relationship with Turner. She abruptly separated from Ike after they got into a fight on their way to the Dallas Statler Hilton on July 1, 1976. With only 36 cents and a Mobil credit card in her pocket, Turner fled to a nearby Ramada Inn across the freeway to escape from Ike.
On July 27, Turner filed for divorce on the grounds of irreconcilable differences. Her divorce petition asked for $4,000 a month in alimony, $1,000 a month in child support, and custody of her sons Craig and Ronnie. The divorce was finalized on March 29, 1978. In the final divorce decree, Turner took responsibility for missed concert dates as well as an IRS lien and retained songwriter royalties from songs she had written, but Ike received the publishing royalties for his compositions and hers. She also kept her two Jaguars, furs, jewelry, and her stage name. Turner gave Ike her share of their Bolic Sound recording studio, publishing companies, and real estate, and he kept his four cars. Several promoters lost money and sued to recoup their losses. For almost two years, she received food stamps and played small clubs to pay off debts.
In his autobiography Takin' Back My Name, Ike Turner stated: "Sure, I've slapped Tina. We had fights and there have been times when I punched her to the ground without thinking. But I never beat her." In a 1999 interview on The Roseanne Show, Roseanne Barr urged Ike to publicly apologize to Turner. In 2007, Ike told Jet that he still loved her and he had written a letter apologizing for "putting her and the kids through that kind of stuff", but he never sent it.
After his death on December 12, 2007, Turner issued a brief statement through her spokesperson: "Tina hasn't had any contact with Ike in more than 30 years. No further comment will be made." Tina's sister Alline still considered Ike her brother-in-law and attended his funeral. In his eulogy, Phil Spector criticized Turner for vilifying Ike. In 2018, Turner told The Sunday Times that "as an old person, I have forgiven him, but I would not work with him. He asked for one more tour with me, and I said, 'No, absolutely not.' Ike wasn't someone you could forgive and allow him back in."
==== Erwin Bach ====
In 1986, Turner met German music executive Erwin Bach, who was sent by her European record label (EMI) to greet Turner at Düsseldorf Airport. Bach was over sixteen years her junior. Initially friends, they began dating later that year. In July 2013, after 27 years together, they married in a civil ceremony on the banks of Lake Zurich in Küsnacht, Switzerland.
=== Children ===
Turner had two biological sons. She gave birth to Raymond Craig Hill on August 20, 1958; Hill was fathered by Kings of Rhythm saxophonist Raymond Hill. Turner gave birth to Ronald "Ronnie" Renelle Turner on October 27, 1960; Turner was fathered by Ike Turner. She also adopted two of Ike Turner's children, raising them as her own. Turner was 18 years of age when she gave birth to her eldest son. Ike Turner adopted Raymond Craig Hill and changed his name to Craig Raymond Turner. Craig Turner was found dead in an apparent suicide in July 2018.
Turner's younger son, Ronnie, played bass guitar in a band called Manufactured Funk with songwriter and musician Patrick Moten. Ronnie also played for both of his parents' bands. Through him, Turner had two grandchildren. He was married to French singer Afida Turner. Ronnie Turner died from complications of colon cancer in December 2022.
During Turner's divorce trial, Ike sent their four sons to live with Tina and gave her money for one month's rent. Ike Turner Jr. worked as a sound engineer at Bolic Sound and briefly for Turner after her divorce, later winning a Grammy Award for producing his father's album Risin' with the Blues. He toured with former Ikette Randi Love as Sweet Randi Love and the Love Thang Band. Ike Turner Jr. stated that he and his brothers had a distant relationship with their mother (Tina). Turner wrote in her autobiography I, Tina that after her divorce she became "a little bit estranged" from all her sons except Craig. In 1989, Turner told TV Week that she's "still there for the boys", but there were reports of Turner's estrangement from her sons in the years before her death.
Ike Turner Jr., who was Tina's adopted son, died from kidney failure in October 2025. Upon Ike Jr.'s death, Turner's adopted son Michael Turner became her last surviving child. Ike Jr. stated in 2017 that Michael, who struggled with addiction as an adult, was by then using a wheelchair and had a history of "strokes and seizures." In 2018, Ike Jr. revealed that Michael was "in a convalescent home in Southern California and needs medical support." Despite still not visiting Michael, Tina provided him with financial support.
=== Legal issues ===
In November 1976, Turner was stopped for a traffic violation and an officer found a .38-caliber revolver in her purse. She was arrested and charged with a misdemeanor. Her attorney said she was carrying the gun for her safety due to threats on her life.
In 1978, Diners Club Corp. sued Turner and her company, Tina's Operation Oops, claiming she owed over $26,000 for purchases made using her credit card.
=== Religious beliefs ===
Turner sometimes referred to herself as a "Buddhist–Baptist", alluding to her upbringing in the Baptist church where her father was a deacon and her later conversion to Buddhism as an adult. In a 2016 interview with Lion's Roar magazine, she declared, "I consider myself a Buddhist." The February 15, 1979, issue of Jet magazine featured Turner with her Buddhist altar on the cover. Turner credited the Liturgy of Nichiren Daishonin and Soka Gakkai International for her introduction to spiritual knowledge.
Turner stated in her 1986 autobiography I, Tina that she was introduced to Nichiren Buddhism by Valerie Bishop, who Ike hired to work at their studio, Bolic Sound, in 1973. Turner later stated in her 2020 spiritual memoir Happiness Becomes You that her son, Ronnie Turner, first suggested she might benefit from chanting. Turner practiced Buddhism with her neighborhood Soka Gakkai International chanting group. After chanting nam-myōhō-renge-kyō, Turner noticed positive changes in her life, which she attributed to her newfound spiritual practice. She said: "I realized that I had within me everyone I needed to change my life for the better." During the hardest times of her life, Turner chanted four hours per day, and although in later life she no longer chanted as much, she still maintained a daily practice. Turner likened Buddhist chanting to singing. She told Lion's Roar: "Nam-myoho-renge-kyo is a song. In the Soka Gakkai tradition we are taught how to sing it. It is a sound and a rhythm and it touches a place inside you. That place we try to reach is the subconscious mind. I believe that it is the highest place and, if you communicate with it, that is when you receive information on what to do." Dramatizations of Turner chanting were included both in the 1993 film What's Love Got to Do with It and in the 2021 documentary film Tina.
Turner met with the 14th Dalai Lama, in Einsiedeln, Switzerland, on August 2, 2005. She also met with Swiss-Tibetan Buddhist singer Dechen Shak-Dagsay and in 2009 co-created a spiritual music project with Shak-Dagsay and Swiss singer Regula Curti called Beyond.
=== Residences, citizenship, and wealth ===
Turner began living at Château Algonquin in Küsnacht on the shore of Lake Zurich in 1994. She had previously owned property in Cologne, London, and Los Angeles, and a villa on the French Riviera named Anna Fleur.
In 2013, Turner applied for Swiss citizenship, stating she would renounce her citizenship in the United States. The stated reasons for the relinquishment were that she no longer had any strong connections to the United States and "has no plans to reside" there in the future. In April, she undertook a mandatory citizenship test which included advanced knowledge of German (the official language of the canton of Zurich) and of Swiss history. On April 22, 2013, she became a citizen of Switzerland and was issued a Swiss passport. Turner signed the paperwork to relinquish her American citizenship at the US embassy in Bern on October 24, 2013.
Turner's wealth was estimated at 225 million Swiss francs (about US$250 million) in 2022 by the Swiss business magazine Bilanz.
== Illness and death ==
Turner revealed in her 2018 memoir My Love Story that she had multiple life-threatening illnesses. She had high blood pressure since 1978, which remained mostly untreated, and resulted in damage to her kidneys and eventual kidney failure. In 2013, three weeks after her wedding to Erwin Bach, she had a stroke and needed to learn to walk again. In 2016, she was diagnosed with intestinal cancer. She attempted to treat her health problems with homeopathy, which worsened her condition.
Her chances of receiving a kidney transplant were considered low and she was urged to start dialysis. She signed up with an organization that facilitates assisted suicide, a procedure which is legal in Switzerland, becoming a member of Exit International. However, her husband offered to donate a kidney for transplant. She accepted his donation and had kidney transplantation surgery on April 7, 2017.
=== Death and tributes ===
On May 24, 2023, Turner died at her home in Küsnacht, Switzerland, aged 83, following years of illness. Turner's body was cremated after a private funeral.
Following news of her death, her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was covered with flowers from fans. Fans around the world paid respect with flowers and candles lit outside her home in Switzerland and outside London's Aldwych Theatre – the home of the musical Tina. On May 25, 2023, theatres across the West End of London, dimmed their lights for two minutes to mark Turner's death.
Many fellow artists mourned her loss, including Beyoncé, Dolly Parton, Debbie Harry, Jimmy Barnes, Bette Midler, Peter Andre, Bryan Adams, Lionel Richie, Elton John, Madonna, Rod Stewart, Lizzo, Brittany Howard, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Ronnie Wood and Cher.
Turner also received tributes by British model Naomi Campbell, as well as film and television figures such as Oprah Winfrey, Angela Bassett, Jenifer Lewis, Forest Whitaker, and theater producer Joop van den Ende. US president Joe Biden, as well as former presidents Barack Obama and Bill Clinton, and Swiss president Alain Berset also paid tribute to Turner through public statements. King Charles III paid tribute by allowing "The Best" to be performed during the changing of the guard.
Patti LaBelle paid tribute to Turner with a rendition of "The Best" at the 2023 BET Awards in June 2023. In February 2024, Fantasia paid tribute to Turner with a performance of "Proud Mary" at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards.
== Musical legacy and accolades ==
Often referred to as "The Queen of Rock and Roll", Turner is considered one of the greatest singers of all time. An article in The Guardian in 2018 noted her "swagger, sensuality, gravelly vocals and unstoppable energy", while The New York Times in 1996 noted that she was known for the appearance of her legs. Journalist Kurt Loder asserted that Turner's voice combined "the emotional force of the great blues singers with a sheer, wallpaper-peeling power that seemed made to order for the age of amplification". Daphne A. Brooks, a scholar of African-American studies, wrote for The Guardian:
Turner merged sound and movement at a critical turning point in rock history, navigating and reflecting back the technological innovations of a new pop-music era in the 60s and 70s. She catapulted herself to the forefront of a musical revolution that had long marginalized and overlooked the pioneering contributions of African American women and then remade herself again at an age when most pop musicians were hitting the oldies circuit. Turner's musical character has always been a charged combination of mystery as well as light, melancholy mixed with a ferocious vitality that often flirted with danger.
=== Awards, honors and achievements ===
At one time, Turner held a Guinness World Record for the largest paying audience for a solo performer (180,000 in 1988). In the UK, Turner was the first artist to have a top 40 hit in seven consecutive decades; she has a total of 35 UK top 40 hits. Turner was ranked as one of the most successful female singles artist in German chart history. She sold over 100 million records worldwide, including certified RIAA album sales of 10 million.
Turner won a total of 12 Grammy Awards. These awards include eight competitive Grammy Awards; she shares the record (with Pat Benatar, and with Sheryl Crow) for most awards (four) given for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. Three of her recordings--"River Deep – Mountain High" (1999), "Proud Mary" (2003), and "What's Love Got to Do with It" (2012)--appear in the Grammy Hall of Fame. Turner is the only female artist to have won a Grammy in the pop, rock, and R&B fields. Turner received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2018. Turner also won Grammys as a member of USA for Africa and as a performer at the 1986 Prince's trust concert.
Turner received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1986 and a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame in 1991. She and Ike Turner were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a duo in 1991. In 2005, Turner received the prestigious Kennedy Center Honors. President George W. Bush commented on her "natural skill, the energy and sensuality", and referred to her legs as "the most famous in show business". Several artists paid tribute to her that night including Melissa Etheridge (performing "River Deep – Mountain High"), Queen Latifah (performing "What's Love Got to Do with It"), Beyoncé (performing "Proud Mary"), and Al Green (performing "Let's Stay Together"). Oprah Winfrey stated, "We don't need another hero. We need more heroines like you, Tina. You make me proud to spell my name w-o-m-a-n."
In 2021, Turner was inducted by Angela Bassett into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist. Keith Urban and H.E.R. performed "It's Only Love", Mickey Guyton performed "What's Love Got to Do with It", and Christina Aguilera performed "River Deep – Mountain High".
In September 2025, Turner was selected for induction into the National Rhythm and Blues Hall of Fame.
Turner has also received the following honors:
1967: Turner was the first black artist and first female on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine (Issue No. 2).
1977: She was named the most exciting woman of the year by International Bachelor's Society.
1984: Turner ranked No. 18 on 25 Most Intriguing People by People magazine.
1987: Berolina Award honored Turner with the biggest influence in music in Germany.
1990: Turner was voted for Best International female Singer of the year in Europe by Goldene Europa.
1990: Turner ranked No. 15 in Celebrity Sleuth 25 Sexiest Women of 1990 by Celebrity Skin (magazine).
1993: World Music Awards presented Turner with the Legend Award.
1993: Essence Awards honored Turner with the Living Legend Award.
1996: Turner's handprints at the Walk of Fame Europe Rotterdam.
1996: Turner was inducted into the International Best Dressed Hall of Fame by Vanity Fair.
1996: Turner received the accolade of Légion d'Honneur from the French education minister.
1997: Hanes campaign honored Turner for having the sexiest legs in the entertainment business.
1999: MOBO Awards honored Turner with the Lifetime Achievement Award.
1999: Productores de Música de España (Promusicae) honored Turner with the Legend Award.
1999: Turner was named one of The Sexiest Stars Over 50 by the American Association of Retired Persons.
1999: Turner ranked No. 11 on The 25 Coolest Women by The Advocate.
1999: Turner ranked No. 2 on VH1's list of 100 Greatest Women of Rock and Roll.
2000: Turner ranked No. 33 on 50 Most Beautiful People in the World by People.
2000: Turner ranked No. 78 on USA Today Pop Candy's 100 People of the Year.
2002: Turner ranked No. 6 on VH1's 100 Sexiest Artists of All Time.
2002: Tennessee State Route 19 between Brownsville and Nutbush was named "Tina Turner Highway".
2002, She was voted at No. 56 in Q magazine's list of the Top 100 Women Who Rock The World.
2003: "What's Love Got to Do with It" was included in VH1's list of the 100 Best Songs of the Past 25 years.
2003: Turner ranked No. 22 on VH1's 50 Greatest Women Of The Video Era.
2003: Turner ranked No. 11 on Pollstar's Top 40 Grossing Tours of all-time in North America [Through 2003].
2003: Turner was included on VH1's list of the "200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons of All Time".
2003: Rolling Stone ranked Proud Mary: The Best of Ike & Tina Turner No. 212 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (No. 214 on 2012 revised list).
2004: Turner was ranked No. 35 on Rolling Stone's 50 Greatest Portraits.
2004: People ranked her 1985 performance of "What's Love Got to Do With It" as one of the top 10 Grammy moments.
2005: Turner was one of 25 African-American women saluted at Oprah Winfrey's Legends Ball, a three-day celebration honoring their contributions to art, entertainment, and civil rights.
2006: Turner ranked No. 9 on Sly Magazine's 10 Sexiest Women Over 40 [January 2006].
2006: Turner was voted one of The Sexiest Celebrity Grandparents of the Year by The Grand Magazine.
2007: Turner was ranked at number 19 on BET's "Top 25 Dancers of All Time".
2008: Rolling Stone ranked Turner No. 17 on their list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time.
2008: Turner was selected as the woman most admired by The Washington Post.
2009: Time ranked her 1985 performance of "What's Love Got to Do With It" as one of the top 10 Grammy moments.
2010: Rolling Stone ranked Turner No. 63 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.
2011: Turner ranked No. 20 on The greatest singers ever by NME.
2012: Turner ranked No. 34 on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists Of All Time.
2012: Turner ranked No. 22 on The 100 hottest female singers of all time by complex.com.
2013: Turner covered Vogue Germany, becoming the oldest person (aged 73) to cover Vogue magazine, surpassing Meryl Streep (aged 62) who covered American Vogue in 2012.
2013: ABC named Turner one of the greatest women in music.
2013, Turner ranked No. 6 on most loved singers in Switzerland. by The Swiss TV channel SRF 1.
2013: Turner ranked No. 2 on 10 biggest musical comebacks of all time by Toronto Sun
2014: Turner ranked No. 2 on The 15 Greatest Legs In The Music Biz by VH1.
2014: Turner was inducted into the Soul Music Hall of Fame.
2015: Turner was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.
2015: Turner ranked No. 4 on 11 Hair Icons of all time by Hype Hair.
2015: The Tina Turner Museum at Flagg Grove School proved once again that it truly is Simply The Best addition to Tennessee Tourism, winning nine awards at The Tennessee Association of Museums Conference in a ceremony at Discovery Park of America.
2015: Turner ranked No. 33 on MetroNOW's Top 50 Gay Icons by MetroSource.
2015: Rolling Stone ranked Ike & Tina Turner No. 2 on their list of the 20 Greatest Duos of All Time.
2015: Ike & Tina Turner were inducted into the St. Louis Classic Rock Hall of Fame.
2015, Turner was ranked number 29 in Billboard magazine's list of the "35 Greatest R&B Artists of All Time".
2016: Turner ranked No. 2 on Top 5 Greatest Voices in the History of Rock Music by ppcorn.com.
2016: An image of Turner taken by Jack Robinson in 1969 was used as the cover for The Last Shadow Puppets album Everything You've Come to Expect.
2016: Turner ranked No. 55 on The 75 Greatest Women of All Time by Esquire.
2018: Billboard listed Turner's performance in Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985) film as the 68th best performance of a musician in a box-office film.
2018: album Private Dancer appeared on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 100 Best Albums of the 1980s and is also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
2018: Billboard ranked Turner at number 37 on their Top 60 Female Artists of All-Time list.
2019: Turner was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame.
2020: She was one of the greatest Voices of the 80s by MTV.
2020: the publication included her on its list of the 100 Greatest Music Video Artists of All Time.
2020: Private Dancer was added to the National Recording Registry at the Library of Congress.
2021: Turner became a two-time Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee.
2021: Turner received an honorary doctorate for her "unique musical and artistic life's work" from the Philosophical and Historical Faculty of the University of Bern.
2022: Mattel released a Barbie doll in Turner's likeness to commemorate her single "What's Love Got to Do with It".
2023: Rolling Stone ranked Turner No. 55 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
2023: The song "What's Love Got to Do With It" appeared on Billboard's list of the 500 best pop songs of all time.
2023–2024: Smooth Radio ranked Turner No. 8 on their list of the top music icon of all time.
2025: Forbes ranked her No. 9 on The 50 Black Female Singers With Incredible Vocals List. and the number five female singer of the 80s .
2025: Turner was selected for induction into the National Rhythm and Blues Hall of Fame.
2025: A statue of Turner was unveiled in Brownsville, Tennessee.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Good Hearted Woman (1974)
Tina Turns the Country On! (1974)
Acid Queen (1975)
Rough (1978)
Love Explosion (1979)
Private Dancer (1984)
Break Every Rule (1986)
Foreign Affair (1989)
Wildest Dreams (1996)
Twenty Four Seven (1999)
== Tours ==
1977: Australian Tour
1978: Tina Turner Revue
1979: Tina Turner Show
1981–1983: Tina Turner: Live in Concert
1984: 1984 World Tour
1985: Private Dancer Tour
1987–1988: Break Every Rule World Tour
1990: Foreign Affair: The Farewell Tour
1993: What's Love? Tour
1996–1997: Wildest Dreams Tour
2000: Twenty Four Seven Tour
2008–2009: Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour
=== As opening act ===
1981: American Tour 1981 (for the Rolling Stones)
1981: Worth Leavin' Home For Tour (for Rod Stewart)
1984: Can't Slow Down Tour (for Lionel Richie)
== Filmography ==
== Books ==
Tina! (1985).
I, Tina: My Life Story (1986)
My Love Story: A Memoir, Atria Books (2018)
Happiness Becomes You: A Guide to Changing Your Life for Good, Atria Books (2020)
Tina Turner: That's My Life (2020)
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Official website
Tina Turner on Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Tina Turner at AllMusic
Tina Turner discography at Discogs
Tina Turner at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty_Marks_(album) | Beauty Marks (album) | Beauty Marks is the seventh studio album by American singer Ciara. It was released on May 10, 2019, through her own independent label, Beauty Marks Entertainment with distribution from Alternative Distribution Alliance. It is her first album since Jackie (2015). The album was preceded by five singles "Level Up", "Freak Me", "Dose", "Greatest Love" and "Thinkin Bout You".
== Background ==
After the release of her sixth studio album, Jackie (2015), Ciara decided to leave Epic Records in early 2016. Although the album spawned the Platinum-certified single, "I Bet", it failed to make much of a commercial impact, selling only around 160,000 copies worldwide within a three-month period. The singer had planned to further promote the album with a second leg of the Jackie Tour in March 2016, after postponing the dates from November 2015; however, on February 27, 2016, Ciara announced that the remaining dates of the tour had been cancelled and that she'd instead focus on recording her seventh studio album, while expressing that the album would see her undertaking a new musical direction.
On January 27, 2017, it was announced that Ciara had signed a new recording contract with Warner Bros. Records. As a part of the deal, Ciara began working on her seventh studio album and shot a music video for its lead single, "Level Up", in 2017. Ciara quietly departed the label later that year. The departure followed a period of creative tension between the artist and the label, particularly surrounding the release of her empowering single, Level Up. Despite Ciara's passion for the track and its potential to resonate with her fanbase, Warner hesitated to release it, prompting her to take control of her artistic vision.
I had to meet with the new CEO, and I had my game plan. I had this song called 'Level Up.' I had the video for this song as well. I had a whole vision for my project, and I sat down, and I talked to him, to the CEO at that time,” she says. “Like you know, once the meeting was over, and I knew he didn't want to go forward with my project, I was like, this is my chance and I'm going to ask back for my masters...I'm literally going to level up. The record label ended up returning them to Ciara for free.
In 2017, Ciara launched her own record and entertainment company, Beauty Marks Entertainment (BME); the venture was launched for her to follow her own creative direction and release her music on her own terms, with the singer eventually hoping to sign additional artists. BME's first endeavor was the release of the singles "Level Up", "Freak Me", and "Dose" in 2018, while Ciara officially announced its formation on February 7, 2019, at the MAKERS Conference.
On March 28, 2019, Ciara announced that her seventh studio album would be titled Beauty Marks after her label and that it would be released on May 10, 2019. The album was made available for pre-order the following day, along with its fifth single, "Thinkin' Bout You". In speaking on the album's development process, Ciara expressed that she now feels as she did at the start of her career, stating:
I was this young girl excited to be living my dreams and having the best time. I'm back to that phase again.
Ciara revealed that she co-wrote the title track "Beauty Marks" with Skylar Grey.
== Singles ==
"Level Up" was released via digital download and through streaming platforms on July 18, 2018, as the album's lead single, alongside a high-octane music video. The single peaked at 59 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and at 23 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, while its music video inspired the viral "level up dance challenge". Ciara also challenged fans to share three ways that they hoped to "level up" in life in promotion of the single. The song was certified Platinum by the RIAA. With the success of "Level Up", Ciara released the album's second single, "Freak Me", featuring Nigerian rapper, Tekno, less than a month later on August 10, 2018. The single peaked at 22 on the US R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Songs Chart.
"Dose" was released as the album's third single on September 14, 2018, after premiering on ESPN’s Monday Night Football halftime show. The song's music video premiered on October 25, 2018 (Ciara's 33rd birthday). The single peaked at 7 on the US R&B Digital Songs Sales chart. The album's fourth single, "Greatest Love", was released alongside its music video on February 11, 2019, to coincide with Valentine's Day. The single peaked at 21 on the US R&B Digital Songs Sales chart.
"Thinkin Bout You" was released as the fifth single on March 29, 2019, along with the album's pre-order. Its music video premiered that same day. The single peaked at 20 on the US R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Songs Chart.
Ciara released a music video for the album's title track on May 11, 2019 and one for the album's third track, "Set", on June 14, 2019. Despite not being released as a single, the title track peaked at 22 on the R&B Digital Songs Sales chart.
== Critical reception ==
Beauty Marks received generally mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 57, based on 4 reviews. Andy Kellman, writing for AllMusic, noted that Ciara "retreads just about every move she has made before," and praised the ballads for the ballads for "easily prevail[ing] over the up-tempo numbers, not one of which is a match for the singer's previous dancefloor conquests." In his Spin review, Alfred Soto called the album "mediocre", but remarked that "[it] manages to land in the middle of Ciara's discography when boldness is required." Nick Levine rated the album with 3 out of 5 stars, claiming that "[t]hough ‘Beauty Marks’ is rarely innovative, Ciara shows a respectable amount of range throughout the record. During his review for Pitchfork, Eric Torres perceived that "despite a handful of highlights, Beauty Marks is marred by filler, moving between frothy pop-R&B and stale empowerment anthems that leave Ciara's talents largely underused." In a more positive note, Steven J. Horowitz praised the album's themes of happiness and contentment, claiming that they "suit her well, as does her newfound openness. This is the Ciara that we deserve, and that she deserves too."
== Commercial performance ==
The album debuted at number 87 on the US Billboard 200 and number 48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. As of May 2019, the album has sold over 135,000 equivalent album units globally.
== Track listing ==
All songs were written by Ciara. Additional writers are noted below.
Notes
^[a] signifies a vocal producer, this may be in addition to music production
Sample credits
"Level Up" contains a sample of the composition "Fuck It Up Challenge" by DJ Telly Tell, written by Telly Brown Jr.
"Freak Me" contains a sample of the composition "Before NKO" by Tiwa Savage, written by Tiwatope Savage, Charles Enebeli and Michael Ajereh Collins.
== Personnel ==
Credits for Beauty Marks adapted from Allmusic.
=== Studios ===
Recording locations
Mixing locations
=== Performers and Vocals ===
=== Production ===
=== Technical ===
=== Artwork ===
== Charts ==
== Release history ==
== Beauty Marks Tour ==
The Beauty Marks Tour was the fifth concert tour by American singer Ciara. The tour supported her seventh studio album, Beauty Marks.
=== Background ===
Ciara announced the tour on June 1, 2019, during a performance on Good Morning America.
=== Reception ===
Reviewing the Houston date for the Houston Chronicle, Joey Guerra said that "every song was a renewed blast of energy" and that regardless of whether she was singing her first hits or her newest songs, "it's still an intoxicating sound".
=== Tour dates ===
=== Set list ===
"Dose"
"Set"
"Goodies"
"That's Right"
"Get Up"
"Ride"
"Oh"
"Promise"
"And I"
"Sorry"
"I Bet"
"Like a Boy"
"Girl Gang"
"If"
"Freak Me"
"Ciara to the Stage"
"Like a Surgeon"
"Body Party"
"Thinkin Bout You"
"1, 2 Step"
"Tootsee Roll"
"Level Up"
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Richter#:~:text=Richter%20has%20been%20the,Kokoschka%20Prize%2C%20Vienna%2C%201985%3B | Gerhard Richter | Gerhard Richter (German: [ˈɡeːɐ̯haʁt ˈʁɪçtɐ]; born 9 February 1932) is a German visual artist. Richter has produced abstract as well as photorealistic paintings, photographs and glass pieces. He is widely regarded as one of the most important contemporary German artists and several of his works have set record prices at auction, with him being the most expensive living painter at one time.
Richter has been called the "greatest living painter", "the world's most important artist" and the "Picasso of the 21st century".
== Personal life ==
=== Childhood and education ===
Richter was born in Hospital Dresden-Neustadt in Dresden, Saxony, and grew up in Reichenau (now Bogatynia, Poland), and in Waltersdorf (Zittauer Gebirge), in the Upper Lusatian countryside, where his father worked as a village teacher. Gerhard's mother, Hildegard Schönfelder, gave birth to him at the age of 25. Hildegard's father, Ernst Alfred Schönfelder, at one time was considered a gifted pianist. Ernst moved the family to Dresden after taking up the family enterprise of brewing and eventually went bankrupt. Once in Dresden, Hildegard trained as a bookseller, and in doing so realized a passion for literature and music. Gerhard's father, Horst Richter, was a mathematics and physics student at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden. The two were married in 1931.
After struggling to maintain a position in the new National Socialist education system, Horst found a position in Reichenau. Gerhard's younger sister, Gisela, was born there in 1936. Horst and Hildegard were able to remain primarily apolitical due to Reichenau's location in the countryside. Horst, being a teacher, was eventually forced to join the National Socialist Party. He never became an avid supporter of Nazism, and was not required to attend party rallies. When he was 10 years old, Gerhard was conscripted into the Deutsches Jungvolk; the Hitler Youth, for teenage boys, was dissolved at the end of the war, before Richter reached the age of enlistment. In 1943, Hildegard moved the family to Waltersdorf, and was later forced to sell her piano. Two brothers of Hildegard died as soldiers in the war and a sister, Gerhard's aunt Marianne, who had schizophrenia, was starved to death in a psychiatric clinic, a victim of the Nazi euthanasia program.
Richter left school after 10th grade and apprenticed as an advertising and stage-set painter, before studying at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts. In 1948, he finished vocational high school in Zittau and, between 1949 and 1951, successively worked as an apprentice with a sign painter and as a painter. In 1950, his application for study at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts was rejected as "too bourgeois". He finally began his studies at the Academy in 1951. His teachers there were Karl von Appen, Heinz Lohmar, and Will Grohmann.
=== Relationships ===
Richter married Marianne Eufinger in 1957; she gave birth to his first daughter. He married his second wife, the sculptor Isa Genzken, in 1982. Richter had two sons and a daughter with his third wife, Sabine Moritz, after they were married in 1995.
=== Early career ===
In the early days of his career, he prepared a wall painting (Communion with Picasso, 1955) for the refectory of his Academy of Arts as part of his B.A. Another mural entitled Lebensfreude (Joy of life) followed at the German Hygiene Museum for his diploma. It was intended to produce an effect "similar to that of wallpaper or tapestry".
From 1957 to 1961 Richter worked as a master trainee in the academy and took commissions for the then state of East Germany. During this time, he worked intensively on murals like Arbeiterkampf (Workers' struggle), on oil paintings (e.g. portraits of the East German actress Angelica Domröse and of Richter's first wife Ema), on various self-portraits, and on a panorama of Dresden with the neutral name Stadtbild (Townscape, 1956).
Together with his wife Marianne, Richter escaped from East to West Germany two months before the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961. Both his wall paintings in the Academy of Arts and the Hygiene Museum were then painted over for ideological reasons. Much later, after German reunification, two "windows" of the wall painting Joy of life (1956) would be uncovered in the stairway of the German Hygiene Museum, but these were later covered over when it was decided to restore the Museum to its original 1930 state. A large portion of the mural was finally uncovered and restored in 2024.
In West Germany, Richter began to study at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf under Karl Otto Götz, together with Sigmar Polke, Werner Hilsing, HA Schult, Kuno Gonschior, Franz Erhard Walther, Konrad Lueg, and Gotthard Graubner. With Polke and Konrad Fischer (pseudonym Lueg), he introduced the term Kapitalistischer Realismus (Capitalistic Realism) as an anti-style of art, appropriating the pictorial shorthand of advertising. This title also referred to the realist style of art known as Socialist Realism, then the official art doctrine of the Soviet Union, but it also commented upon the consumer-driven art doctrine of Western capitalism.
Richter taught at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design as a visiting professor; he returned to the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf in 1971, where he worked as a professor for over 15 years.
In 1983, Richter resettled from Düsseldorf to Cologne, where he still lives and works today. In 1996, he moved into a studio designed by architect Thiess Marwede.
== Art ==
=== Photo-paintings and the "blur" ===
Richter created various painting pictures from black-and-white photographs during the 1960s and early 1970s, basing them on a variety of sources: newspapers and books, sometimes incorporating their captions, (as in Helga Matura (1966)); private snapshots; aerial views of towns and mountains, (Cityscape Madrid (1968) and Alps (1968)); seascapes (1969–70); and a large multipart work made for the German Pavilion in the 1972 Venice Biennale. For Forty-eight Portraits (1971–72), he chose mainly the faces of composers such as Gustav Mahler and Jean Sibelius, and of writers such as H. G. Wells and Franz Kafka.
From around 1964, Richter made a number of portraits of dealers, collectors, artists, and others connected with his immediate professional circle. Richter's two portraits of Betty, his daughter, were made in 1977 and 1988 respectively; the three portraits titled IG were made in 1993 and depict the artist's second wife, Isa Genzken. Lesende (1994) portrays Sabine Moritz, whom Richter married in 1995, shown absorbed in the pages of a magazine. Many of his realist paintings reflect on the history of Nazism, creating paintings of family members who had been members, as well as victims, of the Nazi party. From 1966, as well as those given to him by others, Richter began using photographs he had taken as the basis for portraits. In 1975, on the occasion of a show in Düsseldorf, Gilbert & George commissioned Richter to make a portrait of them.
Richter began making prints in 1965. He was most active before 1974, only completing sporadic projects since that time. In the period 1965–1974, Richter made most of his prints (more than 100), of the same or similar subjects in his paintings. He has explored a variety of photographic printmaking processes – screenprint, photolithography, and collotype – in search of inexpensive mediums that would lend a "non-art" appearance to his work. He stopped working in print media in 1974, and began painting from photographs he took himself.
While elements of landscape painting appeared initially in Richter's work early on in his career in 1963, the artist began his independent series of landscapes in 1968 after his first vacation, an excursion that landed him besotted with the terrain of Corsica. Landscapes have since emerged as an independent work group in his oeuvre. According to Dietmar Elger, Richter's landscapes are understood within the context of traditional German Romantic Painting. They are compared to the work of Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840). Friedrich is foundational to German landscape painting. Each artist spent formative years of their lives in Dresden. Große Teyde-Landschaft (1971) takes its imagery from similar holiday snapshots of the volcanic regions of Tenerife.
Atlas was first exhibited in 1972 at the Museum voor Hedendaagse Kunst in Utrecht under the title Atlas der Fotos und Skizzen. It included 315 parts. The work has continued to expand, and was exhibited later in full form at the Lenbachhaus in Munich in 1989, the Museum Ludwig in Cologne in 1990, and at Dia Art Foundation in New York in 1995. Atlas continues as an ongoing, encyclopedic work composed of approximately 4,000 photographs, reproductions or cut-out details of photographs and illustrations, grouped together on approximately 600 separate panels.
In 1972, Richter embarked on a ten-day trip to Greenland. His friend Hanne Darboven was meant to accompany him, but instead, he traveled alone. His intention was to experience and record the desolate arctic landscape. In 1976, four large paintings, each titled Seascape, emerged from the Greenland photographs.
In 1982 and 1983, Richter made a series of paintings of Candles and Skulls that relate to a longstanding tradition of still life memento mori painting. Each composition is most commonly based on a photograph taken by Richter in his own studio. Influenced by old master vanitas painters such as Georges de La Tour and Francisco de Zurbarán, the artist began to experiment with arrangements of candles and skulls placed in varying degrees of natural light, sitting atop otherwise barren tables. The Candle paintings coincided with his first large-scale abstract paintings, and represent the complete antithesis to those vast, colorful and playfully meaningless works. Richter has made only 27 of these still lifes. In 1995, the artist marked the 50th anniversary of the allied bombings of his hometown Dresden during the Second World War. His solitary candle was reproduced on a monumental scale and placed overlooking the River Elbe as a symbol of rejuvenation. Richter has said that while painting this series, “I did experience feelings to do with contemplation, remembering, silence, and death.”
In a 1988 series of 15 ambiguous photo paintings entitled 18 October 1977, he depicted four members of the Red Army Faction (RAF), a German left-wing militant organization. These paintings were created from black-and-white newspaper and police photos. Three RAF members were found dead in their prison cells on 18 October 1977 and the cause of their deaths was the focus of widespread controversy. In the late 1980s, Richter had begun to collect images of the group which he used as the basis for the 15 paintings exhibited for the first time in Krefeld in 1989. The paintings were based on an official portrait of Ulrike Meinhof during her years as a radical journalist; on photographs of the arrest of Holger Meins; on police shots of Gudrun Ensslin in prison; on Andreas Baader's bookshelves and the record player to conceal his gun; on the dead figures of Meinhof, Ensslin, and Baader; and on the funeral of Ensslin, Baader, and Jan-Carl Raspe.
Since 1989, Richter has worked on creating new images by dragging wet paint over photographs. The photographs, not all taken by Richter himself, are mostly snapshots of daily life: family vacations, pictures of friends, mountains, buildings, and streetscapes.
Richter was flying to New York on 11 September 2001, but due to the 9/11 attacks, including on the World Trade Center, his plane was diverted to Halifax, Nova Scotia. A few years later, he made one small painting specifically about the planes crashing into the World Trade Center. In September: A History Painting by Gerhard Richter, Robert Storr situates Richter's 2005 painting September within a brand of anti-ideological thought that he finds throughout Richter's work. He considers how the ubiquitous photographic documentation of 11 September attacks affects the uniqueness of one's distinct remembrance of the events, and he offers a valuable comparison to Richter's 18 October 1977 cycle.
In the 2000s, Richter made a number of works that dealt with scientific phenomena. In 2003, he produced several paintings with the same title: Silicate. Large oil-on-canvas pieces, these show latticed rows of light- and dark-grey blobs whose shapes quasi-repeat as they race across the frame, their angle modulating from painting to painting. They depict a photo, published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, of a computer-generated simulacrum of reflections from the silicon dioxide found in insects' shells.
In 2014, Richter created a cycle of four paintings using the Sonderkommando photographs, which were taken in the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp during the Holocaust, titled Birkenau. In October 2021, Gerhard Richter decided to make his Birkenau images permanently available to the International Auschwitz Committee. Currently, the cycle is on permanent display in an exhibition pavilion on the grounds of the International Youth Meeting Center in Oświęcim/Auschwitz, around 2 kilometers from the Auschwitz II-Birkenau site. The pavilion was built according to a design by the artist. In 2024, an edition of the works as prints on metal plate, made and donated by Richter, went on display at the Centre.
=== Abstract work ===
Richter's early work Table (1962) consisted of a painting of a table, taken from a photograph in a magazine, with tachiste gestural marks overlapping. Those marks can be read as cancelling the photorealist representation, using haptic swirls of grey paint, as well as a form of generativity.
In 1969, Richter produced the first of a group of grey monochromes that consist exclusively of the textures resulting from different methods of paint application.
In 1976, Richter first gave the title Abstract Painting to one of his works. By presenting a painting without even a few words to name and explain it, he felt he was "letting a thing come, rather than creating it." In his abstract pictures, Richter builds up cumulative layers of non-representational painting, beginning with brushing big swaths of primary color onto canvas. The paintings evolve in stages, based on his responses to the picture's progress: the incidental details and patterns that emerge. Throughout his process, Richter uses the same techniques he uses in his representational paintings, blurring and scraping to veil and expose prior layers.
From the mid-1980s, Richter began to use a homemade squeegee to rub and scrape the paint that he had applied in large bands across his canvases. In an interview with Benjamin H.D. Buchloch in 1986, Richter was asked about his "Monochrome Grey Pictures and Abstract Pictures" and their connection with the artists Yves Klein and Ellsworth Kelly. The following are Richter's answers:
The Grey Pictures were done at a time when there were monochrome paintings everywhere. I painted them nonetheless. ... Not Kelly, but Bob Ryman, Brice Marden, Alan Charlton, Yves Klein and many others.
In the 1990s the artist began to run his squeegee up and down the canvas in an ordered fashion to produce vertical columns that take on the look of a wall of planks.
Richter's abstract work and its illusion of space developed out of his incidental process: an accumulation of spontaneous, reactive gestures of adding, moving, and subtracting paint. Despite unnatural palettes, spaceless sheets of color, and obvious trails of the artist's tools, the abstract pictures often act like windows through which we see the landscape outside. As in his representational paintings, there is an equalization of illusion and paint. In those paintings, he reduces worldly images to mere incidents of Art. Similarly, in his abstract pictures, Richter exalts spontaneous, intuitive mark-making to a level of spatial logic and believability.
Firenze continues a cycle of 99 works conceived in the autumn of 1999 and executed in the same year and thereafter. This series belongs to the body of work of the overpainted photographs, or übermalte Fotographien, counting more than 2,000 pieces. Firenze consists of small paintings bearing images of the city of Florence, created by the artist as a tribute to the music of Steve Reich and the work of Contempoartensemble, a Florence-based group of musicians.
After 2000, Richter made a number of works that dealt with scientific phenomena, in particular, with aspects of reality that cannot be seen by the naked eye. In 2006, Richter conceived six paintings as a coherent group under the title Cage, named after the American avant-garde composer John Cage. The Cage paintings are large works constructed from intersecting fields, lines, and swaths of uneven smears that reflect the broad squeegee tool which Richter drags across the canvases, before removing areas of paint to generate a subtractive method of concealing and revealing variegated layers and patches. In May 2002, Richter photographed 216 details of his abstract painting no. 648-2, from 1987. Working on a long table over a period of several weeks, Richter combined these 10 x 15 cm details with 165 texts on the Iraq war, published in the German Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung newspaper on 20 and 21 March. This work was published in 2004 as a book entitled War Cut.
In November 2008, Richter began a series in which he applied ink droplets to wet paper, using alcohol and lacquer to extend and retard the ink's natural tendency to bloom and creep. The resulting November sheets are regarded as a significant departure from his previous watercolours in that the pervasive soaking of ink into wet paper produced double-sided works. Sometimes, the uppermost sheets bled into others, generating a sequentially developing series of images. In a few cases, Richter applied lacquer to one side of the sheet, or drew pencil lines across the patches of colour.
=== Color chart paintings ===
As early as 1966, Richter had made paintings based on colour charts. For these works, he drew inspirations from using the charts as found objects, which arranged rectangles of colors in an apparently limitless variety of hues. Richter's experiments culminated in 1973-74 in a series of large-format pictures, such as 256 Colours. Between 1966 and 1974, Richter painted three series of Color Chart works, each growing more ambitious in its attempt to create meaning through the purely arbitrary arrangement of colors. The artist began his investigations into the complex permutations of color charts in 1966, with a small painting entitled 10 Colors. The charts provided anonymous and impersonal source material, a way for Richter to disassociate color from any traditional, descriptive, symbolic or expressive end. When he began to make these paintings, Richter had his friend Blinky Palermo randomly call out colors, which Richter then adopted for his work. Chance thus plays its role in the creation of his first series.
Returning to color charts in the 1970s, Richter changed his focus from the readymade to the conceptual system, developing mathematical procedures for mixing colors and employing chance operations for their placement. The range of the colors he employed was determined by a mathematical system for mixing the primary colors in graduated amounts. Each color was then randomly ordered to create the resultant composition and form of the painting. Richter's second series of Color Charts was begun in 1971 and consisted of only five paintings. In the final series of Color Charts which preoccupied Richter throughout 1973 and 1974, additional elements to this permutational system of color production were added in the form of mixes of a light grey, a dark gray and later, a green.
Richter's 4900 Colours from 2007 consisted of bright monochrome squares that have been randomly arranged in a grid pattern to create stunning fields of kaleidoscopic color. It was produced at the same time he developed his design for the south transept window of Cologne Cathedral. 4900 Colours consists of 196 panels in 25 colors that can be reassembled in 11 variations – from a single expansive surface to multiple small-format fields. Richter developed Version II – 49 paintings, each of which measures 97 by 97 centimeters – especially for the Serpentine Gallery.
=== Sculpture ===
Richter began to use glass in his work in 1967, when he made Four Panes of Glass. These plain sheets of glass could tilt away from the poles on which they were mounted at an angle that changed from one installation to the next. In 1970, he and Blinky Palermo jointly submitted designs for the sports facilities for the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. For the front of the arena, they proposed an array of glass windows in twenty-seven different colors; each color would appear fifty times, with the distribution determined randomly. In 1981, for a two-person show with Georg Baselitz in Düsseldorf, Richter produced the first of the monumental transparent mirrors that appear intermittently thereafter in his oeuvre; the mirrors are significantly larger than Richter's paintings and feature adjustable steel mounts. For pieces such as Mirror Painting (Grey, 735-2) (1991), the mirrors were coloured grey by coating the back of the glass with pigment. Arranged in two rooms, Richter presented an ensemble of paintings and colored mirrors in a special pavilion designed in collaboration with architect Paul Robbrecht at Documenta 9 in Kassel in 1992.
In 2002, for the Dia Art Foundation, Richter created a glass sculpture in which seven parallel panes of glass refract light and the world beyond, offering altered visions of the exhibition space; Spiegel I (Mirror I) and Spiegel II (Mirror II), a two-part mirror piece from 1989 that measures 7' tall and 18' feet long, which alters the boundaries of the environment and again changes one's visual experience of the gallery; and Kugel (Sphere), 1992, a stainless steel sphere that acts as a mirror, reflecting the space. Since 2002, the artist has created a series of three dimensional glass constructions, such as 6 Standing Glass Panels (2002/2011).
=== Drawings ===
In 2010, the Drawing Center showed Lines which do not exist, a survey of Richter's drawings from 1966 to 2005, including works made using mechanical intervention such as attaching a pencil to an electric hand drill. It was the first career overview of Richter in the United States since 40 Years of Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in 2002. In a review of Lines which do not exist, R. H. Lossin wrote in The Brooklyn Rail: "Viewed as a personal (and possibly professional) deficiency, Richter's drawing practice consisted of diligently documenting something that didn't work—namely a hand that couldn't draw properly. ...Richter displaces the concept of the artist's hand with hard evidence of his own, wobbly, failed, and very material appendage."
=== Commissions ===
Throughout his career, Richter has mostly declined lucrative licensing deals and private commissions. Measuring 9 by 9 ½ feet and depicting both the Milan Duomo and the square's 19th-century Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Domplatz, Mailand (1968) was a commission from Siemens, and it hung in that company's offices in Milan from 1968 to 1998. (In 1998, Sotheby's sold it in London, where it fetched what was then a record price for Richter, $3.6 million). In 1980, Richter and Isa Genzken were commissioned to design the König-Heinrich-Platz underground station in Duisburg; it was only completed in 1992. In 1986, Richter received a commission for two large-scale paintings – Victoria I and Victoria II – from the Victoria insurance company in Düsseldorf. In 1990, along with Sol LeWitt and Oswald Mathias Ungers, he created works for the Bayerische Hypotheken- und Wechselbank in Düsseldorf. In 1998, he installed a wall piece based on the colours of Germany's flag in the rebuilt Reichstag in Berlin. In 2012 he was asked to design the first page of the German newspaper Die Welt. In 2017 Richter designed the label of the 2015 Chateau Mouton Rothschild's first wine of that year.
=== Church windows ===
In 2002, the same year as his MoMA retrospective, Richter was asked to design a stained glass window in the Cologne Cathedral. In August 2007, his window was unveiled. It is an 113 square metres (1,220 sq ft) abstract collage of 11,500 pixel-like squares in 72 colors, randomly arranged by computer (with some symmetry), reminiscent of his 1974 painting 4096 colours. The artist waived any fee, and the costs of materials and mounting the window came to around €370,000 ($506,000), covered by donations from more than 1,000 people. Cardinal Joachim Meisner did not attend the window's unveiling as he would have preferred it to have been a figurative representation of 20th century Christian martyrs and said that Richter's window would fit better in a mosque or other prayer house. A professed atheist with "a strong leaning towards Catholicism", Richter had his three children with his third wife baptized in the Cologne Cathedral.
In September 2020, Richter unveiled his three 30-foot-tall stained-glass windows for the Tholey Abbey, one of the oldest monasteries in Germany. He called them his last major work, adding that he would focus on drawings and sketches from then on. The large choir windows were made by Gustva van Treeck, an esteemed glass workshop in nearby Munich. They are abstract painted works inspired by his "Pattern" series from the 1990s. An additional 34 figurative stained glass windows designed for the abbey by Afghan-German Muslim artist Mahbuba Maqsoodi are expected to be completed by Easter 2021. The monks of the abbey hoped the windows would promote tourism to the abbey and its town and bring people into the faith.
== Exhibitions ==
Richter first began exhibiting in Düsseldorf in 1963. Richter had his first gallery solo show in 1964 at Galerie Schmela in Düsseldorf. Soon after, he had exhibitions in Munich and Berlin and by the early 1970s exhibited frequently throughout Europe and the United States. In 1966, Bruno Bischofberger was the first to show Richter's works outside Germany. Richter's first retrospective took place at the Kunsthalle Bremen in 1976 and covered works from 1962 to 1974. A traveling retrospective at Düsseldorf's Kunsthalle in 1986 was followed in 1991 by a retrospective at the Tate Gallery, London. In 1993, he received a major touring retrospective "Gerhard Richter: Malerei 1962–1993" curated by Kasper König, with a three volume catalogue edited by Benjamin Buchloh. This exhibition containing 130 works carried out over the course of thirty years, was to entirely reinvent Richter's career.
Richter became known to a U.S. audience in 1990, when the Saint Louis Art Museum circulated Baader-Meinhof (18 October 1977), a show that that was later seen at the Lannan Foundation in Marina del Rey, California. Richter's first North American retrospective was in 1998 at the Art Gallery of Ontario and at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago. In 2002, a 40-year retrospective of Richter's work was held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, and traveled to the Art Institute of Chicago, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.In 2016 he took part in international exhibition Doppelgänger, Torrance Art Museum, California. His work is included in the permanent collections of several museum institutions in the US, such as the Pérez Art Museum Miami.
He has participated in several international art shows, including the Venice Biennale (1972, 1980, 1984, 1997 and 2007), as well as Documenta V (1972), VII (1982), VIII (1987), IX (1992), and X (1997). In 2006, an exhibition at the Getty Center connected the landscapes of Richter to the Romantic pictures of Caspar David Friedrich, showing that both artists "used abstraction, expansiveness, and emptiness to express transcendent emotion through painting."
The Gerhard Richter Archive was established in cooperation with the artist in 2005 as an institute of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden. In 2020, Gerhard Richter established the Gerhard Richter Art Foundation, a non-profit foundation dedicated to preserving his work and making it available for exhibitions.
The first major exhibition of his work in Australia, Gerhard Richter: The Life of Images, was mounted by the Queensland Gallery of Modern Art in Brisbane from 14 October 2017 to 4 February 2018. It included more than 90 works, including the newly created Atlas Overview, a 400-panel extract selected by Richter from the larger Atlas project now deemed too fragile for loan or travel.
In 2022, the Raphael Durazzo Gallery exhibited 2014: 20. November 2014, oil on colored photograph, 15 x 10 cm.
=== Solo exhibitions (selection) ===
Gerhard Richter 4900 Colours: Version II at the Serpentine Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 2008
Gerhard Richter Portraits at the National Portrait Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 2009
Gerhard Richter: Panorama at the Tate Modern, London, United Kingdom. 2011
Gerhard Richter at the Centre Pompidou, Paris, France. 2012
Gerhard Richter: Panorama at the Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany. 2012
Gerhard Richter – Editions 1965–2011 at me Collectors Room Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Gerhard Richter: 'Mood', at Beyeler Foundation, Riehen, Switzerland. 2017.
Gerhard Richter: The Birkenau Paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Met Fifth Avenue. 2020
Gerhard Richter: Painting After All at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The MET Breuer, New York. 2020.
Gerhard Richter: Drawings, 1999-2021, at the Hayward Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 2021.
Gerhard Richter. Landschaft, Kunsthaus Zürich, Zurich. 2021
Gerhard Richter: Engadin, joint exhibition at Nietzsche-House, Sils-Maria; the Segantini Museum, St. Moritz; and Hauser & Wirth, St. Moritz, Switzerland. 2024.
Gerhard Richter at the Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France. 2025 - 2026.
Gerhard Richter at the David Zwirner Gallery, Paris France. 2025.
== Gallery ==
== Recognition ==
Although Richter gained popularity and critical praise throughout his whole career, his fame burgeoned during his 2005 retrospective exhibition, which declared his place among the most important artists of the 20th century. Today, many call Gerhard Richter the best living painter. In part, this comes from his ability to explore the medium at a time when many were heralding its death. Richter has been the recipient of numerous prominent awards, including the State Prize of the state North Rhine-Westphalia, 2000; the Wexner Prize, 1998; the Praemium Imperiale, Japan, 1997; the Golden Lion of the 47th Biennale, Venice, 1997; the Wolf Prize, Israel, 1994/5; the Goslarer Kaiserring Prize der Stadt Goslar, Mönchehaus-Museum für Moderne Kunst, Goslar, Germany, 1988; the Oskar Kokoschka Prize, Vienna, 1985; the Arnold Bode Prize, Kassel, 1981; and the Junger Western Art Prize, Germany, 1961. He was made an honorary citizen of Cologne in April 2007. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2012.
=== Influence ===
Among the students who studied with Richter at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf between 1971 and 1994 were Ludger Gerdes, Hans-Jörg Holubitschka, Bernard Lokai, Thomas Schütte, Thomas Struth, Katrin Kneffel, Michael van Ofen, and Richter's second wife, Isa Genzken. He is known to have influenced Ellsworth Kelly, Christopher Wool and Johan Andersson.
He has also served as source of inspiration for writers and musicians. Sonic Youth used a painting of his for the cover art for their album Daydream Nation in 1988. He was a fan of the band and did not charge for the use of his image. The original, over 7 metres (23 ft) square, is now showcased in Sonic Youth's studio in NYC. Don DeLillo's short story "Baader-Meinhof" describes an encounter between two strangers at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The meeting takes place in the room displaying 18 October 1977 (1988).
Photographer Cotton Coulson described Richter as "one of [his] favourite artists".
For the last 18 years, Gerhard Richter has been the number one on a Kunstkompass scale of most important world artists, made by a German magazine Capital.
=== Position in the art market ===
Following an exhibition with Blinky Palermo at Galerie Heiner Friedrich in 1971, Richter's formal arrangement with the dealer came to an end in 1972. Thereafter, Friedrich was only entitled to sell the paintings that he had already obtained contractually from Richter. In the following years, Richter showed with Galerie Konrad Fischer, Düsseldorf, and Sperone Westwater, New York. Richter's primary dealer and representative gallery between 1985 and 2022 was Marian Goodman. Since December 2022, Richter is represented by David Zwirner Gallery. Today, museums own roughly 38% of Richter's works, including half of his large abstract paintings. By 2004, Richter's annual turnover was $120 million. At the same time, his works often appear at auction. According to artnet, an online firm that tracks the art market, $76.9 million worth of Richter's work was sold at auction in 2010. Richter's high turnover volume reflects his prolificacy as well as his popularity. As of 2012, no fewer than 545 distinct Richter's works had sold at auctions for more than $100,000. 15 of them had sold for more than $10,000,000 between 2007 and 2012. Richter's paintings have been flowing steadily out of Germany since the mid-1990s even as certain important German collectors – Frieder Burda, Josef Fröhlich, Georg Böckmann, and Ulrich Ströher – have held on to theirs.
Richter's candle paintings were the first to command high auction prices. Three months after his MoMA exhibition opened in 2001, Sotheby's sold his Three Candles (1982) for $5.3 million. In February 2008, the artist's eldest daughter, Betty, sold her Kerze (1983) for £7,972,500 ($15 million), triple the high estimate, at Sotheby's in London. His 1982 Kerze (Candle) sold for £10.5 million ($16.5 million) at Christie's London in October 2011.
In February 2008, Christie's London set a first record for Richter's "capitalist realism" pictures from the 1960s by selling the painting Zwei Liebespaare (1966) for £7,300,500 ($14.3 million) to Stephan Schmidheiny. In 2010, the Weserburg modern art museum in Bremen, Germany, decided to sell Richter's 1966 painting Matrosen (Sailors) in a November auction held by Sotheby's, where John D. Arnold bought it for $13 million. Vierwaldstätter See, the largest of a distinct series of four views of Lake Lucerne painted by Richter in 1969, sold for £15.8 million ($24 million) at Christie's London in 2015.
Another coveted group of works is the Abstrakte Bilder series, particularly those made after 1988, which are finished with a large squeegee rather than a brush or roller. At Pierre Bergé & Associés in July 2009, Richter's 1979 oil painting Abstraktes Bild exceeded its estimate, selling for €95,000 ($136,000). Richter's Abstraktes Bild, of 1990 was made the top price of 7.2 million pounds, or about $11.6 million, at a Sotheby's sale in February 2011 to a bidder who was said by dealers to be an agent for the New York dealer Larry Gagosian. In November 2011, Sotheby's sold a group of colorful abstract canvases by Richter, including Abstraktes Bild 849-3, which made a record price for the artist at auction when Lily Safra paid $20.8 million only to donate it to the Israel Museum afterwards. Months later, a record $21.8 million was paid at Christie's for the 1993 painting Abstraktes Bild 798-3. Abstraktes Bild (809–4), one of the artist's abstract canvases from 1994, was sold by Eric Clapton at Sotheby's to a telephone bidder for $34.2 million in late 2012. (It had been estimated to bring $14.1 million to $18.8 million.)
This was exceeded in May 2013 when his 1968 piece Cathedral Square, Milan was sold for $37.1 million (£24.4 million) in New York. This was further exceeded in February 2015 when his 1986 painting Abstraktes Bild (599) sold for $44.52 million (£30.4 million) in London at Sotheby's Contemporary Evening Sale. This was the highest price at auction of a piece of contemporary art at the time; Richter's record was broken on 12 November 2013 when Jeff Koons' Balloon Dog (Orange), sold at Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Art Evening Sale in New York City for US$58.4 million.
When asked about art prices like these, Richter said "It's just as absurd as the banking crisis. It's impossible to understand and it's daft!"
=== Film ===
In 2003, Gerald Fox made a documentary on the life of Gerhard Richter in which he starred. In 2007, Corinna Belz made a short film called Gerhard Richter's Window. In 2011, Belz's feature-length documentary entitled Gerhard Richter Painting was released. The film focused almost entirely on the world's highest paid living artist producing his large-scale abstract squeegee works in his studio. The 2018 drama film Never Look Away is inspired by Richter's life story.
In 2016 and 2019 Richter worked again with Corinna Belz on two films based on his 2012 book Patterns. The previous piece named Richters Patterns when shown is partnered with music by the German composer Marcus Schmickler, the later one by the American composer Steve Reich, both performed by a live ensemble. The later work in turn is part of a larger two-section collaboration, Reich Richter Pärt which was commissioned for the inaugural season at The Shed in the Hudson Yards development in Manhattan in New York City.
== See also ==
Wand (Wall)
Birkenau series
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Elger, Dietmar (2009). Gerhard Richter – A Life in Painting. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-20323-2.
Richter, Gerhard; Harten, Jürgen (1986). Gerhard Richter: Bilder 1962–1985. Köln: DuMont.
Richter, Gerhard; Obrist, Hans Ulrich (1995). The Daily Practice of Painting: Writings and Interviews, 1962–1993. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
== Further reading ==
Götz Adriani: "Gerhard Richter: Paintings From Private Collections", Hatje Cantz, 2008. ISBN 978-3-7757-2137-0
Ulrich Bischoff/Elisabeth Hipp/Jeanne Anne Nugent: "From Caspar David Friedrich to Gerhard Richter": German Paintings from Dresden. Getty Trust Publications, Jean Paul Getty Museum, Cologne 2006.
Hubertus Butin/Stefan Gronert: "Gerhard Richter. Editions 1965–2004". Catalogue raisonné, Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2003/2004. ISBN 3-7757-1430-8
Bruno Eble, Gerhard Richter : la surface du regard, L'Harmattan, 2006 ISBN 978-2-296-01527-2 (in French)
Dietmar Elger: "Gerhard Richter, Landscapes", Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2002. ISBN 3-7757-9101-9
Eckhart Gillen: "Gerhard Richter: Mr. Heyde or the murders are among us". The battle with the trauma of the displaced history of Western Germany. In: Eckhart Gillen: Problems in searching for the truth (...), Berlin 2002, p. 186–191. (in German)
Jürgen Harten (ed.): "Gerhard Richter. Paintings 1962–1985". With a catalogue raisonné from Dietmar Elger 1962–1985, Cologne 1986. (in German)
Ernst Hohenthal: "A family secret in the public domain". New revelations about Gerhard Richter's Herr Heyde, in: Christies's Magazine, November 2006, New York and London 2006, ISSN 0266-1217 Vol. XXIII. No. 5, pp. 62ff.
Andrew McNamara: "Optative Death: Gerhard Richter in the Wake of the Vanguard" in Elizabeth Klaver (ed.), Images of the Corpse: From the Renaissance to Cyberspace (The University of Wisconsin Press) 2004. ISBN 0-299-19790-5
Jeanne Anne Nugent: "Family Album and Shadow Archive": Gerhard Richter's East, West, and all German Painting, 1949–1966. Dissertation in the History of Art presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 2005.
Gerhard Richter: "The Condition of History" in: Charles Harrison & Paul Wood (eds.), "Art in Theory 1900–1990". An Anthology of Changing Ideas, Malden/Mass. (Blackwell Publishers Ltd.), 1999.
Obrist, Hans Ulrich: "Gerhard Richter: 100 Pictures", Hatje Cantz Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-3-7757-9100-7
Obrist, Hans Ulrich: "Gerhard Richter. 100 paintings", Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2005. ISBN 3-89322-851-9 (in German)
Obrist, Hans Ulrich: "Gerhard Richter: 4900 Colours", Hatje Cantz, 2009. ISBN 978-3-7757-2344-2
Obrist, Hans Ulrich; Elger Dietmar: "Gerhard Richter: Writings", Distributed Art Publishers, 2009. ISBN 978-1-933045-94-8
Jürgen Schilling: "Gerhard Richter. A private collection", Duesseldorf 2004. ISBN 3-937572-00-7 (in German)
Schreiber, Jürgen (2005). Ein Maler aus Deutschland [A painter from Germany] (in German). Munich and Zürich: Pendo. ISBN 3-86612-058-3.
Robert Storr: "Gerhard Richter, Painting", Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2002. ISBN 3-7757-1169-4 (in German)
Storr, Robert: "Gerhard Richter: Forty Years of Painting", Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2002. ISBN 978-1-891024-37-5
Angelika Thill: "Catalogue raisonné since 1962" in: Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland GmbH (ed.): "Gerhard Richter", Ostfildern-Ruit 1993. Thill offers the now accepted catalogue raisonné between 1963 and 1993. (in German)
Franz J. Giessibl: "First View Inside an Atom. Encounters with Gerhard Richter between Art and Science" Walther and Franz König Verlag, Cologne, 2022. ISBN 978-3-7533-0188-4
Hans Ulrich Obrist: "The Richter Interviews", London (HENI Publishing) 2023 (second edition). ISBN 978-1-912122-59-2
Uwe M. Schneede: "Gerhard Richter: Der unbedingte Maler", Munich (C.H. Beck) 2024. ISBN 978-3-406-82149-3
Wagstaff, Sheena. "Gerhard Richter: Painting After", Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2020. ISBN 978-1-588-39685-3
== External links ==
Official website
Gerhard Richter Archive | State Art Collections Dresden, Germany
Gerhard Richter at the David Zwirner Gallery
Gerhard Richter at the Museum of Modern Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinturas_de_Tamayo | Pinturas de Tamayo | Pinturas de Tamayo (Pictures of Tamayo) is an orchestral composition in five movements by the American composer Steven Stucky. The work was commissioned by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, who premiered the work on March 28, 1996, under the conductor Michael Gielen in Symphony Center, Chicago. The piece is inspired by the paintings of the Mexican artist Rufino Tamayo.
== Composition ==
=== Inspiration ===
Stucky recalled his first encounter with the works of the painter Rufino Tamayo in the score program notes, writing:In April 1991 I visited the Rufino Tamayo Museum in Mexico City. I had never heard of Tamayo, but immediately I found myself drawn to his work, and I stood for a long while, transfixed by his painting La gran galaxia (The Great Galaxy). Indeed, that first encounter with his vibrant, mysterious, deeply human paintings is indelibly fixed in my memory as one of the great artistic experiences of my life.
He continued:[Tamayo] died in June 1991, only two months after I first saw his work. Since then I have studied as many of his paintings and learned as much about him as I could, and when the Chicago Symphony invited me to write a new work for them, I decided to use the opportunity to pay homage to him in the only way I could, by making my own work of art.
=== Structure ===
The work has a duration of roughly 22 minutes and is composed in five movements named after Tamayo paintings:
Amigas de los pájaros (Friends of the Birds): Vivo
Anochecer (Sunset): Calmo
Mujeres alcanzando la luna (Women Reaching for the Moon): Moderato
Músicas dormidas (Sleeping Musicians): Adagio
La gran galaxia (The Great Galaxy): Tranquillo
== Reception ==
Reviewing the world premiere, John von Rhein of the Chicago Tribune felt that the work did not live up to Tamayo's art and wrote:To translate visual into aural art is always a tricky business. Gunther Schuller managed it rather well with his Paul Klee studies but I can't say Stucky's work is anywhere near as compelling. Color reproductions of the five Tamayo paintings are on display in the Grainger Ballroom and, even though poorly reproduced, the comparisons are odious.
Mark Swed of the Los Angeles Times received the piece in a more positive light, however, writing, "Tamayo makes a visual splash, and Stucky responds with a colorful orchestral equivalent." Richard Whitehouse of Gramophone similarly remarked, "Pinturas de Tamayo (1995) draws on the more tangible imagery of Mexican artist Rufino Tamayo, but the music for the most part is hardly less understated – witness the luminous poise of 'Sunset' or the rapt introspection of 'The Great Galaxy' which makes for an unusually thoughtful apotheosis."
== Discography ==
A recording of Pinturas de Tamayo, performed by Evelyn Glennie and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra under the conductor Lan Shui, was released April 27, 2010 through BIS Records and features Stucky's other orchestral works Spirit Voices and the Concerto for Orchestra No. 2.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erika_Fuchs#:~:text=A%20comic%20museum%20in%20her,opening%20on%201%20August%202015. | Erika Fuchs | Erika Fuchs, née Petri (7 December 1906 – 22 April 2005), was a German translator. She is largely known in Germany for her major involvement in the localization process of American Disney comics, especially Carl Barks' stories about Duckburg and its inhabitants, as well the effects on the German language as a whole caused thereby.
Both her grammatical innovations and adaptation of classical literary features into modern pop-cultural works have been recognized as positive contributions to contemporary used language and to the image of comics as media in Germany, having played a major part in delegitimizing public perception of said comics as low-quality pulp fiction. Fuchs' widely quoted translations have further been described standing in the tradition of great German-language light poetry such as the works of Heinrich Heine, Wilhelm Busch, and Kurt Tucholsky. She has been emblematically quoted as saying "You can't be educated enough to translate comic books", reflecting her high standards for localization work.
== Life ==
Johanne Theodolinde Erika Petri was born on 7 December 1906 in Rostock as the second of six children of electrical engineer August Petri and his wife Auguste. Erika spent most of her childhood and youth in Belgard, a small rural town in Pomerania, where her father became director of the newly-built electric power plant in 1911. In 1922, Erika Petri became the first girl ever to be admitted to the town's boys' Gymnasium, passing her Abitur exam there in 1926. She went on to study art history in Lausanne, Munich and London and graduated with a doctorate in 1931. Her dissertation titled "Johann Michael Feuchtmayr: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Rokoko" ("A contribution to the history of German Rococo)" was marked magna cum laude. It appeared in print only in 1935. In 1932, Erika Petri married engineer, industrialist and inventor Günter Fuchs (1907-1984). From 1933 to 1984, the couple lived in Schwarzenbach an der Saale, a small industrial town in Upper Franconia. They had two sons, Thomas and Nikolaus.
Following World War II, Erika Fuchs worked as a translator for the German edition of Reader's Digest, as well as for German literary magazine 'Story', published by Rowohlt Verlag since 1946. In 1951, she became chief editor of Disney's newly-formed German Micky Maus magazine, where she continued to work until her retirement in 1988.
After the death of her husband in 1984, Erika Fuchs moved to Munich, where she died on 22 April 2005.
== Work ==
Many of her creations as translator of Carl Barks comics entered or reentered German in contemporary use. The phrase "Dem Ingeniör ist nichts zu schwör" ("nothing is too hard for an engineer"), but with the vowels (umlauts) at the end of "Ingenieur" and "schwer" altered to make them rhyme was often attributed to Fuchs, as she had made it Gyro Gearloose's catchphrase. However, it was originally based on a song written by Heinrich Seidel. A somewhat more clumsy version of the phrase was the first verse of "Seidels Ingenieurlied" ("The Engineer's Song") and had been used by fraternities at technical universities for the German equivalent of The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer. Fuchs had heard it from her husband, who was an engineer himself.
An example of Fuchs' many allusions to classical German literature may be found in her translation of Barks's 1956 story "Three Un-Ducks" (INDUCKS story code W WDC 184-01), where Huey, Dewey, and Louie speak the oath "Wir wollen sein ein einig Volk von Brüdern, in keiner Not uns waschen und Gefahr" ("We Shall be a United People of Brethren, Never to Wash in Danger nor Distress"), thereby parodying Friedrich Schiller's version of the Rütlischwur from his 1804 play William Tell.
Her use of verbs shortened to their stems as interjections— not only to imitate sounds (onomatopoeia), such as schluck, stöhn, knarr, klimper (gulp, groan, creak, chink/jingle), but also to represent soundless events grübel, staun, zitter (ponder, goggle, tremble) — popularized the verb form. While the official technical term for this remains Inflektiv, the term Erikativ, a tongue-in-cheek reference to Fuchs' first name, made to resemble similar grammatical terms such as Infinitiv (infinitive), Indikativ (indicative mood) or Akkusativ (accusative case), has seen more use. The form itself was commonly used as a form of emoting in Internet forums and chatrooms well into the 2010s, with users seeking to simulate aspects of face-to-face communication by employing Inflektive of off-screen activities enclosed in asterisks (e.g. *lach*, *weglauf*, *zwinker*).
== Honors and legacy ==
In 2001, Erika Fuchs was awarded the Heimito von Doderer Prize for Literature for her work on Disney comics. Until her death at age 98, Erika Fuchs was an honorary member of the "D.O.N.A.L.D." ("Deutsche Organisation nichtkommerzieller Anhänger des lauteren Donaldismus" or the "German Organization of Non-commercial Devotees of the true Donaldism"). Some members of the organisation (Patrick Bahners and Andreas Platthaus) occasionally included hidden references to Fuchs' works in the headlines of Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung.
In 1991, painter Gottfried Helnwein set a portrait of Fuchs among his work Die 48 bedeutendsten Frauen des Jahrhunderts (48 Most Important Women of the Century). The work is now to be found at Museum Ludwig in Cologne.
A comic museum in her hometown of Schwarzenbach an der Saale, named after Erika Fuchs, saw its opening on 1 August 2015.
== References ==
This article is based on a translation of the corresponding article from the German Wikipedia, retrieved May 6, 2005, and corrected March 3, 2024.
== Further reading ==
Bohn, Klaus (1996). Das Erika-Fuchs-Buch. Disneys Übersetzerin von Donald Duck und Mickey Maus: Ein modernes Mosaik (in German). Lüneburg: Dreidreizehn. ISBN 3-929746-10-7.
Horst, Ernst (2010). Nur keine Sentimentalitäten: Wie Dr. Erika Fuchs Entenhausen nach Deutschland verlegte (in German). Munich: Blessing Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89667-406-7.
Meloni, Ilaria (2013). Erika Fuchs' Übertragung der Comicserie Micky Maus (in German). Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. ISBN 978-3-487-15038-3.
== External links ==
(in German) D.O.N.A.L.D, in German
Heimito von Doderer Prize 2001 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Carter#Death | Aaron Carter | Aaron Charles Carter (December 7, 1987 – November 5, 2022) was an American singer and rapper. He came to fame as a teen pop singer in the late 1990s, establishing himself as a star among preteen and teenage audiences during the first years of the 2000s, with his four studio albums.
Carter began performing at age seven, after the formation of his brother Nick's group the Backstreet Boys, and released his self-titled debut album in 1997 at age nine, selling a million copies worldwide. His second album Aaron's Party (Come Get It) (2000) sold three million copies in the United States, and Carter began making guest appearances on Nickelodeon and touring with the Backstreet Boys shortly after the record's release. Carter's next album, Oh Aaron, also went platinum, and in 2002 he released what would be his last studio album for over 15 years, Another Earthquake!, followed by his 2003 Most Requested Hits collection.
Carter appeared on Dancing with the Stars, and in the Broadway musical Seussical and the off-Broadway musical The Fantasticks, and made several one-off performances. In 2014, he released a single featuring rapper Pat SoLo, "Ooh Wee". Carter released the single "Fool's Gold" in 2016, and an EP titled Love in 2017. His fifth studio album, also titled Love, was released in 2018. A sixth album, Blacklisted, was released two days after his accidental drug-related death.
== Early life ==
Aaron Charles Carter was born on December 7, 1987, in Tampa, Florida. His parents, Jane Eleonora Schneck (née Spaulding, previously Carter) and Robert Gene Carter (1952–2017), ran a retirement home. He had an older brother, Nick, a member of the Backstreet Boys, and three sisters: his twin, Angel, a model; Bobbie Jean (BJ) (1982–2023); and Leslie (1986–2012). In addition to his full siblings, he also had an older half-sister, Ginger Lee Carter (1972–2023), and a younger half-brother, Kaden Carter. The family is originally from Jamestown, New York. Carter attended Frank D. Miles Elementary School and the Ruskin School in Florida.
Carter's parents divorced in 2004; he was told about the divorce one hour before filming his MTV Cribs episode. In accordance with the California Child Actor's Bill, Carter's parents were supposed to put 15% of his earnings into a Coogan account. As per Carter, "I got [...] $2 million when I turned 18 years old. I should have had at least $20 million in my account." After he turned 18 in 2005, Carter learned that he owed $4 million in back taxes. Carter claimed that his earnings had helped his parents purchase 30 cars and 15 houses; however, he did not receive any portion of the profits when they sold the properties. He also claimed that his father fired a .44 Magnum near his ear to coerce him into signing a $256,000 check. This left Carter with 70% deafness in one ear.
Carter also had a tumultuous relationship with his siblings, with many of their feuds playing out on social media in later years. In September 2019, Carter leveled allegations of sexual abuse against his sister Leslie, who died of a drug overdose in 2012. Carter reported that the abuse began when he was ten years old, ended when he was 13, and occurred when Leslie would fail to take prescribed medication for her bipolar disorder. He also accused his brother Nick of life-long abuse, and implied that Nick also abused a female family member. Nick's legal team denied the allegations, which surfaced after Nick and their sister Angel sought restraining orders against Aaron, who reportedly confessed to thoughts of killing Nick's then-pregnant wife, Lauren.
== Career ==
=== 1997–1999: Music beginnings and self-titled debut album ===
Carter began his career as the lead singer of Dead End as a 7-year-old. He left the band after two years because he wanted to perform pop music, while the other members were interested in alternative rock.
Carter made his first solo appearance at age 9, singing The Jets' "Crush on You" when opening for the Backstreet Boys in Berlin in March 1997. The performance was followed by a record contract, and in the fall of 1997, he released his first single "Crush on You". Carter's self-titled debut studio album was released on December 1, 1997. The album achieved gold status in Canada, Denmark, Germany, Norway, and Spain, and was released in the United States on June 16, 1998.
=== 2000–2001: Aaron's Party (Come Get It), acting debut, and Oh Aaron ===
Carter's second studio album, Aaron's Party (Come Get It), was released in the United States on September 26, 2000, under the Jive label. The album sold more than three million copies in the United States and was certified 3× platinum by RIAA. Tracks included the hit singles, "I Want Candy", "Aaron's Party (Come Get It)", "That's How I Beat Shaq", and "Bounce", all of which received airplay on Disney Channel and Nickelodeon. He also made several guest appearances on Nickelodeon and performed as the opening act in several concerts for the Backstreet Boys and Britney Spears' Oops!... I Did It Again Tour.
In March 2001, he made his acting debut, guest starring on an episode of the Disney Channel series Lizzie McGuire. That same month, he and fellow teen star Samantha Mumba performed a concert at MGM Studios live on Disney Channel, titled Aaron Carter and Samantha Mumba in Concert. Carter's part of the concert was released on DVD the same month as Aaron's Party: Live in Concert. In April 2001, he made his Broadway debut, playing JoJo the Who in the musical Seussical.
At the age of 13, Carter recorded his third studio album Oh Aaron, released on August 7, 2001, which featured his first duet recording with his brother Nick, and a song with the group No Secrets. Play Along Toys created an Aaron Carter doll in conjunction with the album's release. Oh Aaron went platinum that same year and a live concert at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, was released to DVD as Oh Aaron: Live in Concert. His songs "Leave It Up to Me", "A.C.'s Alien Nation", and "Go Jimmy Jimmy" were used in the soundtrack for the 2001 film Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius.
=== 2002–2008: Another Earthquake, Most Requested Hits, Saturday Night and House of Carters ===
Carter's fourth studio album, Another Earthquake!, was released on September 3, 2002, during the Rock, Rap and Retro Tour. The album featured the patriotic-themed "America A.O." and the ballad "Do You Remember". He guest-starred on three episodes of the Nickelodeon television series All That and also sang "Through My Own Eyes", the theme song to the PBS animated series Liberty's Kids, alongside Kayla Hinkle.
In 2002, Carter's parents filed a lawsuit against his former manager Lou Pearlman, alleging failure to pay hundreds of thousands of dollars in royalties on Carter's 1998 album, which was released through Pearlman's label and production company Trans Continental. On March 13, 2003, Pearlman was declared in contempt of court for ignoring a court order to produce documents relating to royalty payments; however, the suit itself was settled out of court.
Carter's Most Requested Hits, a collection including tracks from his last three albums as well as a new single, "One Better", was released on November 3, 2003.
"Saturday Night" was released on March 22, 2005, and promoted by Carter that summer. The song was released by Trans Continental label, with Lou Pearlman as executive producer. The single was also featured in the soundtrack of the film Popstar, in which Carter starred. The direct-to-video film was based heavily on his own life as a performer. A real-life motocross racer, Carter also appeared in the 2005 film Supercross.
On March 21, 2006, Trans Continental filed a lawsuit against Carter with the Los Angeles County Superior Court, citing that Carter reneged on a recording deal. Carter signed the contract on December 7, 2004, when he was 17; his attorney argued that Carter had the right to "cancel or void various agreements" that were signed when he was a minor.
Carter and his siblings starred in a reality show, House of Carters, which ran from October to November 2006 on E!. The series featured all five Carter siblings reuniting to live in the same house.
=== 2009–2013: Dancing with the Stars and return to touring ===
In 2009, Carter joined season 9 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with Karina Smirnoff; they finished in fifth place. During this time he also released some music online, including the single "Dance with Me" featuring Flo Rida.
On January 23, 2011, Carter's manager Johnny Wright announced that Carter entered a treatment facility "to heal some emotional and spiritual issues he was dealing with." After entering the facility, Carter's first message to his fans was, "The main thing in life is not to be afraid of being human." On February 10, 2011, it was announced that Carter had successfully completed a month of rehab at the Betty Ford Center in Rancho Mirage, California.
On November 7, 2011, Carter began starring in the off-Broadway production of the world's longest running musical, The Fantasticks, at the Snapple Theater Center in New York City. Carter was cast in the role of Matt, the play's central character.
In January 2012, Carter was one of eight celebrities participating in the Food Network reality series Rachael vs. Guy: Celebrity Cook-Off. He was eliminated in the first episode.
In 2013, Carter kicked off his first tour in eight years, the After Party Tour. The tour ran from February to December 2013, and included over 150 shows in the United States and Canada.
=== 2014–2022: The Music Never Stopped, LØVË and posthumous releases ===
In June 2014, Carter went on an 11-city Canadian tour during which he performed new songs from his upcoming album. Carter also announced that he would be embarking on a worldwide tour entitled the Wonderful World Tour, named for a song titled "Wonderful World" off of his upcoming album. The tour included 50 dates and ran from September 2014 until January 2015. In July, Carter appeared on Good Day L.A., where he performed "Ooh Wee", a single featuring Pat SoLo. In February 2015, Carter released an EP through SoundCloud titled The Music Never Stopped.
On January 31, 2016, Carter released his music video for "Curious" under the name Kid Carter, co-directed by MDM Media's Michael D. Monroe, Ben Epstein, and himself.
In April 2016, Carter released the single "Fool's Gold". Another single, "Sooner or Later", was released in January 2017. Both songs appeared on the EP LØVË, released in February 2017, written by Carter, Jon Asher, Melanie Fontana, Taylor "Lakestreet Louie" Helgeson, and Michel Schulz, produced and independently released by Carter on his new venture Rakkaus Records. An album of the same name was released as his fifth studio album on February 16, 2018.
Two days after his death (see § Death below) on November 5, 2022, Blacklisted was released on all music platforms by its producers as a tribute to Carter. The album was originally to be released on December 7, which would have been Carter's 35th birthday. Its posthumous release was however criticized by Carter's management, who had not authorized the release. It was deleted during late November and is now unavailable. Some songs however were later re-released on an EP entitled The Prince of Pop by Carter's collaborator 3D Friends.
On April 5, 2024, a new posthumous release was announced. Entitled "Recovery", it was released on May 24.
== Personal life ==
=== Relationships ===
As a teenager, Carter dated several high-profile celebrities, including Hilary Duff and Lindsay Lohan. On September 17, 2006, at age 18, Carter became engaged to former beauty queen and Playboy model Kari Ann Peniche; he proposed to her on stage while performing at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas. Carter broke off the engagement after six days, saying his decision to propose was impulsive. He began dating Madison Parker in 2016; they broke up in August 2017.
Carter came out as bisexual in August 2017 through Twitter, and in December he made a guest appearance on the podcast LGBTQ&A to discuss both his career and sexuality. He reaffirmed his bisexuality publicly on at least one other occasion, but he said all his past relationships were with women.
Carter had a son who was born November 22, 2021, with then-fiancée Melanie Martin.
=== Finances ===
On November 22, 2013, Carter filed a bankruptcy petition to shed more than $3.5 million in debt, mostly taxes owed from the money made at the height of his popularity when he was a minor. The petition states that Carter owed the Internal Revenue Service $1.3 million in back taxes from his income in 2003. Carter settled all of his tax debt in 2014.
In March 2020, Carter set up an OnlyFans account, which is popular in the adult entertainment industry, to make money. Carter began charging $50 to $100 per nude photo, or $26 a month. PinkNews stated "the prices are steep and the content is bizarre", while Queerty stated: "The reviews of Aaron Carter's OnlyFans page are in and they're not good."
=== Health ===
In September 2017, Carter appeared on The Doctors, a syndicated health-focused talk show, to discuss public attention generated by his gaunt appearance and drug-related arrests. A series of tests revealed Carter did not have cancer or any sexually transmitted disease, but he did have a candida infection, which can be a sign of a weakened immune system. Carter tested negative for illegal drugs, but he tested positive for "a mixture of benzodiazepines with opioids", a potentially dangerous combination of prescription medications that Carter said he took for anxiety and sleep.
Carter was malnourished and underweight at 115 pounds (52 kg), and was advised to enter a drug rehabilitation program and remain under medical care; he later admitted himself to Alo House, a treatment center in Malibu, California. In February 2018, he reported improvement and that his weight was 160 pounds (73 kg). In 2019, Carter and his mother, Jane, appeared in the We TV reality series Marriage Bootcamp: Family Edition. The series focuses on attempting to repair strained relationships through unconventional therapy.
In a further appearance on The Doctors in 2019, Carter disclosed that he had been diagnosed with both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
=== Legal issues ===
In February 2008, Carter was arrested in Kimble County, Texas, when he was pulled over for speeding, and authorities found just under two ounces of marijuana in his car. In July 2017, Carter was arrested in Georgia on suspicion of driving under the influence and marijuana charges. He agreed to plead no contest to reckless driving and was placed on probation and, among other conditions, was ordered to perform community service and pay $1,500 in court fees and fines.
In August 2019, Carter was granted a restraining order against his ex-girlfriend, Russian model Lina Valentina, after she reportedly threatened to stab him. In March 2020, his girlfriend Melanie Martin was arrested in Los Angeles following an alleged domestic violence incident against him.
=== Controversies ===
In January 2020, German artist Jonas Jödicke tweeted that Carter was making unauthorized use of Jödicke's copyrighted artwork to promote merchandise. Carter replied on Twitter that Jödicke "should've taken it as a compliment". Following the incident, Jödicke was interviewed by Forbes, saying he was "absolutely amazed" at Carter's response. In June 2021, Carter agreed to pay Jödicke $12,500.
In August 2021, Carter was announced as a performer in the Las Vegas production of Naked Boys Singing!. He was let go before the show's debut because he refused to be vaccinated for COVID-19.
== Death ==
On November 5, 2022, Carter died at his home in Lancaster, California, at age 34. His body was found in his bathtub by a housekeeper. He was cremated, and his ashes were left in the care of his twin sister Angel. The cause of death was not immediately publicized, but the Los Angeles County Medical Examiner-Coroner later ruled that Carter's death was accidental drowning after inhaling difluoroethane and taking alprazolam (Xanax).
Carter's ashes were interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Aaron Carter (1997)
Aaron's Party (Come Get It) (2000)
Oh Aaron (2001)
Another Earthquake! (2002)
Love (2018)
Blacklisted (2022)
Recovery (2024)
== Tours ==
Headlining
Party Tour (2000–2001)
Aaron's Winter Party (2002)
Rock, Rap and Retro Tour (2002)
Jukebox Tour (2003–2004)
Remix Tour (2005)
After Party Tour (2013)
Aaron Carter's Wonderful World Tour (2014)
Co-headlining
Kids Go Music Festival (1998) (with Take 5, No Authority, and 911)
Kids Go Christmas Festival (1998) (with R&B)
All That! Music and More Festival (1999) (with Monica, 98 Degrees, B*Witched, Tatyana Ali, 3rd Storee, and No Authority)
Radio Disney Live! 2001 World Tour (2001) (with Krystal Harris, Hoku, Baha Men, Myra, True Vibe, Jump5, Brooke Allison, Plus One, Kaci, Play, and A-Teens)
Pop 2000 Tour (2018–2020)
Opening act
Backstreet Boys: Live In Concert Tour (1997) (Germany, Switzerland, Austria)
Backstreet's Back Tour (1998) (United States, Canada)
Oops!... I Did It Again Tour (2000) (England, Germany)
Promotional
Eurasian Tour (1998)
Australian Tour (2000)
Wal-Mart Promo Tour (2000)
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Aaron Carter at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein | Peter T. Kirstein | Peter Thomas Kirstein (né Kirschstein; 20 June 1933 – 8 January 2020) was a British computer scientist who played a role in the creation of the Internet. He made the first internetworking connection on the ARPANET in 1973, by providing a link to British academic networks, and was instrumental in defining and implementing TCP/IP alongside Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn.
Kirstein is often recognized as the "father of the European Internet".
== Education and early life ==
Kirstein was born on 20 June 1933 in Berlin, Germany, the son of Eleanor (Jacobsohn) and Walter Kirschstein. His parents were dentists, and his father was awarded the Iron Cross during WWI. His family was Jewish and his mother had British citizenship from being born in London, so, fearing for their safety in Nazi governed-Germany the family immigrated to the UK in 1937.
He was educated at Highgate School in North London, received a Bachelor of Arts degree from University of Cambridge in 1954, an MSc and PhD in electrical engineering from Stanford University (in 1955 and 1957, respectively) and a Doctor of Science (DSc) in engineering from the University of London in 1970.
== Career and research ==
He was a member of the staff at CERN from 1959 to 1963. He did research for General Electric at Zurich from 1963 to 1967. He knew Vint Cerf since 1967.
Kirstein was a professor at the University of London Institute of Computer Science (ICS) from 1970 to 1973. After that, he joined the faculty at the University College London in 1973, serving as the first head of the computer science department from 1980 to 1994. He supervised Jon Crowcroft. Kirstein set up Queen Elizabeth's first official email message in 1976.
=== Internet development ===
Building on the work of Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory in the 1960s, in 1973 Kirstein's research group at University College London became one of only the two international connections on the ARPANET, alongside Norway (NORSAR and NDRE). UCL thereafter provided a gateway between the ARPANET and British academic networks which was the first internetwork for resource sharing.
Research led by Bob Kahn at DARPA and Vint Cerf at Stanford University and later DARPA resulted in the formulation of the Transmission Control Program (TCP), with its RFC 675 specification written by Cerf with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December 1974. The following year, testing began through concurrent implementations at Stanford, University College London and BBN. The ARPANET connection to UCL later grew into the trans-Atlantic SATNET. A two-way, followed by a three-way internetworking experiment linking UCL, via SATNET, with nodes in the ARPANET, and with a mobile vehicle in PRNET took place in 1977.
Kirstein and his team members participated from the outset of the Internet Experiment Note meetings, beginning in March 1977. His research group at UCL played a significant role in the very earliest experimental work on what became the TCP/IP. In 1978, Kirstein co-authored with Vint Cerf one of the most significant early technical papers on the internetworking concept. He chaired the International Cooperation Board (ICB), formed by Cerf in 1979, to coordinate activities to develop packet satellite research. UCL adopted TCP/IP in November 1982, ahead of the ARPANET, becoming one of the first nodes on the Internet.
In early 1983, Kirstein chaired the International Collaboration Board, which involved six NATO countries, served on the Networking Panel of the NATO Science Committee (serving as chair in 2001), and served on Advisory Committees for the Australian Research Council, the Canadian Department of Communications, the German GMD, and the Indian Education and Research Network (ERNET) Project. He led the Silk Project, which provides satellite-based Internet access to the Newly Independent States in the Southern Caucasus and Central Asia.
=== Awards and honours ===
Kirstein was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his work on the Internet. He was also a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng), a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, an Honorary Foreign Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society. He received the SIGCOMM Award in 1999 for "contributions to the practical understanding of large-scale networks through the deployment of international testbeds", and the Postel Award in 2003, as well as various other awards for his contributions to the development of the Internet internationally. He was also elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2009 for contributions to computer networking and for leadership in bringing the Internet to Europe.
In 2012 Kirstein was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society. In 2015 he was awarded the prestigious Marconi Prize.
== Personal life ==
Kirstein died from a brain tumour on the morning of 8 January 2020 while in his home. Shortly after his death, Steve Hailes, Head of Department for UCL Computer Science, wrote about him: "Peter was very widely recognised as a pioneer of the Internet and has many honours to his name [...] Much of this was undoubtedly down to an incredibly logical mind, coupled with a level of interest, vision and determination that saw him retire only late last year at the age of 86. [...] Peter was also deeply empathetic and sensitive: he was both gentleman and a gentle man, he was a source of encouragement and sage advice, he was persuasive, open-minded, fair and never afraid to learn something new or to admit that he didn't know."
== See also ==
Adrian V. Stokes, a computer scientist who worked for Kirstein in his early ARPANET research
Cambridge Ring (computer network)
Donald Davies, proposed, in 1965, a commercial national data network in the UK based on packet switching
Internet in the United Kingdom § History
Internet pioneers
Louis Pouzin, developed the CYCLADES network in France, concepts from which were incorporated into the design of the Internet Protocol Suite
Royal Signals and Radar Establishment
Sylvia Wilbur, a computer scientist who worked for Kirstein in his early ARPANET research
University of London Computer Centre
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (1999). History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-118-2.
== External links ==
How the UK was connected to the Internet for the first time article written by Kirstein
The birth of the Internet in the UK Google video featuring Peter Kirstein, Vint Cerf, Roger Scantlebury, Peter Wilkinson, 2013
Home page at UCL
Kirstein recognized with Postel Award
Awarded BCS's distinguished fellowship |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Germany) | National Liberal Party (Germany) | The National Liberal Party (German: Nationalliberale Partei, NLP) was a liberal party of the North German Confederation and the German Empire which flourished between 1867 and 1918.
During the Prussian-led unification of Germany, the National Liberals became the dominant party in the Reichstag. While supporting the common ideals of liberalism and nationalism, the party contained two wings, which reflected the conflicting claims of its Hegelian and idealistic heritage: one emphasized the power of the state through the Nationalstaat, and the other emphasized the civil liberties of the Rechtsstaat. Although that cleavage later proved fatal for its unity, the National Liberals managed to remain the pivotal party in the decades after unification by cooperating with both the Progressives and the Free Conservatives on various issues.
== Origins ==
A first national liberal parliamentary group arose among right-wing deputies of the liberal German Progress Party in the Prussian House of Representatives during a constitutional conflict sparked by Minister President Otto von Bismarck: In 1862, he had overruled the Liberal opposition in parliament using the so-called Lückentheorie ("Gap Theory") to justify proceeding with taxes for military reforms of the Prussian Army, accompanied by his martial "Blood and Iron" speech. In the following years, he aimed to reconcile with his opponents by strengthening Prussian hegemony, which culminated in the Seven Weeks' War of 1866.
Upon the victory over the Austrian forces at the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July, many of the liberals finally put aside their differences due to their support for Bismarck's highly successful foreign policy. Seizing the opportunity, he introduced a bill that subsequently formalized his circumvention of parliamentary budgetary rights.
At voting time on 3 September, the political division of the liberals was confirmed when 19 National Liberal deputies opted for his Indemnity Law. While the Liberals who opposed the bill argued that Bismarck was asking them to compromise on constitutional government, the bill’s supporters believed opposition was fruitless because Bismarck had the firm support of King Wilhelm I (under the constitution, the minister-president was responsible to the king, not parliament). They believed that if they accepted the Indemnity Law, they would be in a better position to press for greater freedom. This, the first National Liberal faction in the Prussian parliament was formed on 17 November around Eduard Lasker and Hans Victor von Unruh.
The National Liberal Party was founded in the course of the North German federal election held on 12 February 1867. They gathered support from the Prussian annexed territories of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau as well as from the other states of the Confederation, emerging as the largest faction in the North German Reichstag. An inaugural declaration was adopted on 12 June. The first party chairman was Rudolf von Bennigsen.
The party strongly advocated the interests of the Grand Burgher (German: Großbürger) dynasties and business magnates as well as nationalist-minded Protestant circles of the educated bourgeoisie (Bildungsbürgertum). The key points of the party manifesto focused on national unification and Bismarck's policies, which resulted in the emergence of a German nation state as a constitutional monarchy and highly industrialized country.
== Dominance in the 1870s ==
The National Liberals' period of great dominance was between 1871 and 1879, when they were Bismarck's chief allies in the Reichstag where they were avid supporters of the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf measures and the Anti-Socialist Laws. In the first all-German federal election held on 3 March 1871, the party reached 30.1% of the votes, becoming the strongest group in the Reichstag parliament with 119 seats. The Reichstag faction remained the political centre of power as the party never attained a large number of members. Chairman of National Liberal Party was Rudolf von Bennigsen.
The stabilization of the new state was in a large degree only feasible because of National Liberals' support as de facto ruling party and their guidance of Bismarck's domestic policies, especially in regards to national economics and the legal foundations of the German Empire. Weights and measurements were standardized, a common German market and a national bank, the Reichsbank, created and the numerous regional currencies replaced with the Goldmark. The liberal economic policies, although temporarily unpopular in the recession of the 1870s, laid the groundworks for the economic boom the German nation experienced at the turn of the 19th century.
== Decline ==
In 1879, Bismarck's alliance with the National Liberals broke over his abandonment of free trade by the adoption of a tariff. In the economic crisis following the Panic of 1873, several lobbying associations exerted pressure on Bismarck who increasingly favoured a more protectionist approach. However, these policies violated the liberal principles of both the National Liberals and the more left-leaning liberal German Progress Party. The shift was so important that it has been characterized as Bismarck's conservative turn. This meant an enduring shift of the Chancellor to the right, which changed the political climate of the fledgling nation and soured relations between Bismarck and a number of leading German liberals.
The National Liberals lost their status as the dominant party in 1880, when the left-wing represented by the Liberal Union split off and merged with the Progress Party into the German Free-minded Party by 1884. The remaining partisans approached to the Conservatives, later the strongest supporters of Alfred von Tirpitz's various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, which pushed Great Britain into an arms race with Germany until World War I. In the federal election of 1887, a right-wing cartel of National Liberals, Conservatives and Free Conservatives once again ensured a parliamentary majority for Bismarck until his resignation in 1890.
As for the Kulturkampf, Bismarck deserted the liberals, came to terms with a new less confrontational Pope and started working politically with the Catholic Centre Party. Historian Hajo Holborn examines the contradictions between the Kulturkampf and liberal values:
[O]nly those laws that separated state and church could be defended from a liberal point of view. Full state control over schools was a liberal ideal. It was also logical to introduce the obligatory civil marriage law and entrust civil agencies with the keeping of vital statistics. [...] But all the other measures constituted shocking violations of liberal principles. German liberalism showed no loyalty to the ideas of lawful procedure or of political and cultural freedom which had formerly been its lifeblood. With few exceptions the German liberals were hypnotized by the national state, which they wished to imbue with a uniform pattern of culture. They were unable to recognize that the Kulturkampf was bound to undermine the belief in the Rechtsstaat (government by law) and to divide the German people profoundly.
David Blackbourn says the liberal attacks on the Catholic Church "left a political legacy that was the opposite of what liberals wanted. It made them beholden to Bismarck; and helped consolidate political Catholicism in Germany".
== Allies of big business ==
In 1905, Ernst Bassermann became chairman of National Liberal Party. He followed chairman Johannes von Miquel. The National Liberals came to be closely associated with the interests of big business, maintaining strong relations with mighty industrialist advocacy groups as well as with imperialist and nationalist associations like the Pan-German League. Increasingly threatened by the growing strength of the Social Democrats, the party gradually became more conservative, although it was generally split between a more liberal wing that sought to strengthen ties with the dissident liberals to their left and a right-wing that came to support more protectionist policies and close relations with the Conservatives and the imperial government.
== World War I ==
During World War I, most of the National Liberals, including such leaders of their left wing as Gustav Stresemann, avidly supported the expansionist goals of the imperial government, although they also called for reform at home. Following the war, the party broke up. Stresemann led the main body of the party, including most of its moderate and conservative elements, into the conservative liberal German People's Party. Its left wing merged with the left-liberal Progressive People's Party to form the German Democratic Party. The far-right wing of the National Liberals joined the German National People's Party.
== Election results ==
== Chairmen ==
Rudolf von Bennigsen (1867-1883)
Johannes von Miquel (1883-1901)
Ernst Bassermann (1905-1912)
== See also ==
Contributions to liberal theory
Liberal democracy
Liberalism
Liberalism in Germany
Liberalism worldwide
List of liberal parties
== Notes ==
== References and further reading ==
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "Voter, Junker, Landrat, Priest: The Old Authorities and the New Franchise in Imperial Germany," American Historical Review (1993) 98#5 pp. 1448–1474 in JSTOR.
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Practicing democracy: Elections and political culture in Imperial Germany (2000).
Dorpalen, Andreas. "Emperor Frederick III and the German Liberal Movement," American Historical Review (1948) 54#1 pp. 1–31 in JSTOR.
Gross, Michael B. "Kulturkampf and unification: German liberalism and the war against the Jesuits." Central European History 30#4 (1997): 545-566. in JSTOR.
Krieger, Leonard. The German Idea of Freedom: History of a Political Tradition (1957).
Mork, Gordon R. "Bismarck and the 'Capitulation' of German Liberalism," Journal of Modern History (1971) 43#1 pp. 59–75 in JSTOR.
O'Boyle, Lenore. "Liberal Political Leadership in Germany, 1867-1884." Journal of Modern History (1956): 338-352. in JSTOR.
Sheehan, James J. "Political Leadership in the German Reichstag, 1871-1918." American Historical Review (1968): 511-528. in JSTOR.
von Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge. "Domestic origins of Germany's colonial expansion under Bismarck." Past and Present (1969): 140-159. in JSTOR.
Suval, Stanley. Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (1985) online.
White, Dan S. The Splintered Party: National Liberalism in Hessen and the Reich, 1867-1918 (Harvard University Press, 1976). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake | William Blake | William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, painter and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his life, Blake has become a seminal figure in the history of the poetry and visual art of the Romantic Age. What he called his "prophetic works" were said by the 20th-century critic Northrop Frye to form "what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language". While he lived in London his entire life, except for three years spent in Felpham, he produced a diverse and symbolically rich collection of works, which embraced the imagination as "the body of God", or "human existence itself".
Although Blake was considered mad by contemporaries for his idiosyncratic views, he came to be highly regarded by later critics and readers for his expressiveness and creativity, and for the philosophical and mystical undercurrents within his work. His paintings and poetry have been characterised as part of the Romantic movement and as "Pre-Romantic". A theist who preferred his own Marcionite style of theology, he was hostile to the Church of England (indeed, to almost all forms of organised religion), and was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French and American Revolutions. Although later he rejected many of these political beliefs, he maintained an amicable relationship with the political activist Thomas Paine; he was also influenced by thinkers such as Emanuel Swedenborg. Despite these known influences, the singularity of Blake's work makes him difficult to classify. The 19th-century scholar William Michael Rossetti characterised him as a "glorious luminary", and "a man not forestalled by predecessors, nor to be classed with contemporaries, nor to be replaced by known or readily surmisable successors".
Collaboration with his wife, Catherine Boucher, was instrumental in the creation of many of his books. Boucher worked as a printmaker and colourist for his works. "For almost forty-five years she was the person who lived and worked most closely with Blake, enabling him to realize numerous projects, impossible without her assistance. Catherine was an artist and printer in her own right," writes the literary scholar Angus Whitehead.
== Early life ==
William Blake was born on 28 November 1757 at 28 Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) in Soho, London. He was the third of seven children, two of whom died in infancy. Blake's father, James, was a hosier, who had lived in London. William attended school only long enough to learn reading and writing, leaving at the age of 10, and was otherwise educated at home by his mother Catherine Blake (née Wright). Even though the Blakes were English Dissenters, William was baptised on 11 December at St James's Church, Piccadilly, London. The Bible was an early and profound influence on Blake, and remained a source of inspiration throughout his life. Blake's childhood, according to him, included mystical religious experiences such as "beholding God's face pressed against his window, seeing angels among the haystacks, and being visited by the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel."
Blake started engraving copies of drawings of Greek antiquities purchased for him by his father, a practice that was preferred to actual drawing. In these drawings Blake found his first exposure to classical forms through the work of Raphael, Michelangelo, Maarten van Heemskerck and Albrecht Dürer. The number of prints and bound books that James and Catherine were able to purchase for young William suggests that the Blakes enjoyed, at least for a time, a comfortable wealth. When William was ten years old, his parents knew enough of his headstrong temperament that he was not sent to school but instead enrolled in drawing classes at Henry Pars's drawing school in the Strand. He read avidly on subjects of his own choosing. During this period, Blake made explorations into poetry; his early work displays knowledge of Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser and the Psalms.
=== Apprenticeship ===
On 4 August 1772 Blake was apprenticed to the engraver James Basire of Great Queen Street, at the sum of £52.10, for a term of seven years. At the end of the term, aged 21, he became a professional engraver. No record survives of any serious disagreement or conflict between the two during the period of Blake's apprenticeship, but Peter Ackroyd's biography notes that Blake later added Basire's name to a list of artistic adversaries; and then crossed it out. This aside, Basire's style of line-engraving was of a kind held at the time to be old-fashioned compared to the flashier stipple or mezzotint styles. It has been speculated that Blake's instruction in this outmoded form may have been detrimental to his acquiring work or recognition in later life.
After two years, Basire sent his apprentice to copy images from the Gothic churches in London (perhaps to settle a quarrel between Blake and James Parker, his fellow apprentice). His experiences in Westminster Abbey helped form his artistic style and ideas. The Abbey in his day was decorated with suits of armour, painted funeral effigies and varicoloured waxworks. Ackroyd notes that "the most immediate [impression] would have been of faded brightness and colour". This close study of the Gothic (which he saw as the "living form") left clear traces in his style. In the long afternoons Blake spent sketching in the Abbey, he was occasionally interrupted by boys from Westminster School, who were allowed in the Abbey. They teased him and one tormented him so much that Blake knocked the boy off a scaffold to the ground, "upon which he fell with terrific Violence". After Blake complained to the Dean, the schoolboys' privilege was withdrawn. Blake claimed that he experienced visions in the Abbey. He saw Christ with his Apostles and a great procession of monks and priests, and heard their chant.
=== Royal Academy ===
On 8 October 1779, Blake became a student at the Royal Academy in Old Somerset House, near the Strand. While the terms of his study required no payment, he was expected to supply his own materials throughout the six-year period. There, he rebelled against what he regarded as the unfinished style of fashionable painters such as Peter Paul Rubens, championed by the school's first president, Joshua Reynolds. Over time, Blake came to detest Reynolds' attitude towards art, especially his pursuit of "general truth" and "general beauty". Reynolds wrote in his Discourses that the "disposition to abstractions, to generalising and classification, is the great glory of the human mind"; Blake responded, in marginalia to his personal copy, that "To Generalize is to be an Idiot; To Particularize is the Alone Distinction of Merit". Blake also disliked Reynolds' apparent humility, which he held to be a form of hypocrisy. Against Reynolds' fashionable oil painting, Blake preferred the Classical precision of his early influences Michelangelo and Raphael.
David Bindman suggests that Blake's antagonism towards Reynolds arose not so much from the president's opinions (like Blake, Reynolds held history painting to be of greater value than landscape and portraiture), but rather "against his hypocrisy in not putting his ideals into practice". Certainly Blake was not averse to exhibiting at the Royal Academy, submitting works on six occasions between 1780 and 1808.
Blake became a friend of John Flaxman, Thomas Stothard and George Cumberland during his first year at the Royal Academy. They shared radical views, with Stothard and Cumberland joining the Society for Constitutional Information.
=== Gordon Riots ===
Blake's first biographer, Alexander Gilchrist, records that in June 1780 Blake was walking towards Basire's shop in Great Queen Street when he was swept up by a rampaging mob that stormed Newgate Prison. The mob attacked the prison gates with shovels and pickaxes, set the building ablaze, and released the prisoners inside. Blake was reportedly in the front rank of the mob during the attack. The riots, in response to a parliamentary bill revoking sanctions against Roman Catholicism, became known as the Gordon Riots and provoked a flurry of legislation from the government of George III, and the creation of the first police force.
== Marriage and collaboration with Catherine Boucher ==
In 1781 Blake met Catherine Boucher when he was recovering from a relationship that had culminated in a refusal of his marriage proposal. He recounted the story of his heartbreak for Catherine and her parents, after which he asked Catherine: "Do you pity me?" When she responded affirmatively, he declared: "Then I love you". William married Catherine, who was five years his junior, on 18 August 1782 in St Mary's Church, Battersea. Illiterate, Catherine signed her wedding contract with an X. The original wedding certificate may be viewed at the church, where a commemorative stained-glass window was installed between 1976 and 1982. The marriage was successful and Catherine became William's "partner in both life and work", undertaking important roles as an engraver and colourist. According to the Tate Gallery, Catherine mixed and applied his paint colours. One of Catherine Blake's most noted works is the colouring of the cover of the book Europe: A Prophecy. William Blake's 1863 biographer, Alexander Gilchrist, wrote, "The poet and his wife did everything in making the book – writing, designing, printing, engraving – everything except manufacturing the paper: the very ink, or colour rather, they did make." In 2019 Tate Britain's Blake exhibition gave particular focus to Catherine's role in Blake's work.
== Career ==
=== Early work ===
Around 1783, Blake's first collection of poems, Poetical Sketches, was printed. In 1784, after his father's death, Blake and his former fellow apprentice James Parker opened a print shop. They began working with the radical publisher Joseph Johnson. Johnson's house was a meeting-place for some leading English intellectual dissidents of the time: the theologian and scientist Joseph Priestley; the philosopher Richard Price; the artist John Henry Fuseli; the early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft; and the English-American revolutionary Thomas Paine. Along with William Wordsworth and William Godwin, Blake had great hopes for the French and American revolutions and wore a Phrygian cap in solidarity with the French revolutionaries, but despaired with the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Reign of Terror in France. That same year, Blake composed his unfinished manuscript An Island in the Moon (1784).
Blake illustrated Original Stories from Real Life (2nd edition, 1791) by Wollstonecraft. Although they seem to have shared some views on sexual equality and the institution of marriage, no evidence is known that would prove that they had met. In Visions of the Daughters of Albion (1793), Blake condemned the cruel absurdity of enforced chastity and marriage without love and defended the right of women to complete self-fulfilment.
From 1790 to 1800, William Blake lived in North Lambeth, London, at 13 Hercules Buildings, Hercules Road. The property was demolished in 1918, but the site is marked with a plaque. A series of 70 mosaics commemorates Blake in the nearby railway tunnels of Waterloo Station. The mosaics largely reproduce illustrations from Blake's illuminated books, The Songs of Innocence and of Experience, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, and the prophetic books.
=== Relief etching ===
In 1788, aged 31, Blake experimented with relief etching, a method he used to produce most of his books, paintings, pamphlets and poems. The process is also referred to as illuminated printing, and the finished products as illuminated books or prints. Illuminated printing involved writing the text of the poems on copper plates with pens and brushes, using an acid-resistant medium. Illustrations could appear alongside words in the manner of earlier illuminated manuscripts. He then etched the plates in acid to dissolve the untreated copper and leave the design standing in relief (hence the name).
This is a reversal of the usual method of etching, where the lines of the design are exposed to the acid, and the plate printed by the intaglio method. Relief etching (which Blake referred to as "stereotype" in The Ghost of Abel) was intended as a means for producing his illuminated books more quickly than via intaglio. Stereotype, a process invented in 1725, consisted of making a metal cast from a wood engraving, but Blake's innovation was, as described above, very different. The pages printed from these plates were hand-coloured in watercolours and stitched together to form a volume. Blake used illuminated printing for most of his well-known works, including Songs of Innocence and of Experience, The Book of Thel, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell and Jerusalem.
=== Engravings ===
Although Blake has become better known for his relief etching, his commercial work largely consisted of intaglio engraving, the standard process of engraving in the 18th century in which the artist incised an image into the copper plate, a complex and laborious process, with plates taking months or years to complete, but as Blake's contemporary John Boydell realised, such engraving offered a "missing link with commerce", enabling artists to connect with a mass audience and became an immensely important activity by the end of the 18th century.
Europe Supported by Africa and America is an engraving by Blake held in the collection of the University of Arizona Museum of Art. The engraving was for a book written by Blake's friend John Gabriel Stedman called The Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796). It depicts three women embracing one another. Black Africa and White Europe hold hands in a gesture of equality, as the barren earth blooms beneath their feet. Europe wears a string of pearls, while her sisters Africa and America are depicted wearing slave bracelets. Some scholars have speculated that the bracelets represent the "historical fact" of slavery in Africa and the Americas while the handclasp refer to Stedman's "ardent wish": "we only differ in color, but are certainly all created by the same Hand." Others have said it "expresses the climate of opinion in which the questions of color and slavery were, at that time, being considered, and which Blake's writings reflect."
Blake employed intaglio engraving in his own work, such as for his Illustrations of the Book of Job, completed just before his death. Most critical work has concentrated on Blake's relief etching as a technique because it is the most innovative aspect of his art, but a 2009 study drew attention to Blake's surviving plates, including those for the Book of Job: they demonstrate that he made frequent use of a technique known as "repoussage", a means of obliterating mistakes by hammering them out by hitting the back of the plate. Such techniques, typical of engraving work of the time, are very different from the much faster and fluid way of drawing on a plate that Blake employed for his relief etching, and indicates why the engravings took so long to complete.
== Later life ==
Blake's marriage to Catherine was close and devoted until his death. Blake taught Catherine to write, and she helped him colour his printed poems. Gilchrist refers to "stormy times" in the early years of the marriage. Some biographers have suggested that Blake tried to bring a concubine into the marriage bed in accordance with the beliefs of the more radical branches of the Swedenborgian Society, but other scholars have dismissed these theories as conjecture. In his Dictionary, Samuel Foster Damon suggests that Catherine may have had a stillborn daughter for which The Book of Thel is an elegy. That is how he rationalises the Book's unusual ending, but notes that he is speculating.
=== Felpham ===
In 1800 Blake moved to a a cottage at Felpham, in Sussex (now West Sussex), to take up a job illustrating the works of William Hayley, a minor poet. It was in this cottage that Blake began Milton (the title page is dated 1804, but Blake continued to work on it until 1808). The preface to this work includes a poem beginning "And did those feet in ancient time", which became the words for the anthem "Jerusalem". Over time, Blake began to resent his new patron, believing that Hayley was uninterested in true artistry, and preoccupied with "the meer drudgery of business" (E724). Blake's disenchantment with Hayley has been speculated to have influenced Milton: a Poem, in which Blake wrote that "Corporeal Friends are Spiritual Enemies". (4:26, E98)
Blake's trouble with authority came to a head in August 1803, when he was involved in a physical altercation with a soldier, John Schofield. Blake was charged not only with assault, but with uttering seditious and treasonable expressions against the King. Schofield claimed that Blake had exclaimed "Damn the king. The soldiers are all slaves." Blake was cleared in the Chichester assizes of the charges. According to a report in the Sussex county paper, "[T]he invented character of [the evidence] was ... so obvious that an acquittal resulted". Schofield was later depicted wearing "mind forged manacles" in an illustration to Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion.
=== Return to London ===
Blake returned to London in 1804 and began to write and illustrate Jerusalem (1804–20), his most ambitious work. Having conceived the idea of portraying the characters in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Blake approached the dealer Robert Cromek, with a view to marketing an engraving. Knowing Blake was too eccentric to produce a popular work, Cromek promptly commissioned Blake's friend Thomas Stothard to execute the concept. When Blake learned he had been cheated, he broke off contact with Stothard. He set up an independent exhibition in his brother's haberdashery shop at 27 Broad Street in Soho. The exhibition was designed to market his own version of the Canterbury illustration (titled The Canterbury Pilgrims), along with other works. As a result, he wrote his Descriptive Catalogue (1809), which contains what Anthony Blunt called a "brilliant analysis" of Chaucer and is regularly anthologised as a classic of Chaucer criticism. It also contained detailed explanations of his other paintings. The exhibition was very poorly attended, selling none of the temperas or watercolours. Its only review, in The Examiner, was hostile.
Also around this time (circa 1808), Blake gave vigorous expression of his views on art in an extensive series of polemical annotations to the Discourses of Sir Joshua Reynolds, denouncing the Royal Academy as a fraud and proclaiming, "To Generalize is to be an Idiot".
In 1818 he was introduced by George Cumberland's son to a young artist named John Linnell. A blue plaque commemorates Blake and Linnell at Old Wyldes' at North End, Hampstead. Through Linnell he met Samuel Palmer, who belonged to a group of artists who called themselves the Shoreham Ancients. The group shared Blake's rejection of modern trends and his belief in a spiritual and artistic New Age. Aged 65, Blake began work on illustrations for the Book of Job, later admired by John Ruskin, who compared Blake favourably to Rembrandt, and by Vaughan Williams, who based his ballet Job: A Masque for Dancing on a selection of the illustrations.
In later life Blake began to sell a great number of his works, particularly his Bible illustrations, to Thomas Butts, a patron who saw Blake more as a friend than a man whose work held artistic merit; this was typical of the opinions held of Blake throughout his life.
The commission for Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy came to Blake in 1826 through Linnell, with the aim of producing a series of engravings. Blake's death in 1827 cut short the enterprise, and only a handful of watercolours were completed, with only seven of the engravings arriving at proof form. Even so, they have earned praise:
[T]he Dante watercolours are among Blake's richest achievements, engaging fully with the problem of illustrating a poem of this complexity. The mastery of watercolour has reached an even higher level than before, and is used to extraordinary effect in differentiating the atmosphere of the three states of being in the poem.
Blake's illustrations of the poem are not merely accompanying works, but rather seem to critically revise, or furnish commentary on, certain spiritual or moral aspects of the text.
Because the project was never completed, Blake's intent may be obscured. Some indicators bolster the impression that Blake's illustrations in their totality would take issue with the text they accompany: in the margin of Homer Bearing the Sword and His Companions, Blake notes, "Every thing in Dantes Comedia shews That for Tyrannical Purposes he has made This World the Foundation of All & the Goddess Nature & not the Holy Ghost." Blake seems to dissent from Dante's admiration of the poetic works of ancient Greece, and from the apparent glee with which Dante allots punishments in Hell (as evidenced by the grim humour of the cantos).
At the same time, Blake shared Dante's distrust of materialism and the corruptive nature of power, and clearly relished the opportunity to represent the atmosphere and imagery of Dante's work pictorially. Even as he seemed to be near death, Blake's central preoccupation was his feverish work on the illustrations to Dante's Inferno; he is said to have spent one of the last shillings he possessed on a pencil to continue sketching.
== Final years ==
Blake's last years were spent at Fountain Court off the Strand (the property was demolished in the 1880s, when the Savoy Hotel was built). On the day of his death (12 August 1827), Blake worked relentlessly on his Dante series. Eventually, it is reported, he ceased working and turned to his wife, who was in tears by his bedside. Beholding her, Blake is said to have cried, "Stay Kate! Keep just as you are – I will draw your portrait – for you have ever been an angel to me." Having completed this portrait (now lost), Blake laid down his tools and began to sing hymns and verses. At six that evening, after promising his wife that he would be with her always, Blake died. Gilchrist reports that a female lodger in the house, present at his expiration, said, "I have been at the death, not of a man, but of a blessed angel."
George Richmond gives the following account of Blake's death in a letter to Samuel Palmer:
He died ... in a most glorious manner. He said He was going to that Country he had all His life wished to see & expressed Himself Happy, hoping for Salvation through Jesus Christ – Just before he died His Countenance became fair. His eyes Brighten'd and he burst out Singing of the things he saw in Heaven.
Catherine paid for Blake's funeral with money lent to her by Linnell. Blake's body was buried in a plot shared with others, five days after his death – on the eve of his 45th wedding anniversary – at the Dissenters's burial ground in Bunhill Fields, in the City of London area. His parents' bodies were buried in the same graveyard. Present at the ceremonies were Catherine, Edward Calvert, George Richmond, Frederick Tatham and John Linnell. Following Blake's death, Catherine moved into Tatham's house as a housekeeper. She believed she was regularly visited by Blake's spirit. She continued selling his illuminated works and paintings, but entertained no business transaction without first "consulting Mr. Blake". On the day of her death, in October 1831, she was as calm and cheerful as her husband, and called out to him "as if he were only in the next room, to say she was coming to him, and it would not be long now."
On her death, longtime acquaintance Frederick Tatham took possession of Blake's works and continued selling them. Tatham later joined the fundamentalist Irvingite church and under the influence of conservative members of that church burned manuscripts that he deemed heretical. The exact number of destroyed manuscripts is unknown, but shortly before his death Blake told a friend he had written "twenty tragedies as long as Macbeth", none of which survive. Another acquaintance, William Michael Rossetti, also burned works by Blake that he considered lacking in quality, and John Linnell erased sexual imagery from a number of Blake's drawings. At the same time, some works not intended for publication were preserved by friends, such as his notebook and An Island in the Moon.
Blake's grave is commemorated by two stones. The first was a stone that reads "Near by lie the remains of the poet-painter William Blake 1757–1827 and his wife Catherine Sophia 1762–1831". The memorial stone is situated approximately 20 metres (66 ft) away from the actual grave, which was not marked until 12 August 2018. For years since 1965, the exact location of William Blake's grave had been lost and forgotten. The area had been damaged in the Second World War; gravestones were removed and a garden was created. The memorial stone, indicating that the burial sites are "nearby", was listed as a Grade II listed structure in 2011. A Portuguese couple, Carol and Luís Garrido, rediscovered the exact burial location after 14 years of investigatory work, and the Blake Society organised a permanent memorial slab, which was unveiled at a public ceremony at the site on 12 August 2018. The new stone is inscribed "Here lies William Blake 1757–1827 Poet Artist Prophet" above a verse from his poem Jerusalem.
The Blake Prize for Religious Art was established in his honour in Australia in 1949. In 1957 a memorial to Blake and his wife was erected in Westminster Abbey. Another memorial lies in St James's Church, Piccadilly, where he was baptised.
At the time of Blake's death, he had sold fewer than 30 copies of Songs of Innocence and of Experience.
== Opinions ==
=== Politics ===
Blake was not active in any well-established political party. His poetry consistently embodies an attitude of rebellion against the abuse of class power as documented in David Erdman's major study Blake: Prophet Against Empire: A Poet's Interpretation of the History of His Own Times (1954). Blake was concerned about senseless wars and the blighting effects of the Industrial Revolution. Much of his poetry recounts in symbolic allegory the effects of the French and American revolutions. Erdman claims Blake was disillusioned with the political outcomes of the conflicts, believing they had simply replaced monarchy with irresponsible mercantilism. Erdman also notes Blake was deeply opposed to slavery and believes some of his poems, read primarily as championing "free love", had their anti-slavery implications short-changed. A more recent study, William Blake: Visionary Anarchist by Peter Marshall (1988), classified Blake and his contemporary William Godwin as forerunners of modern anarchism. The British Marxist historian E. P. Thompson's last finished work, Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law (1993), claims to show how far he was inspired by dissident religious ideas rooted in the thinking of the most radical opponents of the monarchy during the English Civil War.
=== Development of views ===
Because Blake's later poetry contains a private mythology with complex symbolism, his late work has been less published than his earlier more accessible work. The Vintage anthology of Blake edited by Patti Smith focuses heavily on the earlier work, as do many critical studies such as William Blake by D. G. Gillham.
The earlier work is primarily rebellious in character and can be seen as a protest against dogmatic religion especially notable in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, in which the figure represented by the "Devil" is virtually a hero rebelling against an imposter authoritarian deity. In later works, such as Milton and Jerusalem, Blake carves a distinctive vision of a humanity redeemed by self-sacrifice and forgiveness, while retaining his earlier negative attitude towards what he felt was the rigid and morbid authoritarianism of traditional religion. Not all readers of Blake agree upon how much continuity exists between Blake's earlier and later works.
Psychoanalyst June Singer has written that Blake's late work displayed a development of the ideas first introduced in his earlier works, namely, the humanitarian goal of achieving personal wholeness of body and spirit. The final section of the expanded edition of her Blake study The Unholy Bible suggests the later works are the "Bible of Hell" promised in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Regarding Blake's final poem, Jerusalem, she writes: "The promise of the divine in man, made in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, is at last fulfilled."
John Middleton Murry notes discontinuity between Marriage and the late works, in that while the early Blake focused on a "sheer negative opposition between Energy and Reason", the later Blake emphasised the notions of self-sacrifice and forgiveness as the road to interior wholeness. This renunciation of the sharper dualism of Marriage of Heaven and Hell is evidenced in particular by the humanisation of the character of Urizen in the later works. Murry characterises the later Blake as having found "mutual understanding" and "mutual forgiveness".
=== Religious views ===
Regarding conventional religion, Blake was a satirist and ironist in his viewpoints which are illustrated and summarised in his poem Vala, or The Four Zoas, one of his uncompleted prophetic books begun in 1797. The demi-mythological and demi-religious main characters of the book are the Four Zoas (Urthona, Urizen, Luvah and Tharmas), who were created by the fall of Albion in Blake's mythology. It consists of nine books, referred to as "nights". These outline the interactions of the Zoas, their fallen forms and their Emanations. Blake intended the book to be a summation of his mythic universe. Blake's Four Zoas represent four aspects of the Almighty God, and Vala is the first work to mention them. In particular, Blake's God/Man union is broken down into the bodily components of Urizen (head), Urthona (loins), Luvah (heart), and Tharmas (unity of the body) with paired Emanations being Ahania (wisdom, from the head), Enitharmon (what can't be attained in nature, from the loins), Vala (nature, from the heart), and Enion (earth mother, from the separation of unity). As connected to Blake's understanding of the divine, the Zoas are the God the Father (Tharmas, sense), the Son of God (Luvah, love), the Holy Ghost (Urthona, imagination), and Satan who was originally of the divine substance (Urizen, reason) and their Emanations represent Sexual Urges (Enion), Nature (Vala), Inspiration (Enitharmon), and Pleasure (Ahania).
Blake believed that each person had a twofold identity with one half being good and the other evil. In Vala, both the character Orc and The Eternal Man discuss their selves as divided. By the time he was working on his later works, including Vala, Blake felt that he was able to overcome his inner battle but he was concerned about losing his artistic abilities. These thoughts carried over into Vala as the character Los (imagination) is connected to the image of Christ, and he added a Christian element to his mythic world. In the revised version of Vala, Blake added Christian and Hebrew images and describes how Los experiences a vision of the Lamb of God that regenerates Los's spirit. In opposition to Christ is Urizen and the Synagogue of Satan, who later crucifies Christ. It is from them that Deism is born.
Blake did not subscribe to the notion of a body distinct from the soul that must submit to the rule of the soul, but sees the body as an extension of the soul, derived from the "discernment" of the senses. Thus, the emphasis orthodoxy places upon the denial of bodily urges is a dualistic error born of misapprehension of the relationship between body and soul. Elsewhere, he describes Satan as the "state of error", and as beyond salvation.
Blake opposed the sophistry of theological thought that excuses pain, admits evil and apologises for injustice. He abhorred self-denial, which he associated with religious repression and particularly sexual repression:
He saw the concept of "sin" as a trap to bind men's desires (the briars of Garden of Love), and believed that restraint in obedience to a moral code imposed from the outside was against the spirit of life:
He did not hold with the doctrine of God as Lord, an entity separate from and superior to mankind; this is shown clearly in his words about Jesus Christ: "He is the only God ... and so am I, and so are you." A telling phrase in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is "men forgot that All deities reside in the human breast".
== Enlightenment philosophy ==
Blake had a complex relationship with Enlightenment philosophy. His championing of the imagination as the most important element of human existence ran contrary to Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and empiricism. Due to his visionary religious beliefs, he opposed the Newtonian view of the universe. This mindset is reflected in an excerpt from Blake's Jerusalem:
Blake believed the paintings of Sir Joshua Reynolds, which depict the naturalistic fall of light upon objects, were products entirely of the "vegetative eye", and he saw Locke and Newton as "the true progenitors of Sir Joshua Reynolds' aesthetic". The popular taste in the England of that time for such paintings was satisfied with mezzotints, prints produced by a process that created an image from thousands of tiny dots upon the page. Blake saw an analogy between this and Newton's particle theory of light. Accordingly, Blake never used the technique, opting rather to develop a method of engraving purely in fluid line, insisting that:
a Line or Lineament is not formed by Chance a Line is a Line in its Minutest Subdivision[s] Strait or Crooked It is Itself & Not Intermeasurable with or by any Thing Else Such is Job. (E784)
It has been supposed that, despite his opposition to Enlightenment principles, Blake arrived at a linear aesthetic that was in many ways more similar to the Neoclassical engravings of John Flaxman than to the works of the Romantics, with whom he is often classified. However, Blake's relationship with Flaxman seems to have grown more distant after Blake's return from Felpham, and there are surviving letters between Flaxman and Hayley wherein Flaxman speaks ill of Blake's theories of art. Blake further criticised Flaxman's styles and theories of art in his responses to criticism made against his print of Chaucer's Caunterbury Pilgrims in 1810.
== Sexuality ==
=== "Free Love" ===
Since his death, Blake has been claimed by those of various movements who apply his complex and often elusive use of symbolism and allegory to the issues that concern them. In particular, Blake is sometimes considered (along with Mary Wollstonecraft and her husband William Godwin) a forerunner of the 19th-century "free love" movement, a broad reform tradition starting in the 1820s that held that marriage is slavery, and advocated the removal of all state restrictions on sexual activity such as homosexuality, prostitution and adultery, culminating in the birth control movement of the early 20th century. Blake scholarship was more focused on this theme in the earlier 20th century, although it is still mentioned by the Blake scholar Magnus Ankarsjö who moderately challenges this interpretation. The 19th-century "free love" movement was not particularly focused on the idea of multiple partners, but did agree with Wollstonecraft that state-sanctioned marriage was "legal prostitution" and monopolistic in character. It has somewhat more in common with early feminist movements (particularly with regard to the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft, whom Blake admired).
Blake was critical of the marriage laws of his day, and generally railed against traditional Christian notions of chastity as a virtue. At a time of tremendous strain in his marriage, in part due to Catherine's apparent inability to bear children, he directly advocated bringing a second wife into the house. His poetry suggests that external demands for marital fidelity reduce love to mere duty rather than authentic affection, and decries jealousy and egotism as a motive for marriage laws. Poems such as "Why should I be bound to thee, O my lovely Myrtle-tree?" and "Earth's Answer" seem to advocate multiple sexual partners. In his poem "London" he speaks of "the Marriage-Hearse" plagued by "the youthful Harlot's curse", the result alternatively of false Prudence and/or Harlotry. Visions of the Daughters of Albion is widely (though not universally) read as a tribute to free love since the relationship between Bromion and Oothoon is held together only by laws and not by love. For Blake, law and love are opposed, and he castigates the "frozen marriage-bed". In Visions, Blake writes:
In the 19th century the poet and free-love advocate Algernon Charles Swinburne wrote a book on Blake drawing attention to the above motifs in which Blake praises "sacred natural love" that is not bound by another's possessive jealousy, the latter characterised by Blake as a "creeping skeleton". Swinburne notes how Blake's Marriage of Heaven and Hell condemns the hypocrisy of the "pale religious letchery" of advocates of traditional norms. Another 19th-century free love advocate, Edward Carpenter (1844–1929), was influenced by Blake's mystical emphasis on energy free from external restrictions.
In the early 20th century, Pierre Berger described how Blake's views echo Wollstonecraft's celebration of joyful authentic love rather than love born of duty, the former being the true measure of purity. Irene Langridge notes that "in Blake's mysterious and unorthodox creed the doctrine of free love was something Blake wanted for the edification of 'the soul'." Michael Davis' 1977 book William Blake a New Kind of Man suggests that Blake thought jealousy separates man from the divine unity, condemning him to a frozen death.
As a theological writer, Blake has a sense of human "fallenness". S. Foster Damon noted that for Blake the major impediments to a free love society were corrupt human nature, not merely the intolerance of society and the jealousy of men, but the inauthentic hypocritical nature of human communication. Thomas Wright's 1928 book Life of William Blake (entirely devoted to Blake's doctrine of free love) notes that Blake thinks marriage should in practice afford the joy of love, but notes that in reality it often does not, as a couple's knowledge of being chained often diminishes their joy. Pierre Berger also analyses Blake's early mythological poems such as Ahania as declaring marriage laws to be a consequence of the fallenness of humanity, as these are born from pride and jealousy.
Some scholars have noted that Blake's views on "free love" are both qualified and may have undergone shifts and modifications in his late years. Some poems from this period warn of dangers of predatory sexuality such as The Sick Rose. Magnus Ankarsjö notes that while the hero of Visions of the Daughters of Albion is a strong advocate of free love, by the end of the poem she has become more circumspect as her awareness of the dark side of sexuality has grown, crying "Can this be love which drinks another as a sponge drinks water?" Ankarsjö also notes that a major inspiration to Blake, Mary Wollstonecraft, similarly developed more circumspect views of sexual freedom late in life. In light of Blake's aforementioned sense of human 'fallenness' Ankarsjö thinks Blake does not fully approve of sensual indulgence merely in defiance of law as exemplified by the female character of Leutha, since in the fallen world of experience all love is enchained. Ankarsjö records Blake as having supported a commune with some sharing of partners, though David Worrall read The Book of Thel as a rejection of the proposal to take concubines espoused by some members of the Swedenborgian church.
Blake's later writings show a renewed interest in Christianity, and although he radically reinterprets Christian morality in a way that embraces sensual pleasure, there is little of the emphasis on sexual libertarianism found in several of his early poems, and there is advocacy of "self-denial", though such abnegation must be inspired by love rather than through authoritarian compulsion. Berger (more so than Swinburne) is especially sensitive to a shift in sensibility between the early Blake and the later Blake. Berger believes the young Blake placed too much emphasis on following impulses, and that the older Blake had a better formed ideal of a true love that sacrifices self. Some celebration of mystical sensuality remains in the late poems (most notably in Blake's denial of the virginity of Jesus's mother). However, the late poems also place a greater emphasis on forgiveness, redemption, and emotional authenticity as a foundation for relationships.
== Legacy ==
=== Creativity ===
Northrop Frye, commenting on Blake's consistency in strongly held views, notes that Blake himself says that his notes on [Joshua] Reynolds, written at fifty, are 'exactly Similar' to those on Locke and Bacon, written when he was 'very Young'. Even phrases and lines of verse will reappear as much as forty years later. Consistency in maintaining what he believed to be true was itself one of his leading principles ... Consistency, then, foolish or otherwise, is one of Blake's chief preoccupations, just as 'self-contradiction' is always one of his most contemptuous comments.
Blake abhorred slavery, and believed in racial and sexual equality. Several of his poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: "As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)". In one poem, narrated by a black child, white and black bodies alike are described as shaded groves or clouds, which exist only until one learns "to bear the beams of love":
Blake retained an active interest in social and political events throughout his life, and social and political statements are often present in his mystical symbolism. His views on what he saw as oppression and restriction of rightful freedom extended to the Church. His spiritual beliefs are evident in Songs of Experience (1794), in which he distinguishes between the Old Testament God, whose restrictions he rejected, and the New Testament God whom he saw as a positive influence.
=== Visions ===
From a young age, Blake claimed to have seen visions. The first may have occurred as early as the age of four when, according to one anecdote, the young artist "saw God" when God "put his head to the window", causing Blake to break into screaming. At the age of eight or ten in Peckham Rye, London, Blake claimed to have seen "a tree filled with angels, bright angelic wings bespangling every bough like stars." According to Blake's Victorian biographer Gilchrist, he returned home and reported the vision and only escaped being thrashed by his father for telling a lie through the intervention of his mother. Though all evidence suggests that his parents were largely supportive, his mother seems to have been especially so, and several of Blake's early drawings and poems decorated the walls of her chamber. On another occasion, Blake watched haymakers at work, and thought he saw angelic figures walking among them.
Blake claimed to experience visions throughout his life. They were often associated with beautiful religious themes and imagery, and may have inspired him further with spiritual works and pursuits. Certainly, religious concepts and imagery figure centrally in Blake's works. God and Christianity constituted the intellectual centre of his writings, from which he drew inspiration. Blake believed he was personally instructed and encouraged by Archangels to create his artistic works, which he claimed were actively read and enjoyed by the same Archangels. In a letter of condolence to William Hayley, dated 6 May 1800, four days after the death of Hayley's son, Blake wrote:
I know that our deceased friends are more really with us than when they were apparent to our mortal part. Thirteen years ago I lost a brother, and with his spirit I converse daily and hourly in the spirit, and see him in my remembrance, in the region of my imagination. I hear his advice, and even now write from his dictate.
In a letter to John Flaxman, dated 21 September 1800, Blake wrote:
[The town of] Felpham is a sweet place for Study, because it is more spiritual than London. Heaven opens here on all sides her golden Gates; her windows are not obstructed by vapours; voices of Celestial inhabitants are more distinctly heard, & their forms more distinctly seen; & my Cottage is also a Shadow of their houses. My Wife & Sister are both well, courting Neptune for an embrace... I am more famed in Heaven for my works than I could well conceive. In my Brain are studies & Chambers filled with books & pictures of old, which I wrote & painted in ages of Eternity before my mortal life; & those works are the delight & Study of Archangels. (E710)
In a letter to Thomas Butts, dated 25 April 1803, Blake wrote:
Now I may say to you, what perhaps I should not dare to say to anyone else: That I can alone carry on my visionary studies in London unannoy'd, & that I may converse with my friends in Eternity, See Visions, Dream Dreams & prophecy & speak Parables unobserv'd & at liberty from the Doubts of other Mortals; perhaps Doubts proceeding from Kindness, but Doubts are always pernicious, Especially when we Doubt our Friends.
In A Vision of the Last Judgement Blake wrote:
Error is Created Truth is Eternal Error or Creation will be Burned Up & then & not till then Truth or Eternity will appear It is Burnt up the Moment Men cease to behold it I assert for My self that I do not behold the Outward Creation & that to me it is hindrance & not Action it is as the Dirt upon my feet No part of Me. What it will be Questiond When the Sun rises do you not see a round Disk of fire somewhat like a Guinea O no no I see an Innumerable company of the Heavenly host crying Holy Holy Holy is the Lord God Almighty I question not my Corporeal or Vegetative Eye any more than I would Question a Window concerning a Sight I look thro it & not with it. (E565-6)
Despite seeing angels and God, Blake has also claimed to have seen Satan on the staircase of his South Molton Street home in London.
Aware of Blake's visions, William Wordsworth commented, "There was no doubt that this poor man was mad, but there is something in the madness of this man which interests me more than the sanity of Lord Byron and Walter Scott." In a more deferential vein, John William Cousins wrote in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature that Blake was "a truly pious and loving soul, neglected and misunderstood by the world, but appreciated by an elect few", who "led a cheerful and contented life of poverty illumined by visions and celestial inspirations". Blake's sanity was called into question as recently as the publication of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, whose entry on Blake comments that "the question whether Blake was or was not mad seems likely to remain in dispute, but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at different periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what he wrote is so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without a logical coherence".
=== Cultural influence ===
Blake's work was neglected for a generation after his death and almost forgotten by the time Alexander Gilchrist began work on his biography in the 1860s. The publication of the Life of William Blake rapidly transformed Blake's reputation, in particular as he was taken up by Pre-Raphaelites and associated figures, in particular Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Algernon Charles Swinburne. In the 20th century, however, Blake's work was fully appreciated and his influence increased. Important early and mid-20th-century scholars involved in enhancing Blake's standing in literary and artistic circles included S. Foster Damon, Geoffrey Keynes, Northrop Frye and David V. Erdman.
While Blake had a significant role in the art and poetry of figures such as Rossetti, it was during the Modernist period that this work began to influence a wider set of writers and artists. William Butler Yeats, who edited an edition of Blake's collected works in 1893, drew on him for poetic and philosophical ideas, while British surrealist art in particular drew on Blake's conceptions of non-mimetic, visionary practice in the painting of artists such as Paul Nash and Graham Sutherland.
His poetry came into use by a number of British classical composers, who set his works. The earliest such work known is Doyne Bell's setting of the poem Can I see another's woe, from Songs of Innocence and of Experience, published in 1876. Notable settings are by Benjamin Britten and Ralph Vaughan Williams, and John Tavener set several of Blake's poems, including The Lamb (as the 1982 work "The Lamb") and The Tyger.
Many such as June Singer have argued that Blake's thoughts on human nature greatly anticipate and parallel the thinking of the psychoanalyst Carl Jung. In Jung's own words: "Blake [is] a tantalizing study, since he compiled a lot of half or undigested knowledge in his fantasies. According to my ideas they are an artistic production rather than an authentic representation of unconscious processes." Similarly, Diana Hume George claimed that Blake can be seen as a precursor to the ideas of Sigmund Freud.
Blake had an enormous influence on the beat poets of the 1950s and the counterculture of the 1960s, frequently being cited by such seminal figures as the beat poet Allen Ginsberg, the songwriters Bob Dylan, Richard Ashcroft, Jim Morrison, Van Morrison and Bruce Dickinson, and the writer Aldous Huxley. The Pulitzer Prize for Music–winning composer William Bolcom set Songs of Innocence and of Experience to music, with different poems set to different styles of music, "from modern techniques to Broadway to Country/Western" and reggae.
Much of the central conceit of Philip Pullman's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials is rooted in the world of Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Blake also features as a relatively significant character in Brian Catling's fantasy novel The Erstwhile, where his visions of angelic beings are figured into the story. The composer Kathleen Yearwood is one of many contemporary musicians that have set Blake's poems to music. After the Second World War, Blake's role in popular culture came to the fore in a variety of areas such as popular music, film and the graphic novel, leading Edward Larrissy to assert that "Blake is the Romantic writer who has exerted the most powerful influence on the twentieth century."
== Exhibitions ==
Major recent exhibitions focusing on William Blake include:
The Ashmolean Museum's (Oxford) exhibition William Blake: Apprentice and Master, open from December 2014 until March 2015, examined William Blake's formation as an artist, as well as his influence on young artist-printmakers who gathered around him in the last years of his life.
The National Gallery of Victoria's exhibition William Blake in summer 2014 showcased the Gallery's collection of works by William Blake which includes spectacular watercolours, single prints and illustrated books.
The Morgan Library & Museum exhibition William Blake's World: A New Heaven Is Begun, open from September 2009 until January 2010, included more than 100 watercolours, prints, and illuminated books of poetry.
An exhibition at Tate Britain in 2007–2008, William Blake, coincided with the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of William Blake's birth and included Blake works from the Gallery's permanent collection, but also private loans of recently discovered works which had never before been exhibited.
The Scottish National Gallery 2007 exhibition William Blake coincided with the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of William Blake's birth and featured all of the Gallery's works associated with Blake.
An exhibition at Tate Britain in 2000–2001, William Blake, displayed the full range of William Blake's art and poetry, together with contextual materials, arranged in four sections: One of the Gothic Artists; The Furnace of Lambeth's Vale; Chambers of the Imagination; Many Formidable Works. The exhibit traveled to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2001.
In 2016 the world's first William Blake antique bookstore and art gallery opened in San Francisco, US.
A major exhibition on Blake at Tate Britain in London opened in the autumn of 2019.
An exhibition at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, titled William Blake's Universe, ran between 23 February and 19 May 2024.
== Bibliography ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Blake Society
Making facsimiles of Blake's prints (archived 29 April 2014)
William Blake Archived 31 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine at the British Library
William Blake Poems Arts & Experience Library
William Blake at IMDb
Selected works at Poetry-Index
=== Profiles ===
Profile at the Academy of American Poets
Profile at the Poetry Foundation
BBC etching gallery
=== Archives ===
The William Blake Archive – A Comprehensive Academic Archive of Blake's works with scans from multiple collections
47 artworks by or after William Blake at the Art UK site
Single Institution Holdings:
The G. E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
The G. E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
William Blake collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
William Blake Digital Material From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
William Blake Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Digital editions and research
Project Gutenberg – works by Blake downloadable
Works by or about William Blake at the Internet Archive
Works by William Blake at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Settings of William Blake's poetry in the Choral Public Domain Library |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dua_Lipa | Dua Lipa | Dua Lipa ( DOO-ə LEE-pə; born 22 August 1995) is an English singer and songwriter. Her accolades include seven Brit Awards and three Grammy Awards.
Lipa worked as a model before venturing into music and signing with Warner Bros. in 2014. She released her eponymous debut album in 2017, which peaked at number three on the UK Albums Chart and spawned the singles "Be the One", "IDGAF", and the UK number-one single "New Rules". She was honoured with the Brit Awards for British Female Solo Artist and British Breakthrough Act in 2018. Her second UK number-one single, "One Kiss" with Calvin Harris, was the best-selling song of 2018 in the UK and won the Brit Award for Song of the Year. She later won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist and for Best Dance Recording for "Electricity" featuring Silk City in 2019.
Lipa's second album, Future Nostalgia (2020), became her first UK number-one album and peaked in the top-three in the US. Its lead single, "Don't Start Now", scored the longest top-ten stay for a British female artist on the UK Singles Chart and ranked in the top five on the US Billboard Hot 100 year-end chart of 2020. The album's success continued with the follow-up singles "Physical", "Break My Heart", and "Levitating", with the latter topping the Billboard year-end Hot 100 chart of 2021 and receiving a Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) Diamond certification in the US. Future Nostalgia won the Brit Award for British Album of the Year and the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album.
Lipa subsequently scored her third and fourth UK number-one singles with the 2021 Elton John duet "Cold Heart (Pnau remix)" and "Dance the Night" from the soundtrack of the film Barbie (2023), wherein she also made her acting debut. Lipa released her third studio album, Radical Optimism (2024), which debuted atop the UK Albums Chart and was preceded by the UK top-ten singles "Houdini", "Training Season", and "Illusion". She also had a supporting role in the 2024 spy film Argylle.
== Early life ==
Dua Lipa was born on 22 August 1995, in London, England, the eldest child of Kosovo Albanian parents Anesa (née Rexha) and Dukagjin Lipa from Pristina, FR Yugoslavia (present-day Kosovo). She has a sister, Rina, and a brother, Gjin. The name Dua was her grandmother's suggestion, and means "love" in Albanian. Her maternal grandmother is of Bosniak descent. Her father's ancestry can be traced back to the city of Peja, Kosovo. Both of her grandfathers were historians.
Lipa was musically influenced by her father, who was the lead singer and guitarist of the Kosovan rock band Oda. Her father continued to play music at home, including his own compositions and songs of artists such as David Bowie, Bob Dylan, Radiohead, Sting, the Police, and Stereophonics. Dua Lipa began singing at the age of five.
Lipa grew up in West Hampstead, London. She attended Fitzjohn's Primary School and her music lessons there included the cello. When she auditioned to enter the school choir, the teacher told her that she could not sing. At the age of nine, she began weekend singing lessons at the Sylvia Young Theatre School. Lipa moved with her family to Pristina after Kosovo declared independence in 2008. There she attended Mileniumi i Tretë School, learned more about the Albanian language, and considered a music career.
At age 15, Lipa moved back alone to London and shared a flat with a family friend. At Parliament Hill School she passed her A-Levels, then re-entered Sylvia Young Theatre School part-time. She uploaded her own songs to SoundCloud and YouTube. She began posting videos of herself covering songs such as "If I Ain't Got You" (2004) by Alicia Keys and "Beautiful" (2002) by Christina Aguilera on YouTube. Lipa modelled with Topshop and signed with a modelling agency, helping her land a role as a singer in an ITV advertisement for The X Factor in 2013, covering Sister Sledge's 1979 song "Lost in Music". She acquired a producer and a manager.
== Career ==
=== 2013–2018: Career beginnings and Dua Lipa ===
In 2013, Lipa signed a contract with Tap Management, directed by Ben Mawson and Ed Millett, while working as a waitress in a cocktail bar. Lipa was introduced to Mawson by her lawyer, who discouraged her from signing another publishing deal that was offered to her. They then offered her a monthly salary to leave her job and focus on recording music. During one of the sessions Lipa co-wrote the song "Hotter than Hell", which led to her signing a record deal with Warner Bros. Records in 2014. Millett retrospectively elaborated: "Dua was really smart – she signed to Warner Bros. partly because they didn't have a big female pop artist and they needed one. They really wanted her, so she had the focus of the team from day one."
In August 2015, Lipa released her first single, "New Love", produced by Emile Haynie and Andrew Wyatt. Her second single, "Be the One", was issued to European success in October 2015, reaching number one in Belgium, Poland and Slovakia, as well as charting in the top ten in over eleven European territories. In Australia and New Zealand, the song became an airplay success, reaching numbers 6 and 20 respectively. In November 2015, she was revealed as one of the acts to appear on the BBC Sound of... 2016 long list.
Her first tour in the UK and Europe began in January 2016, and concluded in early December 2016. On 18 February 2016, Lipa released her third single, "Last Dance", followed by "Hotter than Hell" on 6 May. The latter was successful particularly in the UK, where it peaked at number 15. On 26 August, her fifth overall single, "Blow Your Mind (Mwah)", was released, peaking at number 30 in the UK. It became the singer's first entry on the US Billboard Hot 100, debuting at number 72. The song also topped the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart and reached number 23 on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart.
Lipa was featured on Sean Paul's single "No Lie", released in November 2016, which reached number ten in the UK. The song became a top-ten hit in ten countries six years after its release, and it became Sean Paul's most-streamed song as of December 2022. The music video (directed by Tim Nackashi) surpassed 1 billion views on YouTube in April 2022. The following month, a documentary about Lipa named See in Blue was commissioned by The Fader. In January 2017, Lipa won the EBBA Public Choice Award, and released the single "Scared to Be Lonely", a collaboration with Martin Garrix, reaching number 14 in the UK.
In May 2017, she performed at the anniversary of Indonesian television channel SCTV and won the award for Young and Promising International Artist at the SCTV Music Awards. Lipa's first album Dua Lipa was released on 2 June 2017. Its sixth single, "New Rules", released in the following month, became Lipa's first number one in the UK, and the first by a female solo artist to reach the top in the UK since Adele's "Hello" in 2015. Her best-selling single to date, the song also charted in the top ten of other countries, including number two in Australia, number six in the US, and number seven in Canada. As of 2024, the music video has streamed over three billion views on YouTube. Lipa performed at the Glastonbury Festival in June. In July, Lipa performed at the We The Fest, an Indonesian music festival in Jakarta. She performed on the BBC's Later... with Jools Holland in October. In December, Lipa was named the most streamed woman of 2017 in the UK by Spotify. She had four singles reach the UK top 10 in 2017, with "Be the One", "New Rules", "No Lie", and "Bridge over Troubled Water", a charity single for the families of the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire in London.
In January 2018, Lipa received nominations in five categories at the Brit Awards, more nominations than any other artist that year. She was nominated for MasterCard British Album of the Year for Dua Lipa, British Single of the Year and British Video of the Year for "New Rules", British Female Solo Artist, and British Breakthrough Act winning the latter two. This was the first time that a female artist had received five nominations.
Lipa performed at the awards ceremony held on 21 February at the O2 Arena in London. The singer collaborated with American DJ Whethan on the song "High" for the Fifty Shades Freed soundtrack, released in February 2018. She started working on new material for her second album in January 2018. On 6 April, Lipa and Calvin Harris released the single "One Kiss", which topped the UK Singles Chart on 20 April, making it Lipa's second number one in the chart; Lipa provided the vocals and is also credited as a writer. The single went on to become the biggest selling song in the UK of 2018 and topped the chart for eight consecutive weeks. She performed in the opening ceremony of the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final in Kyiv on 26 May. It was reported that Lipa would be releasing collaborations with other artists coming out later in 2018, such as one with Mark Ronson and Diplo's newly formed superduo Silk City. Ronson later confirmed the song's title would be "Electricity". The song was released on 9 September. Lipa was also featured in "If Only", a song from Italian singer Andrea Bocelli's sixteenth studio album Sì.
Lipa performed at the F1 Singapore Grand Prix in September. In the same month, Lipa endorsed British car brand Jaguar's new electric car, I-PACE. The brand created a remix of Lipa's song "Want To" and launched a service where fans could create their own version of Dua Lipa x Jaguar's song on the Join the Pace website, based on their own driving behaviour or the music they listen to, and share it on social media. According to Lipa's team, Jaguar and Lipa set the world record for the "most remixed song ever". In October, the singer released Dua Lipa: The Complete Edition, an expanded version of her debut album that includes three new songs, including the aforementioned "Want To", and her previous collaborations with other artists. This included a collaboration with South Korean girl group Blackpink called "Kiss and Make Up".
=== 2019–2022: Future Nostalgia ===
In January 2019, Lipa released the single "Swan Song" as part of the soundtrack to the 2019 film Alita: Battle Angel. That same month, Lipa stated that she spent the preceding year in the writing process for her second studio album. Lipa commented that the album's sound would be a "nostalgic" pop record that "feels like a dancercise class". In August 2019, Lipa partnered with brand Yves Saint Laurent to endorse their fragrance Libre.
Following the release of its lead single "Don't Start Now", Lipa's second album, Future Nostalgia, and its accompanying tour were announced in December 2019. "Don't Start Now" peaked at number two on both the UK Singles Chart and the US Billboard Hot 100. On the former, it earned the longest top 10 stay for a British female artist and the longest top 10 stay without reaching the summit in that chart's history. The song also peaked at number one on the UK Big Top 40 and the US Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart. Lipa's second single leading up to the release of the album was "Physical". It was released on 30 January 2020 and the song's music video was released a day later. "Physical" debuted at number 60 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Future Nostalgia was released on 27 March to widespread critical acclaim, following the release of the record's third single "Break My Heart" on 25 March. The album debuted at number two on the Official UK Albums Chart, 5550 copies behind 5 Seconds of Summer's Calm. Future Nostalgia peaked at number one on the Official UK Albums Chart the following week in April 2020, while four of the album's singles entered the top ten of the Official Singles Chart. The album holds the record for having the lowest one-week sales while at the top of the chart in the 21st century; when it was number one—the week beginning 15 May 2020—the album had only 7,317 sales. At the time of the album's release, Lipa became the first British female artist since Vera Lynn to have three top-ten singles in a single calendar year, with Lynn having three in 1952. Lipa eventually overrode this record with the single "Levitating", which also peaked within the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming her third top-ten in the US overall. Lipa's music video for "Physical" was nominated for Best Art Director at the Berlin Music Video Awards in 2020. The art director of the music video is Anna Colomer Nogué.
On 27 April 2020, DJ Ben Howell released a remix of her song "Hallucinate" with the BBC news theme. Created during the height of the coronavirus lockdown in his flat in Glasgow, Scotland, the remix has garnered more than a million views on YouTube as of July 2023. It was pleasantly received by both Lipa and BBC Radio 1 DJ Greg James, the latter quipping on Twitter "Ben's made you [the BBC] a new theme tune and it's a certified banger. Please change with immediate effect".
On 11 August 2020, she was named global ambassador of the French mineral water brand Évian. Lipa made the announcement on social media, where she stated that "it had been an honor" working with the brand. On 13 August, Lipa released a remix of "Levitating" featuring American artists Madonna and Missy Elliott. It served as the lead single from Club Future Nostalgia, a remix collection of Future Nostalgia tracks by the Blessed Madonna and Mark Ronson, which was released on 28 August. On 2 October 2020, Lipa released the second remix of "Levitating" featuring American rapper DaBaby; on the same day, Lipa released the music video for the second remix. On 14 October 2020, Lipa and Belgian singer Angèle were photographed on the set of a music video. Later in the month, the singers announced the release of their collaboration, "Fever"; it was released on 30 October 2020. It is included on the French re-release of Future Nostalgia. Lipa was featured on "Prisoner", a song from Miley Cyrus' seventh studio album Plastic Hearts. The single was released on 19 November 2020 alongside the music video. In November it was announced that Lipa would be the musical guest on 19 December episode of Saturday Night Live. On 27 November, Lipa performed in a livestream concert titled Studio 2054, where she sang various songs from Future Nostalgia, a new unreleased track with FKA Twigs, as well as some previous singles such as "New Rules", "One Kiss" and "Electricity". The event featured many special guests like the Blessed Madonna, Angèle, Kylie Minogue and Elton John, among others. Future Nostalgia was the most streamed album by a woman (and fifth most streamed album overall) on Spotify in 2020.
On 11 February 2021, Lipa released a single titled "We're Good", along with Future Nostalgia: The Moonlight Edition. On 26 February 2021, Aleyna Tilki released her debut English-language single "Retrograde", co-written by Lipa. Lipa released the song "Can They Hear Us" from the soundtrack of the film Gully on 4 June 2021. On 13 August 2021, Lipa worked again with Elton John on the song "Cold Heart (Pnau remix)", released as the lead single from John's studio album The Lockdown Sessions. On 15 October, the single reached the number-one spot on the UK Singles Chart, becoming Lipa's third song to achieve this feat. In February 2022, Lipa launched a weekly lifestyle newsletter entitled Service95 as well as its accompanying podcast Dua Lipa: At Your Service.
On 18 February 2022, a source close to the issue confirmed to Variety that Dua Lipa had parted ways with her longtime management business, Ben Mawson and Ed Millet's TaP Management. Contrary to other reports, the insider claims that the singer is not currently meeting with other management firms, but she will do so in the future. On 1 March 2022, reggae band Artikal Sound System filed a suit against Lipa and her label Warner Records alleging copyright infringement, asserting similarities between "Levitating" and their 2017 song "Live Your Life". In June 2023, the suit was dropped with prejudice. A second suit by songwriters L. Russell Brown and Sandy Linzer claimed that "Levitating" infringed on their 1979 disco song "Wiggle and Giggle All Night".
On 11 March 2022, Lipa and Megan Thee Stallion released "Sweetest Pie" accompanied by its music video. The song marks their first collaboration and serves as the lead single from Megan's second studio album Traumazine. On 27 May, Lipa collaborated with Calvin Harris and Young Thug to release "Potion", serving as the lead single from Harris's sixth studio album Funk Wav Bounces Vol. 2. It marked the second collaboration between Harris and Lipa following their 2018 single "One Kiss".
=== 2023–present: Acting debut and Radical Optimism ===
On 26 May 2023, Lipa released "Dance the Night" as the lead single of the Barbie film soundtrack. Lipa made her acting debut in the movie, portraying Mermaid Barbie. In November 2023, Lipa acquired full ownership of all her songs, music, and publishing rights, in a new deal she completed with her former music publishers, TaP Music. The deal included all of her master recordings from her entire music catalogue, which by February 2024, had reached 40 billion streams.
On 9 November 2023, Lipa released the lead single from her third studio album titled "Houdini". On the day of its release, she said that Kevin Parker, who produced the song with Danny L Harle, was among her "core collaborators" on the album. Spin referred to Harle as the co-producer of the record. The follow-up singles, "Training Season" and "Illusion", were released on 15 February 2024 and 11 April 2024, respectively. The album titled Radical Optimism followed on 3 May 2024. She continued her acting career with a starring role in the 2024 spy action comedy Argylle.
In March 2024, Dua Lipa announced she would do a short tour of European arenas in June of the same year. She performed at the Arena of Nîmes, the Waldbühne in Berlin and the Pula Arena, all of which are amphitheatres. In June, she headlined at Glastonbury Festival 2024, closing the festival's Pyramid Stage on 28 June. On 18 March 2024, Lipa announced the Radical Optimism Tour, a concert tour in support of the album. On 17 October, she performed at the Royal Albert Hall in London for an ITV television special titled An Evening with Dua Lipa, where she sang her biggest hits and songs from Radical Optimism, backed by the Heritage Orchestra. A remix of "These Walls" featuring Belgian singer Pierre de Maere, was released as the fourth single from Radical Optimism on 8 November 2024. On 19 November, she announced the release of her first live album titled Dua Lipa Live from the Royal Albert Hall for 6 December, preceding the broadcast of An Evening with Dua Lipa on 8 December.
== Fashion ventures ==
Lipa has been the cover girl of several magazines. She signed with Next Models. She was in the cover of the "Boom Boom Tick" editorial for Elle's January 2016 issue. In April 2016 she was again in an editorial of Elle. She was on a supplemental cover of British Vogue in November 2016. She starred an editorial for the January 2017 issue of V. In the same month, she was on the cover for issue 102 of Clash. In March 2017, she became a global ambassador for the American shoe company, Foot Locker, to present women's collections offered by the brand. She was in an editorial for Interview released in April 2017. She modelled for an editorial of Paper, published on 6 June 2017. She was featured in the summer 2017 issue of Teen Vogue in an editorial titled "Fine Tuned". She was in an editorial for June 2017 issue of InStyle. She was in an editorial called "Game Changers" for Fall 2017 issue of V. She was in the Fall/Winter 2017–18 advertising campaign of the Italian brand Patrizia Pepe, as well as recorded a cover of the song "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" (1966) as a soundtrack for the commercial for the said campaign. She was on the cover and appeared in an editorial for November 2017 issue of Evening Standard. In the same month, she released her second collaboration with the brand Foot Locker for autumn/winter collection. In January 2018, she was part of a promotional clip for an Adidas Originals campaign called "Original Is Never Finished". She was on the cover of April 2018 issue of Teen Vogue. She was on one of the covers for issue 113 of V entitled "The Music Issue", published in May 2018 as a limited edition. She partnered with the fashion brand Nyden on a project to create four clothing collections, but it failed and Lipa "discontinued" her work with the brand.
She was on the cover of British GQ for May 2018 issue. She was in the cover for May 2018 issue of Turkish edition of Vogue. She was in the cover for June 2018 issue of British edition of Elle. In October 2018, she was part of an Adidas campaign called "Here to Create" in which she wore brand clothes. She appeared in a Billboard editorial called "Grammy Preview" alongside Post Malone and Ella Mai. She starred the cover for January 2019 issue of British Vogue and an editorial called "Youth Quake". She was the image for the Pepe Jeans London spring/summer 2019 collection campaign, settling down as the first musician to be global ambassador for the brand. Months later she launched her first-ever capsule with the same brand for the autumn/winter collection where she designed clothing inspired by the fashion of the 90s and early 2000s. She had spent part of her childhood in London and remembered her mother talking to her in a Pepe Jeans store in Portobello Road; the collection included chain mail dresses, "casual" denim outfits and garments based on Lipa's "style" released in September 2019.
Lipa was on the cover of the May 2019 issue of Elle. She starred one of the four covers in the first issue and an editorial of the re-launch of The Face released in September 2019. She was the cover girl of the October 2019 issue and an editorial for the Spanish edition of Vogue. She starred in a Vogue sitcom clip set in the 90s titled "Dua's World" where she wore the "best" collections of New York Fashion Week. She released her second design collaboration with Pepe Jeans London for spring/summer 2020 collection inspired by the fashion of late 1980s and early 1990s whose collection included "oversized" blazers, cropped knitwear, bodycon dresses, and "metallic" miniskirts. She was on the cover and an editorial called "True to form" for April 2020 issue of Vogue Australia.
She appeared in a Rolling Stone editorial published in April 2020 to discuss about her second studio album Future Nostalgia (2020). She was on the cover of the Elle May 2020 issue and an editorial titled "Dua Lipa Gets Physical", and months later she was in the cover for its Canadian and British edition. She was the cover girl for June 2020 issue of GQ on its British edition. She was on one of two covers for W's "The Music Issue", published in September 2020. Lipa released her third design collaboration with Pepe Jeans London for autumn/winter 2020 collection and she stated that it would be her last collaboration with the brand called "Denim decades", which was inspired by every decade since Pepe Jeans started selling denim.
In November 2020, she signed a multi-year partnership with Puma becoming the global ambassador of the brand. She was on the cover for December 2020 issue of Attitude. She appeared on the cover for February 2021 issue of British Vogue. In the same month, she was protagonist of the cover for issue 1348 of Rolling Stone. She was on the cover for the March 2021 issue of Time, representing the 100 Next list about the "future 100 most influential people in the world". In the same month, she appeared on the cover of The New York Times "Music Issue". She designed her outfit at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards red carpet featuring a dress in collaboration with the brand Versace inspired by the Aurora Borealis. She was in a Puma brand campaign called "She Moves Us" in which she designed a shoe called "Mayze" released in April 2021. In June 2021, Lipa was an announced as the face of Versace's Fall-Winter 2021 campaign.
=== Dress style and endorsements ===
Dua Lipa has been described by the media as a fashion icon. For a Versace dress and Bulgari diamonds she was rated as one of the "best" dressed celebrities of the 61st Annual Grammy Awards ceremony by various media. For her Alexander Wang dress with 90s style, she was rated as one of the "best" dressed celebrities of the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards ceremony. For a Versace dress and Bulgari jewellery she was rated as one of the "best" dressed celebrities of the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards ceremony.
She released a limited edition lip gloss called "Cremesheen Glass" in collaboration with MAC Cosmetics for its campaign called "Future Forward". She became the face of a perfume called "Libre" for a Yves Saint Laurent campaign launched in September 2019 for which she recorded a promo cover of the song "I'm Free" (1965) featured in advertisements for Lipa's campaigns with the brand. Later she was the face of a new version of the same perfume called "Libre Intense". She became an ambassador for the mineral water brand Évian in July 2020. In March 2021 she performed an a cappella of her song "Levitating" (2020) for an advertisement for the "Drink True" campaign of the brand Évian.
In February 2024, Dua Lipa was promoted to global ambassador for YSL Beauty. Previously, she had been the face of the "Libre" fragrance since 2019. Her appointment to global ambassador followed a wipe of the YSL Beauty Instagram account.
=== Modelling ===
She made her runway debut at Versace's Spring/Summer 2022 show at Milan Fashion Week, which was soundtracked by tracks from her album Future Nostalgia (2020).
== Artistry and influences ==
The media have described Lipa as having a mezzo-soprano or contralto vocal range. Her music is primarily pop, and has also been described as disco, house and R&B. Stylistically, her music has been described as dance-pop, synth-pop, dream pop, alternative pop, and nu-disco subgenres. She describes her musical style as being "dark pop". She is also noted for singing in a "distinct, husky, low register", and her "sultry" tone. Regarding her songwriting process, Lipa states she usually comes to the studio with a concept and starts developing the song with her co-writers. She cites Kylie Minogue, Pink, Nelly Furtado, Jamiroquai, Prince, Kendrick Lamar, and Chance the Rapper among her musical influences. "My idea of pop has been P!nk and Christina Aguilera and Destiny's Child and Nelly Furtado", said Lipa in a GQ interview in 2018. Her second studio album Future Nostalgia (2020) was inspired by artists that she listened to during her teens, including Gwen Stefani, Madonna, Moloko, Blondie and Outkast.
Lipa's stage presence was met with criticism in the early stages of her career. A YouTube comment on her performance of "New Rules" at the 2018 BRIT Awards saying "I love her lack of energy, go girl give us nothing" became an internet meme, subjecting Lipa to ridicule. Lipa credited this criticism as motivation to improve her stage presence.
== Impact ==
A study conducted by the Office for National Statistics revealed that the number of people born with the name "Dua" in England and Wales was 63 in 2017, the year Lipa earned her first UK number-one song with "New Rules"; this increased to 126 in 2019. In May 2018, she was included on British Vogue's inaugural list of the 25 most influential British women of 2018 with Lipa being the youngest on the list at the age of 22. Its review said her 2017 song "New Rules" is an "anthem of female empowerment [that] laid out a blueprint for modern sex lives", and described her as being a "culture definer".
Lyndsey Havens from Billboard credited Lipa as being the protagonist in disco's revival in 2020 through her song "Don't Start Now" (2019). People called her "the Future of Pop" due to the success of her sophomore album, Future Nostalgia. She inspired the French photographer, Hugo Comte, in his first photo-book. She was included in Time's 100 Next list on future 100 world's most influential people by Australian singer Kylie Minogue who in her review called Lipa a "shining star". Mark Sutherland and Jem Aswad from Variety rated Lipa as being one of the most impactful women in the global entertainment industry.
Several wax figures of Dua Lipa are found at Madame Tussauds Wax Museums in major cities around the world.
== Achievements ==
Lipa has received several accolades throughout her career, including seven Brit Awards from nineteen nominations, three Grammy Awards from ten nominations, two MTV Video Music Award from twenty-three nominations, two MTV Europe Music Awards from sixteen nominations, two American Music Award from seven nominations, three iHeartRadio Music Award from nineteen nominations, nine Spotify 1 billion streams plaques, and one Bambi Award. Lipa has received two Guinness World Records; in 2020 for most tickets sold for a livestreamed concert by a solo female artist, and in 2021 for most monthly listeners on Spotify for a female artist, but without surpassing the all-time peak achieved by Ariana Grande the year prior. Dua Lipa won the Top Dance/Electronic Song award at the 2024 Billboard Music Awards for her track Houdini, which topped the Hot Dance/Electronic Songs chart for 17 weeks.
Time magazine included her in the Time 100 list of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2024. Billboard ranked Lipa at number 25 on its 2025 "Top 100 Women Artists of the 21st Century" list.
== Activism ==
=== Political views and advocacy ===
Lipa identifies as a feminist. She has spoken out against sexism within the music industry, using social media to raise awareness of women's problems. Lipa has advocated for social equality for the LGBT community. On 12 February 2018, she raised a rainbow flag while performing her song "Be the One" in a presentation at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles as part of The Self-Titled tour. On the 2018 Brit Awards red carpet she wore a white rose dress in support of Time's Up movement. Additionally, at the same event, she stated in her acceptance speech for an award her delight at having "women present in these stages" and more "women winning awards". She explained that her perception of feminism is not about misandry, but demanding the same opportunities. In September 2018, some fans were removed by security from a Lipa concert in the National Exhibition and Convention Center of Shanghai for allegedly waving rainbow flags, despite homosexuality being decriminalised in China in 1997. In response, Lipa said she was "proud" of and "grateful" to the people who showed their pride at the show.
In November 2018, Lipa expressed dissatisfaction over the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union due to Brexit because according to her personal experience "no refugee leaves their country without having to." In June 2019, she made public her support for the ongoing Sudanese transition to democracy on social media by sharing a blue image that showed the phrase "Stand with Sudan" where she detailed her rejection of the Khartoum massacre writing about all "women, men and children fighting for a peaceful transition to democracy". She said the event was an attempt to inflict "brutal murder and rape" by government forces on those who try to call for democracy, a "violation of the freedom rights" of Sudanese citizens for blocking their internet and a "violation of human rights". In December of the same year, Lipa endorsed the Labour Party led by Jeremy Corbyn in the 2019 United Kingdom general election, comparing the policies of both Labour and Conservatives on various issues on social media and affirming that it was "the most important election in a generation". She characterised Boris Johnson's victory in the election as a "total disaster" for the UK.
She participated in a short film for an initiative called Global Feminism, directed by Annie Lennox's The Circle in association with Apple Music and released on 7 March 2019 ahead of International Women's Day. The clip intended to raise awareness of misogyny, rape, and violence against women. In April 2019, she showed her support for LGBT rights in Brunei by calling for a boycott against the hotel interests of the Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah, after a penal code punishing homosexuality with death came into force in Brunei. During a Billboard Women in Music event, she used her Powerhouse Award acceptance speech to highlight that women "still have a lot to do for real equality" in which she also complained about the "lack of diversity" among the artists of the Billboard Hot 100 and asked for the continued encouragement to "all the young girls out there to be the powerhouses of the future."
Lipa was the headliner party host for the 2020 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras parade, and was part of the parade, before performing several songs. In July 2020, she signed an open letter to the UK government, being received by the then Minister for Women and Equalities, Liz Truss, to request the banning of conversion therapy.
Lipa is in favour of universal health care and wondered why people were not protesting about it. In addition, she said that in her country of birth, the United Kingdom, the National Health Service is considered a "right". In June 2020, Lipa shared an Instagram post that criticised the Israel Defense Forces' treatment of Palestinians and showed Israeli soldiers detaining Palestinian minors. The post also referred to "fake Jews in the Israeli government" and "fake Christians in the midwest [United States]" who it said had created Hamas for people to "believe that Hamas is the reason for the decades worth of occupation, oppression, ethnic cleansing, and murder." An Im Tirtzu petition signed by over three thousand people was sent to the Israeli Minister of Defense, Benny Gantz, and the Israeli Minister of Culture and Sport, Hili Tropper, demanding that Lipa's songs be banned from Israeli Army Radio and Galgalatz due to what Im Tirtzu said was "the incitement against IDF soldiers, the antisemitism, the blood libel, conspiracy theories and the blatant lies in the post" shared by Lipa. In response, the Army Radio said that "Galgalatz does not boycott any artist" and "the songs are chosen at the discretion of the editors of each segment."
In July 2020, Lipa supported a campaign called "Let the Music Play", in which she signed an open letter sent to the then-Culture Secretary, Oliver Dowden, calling for support from the government of the United Kingdom for the UK's live music industry's economic loss under the COVID-19 pandemic.
On 18 July 2020, Lipa shared a post on her Instagram story explaining "why Kosovo is not and will never be Serbia", urging followers to sign a petition which called for Apple to include Kosovo in its mapping services as an independent state. The next day, she published on her social media an image of a banner containing an irredentist map of Greater Albania that reflected parts of Albania, Kosovo, Serbia, Greece and North Macedonia as one nation, appended with the definition of the word "autochthonous". As the banner is commonly associated with extreme Albanian nationalism, she received a backlash on social media, where she was accused of ethnic nationalism and fascism. She later said that her post had been "misinterpreted" by people who promote ethnic separatism, an ideology that she "completely rejects".
In August, she urged her Instagram followers to vote against Donald Trump in the 2020 United States presidential election.
After endorsing and campaigning for U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders in the 2020 Democratic primaries, Lipa expressed support for Joe Biden to become the U.S. president at a virtual event aimed at Albanian Americans later that year during the general election season, arguing that the Kosovars "owed" support to Biden because he was against the massacre and ethnic cleansing of Albanians by having supported the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. In January 2021, she published a call to her Instagram followers to encourage Kosovo citizens to vote in the 2021 Kosovan parliamentary election.
In May 2021, after expressing solidarity for the death of Palestinian civilians due to the Israel–Palestine crisis, Lipa criticised The New York Times for publishing an advertisement characterising her, along with Bella and Gigi Hadid, as antisemitic.
In July 2021, through her Sunny Hill Foundation, Lipa joined an initiative that was launched by the Municipality of Tirana, called "Adopt a Kindergarten". The aim of the project was to reconstruct a kindergarten that was severely damaged by the 2019 Albania earthquake. She said, "The kindergarten will be very beautiful, and I am very proud that Sunny Hill Foundation is a part of it. Let's see better things for our country. I am very proud to be Albanian." The kindergarten was completed in October 2021 and was named "Sunny Hill Kindergarten".
Lipa has also continuously raised awareness to the detrimental consequences of the Taliban takeover of 2021 in Afghanistan through her social media and her lifestyle newsletter Service95.
In August 2022, Lipa was named an Honorary Ambassador of Kosovo by the President of Kosovo Vjosa Osmani. In response, Lipa wrote that it was an "honor and a privilege to be able to represent my country all over the world" and that she supports the right of Kosovans "to visa liberalization, freedom to travel and to dream big".
On 13 November 2022, Lipa dismissed reports that she was to perform at the opening ceremony of that year's FIFA World Cup, and denied ever being involved in any negotiation to perform, calling out the tournament's host country of Qatar for human rights violations.
In October 2023, Lipa signed an open letter for the "Artists4Ceasefire" campaign alongside 185 other artists, urging President Biden to push for a ceasefire and an end to the killing of civilians amid the 2023 Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip, and for a corridor into Gaza to be established for humanitarian aid.
=== Philanthropy ===
She and her father, Dukagjin, co-created the Sunny Hill Foundation in 2016 to raise funds to help people in Kosovo experiencing financial difficulties. In August 2018, Dua Lipa organised a festival to raise money for the foundation called the Sunny Hill Festival. The then-Mayor of Pristina, Shpend Ahmeti, awarded her the Pristina Key, the first time one had been awarded. Lipa went on to host the festival for the second year in 2019, with Miley Cyrus included as part of the performer line-up. In mid-November 2018, Lipa was part of a campaign organised by UNICEF called "Go Blue" in support of children's rights, on the occasion of World Children's Day (20 November). Her contribution consisted of a short video about dressing in blue or displaying the colour blue, with her in a studio re-recording the lyrics of her song "Be the One" (2015). She changed the word "red" to "blue" in the song for the occasion. In December 2018, Lipa participated in a benefit concert for the Ellie Goulding's "Streets of London" annual charity event at Wembley Arena, which "funds specialist support for people who are homeless in London and raises awareness about homelessness." In April 2019, she became a UNICEF supporter during a three-day visit to a camp for refugee children and youth in Beirut, Lebanon. The camp included many uprooted by the conflict in Syria who did not have "adequate" health care or education and Lipa also visited young Palestinians and Syrians in Bourj el-Barajneh refugee camp. She subsequently supported a campaign by her management company with a plan to raise £100,000 to help raise awareness of charities such as The Black Dog and CALM.
She asked for a better mental health care for artists in creative industries, as she was "shocked" to read that "suicide rates amongst women working in the arts are almost 70% higher than in the world population". Lipa described mental health as the "issue of our generation". On 26 November 2019, following the 2019 Albania earthquake, Lipa asked fans for donations and support for victims. To raise funds she co-released a limited edition line of t-shirts called "Pray for Albania" in collaboration with Albanian fashion designers. All of the proceeds went to families and victims affected by the seismic event. On 15 March 2020, she asked her fans to make donations to the UNHCR agency to deal with COVID-19 pandemic because refugees are "the most vulnerable on this planet" and they "often live in crowded places" with "limited health services". In the same month, she was part of a television special called "Home Fest" on The Late Late Show with James Corden From His Garage with the goal of raising money for CDC and Feed the Children where she performed her song, "Don't Start Now" (2019), from an apartment in London. On 16 May 2020, she did a live performance of her song "Break My Heart" (2020) on the television special Graduate Together: America Honors the High School Class of 2020 aimed at the high school students whose graduation ceremonies and proms were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. At the end of May 2020, she participated in a digital event called "Dream with Us" with the aim of raising funds, whose event consisted of a streaming concert at which a portion of proceeds would go to organisations which help fight COVID-19.
She took part in a charitable project operated by BBC Radio 1 for a cover version of "Times Like These" released on 23 April 2020 for the Live Lounge segment. She was part of the charity supergroup Live Lounge Allstars in which each member recorded and filmed their contribution to the song from their respective households to encourage social distancing in which profits from the single would primarily go to Children in Need and Comic Relief, as well as COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund. She used social media to encourage Lebanese citizens to donate blood to victims affected by the 2020 Beirut explosion. She donated 5,000 euros to the Theatre of Dodona so that the venue could have its own ticket system and website. She was part of an initiative organised by Belgian singer Angèle and KickCancer Foundation to fund research against childhood cancer, and it was about a charity raffle in which Lipa offered a manuscript of her song "Don't Start Now" (2019) as a prize. She performed at 2021 Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party virtually to benefit the AIDS Foundation to combat HIV disease, whose event raised US$3 million.
== Personal life ==
Lipa is occasionally affectionately referred to as 'Dula Peep' by fans, which originated as a mispronunciation by American talk show host Wendy Williams in 2018. Since then, she has positively embraced the nickname.
Lipa has described herself as an "honorary Liverpool supporter", after her song "One Kiss" was adopted by the football club's fans in the wake of her performance at the 2018 UEFA Champions League final, since becoming a club anthem after significant victories.
On 27 November 2022, Lipa was granted Albanian citizenship by President Bajram Begaj, one day before the country's 110th independence celebrations. On 31 July 2025, Lipa was granted Kosovar citizenship by President Vjosa Osmani. She speaks Albanian fluently, and has described her "dual identity" as her "strength".
Lipa started dating English chef Isaac Carew in 2015. They were together until early 2017; the pair got back together in January 2018 and split for the second time in June 2019. From July 2019 to December 2021, Lipa was in a relationship with American model Anwar Hadid. In 2023, she dated French film director Romain Gavras. Since January 2024, Lipa has been dating British actor Callum Turner. She formally announced their engagement during her July 2025 cover story with British Vogue, following a period of media rumours.
Lipa was included in the Sunday Times Rich List for 2024 with an estimated net worth of £90 million.
== Discography ==
Dua Lipa (2017)
Future Nostalgia (2020)
Radical Optimism (2024)
== Filmography ==
== Tours ==
Headlining
The Self-Titled Tour (2017–2018)
Future Nostalgia Tour (2022)
Radical Optimism Tour (2024–2025)
Promotional
2016 UK Tour (2016)
Hotter Than Hell Tour (2016)
US and Europe Tour (2017)
Opening act
Troye Sivan – Suburbia Tour (2016)
Bruno Mars – 24K Magic World Tour (2017–2018)
Coldplay – A Head Full of Dreams Tour (2017)
== See also ==
Albanian diaspora – People of Albanian descent living outside Albania
Disco revival – Return of disco popularity
List of mezzo-sopranos in non-classical music
List of most-followed Instagram accounts
List of most-streamed artists on Spotify
List of people from Pristina
List of YouTubers
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Vanderhoof, Erin (July–August 2021). "3 2 1 Dua". Vanity Fair. Vol. 730. Photographs by Venetia Scott. pp. 48–59.
== External links ==
Official website
Dua Lipa discography at Discogs
Dua Lipa at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capel,_Western_Australia | Capel, Western Australia | Capel is a town in the South West region of Western Australia, located 212 kilometres (132 mi) south of Perth and midway between Bunbury and Busselton. The town is located on the Capel River and is approximately 19 metres (62 ft) above sea level.
== History ==
The Capel area was originally inhabited by the Wardandi Noongar people.
Colonists visited the region early in the history of colonial Western Australia. The Capel River was visited by Frederick Ludlow in 1834, but it was not given an English name until the Bussell family settled in the area soon afterwards. The name honours Capel Carter Brockman (1839–1924), daughter of John Bussell (1803–1875), herself named after a Miss Capel Carter, a cousin of the Bussells in England with whom Bussell family members corresponded. In the 1830s a number of settlers followed the Bussells into the area, and both James Stirling and John Hutt, (the first two Governors of Western Australia) took up land in the region.
Plans to establish a townsite in the area were first mooted in 1844, but the site was not surveyed until the 1870s and lots were not sold until 1897. Initially the town was named Coolingnup, which is the Noongar name for the place; the name was changed to Capel in 1899.
== Climate ==
The climate is hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), at a certain distance from the headquarters, Forrest Beach has the warm-summer version as in Busselton or southern California (Csb), delimiting the northern limit of the second climatic zone on the Australian coast.
Capel has hot dry summers and cool wet winters. Daily temperatures range from 13 °C to 40 °C in summer, and from 5 °C to 27 °C in winter. Average annual rainfall is about 830 mm.
== Demographics ==
The population of the town was 91 (44 males and 47 females) in 1898. According to the 2016 census figures, the population of the Town of Capel was 2,509, and the population of the Shire of Capel was 17,123.
== Economy ==
Historically, Capel is a farming area; traditional agricultural pursuits include dairy and beef. In recent times, Capel has become popular for hobby farms, and a number of innovative agricultural pursuits have been introduced, including alpacas, viticulture, aquaculture and growing of blue gums. There is also some mining of mineral sands in the Shire, and tourism is increasingly important to the Shire's economy.
Westralian Sands was established in 1954 but commenced operations in 1959 when it started mining and processing the Yoganup deposit just north of the town. Another company, RGC, operated a mine to the south of the town. In 1998 both companies merged to form Iluka Resources which continues to operate ilmenite mines around the area and produce synthetic rutile at the processing facility to the north of the town along the Bussell Highway.
== References ==
== External links ==
Capel portal
South West portal |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Barker_Medal#:~:text=2020,Julie%20V.%20MacPherson | Geoffrey Barker Medal | The Geoffrey Barker Medal, first awarded in 1988, is given by the Royal Society of Chemistry to scientists working in the UK or Ireland in recognition of their contributions to electrochemistry. The winner is invited to give a plenary lecture at that year's Electrochem meeting.
== Laureates ==
Source: RSC
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_L._Carstensen | Laura L. Carstensen | Laura L. Carstensen is the Fairleigh S. Dickinson Jr. Professor in Public Policy and professor of psychology at Stanford University, where she is founding director of the Stanford Center on Longevity and the principal investigator for the Stanford Life-span Development Laboratory. Carstensen is best known in academia for socioemotional selectivity theory, which has illuminated developmental changes in social preferences, emotional experience and cognitive processing from early adulthood to advanced old age. By examining postulates of socioemotional selectivity theory, Carstensen and her colleagues (most notably Mara Mather) identified and developed the conceptual basis of the positivity effect.
== Biography ==
Carstensen was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and spent most of her childhood in Rochester, New York. She graduated from the University of Rochester in 1978 and earned her Ph.D. in psychology from West Virginia University in 1983. She served as assistant professor of psychology at Indiana University from 1983 to 1987, and then joined Stanford University's department of psychology in 1987. In addition to her role as professor of psychology, she served as the Barbara D. Finberg director of the Clayman Institute for Gender Research from 1997 to 2001 and chair of the psychology department from 2004 to 2006. With Thomas Rando, Carstensen founded the Stanford Center on Longevity in 2007, where she currently serves as its director.
Carstensen is considered a thought leader on longevity. Her essays and opinion pieces have appeared in the New York Times, Time Magazine, and The Boston Globe. Her TED talk has been viewed more than a million times. In 2011 she published A Long Bright Future: Happiness, Health and Financial Security in an Era of Increased Longevity.
== Selected awards and honors ==
Kleemeier Award, Gerontological Society of America (2014)
Distinguished Mentor Award, Gerontological Society of America (2014)
Master Mentorship Award, American Psychological Association (Division 20) (2010)
Guggenheim Fellow, Guggenheim Foundation (2003)
Kalish Innovative Publication Award, Gerontological Society of America (1993)
== Research contributions ==
=== Socioemotional selectivity theory ===
Carstensen originally formulated socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) in the early 1990s. SST is a life-span theory of motivation which posits that people prioritize emotionally meaningful goals when time horizons are constrained. According to SST, people with expansive time horizons are more likely to prioritize exploration and expanding horizons, seeking out new relationships that promise long-term benefits. In contrast, as time horizons grow limited people prioritize emotionally meaningful goals that are more likely to result in feelings of emotional satisfaction. Consequently, people with limited time horizons tend to have smaller, more carefully selected social networks and experience better emotional well-being.
=== Positivity effect ===
Carstensen is responsible for identifying and developing the conceptual basis for the positivity effect, an age-related trend in cognitive processing that favors positive over negative information in attention and memory. A meta-analysis of 100 empirical studies of the positivity effect found that this effect is larger in studies that include wider age comparisons and do not constrain cognitive processing.
=== Future time perspective scale ===
The future time perspective (FTP) scale was developed by Carstensen and Frieder Lang. The FTP scale includes ten items answered by indicating agreement on a 7-point Likert-type scale (from 1= very untrue, to 7 = very true). The last three items of the future time perspective scale (#s 8–10) are reverse coded. When scoring the measure, researchers calculate the participant's mean score. Prior research shows a linear relationship between chronological age and time horizons. The strength of the relationship varies as a function of the age range in the sample: nearly always, the relationship is positive, with high scores indicative of long time horizons.
== Selected publications ==
Carstensen, L. L.; Isaacowitz, D.; Charles, S. T. (1999). "Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity". American Psychologist. 54 (3): 165–181. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.165. PMID 10199217.
Lang, F. R.; Carstensen, L. L. (2002). "Time counts: Future time perspective, goals and social relationships". Psychology and Aging. 17 (1): 125–139. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.125. PMID 11931281.
Mather, M.; Carstensen, L. L. (2005). "Aging and motivated cognition: The positivity effect in attention and memory". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9 (10): 496–502. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.08.005. PMID 16154382. S2CID 17433910.
Carstensen, L. L. (2006). "The influence of a sense of time on human development". Science. 312 (5782): 1913–1915. Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1913C. doi:10.1126/science.1127488. PMC 2790864. PMID 16809530.
Carstensen, L. L.; Turan, B.; Scheibe, S.; Ram, N.; Ersner-Hershfield, H.; Samanez-Larkin, G.; Brooks, K.; Nesselroad, J. R. (2011). "Emotional experience improves with age: Evidence based on over 10 years of experience sampling". Psychology and Aging. 26 (1): 21–33. doi:10.1037/a0021285. PMC 3217179. PMID 20973600.
== See also ==
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Positivity effect
== References ==
== External links ==
Stanford Life-span Development Lab
Stanford Center on Longevity
Older people are happier, a TED talk
Future Time Perspective scale & List of Publications |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford#Freemasonry | Gerald Ford | Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was the 38th president of the United States from 1974 to 1977. A member of the Republican Party, Ford assumed the presidency after the resignation of Richard Nixon, under whom he had served as the 40th vice president from 1973 to 1974 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew. Prior to that, he served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1949 to 1973.
Ford was born in Omaha, Nebraska, and raised in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He attended the University of Michigan, where he played for the university football team, before eventually attending Yale Law School. Afterward, he served in the U.S. Naval Reserve from 1942 to 1946. Ford began his political career in 1949 as the U.S. representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district, serving in this capacity for nearly 25 years, the final nine of them as the House minority leader. In December 1973, two months after the resignation of Vice President Agnew, Ford became the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment. After President Nixon resigned in August 1974, Ford immediately assumed the presidency.
Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation and a recession. In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a presidential pardon to Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. Foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president. Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, which marked a move toward détente in the Cold War. With the collapse of South Vietnam eight months into his presidency, U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War essentially ended. In the 1976 Republican presidential primary, he narrowly defeated Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination, but narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic candidate, Jimmy Carter. Ford remains the only person to serve as president without winning an election for president or vice president.
Following his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party, but his moderate views on various social issues increasingly put him at odds with conservative members of the party in the 1990s and early 2000s. He also set aside the enmity he had felt towards Carter following the 1976 election and the two former presidents developed a close friendship. After experiencing a series of health problems, he died in Rancho Mirage, California, in 2006. Surveys of historians and political scientists have ranked Ford as a below-average president, though retrospective public polls on his time in office were more positive.
== Early life ==
Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. He was the only child of Dorothy Ayer Gardner and Leslie Lynch King Sr., a wool trader. His paternal grandfather was banker and businessman Charles Henry King, and his maternal grandfather was Illinois politician and businessman Levi Addison Gardner. Ford's parents separated just sixteen days after his birth and his mother took the infant Ford with her to Oak Park, Illinois, where her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law Clarence Haskins James lived at 410 N. Humphrey Ave. From there, she moved to the home of her parents in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Gardner and King divorced in December 1913, and she gained full custody of their son. Ford's paternal grandfather paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930.
Ford later said that his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. In a biography of Ford, James M. Cannon wrote that the separation and divorce of Ford's parents was sparked when, a few days after Ford's birth, Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife, infant son, and Ford's nursemaid. Ford later told confidants that his father had first hit his mother when she had smiled at another man during their honeymoon.
After living with her parents for two and a half years, on February 1, 1917, Gardner married Gerald Rudolff Ford, a salesman in a family-owned paint and varnish company. Though never formally adopted, her young son was referred to as Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr. from then on; the name change, including the anglicized spelling "Rudolph", was formalized on December 3, 1935. He was raised in what is now East Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mother's second marriage: Thomas Gardner "Tom" Ford (1918–1995), Richard Addison "Dick" Ford (1924–2015), and James Francis "Jim" Ford (1927–2001).
Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America, and earned that program's highest rank, Eagle Scout in August 1927. He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency. Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School, where he was a star athlete and captain of the football team. In 1930, he was selected to the All-City team of the Grand Rapids City League. He also attracted the attention of college recruiters.
== College and law school ==
Ford attended the University of Michigan, where he played center and linebacker for the school's football team and helped the Wolverines to two undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933. In his senior year of 1934, the team suffered a steep decline and won only one game, but Ford was still the team's star player. In one of those games, Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota—the eventual national champion—to a scoreless tie in the first half. After the game, assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan said, "When I walked into the dressing room at halftime, I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them. Ford and [Cedric] Sweet played their hearts out. They were everywhere on defense." Ford later recalled, "During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics, I often thought of the experiences before, during, and after that game in 1934. Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation, take action, and make every effort possible despite adverse odds." His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player, with one assistant coach noting, "They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause."
During Ford's senior year, a controversy developed when Georgia Tech said that it would not play a scheduled game with Michigan if a Black player named Willis Ward took the field. Students, players and alumni protested, but university officials capitulated and kept Ward out of the game. Ford was Ward's best friend on the team, and they roomed together while on road trips. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision, but he eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play.
In 1934, Ford was selected for the Eastern Team in the Shriners' East–West Shrine Game at San Francisco (a benefit for physically disabled children), played on January 1, 1935. As part of the 1935 Collegiate All-Star football team, Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All-Star Game at Soldier Field. In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career, the University of Michigan retired Ford's No. 48 jersey in 1994. With the blessing of the Ford family, it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13.
Throughout life, Ford remained interested in his school and football; he occasionally attended games. Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices; at one point, he asked to join the players in the huddle. Before state events, Ford often had the Navy band play the University of Michigan fight song, "The Victors," instead of "Hail to the Chief."
Ford graduated from Michigan in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. He turned down offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League. Instead, he took a job in September 1935 as the boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University and applied to its law school.
Ford hoped to attend Yale Law School beginning in 1935. Yale officials at first denied his admission to the law school because of his full-time coaching responsibilities. In 1936, Ford worked as a seasonal park ranger at Yellowstone National Park's Canyon Station. He then spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School. That year he was also promoted to the position of junior varsity head football coach at Yale. While at Yale, Ford began working as a model. He initially worked with the John Robert Powers agency before investing in the Harry Conover agency, with whom he modelled until 1941.
While attending Yale Law School, Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr., and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act. The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee, a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II. His introduction into politics was in the summer of 1940 when he worked for the Republican presidential campaign of Wendell Willkie.
Ford graduated in the top third of his class in 1941, and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter. In May 1941, he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend, Philip W. Buchen.
== U.S. Naval Reserve ==
Following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, Ford enlisted in the Navy. He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13, 1942. On April 20, he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis, Maryland. After one month of training, he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills, ordnance, gunnery, first aid, and military drill. In addition, he coached all nine sports that were offered, but mostly swimming, boxing, and football. During the year he was at the Preflight School, he was promoted to Lieutenant, Junior Grade, on June 2, 1942, and to lieutenant, in March 1943.
=== Sea duty ===
After Ford applied for sea duty, he was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey (CVL-26), at New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey. From the ship's commissioning on June 17, 1943, until the end of December 1944, Ford served as the assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey. While he was on board, the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944. In 1943, the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts, and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng, Papua New Guinea in 1943. During the spring of 1944, the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas, Western Carolines, and northern New Guinea, as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After an overhaul, from September to November 1944, aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island, participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus, and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro.
Although the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces, the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by Typhoon Cobra that hit Admiral William Halsey Jr.'s Third Fleet on December 18–19, 1944. The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon. The Monterey was damaged by a fire, which was started by several of the ship's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck. Ford was serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck and was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart H. Ingersoll. The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again.
After the fire, the Monterey was declared unfit for service. Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre-Flight School at Saint Mary's College of California, where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945. From the end of April 1945 to January 1946, he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command, Naval Air Station, Glenview, Illinois, at the rank of lieutenant commander.
Ford received the following military awards: the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with nine 3⁄16" bronze stars (for operations in the Gilbert Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Marshall Islands, Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids, Hollandia, Marianas, Western Carolines, Western New Guinea, and the Leyte Operation), the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3⁄16" bronze stars (for Leyte and Mindoro), and the World War II Victory Medal. He was honorably discharged in February 1946.
== U.S. House of Representatives (1949–1973) ==
After Ford returned to Grand Rapids in 1946, he became active in local Republican politics, and supporters urged him to challenge Bartel J. Jonkman, the incumbent Republican congressman. Military service had changed his view of the world. "I came back a converted internationalist", Ford wrote, "and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed, dedicated isolationist. And I thought he ought to be replaced. Nobody thought I could win. I ended up winning two to one."
During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked. Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.
Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding Michigan's 5th congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in The New York Times described him, Ford "saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career." Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee. Ford described his philosophy as "a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy." He voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a "Congressman's Congressman".
In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the U.S. Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become Speaker of the House, which he called "the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be the head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind ... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives".
=== Warren Commission ===
On November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission, a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of accused assassin Lee Harvey Oswald. He and Earl Warren also interviewed Jack Ruby, Oswald's killer. According to a 1963 FBI memo that was released to the public in 2008, Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director, Cartha DeLoach, about the panel's activities. In the preface to his book, A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission, Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions.
=== House Minority Leader (1965–1973) ===
In 1964, Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party, secured another term as president and took 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives. Following the election, members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new minority leader. Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve; after consulting with his family, he agreed. After a closely contested election, Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as minority leader. The members of the Republican caucus that encouraged and eventually endorsed Ford to run as the House minority leader were later known as the "Young Turks". One of the members of the Young Turks was congressman Donald H. Rumsfeld from Illinois's 13th congressional district, who later on would serve in Ford's administration as the chief of staff and secretary of defense.
With a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the "Great Society". During the first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.
In 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the 1966 midterm elections produced a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans. This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House, but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs.
Ford's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public knowledge after he spoke from the floor of the House and questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion. The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of having played "too much football without a helmet".
As minority leader in the House, Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen, in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson's policies. Many in the press jokingly called this "The Ev and Jerry Show." Johnson said at the time, "Jerry Ford is so dumb he can't fart and chew gum at the same time." The press, used to sanitizing Johnson's salty language, reported this as "Gerald Ford can't walk and chew gum at the same time."
After Richard Nixon was elected president in November 1968, Ford's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda. Congress passed several of Nixon's proposals, including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969. Another high-profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act. Passed in 1972, the act established a revenue sharing program for state and local governments. Ford's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress, and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor (compared with 185 against).
During the eight years from 1965 to 1973 that Ford served as minority leader, he received many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality.
== Vice presidency (1973–1974) ==
For the past decade, Ford had been unsuccessfully working to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber so that he could become House Speaker. He promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976. However, on October 10, 1973, Spiro Agnew resigned from the vice presidency. According to The New York Times, Nixon "sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement." The advice was unanimous. House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later, "We gave Nixon no choice but Ford." Ford agreed to the nomination, telling his wife that the vice presidency would be "a nice conclusion" to his career. Ford was nominated to take Agnew's position on October 12, the first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented. The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27. On December 6, the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35. After the confirmation vote in the House, Ford took the oath of office as vice president.
Ford became vice president as the Watergate scandal was unfolding. On August 1, 1974, Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him to prepare for the presidency. At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president's residence in Washington, D.C. However, "Al Haig asked to come over and see me", Ford later said, "to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.' And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house.'"
== Presidency (1974–1977) ==
=== Swearing-in ===
When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford automatically assumed the presidency, taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House. This made him the only person to become the nation's chief executive without being elected to the presidency or the vice presidency. Immediately afterward, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech that was broadcast live to the nation, noting the peculiarity of his position. He later declared that "our long national nightmare is over".
=== Nominating Rockefeller ===
On August 20, Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated. Rockefeller's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush. Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, such as Henry Kissinger. Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both the House and Senate. Some, including Barry Goldwater, voted against him.
=== Pardon of Nixon ===
On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311, which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."
Ford's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a "corrupt bargain" had been struck between the two men, in which Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon. According to Bob Woodward, Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared. Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the 1976 presidential election, an observation with which Ford agreed. In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence". On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting president since Abraham Lincoln to testify before the House of Representatives.
In the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as "my predecessor" or "the former president." When Ford was pressed on the matter on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent Fred Barnes recalled that he replied "I just can't bring myself to do it."
After Ford left the White House in January 1977, he privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States, a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt. In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon. In presenting the award to Ford, Senator Edward Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon, but later decided that history had proven Ford to have made the correct decision.
=== Draft dodgers and deserters ===
On September 16 (shortly after he pardoned Nixon), Ford issued Presidential Proclamation 4313, which introduced a conditional amnesty program for military deserters and Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada. The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of two years service for those who had served less than two years of honorable service in the military. The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a presidential pardon and a change in military discharge status. Full pardon for draft dodgers came in the Carter administration.
=== Administration ===
When Ford assumed office, he inherited Nixon's Cabinet. During his brief administration, he replaced all members except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon. Political commentators have referred to Ford's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 as the "Halloween Massacre". One of Ford's appointees, William Coleman—the Secretary of Transportation—was the second Black man to serve in a presidential cabinet (after Robert C. Weaver) and the first appointed in a Republican administration.
Ford selected George H. W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975.
Ford's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld. In 1975, Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest-ever Secretary of Defense. Ford chose a young Wyoming politician, Richard Cheney, to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff; Cheney became the campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign.
=== Midterm elections ===
The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place in the wake of the Watergate scandal and less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections, taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats. This was one more than the number needed (290) for a two-thirds majority, the number necessary to override a presidential veto or to propose a constitutional amendment. Perhaps due in part to this fact, the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson was President of the United States (1865–1869). Even Ford's former, reliably Republican House seat was won by a Democrat, Richard Vander Veen, who defeated Robert VanderLaan. In the Senate elections, the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100-seat body.
=== Domestic policy ===
==== Inflation ====
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. One of the first acts the new president took to deal with the economy was to create, by Executive Order on September 30, 1974, the Economic Policy Board. In October 1974, in response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public and asked them to "Whip Inflation Now". As part of this program, he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons. At the time, inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy, more so than growing unemployment; there was a belief that controlling inflation would help reduce unemployment. To rein in inflation, it was necessary to control the public's spending. To try to mesh service and sacrifice, "WIN" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption. On October 4, 1974, Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress; as a part of this speech he kicked off the "WIN" campaign. Over the next nine days, 101,240 Americans mailed in "WIN" pledges. In hindsight, this was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick which had no way of solving the underlying problems. The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one-year, five-percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals. This plan would also take $4.4 billion out of the budget, bringing federal spending below $300 billion. At the time, inflation was over twelve percent.
==== Budget ====
The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was president. Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting, Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" according to the official White House press release for the bill signing.
The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier. The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment, which reached nine percent in May 1975. In January 1975, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation. Ford was criticized for abruptly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction. In Congress, the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $22.8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts. In March 1975, Congress passed, and Ford signed into law, these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975. This resulted in a federal deficit of around $53 billion for the 1975 fiscal year and $73.7 billion for 1976.
When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975, Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford's support for a federal bailout. The incident prompted the New York Daily News' famous headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead", referring to a speech in which "Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for 'a federal bail-out of New York City'".
==== Swine flu ====
Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized; health officials announced that "swine flu" was the cause. Soon after, public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated. Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, some 25% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976. Ford and his family were publicly vaccinated before cameras in October, shortly before he lost the presidential election to Jimmy Carter.
==== Equal rights and abortion ====
Ford was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, issuing Presidential Proclamation no. 4383 in 1975:
In this Land of the Free, it is right, and by nature it ought to be, that all men and all women are equal before the law.
Now, therefore, I, Gerald R. Ford, President of the United States of America, to remind all Americans that it is fitting and just to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment adopted by the Congress of the United States of America, in order to secure legal equality for all women and men, do hereby designate and proclaim August 26, 1975, as Women's Equality Day.
As president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported "a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice". This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade, which he opposed. Ford came under criticism when First Lady Betty Ford entered the debate over abortion during an August 1975 interview for 60 Minutes, in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a "great, great decision". During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice.
=== Foreign policy ===
Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the Nixon administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT). The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon's visit to China was reinforced by Ford's own visit in December 1975. The Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords with the Soviet Union in 1975, creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch, an independent non-governmental organization created to monitor compliance which later evolved into Human Rights Watch.
Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the Group of Seven (G7) industrialized nations (initially the G5) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada. Ford supported international solutions to issues. "We live in an interdependent world and, therefore, must work together to resolve common economic problems," he said in a 1974 speech.
In November 1975, Ford adopted the global human population control recommendations of National Security Study Memorandum 200 – a national security directive initially commissioned by Nixon – as United States policy in the subsequent NSDM 314. The plan explicitly states the goal was population control and not improving the lives of individuals despite instructing organizers to "emphasize development and improvements in the quality of life of the poor", later explaining the projects were "primarily for other reasons". Upon approving the plan, Ford stated "United States leadership is essential to combat population growth, to implement the World Population Plan of Action and to advance United States security and overseas interests". Population control policies were adopted to protect American economic and military interests, with the memorandum arguing that population growth in developing countries resulted with such nations gaining global political power, that more citizens posed a risk to accessing foreign natural resources while also making American businesses vulnerable to governments seeking to fund a growing population, and that younger generations born would be prone to anti-establishment behavior, increasing political instability.
==== Indonesia and East Timor ====
As South Vietnam collapsed, an anti-communist Indonesia was seen as essential by the United States. Good relations with the Indonesian government were considered more important than the decolonization process in East Timor. The Ford administration gave the Suharto regime in Indonesia economic and military support, even as it invaded East Timor and committed a genocide that killed close to a third of the population. One day prior to the invasion, Ford and Kissinger met with Suharto, and they assured him that relations with Indonesia would remain strong regardless of Indonesia's actions and that it would not object to the annexation of East Timor.
==== Middle East ====
In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises. The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July 1974, causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. In mid-August, the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford, concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front, vetoed the bill. A second bill was then passed by Congress, which Ford also vetoed, fearing that it might impede negotiations in Cyprus, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until December 10, 1974, provided Turkey would not send American supplies to Cyprus. U.S. military aid to Turkey was suspended on February 5, 1975.
In the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict, although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress. Ford considered it "stalling" and wrote, "Their [Israeli] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell." During Kissinger's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975, a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal, prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, which included:
I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of the negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations. I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region, including our relations with Israel, with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected. You will be notified of our decision.
On March 24, Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of the administration's policies in the Middle East. In practical terms, "reassessment" meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel. For six months between March and September 1975, the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel. Rabin notes it was "an innocent-sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American-Israeli relations". The announced reassessments upset the American Jewish community and Israel's well-wishers in Congress. On May 21, Ford "experienced a real shock" when seventy-six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be "responsive" to Israel's request for $2.59 billion (equivalent to $15.13 billion in 2024) in military and economic aid. Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized. It was, since the September 1974 ban on arms sales to Turkey, the second major congressional intrusion upon the President's foreign policy prerogatives. The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli "war of nerves" or "test of wills". After much bargaining, the Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II) was formally signed on September 1, and aid resumed.
==== Vietnam ====
One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease-fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American prisoners of war. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.
The agreements were negotiated by US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese Politburo member Lê Đức Thọ. South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in the final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement. However, anti-war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords.
In December 1974, months after Ford took office, North Vietnamese forces invaded the province of Phuoc Long. General Trần Văn Trà sought to gauge any South Vietnamese or American response to the invasion, as well as to solve logistical issues, before proceeding with the invasion.
As North Vietnamese forces advanced, Ford requested Congress approve a $722 million aid package for South Vietnam (equivalent to $4.22 billion in 2024), funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration. Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin. Senator Jacob K. Javits offered "...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid". President Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country. Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave a speech at Tulane University. In that speech, he announced that the Vietnam War was over "...as far as America is concerned". The announcement was met with thunderous applause.
1,373 U.S. citizens and 5,595 Vietnamese and third-country nationals were evacuated from the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon during Operation Frequent Wind. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act. The 1975 Act appropriated $455 million (equivalent to $2.66 billion in 2024) toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees. In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in the years that followed.
==== Mayaguez incident ====
North Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters. The main crisis was the Mayaguez incident. In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia, Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters. Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the Mayaguez sailors were being released. In the operation, two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down, and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded, while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed. Despite the American losses, the operation was seen as a success in the United States, and Ford enjoyed an 11-point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath. The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall in Washington, D.C.
Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot. But work by Andrew Gawthorpe, published in 2009, based on an analysis of the administration's internal discussions, shows that Ford's national security team understood that the seizure of the vessel was a local, and perhaps even accidental, provocation by an immature Khmer government. Nevertheless, they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia.
=== Assassination attempts ===
Ford was the target of two assassination attempts during his presidency. In Sacramento, California, on September 5, 1975, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, a follower of Charles Manson, pointed a Colt .45-caliber handgun at Ford and pulled the trigger at point-blank range. As she did, Larry Buendorf, a Secret Service agent, grabbed the gun, and Fromme was taken into custody. She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison; she was paroled on August 14, 2009, after serving 34 years.
In reaction to this attempt, the Secret Service began keeping Ford at a more secure distance from anonymous crowds, a strategy that may have saved his life seventeen days later. As he left the St. Francis Hotel in downtown San Francisco, Sara Jane Moore, standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street, fired a .38-caliber revolver at him. The shot missed Ford by a few feet. Before she fired a second round, retired Marine Oliver Sipple grabbed at the gun and deflected her shot; the bullet struck a wall about six inches above and to the right of Ford's head, then ricocheted and hit a taxi driver, who was slightly wounded. Moore was later sentenced to life in prison. She was paroled on December 31, 2007, after serving 32 years.
=== Judicial appointments ===
==== Supreme Court ====
In 1975, Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas. Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, appointed by President Nixon. During his tenure as House Republican leader, Ford had led efforts to have Douglas impeached. After being confirmed, Stevens eventually disappointed some conservatives by siding with the Court's liberal wing regarding the outcome of many key issues. Nevertheless, in 2005 Ford praised Stevens. "He has served his nation well," Ford said of Stevens, "with dignity, intellect and without partisan political concerns."
==== Other judicial appointments ====
Ford appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts.
=== 1976 presidential campaign ===
Ford reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976, but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination. Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam, for signing the Helsinki Accords, and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal. (Negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter, who eventually signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.) Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries, including North Carolina, Texas, Indiana, and California, but failed to get a majority of delegates; Reagan withdrew from the race at the Republican Convention in Kansas City, Missouri. The conservative insurgency did lead to Ford dropping the more liberal Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in favor of U.S. senator Bob Dole of Kansas.
In addition to the pardon dispute and lingering anti-Republican sentiment, Ford had to counter a plethora of negative media imagery. Chevy Chase often did pratfalls on Saturday Night Live, imitating Ford, who had been seen stumbling on two occasions during his term. As Chase commented, "He even mentioned in his own autobiography it had an effect over a period of time that affected the election to some degree."
Ford's 1976 election campaign benefitted from his being an incumbent president during several anniversary events held during the period leading up to the United States Bicentennial. The Washington, D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was presided over by the President and televised nationally. On July 7, 1976, the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom, which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service network. The 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts gave Ford the opportunity to deliver a speech to 110,000 in Concord acknowledging the need for a strong national defense tempered with a plea for "reconciliation, not recrimination" and "reconstruction, not rancor" between the United States and those who would pose "threats to peace". Speaking in New Hampshire on the previous day, Ford condemned the growing trend toward big government bureaucracy and argued for a return to "basic American virtues".
Televised presidential debates were reintroduced for the first time since the 1960 election. As such, Ford became the first incumbent president to participate in one. Carter later attributed his victory in the election to the debates, saying they "gave the viewers reason to think that Jimmy Carter had something to offer". The turning point came in the second debate when Ford blundered by stating, "There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford Administration." Ford also said that he did not "believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union". In an interview years later, Ford said he had intended to imply that the Soviets would never crush the spirits of eastern Europeans seeking independence. However, the phrasing was so awkward that questioner Max Frankel was visibly incredulous at the response.
In the end, Carter won the election, receiving 50.1% of the popular vote and 297 electoral votes compared with 48.0% and 240 electoral votes for Ford.
== Post-presidency (1977–2006) ==
The Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided. Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing president, saying, "For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land."
After leaving the White House, the Fords moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children.
He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986. Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former president's advance obituary, an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication. In 1979, Ford published his autobiography, A Time to Heal (Harper/Reader's Digest, 454 pages). A review in Foreign Affairs described it as, "Serene, unruffled, unpretentious, like the author. This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs, but there are no surprises, no deep probings of motives or events. No more here than meets the eye."
During the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el-Sadat in 1981. Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, visited the Fords' home frequently. Ford and Carter served as honorary co-chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the Continuity of Government Commission in 2002.
Like Presidents Carter, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton, Ford was an honorary co-chair of the Council for Excellence in Government, a group dedicated to excellence in government performance, which provides leadership training to top federal employees. He also devoted much time to his love of golf, often playing both privately and in public events with comedian Bob Hope, a longtime friend. In 1977, he shot a hole in one during a Pro-am held in conjunction with the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic at Colonial Country Club in Memphis, Tennessee.
In 1977, Ford established the Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy at Albion College in Albion, Michigan, to give undergraduates training in public policy. In April 1981, he opened the Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on the north campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan, followed in September by the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids.
Ford considered a run for the Republican nomination in 1980, forgoing numerous opportunities to serve on corporate boards to keep his options open for a rematch with Carter. Ford attacked Carter's conduct of the SALT II negotiations and foreign policy in the Middle East and Africa. Many have argued that Ford also wanted to exorcise his image as an "Accidental President" and to win a term in his own right. Ford also believed the more conservative Ronald Reagan would be unable to defeat Carter and would hand the incumbent a second term. Ford was encouraged by his former Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, as well as Jim Rhodes of Ohio and Bill Clements of Texas to make the race. On March 15, 1980, Ford announced that he would forgo a run for the Republican nomination, vowing to support the eventual nominee.
After securing the Republican nomination in 1980, Ronald Reagan considered his former rival Ford as a potential vice-presidential running mate, but negotiations between the Reagan and Ford camps at the Republican National Convention were unsuccessful. Ford conditioned his acceptance on Reagan's agreement to an unprecedented "co-presidency", giving Ford the power to control key executive branch appointments (such as Kissinger as Secretary of State and Alan Greenspan as Treasury Secretary). After rejecting these terms, Reagan offered the vice-presidential nomination instead to George H. W. Bush. Ford did appear in a campaign commercial for the Reagan-Bush ticket, in which he declared that the country would be "better served by a Reagan presidency rather than a continuation of the weak and politically expedient policies of Jimmy Carter". On October 8, 1980, Ford said former President Nixon's involvement in the general election potentially could negatively impact the Reagan campaign: "I think it would have been much more helpful if Mr. Nixon had stayed in the background during this campaign. It would have been much more beneficial to Ronald Reagan."
On October 3, 1980, Ford cast blame on Carter for the latter's charges of ineffectiveness on the part of the Federal Reserve Board due to his appointing of most of its members: "President Carter, when the going gets tough, will do anything to save his own political skin. This latest action by the president is cowardly."
Following the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan, Ford told reporters while appearing at a fundraiser for Thomas Kean that criminals who use firearms should get the death penalty in the event someone is injured with the weapon.
In September 1981, Ford advised Reagan against succumbing to Wall Street demands and follow his own agenda for the economic policies of the US during an appearance on Good Morning America: "He shouldn't let the gurus of Wall Street decide what the economic future of this country is going to be. They are wrong in my opinion." During a news conference on October 20, 1981, Ford stated that stopping the Reagan administration's Saudi arms package could have a large negative impact to American relations in the Middle East.
On March 24, 1982, Ford offered an endorsement of President Reagan's economic policies while also stating the possibility of Reagan being met with a stalemate by Congress if not willing to compromise while in Washington.
Ford founded the annual AEI World Forum in 1982, and joined the American Enterprise Institute as a distinguished fellow. He was also awarded an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University on March 23, 1988.
During an August 1982 fundraising reception, Ford stated his opposition to a constitutional amendment requiring the US to have a balanced budget, citing a need to elect "members of the House and Senate who will immediately when Congress convenes act more responsibly in fiscal matters." Ford was a participant in the 1982 midterm elections, traveling to Tennessee in October of that year to help Republican candidates.
In January 1984, a letter signed by Ford and Carter and urging world leaders to extend their failed effort to end world hunger was released and sent to Secretary-General of the United Nations Javier Pérez de Cuéllar.
In 1987, Ford testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee in favor of District of Columbia Circuit Court judge and former Solicitor General Robert Bork after Bork was nominated by President Reagan to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Bork's nomination was rejected by a vote of 58–42.
In 1987, Ford's Humor and the Presidency, a book of humorous political anecdotes, was published.
By 1988, Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit, Nova Pharmaceutical, The Pullman Company, Tesoro Petroleum, and Tiger International, Inc. Ford also became an honorary director of Citigroup, a position he held until his death.
In October 1990, Ford appeared in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania with Bob Hope to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the birth of former president Dwight D. Eisenhower, where the two unveiled a plaque with the signatures of each living former president.
In April 1991, Ford joined former presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and Jimmy Carter, in supporting the Brady Bill. Three years later, he wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives, along with Carter and Reagan, in support of the assault weapons ban.
At the 1992 Republican National Convention, Ford compared the election cycle to his 1976 loss to Carter and urged attention be paid to electing a Republican Congress: "If it's change you want on Nov. 3, my friends, the place to start is not at the White House but in the United States' Capitol. Congress, as every school child knows, has the power of the purse. For nearly 40 years, Democratic majorities have held to the time-tested New Deal formula, tax and tax, spend and spend, elect and elect." (The Republicans would later win both Houses of Congress at the 1994 mid-term elections.)
In April 1997, Ford joined President Bill Clinton, former president Bush, and Nancy Reagan in signing the "Summit Declaration of Commitment" in advocating for participation by private citizens in solving domestic issues within the United States.
On January 20, 1998, during an interview at his Palm Springs home, Ford said the Republican Party's nominee in the 2000 presidential election would lose if the party turned ultra-conservative in their ideals: "If we get way over on the hard right of the political spectrum, we will not elect a Republican President. I worry about the party going down this ultra-conservative line. We ought to learn from the Democrats: when they were running ultra-liberal candidates, they didn't win."
In the prelude to the impeachment of President Clinton, Ford conferred with former president Carter and the two agreed to not speak publicly on the controversy, a pact broken by Carter when answering a question from a student at Emory University.
In October 2001, Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican Party by stating that gay and lesbian couples "ought to be treated equally. Period." He became the highest-ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians, stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti-gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters. He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition, which The New York Times described as "a group of prominent Republicans, including former President Gerald R. Ford, dedicated to making sexual orientation a non-issue in the Republican Party".
On November 22, 2004, New York Republican governor George Pataki named Ford and the other living former presidents (Carter, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center.
In a pre-recorded embargoed interview with Bob Woodward of The Washington Post in July 2004, Ford stated that he disagreed "very strongly" with the Bush administration's choice of Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction as justification for its decision to invade Iraq, calling it a "big mistake" unrelated to the national security of the United States and indicating that he would not have gone to war had he been president. The details of the interview were not released until after Ford's death, as he requested.
=== Health issues ===
On April 4, 1990, Ford was admitted to Eisenhower Medical Center for surgery to replace his left knee, orthopedic surgeon Robert Murphy saying, "Ford's entire left knee was replaced with an artificial joint, including portions of the adjacent femur, or thigh bone, and tibia, or leg bone."
Ford suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital. In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage, California, for treatment of pneumonia. On April 23, 2006, President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour. This was Ford's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos, video footage, and voice recording.
While vacationing in Vail, Colorado, Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath. On August 15 he was admitted to St. Mary's Hospital of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, for testing and evaluation. On August 21, it was reported that he had been fitted with a pacemaker. On August 25, he underwent an angioplasty procedure at the Mayo Clinic. On August 28, Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home. On October 13, he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake, the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan, but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend. The previous day, Ford had entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests; he was released on October 16. By November 2006, he was confined to a bed in his study.
== Death and funeral ==
Ford died on December 26, 2006, at his home in Rancho Mirage, California, of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis. He had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves. At the time of his death, Ford was the longest-lived U.S. president, having lived 93 years and 165 days (45 days longer than Ronald Reagan, whose record he surpassed). He died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry S. Truman's death; he was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission.
On December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. president to lie in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol. A state funeral and memorial services were held at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., on Tuesday, January 2, 2007. After the service, Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Ford's family asked for Scouts to participate in his funeral. A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral. About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession, where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum.
One of the songs selected by Ford during the procession was the University of Michigan fight song, as it was a favorite of his that he preferred to be played during his presidency. After his death in December 2006, the University of Michigan Marching Band played the school's fight song for him one final time, for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection, replacing Zachariah Chandler. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011, in the Capitol Rotunda.
== Personal life ==
=== Family ===
Speaking of his stepfather and his mother, Ford said, "My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful. So I couldn't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing."
Ford had three younger half-siblings from the second marriage of his biological father, Leslie King Sr., to Marjorie King (1921–1993); Leslie Henry King (1923–1976); and Patricia Jane King (1925–1980). They never saw one another as children, and he did not know them at all until 1960. Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17, when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth. That year, his biological father, whom Ford described as a "carefree, well-to-do man who didn't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son,” approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant. The two "maintained a sporadic contact" until Leslie King Sr.'s death in 1941.
On October 15, 1948, Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer (1918–2011) at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids.
Bloomer, who was originally from Grand Rapids herself, had been living in New York City for several years, where she had been working as a John Robert Powers fashion model, and as a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company. At the time of their engagement, Ford was campaigning for what would be the first of his 13 terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives. They delayed their wedding until shortly before the election because, as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford, "Jerry Ford was running for Congress and wasn't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced exdancer."
The couple had four children: Michael Gerald, born in 1950; John Gardner (known as Jack), born in 1952; Steven Meigs, born in 1956; and Susan Elizabeth, born in 1957.
=== Civic and fraternal organizations ===
Ford was a member of several civic and fraternal organizations, including the Junior Chamber of Commerce (Jaycees), American Legion, AMVETS, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Sons of the Revolution, Veterans of Foreign Wars, and was an alumnus of Delta Kappa Epsilon at Michigan.
==== Freemasonry ====
Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30, 1949. He later said in 1975, "When I took my obligation as a master mason—incidentally, with my three younger brothers—I recalled the value my own father attached to that order. But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States." Ford was made a 33° Scottish Rite Mason on September 26, 1962. In April 1975, Ford was elected by a unanimous vote Honorary Grand Master of the International Supreme Council, Order of DeMolay, a position in which he served until January 1977. Ford received the degrees of York Rite Masonry (Chapter and Council degrees) in a special ceremony in the Oval Office on January 11, 1977, during his term as President of the United States.
Ford was also a member of the Shriners and the Royal Order of Jesters; both being affiliated bodies of Freemasonry.
== Public image ==
Ford is the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice president. The choice of Ford to fill the vacant vice-presidency was based on Ford's reputation for openness and honesty. "In all the years I sat in the House, I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part-true and part-false. He never attempted to shade a statement, and I never heard him utter an unkind word", said Martha Griffiths.
According to the Gallup Organization, Ford took office with the fourth-highest approval rating for a president following their inauguration, but the trust the American public had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by the pardon of Nixon and his ratings fell an unprecedented 21 points. By January 1975, his disapproval rating had surpassed his approval rating.
In spite of his athletic record and remarkable career accomplishments, Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy, likable, and simple-minded everyman. Henry Kissinger described him as "as close to a normal human being as we'll ever get in that office". Other pieces of the everyman image were attributed to his inevitable comparison with Nixon, his Midwestern stodginess, and his self-deprecation.
An incident in 1975, when Ford tripped while exiting Air Force One in Austria, was famously and repeatedly parodied by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live, cementing Ford's image as a klutz. Additionally, an incident in April 1976, when Ford bit into a still shuck-wrapped tamale, a culinary faux pas, made national news and contributed to the image of Ford as a chronic bumbler. The incident has become a cautionary tale about the hazards of eating on the campaign trail.
Ford has notably been portrayed in two television productions which included a central focus on his wife: the Emmy-winning 1987 ABC biographical television movie The Betty Ford Story, and the 2022 Showtime television series The First Lady.
== Honors ==
=== Foreign honors ===
Estonia:
First Class of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (January 7, 1997)
Ford received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970, as well as the Silver Buffalo Award, from the Boy Scouts of America.
In 1974, he also received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award. In 1985, he received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAA's highest honor. In 1992, the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Ford its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service and his subsequent government service. In 1999, Ford was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars. Also in 1999, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton. In 2001, he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiencing over Watergate.
The following are named after Ford:
The Ford House Office Building in the U.S. Capitol Complex, formerly House Annex 2.
Gerald R. Ford Freeway (Nebraska)
Gerald R. Ford Freeway (Michigan)
Gerald Ford Memorial Highway, I-70 in Eagle County, Colorado
Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan
Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy, Albion College
USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78)
Gerald R. Ford Middle School, Grand Rapids, Michigan
President Gerald R. Ford Park in Alexandria, Virginia, located in the neighborhood where Ford lived while serving as a Representative and Vice President
President Ford Field Service Council, Boy Scouts of America The council where he was awarded the rank of Eagle Scout. Serves 25 counties in Western and Northern Michigan with its headquarters located in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
== See also ==
List of Freemasons
List of members of the American Legion
List of presidents of the United States
List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
=== Primary sources ===
== External links ==
=== Official sites ===
Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum
Gerald R. Ford Presidential Foundation
=== Media coverage ===
Gerald Ford collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Appearances on C-SPAN
"Life Portrait of Gerald R. Ford", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, November 22, 1999
=== Other ===
United States Congress. "Gerald Ford (id: F000260)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Gerald Ford: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress.
Essays on Gerald Ford, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
Works by or about Gerald Ford at the Internet Archive
Works by Gerald Ford at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Gerald Ford at IMDb
Works by Gerald Ford at Project Gutenberg |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oesper_Award#:~:text=1998)%5B3%5D-,1983%2C%20Fred%20Basolo%2C,-Northwestern%20University%5B27 | Oesper Award | The Ralph and Helen Oesper Award or Oesper Award was first given in 1981 by the University of Cincinnati and the Cincinnati Section of the American Chemical Society. The award recognizes "outstanding chemists for lifetime significant accomplishments in the field of chemistry with long-lasting impact on the chemical sciences". It was established with a bequest from Ralph E. Oesper and his wife, Helen Wilson Oesper.
== Awardees ==
2025, Melanie S. Sanford, University of Michigan
2021, James M. Tour, Rice University
2020, Nicholas A. Peppas, University of Texas at Austin
2019, R. Mark Wightman, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
2018, Devarajan (Dave) Thirumalai, University of Texas at Austin
2017, Matthew Platz, Ohio State University,
2016, Maurice Brookhart, University of Houston and University of North Carolina
2015, Karen L. Wooley, Texas A&M University
2014, Isiah M. Warner, Louisiana State University
2013, Richard Eisenberg, University of Rochester
2012, Gary M. Hieftje, Indiana University
2011, Charles P. Casey, University of Wisconsin-Madison
2010, Kurt Wüthrich, The Scripps Research Institute, (Nobel, 2002)
2009, Susan Lindquist, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2008, Alan G. Marshall, Florida State University
2007, James P. Collman, Stanford University
2006, Richard N. Zare, Stanford University
2005, V. Adrian Parsegian, National Institutes of Health
2004, George M. Whitesides, Harvard University
2003, Alan G. MacDiarmid, University of Pennsylvania and University of Texas at Dallas (Nobel, 2000)
2002, Royce W. Murray, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
2001, Harry B. Gray, California Institute of Technology
2000, Mildred Cohn, University of Pennsylvania
1999, George S. Hammond, Bowling Green State University
1998, Jerome A. Berson, Yale University
1997, Rudolph A. Marcus, California Institute of Technology, (Nobel, 1992)
1996, Ralph N. Adams, University of Kansas
1995, Gregory R. Choppin, Florida State University
1994, Klaus Biemann, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1993, James D. Winefordner, University of Florida
1992, Walter H. Stockmayer, Dartmouth College
1991, Derek H. R. Barton, Texas A&M University (Nobel, 1969)
1990, Herbert C. Brown, Purdue University, (Nobel, 1979)
1989, Allen J. Bard, University of Texas at Austin
1988, Konrad E. Bloch, Harvard University and Florida State University (Nobel, 1964; Medicine)
1987, George C. Pimentel, University of California, Berkeley
1986, Henry Taube, Stanford University (Nobel, 1983)
1985, Fred McLafferty, Cornell University
1984, John A. Pople, Carnegie Mellon University (Nobel, 1998)
1983, Fred Basolo, Northwestern University
1982, John C. Sheehan, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1981, Melvin Calvin, University of California, Berkeley (Nobel, 1961)
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Shipley_Rowlinson#:~:text=He%20was%20appointed%20a%20Fellow%20of%20the%20Royal%20Academy%20of%20Engineering%20in%201976 | John Shipley Rowlinson | Sir John Shipley Rowlinson (12 May 1926 – 15 August 2018) was a British chemist. He attended Oxford University, where he completed his undergraduate studies in 1948 and doctoral in 1950. He then became research associate at University of Wisconsin (1950–1951), lecturer at University of Manchester (1951–1961), Professor at Imperial College London (1961–1973) and back at Oxford from 1974 to his retirement in 1993.
His works covered a wide range of subjects, including on capillarity (the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity) and cohesion (forces that make similar molecules stick together). In addition, he wrote about the history of science, including multiple works on the Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923). He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. He received a Faraday Lectureship Prize in 1983 and was knighted in 2000.
== Early life ==
Born in Handforth, Cheshire, on 12 May 1926, Rowlinson attended the independent Rossall School in Fleetwood. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, where in 1944 he was awarded a Millard scholarship to read chemistry. His tutor was Professor Sir Cyril Hinshelwood, who was the first head of the Physical Chemistry Laboratory. He graduated with first-class honours in 1948. After graduation, he continued his studies at Oxford and received a D.Phil. in 1950 in chemical kinetics, working under J. D. Lambert.
== Career ==
In 1950, Rowlinson won a Fulbright scholarship and became a research associate at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. There, he was member of Joseph O. Hirschfelder's team and worked with C. F. Curtiss on various topics in physical chemistry. In 1951 he moved to the University of Manchester where he worked as a Fellow. Subsequently, he became lecturer and senior lecturer at the same university.
In 1961, Rowlinson was appointed Professor in Chemical Technology at Imperial College London. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1970. In 1974, he moved to Oxford as Dr Lee's Professor of Chemistry. He was appointed a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1976. He received the Faraday Lectureship Prize in 1983 for 'exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry'. He retired in 1993, becoming an Emeritus Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. After his formal retirement he continued to write scientific papers. He was knighted in the 2000 Birthday Honours.
In 2008, he received the Sidney M. Edelstein Award for Outstanding Achievement in the History of Chemistry from the American Chemical Society.
== Work ==
Throughout his career, Rowlinson wrote more than 200 papers and book chapters. While he contributed to a wide range of topics, his main areas of focus were capillarity and cohesion (forces that make molecules 'stick' together). His Molecular Theory of Capillarity—co-written with Benjamin Widom in 1982—is widely cited in scientific and engineering literatures: it had more than 2,000 citations by 2010. His earlier work, Liquids and Liquid Mixtures (1958) is also similarly popular and is described by Widom as a "classic". His acclaimed 2002 work Cohesion described intermolecular forces, their scientific history and their effect on properties of matter in great detail. He also co-wrote a textbook Thermodynamics for Chemical Engineers (1975). Other scientific topics he wrote about include phase transitions, critical phenomena, computer simulations of interfaces, glaciers, and information theory.
In addition to his technical works, Rowlinson wrote about the history of science. His works on this topic began with the Nature paper The Legacy of van der Waals in 1973. He followed it up with further works on Johannes Diderik van der Waals, including a 1988 translation of van der Waals' doctoral thesis, and a 1996 biography of the Dutch physicist. His colleague Benjamin Widom praised the translation as "no less[...] than a masterwork" and the accompanying introduction "brilliant both as science and as history". His Molecular Theory of Capillarity also treats the topic's history in addition to its technical aspect.
Rowlinson also contributed to the administration of science in his native United Kingdom. He expanded the scope of Oxford's physical chemistry research and history of science teaching. He supported Oxford's collection displayed at the Museum of the History of Science. He was the editor of the journal Molecular Physics.
== Personal life ==
Rowlinson routinely climbed the Swiss Alps and had also climbed in the Himalayas. He was an active member of the Exeter College community at Oxford and regularly attended its lunches and alumni events. He died on 15 August 2018.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Widom, Benjamin (2010). "Preface to the Sir John S. Rowlinson Festschrift". Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data. 55 (10): 4127–4129. doi:10.1021/je100562f.
Tildesley, D.J. (1993). "Professor John Shipley Rowlinson". Molecular Physics. 80 (4): 701–704. Bibcode:1993MolPh..80..701T. doi:10.1080/00268979300102571. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Bickle_(minister) | Mike Bickle (minister) | Michael Leroy Bickle (born July 17, 1955) is a former American evangelical leader and founder of the International House of Prayer (IHOPKC). Once the leader of IHOPKC, Bickle oversaw several ministries and a Bible school until his dismissal in December 2023 after confessing to sexual misconduct. Bickle has also been accused of child sexual abuse.
== Ministry ==
Bickle became an evangelical Christian at fifteen at a Fellowship of Christian Athletes student conference in Colorado.
Bickle claims to have had several encounters with God during his ministry, including hearing the audible voice of God and being taken to heaven twice. Bickle's accounts of supernatural encounters were disputed following his confession to sexual misconduct.
In 1999, Bickle stopped working for the church that he was pastoring, Metro Christian Fellowship, and started the International House of Prayer (IHOPKC). IHOPKC is known for its daily prayer meetings that are held 24 hours a day since September 19, 1999. IHOPKC also established a Bible college, known as the International House of Prayer University and internships for young adults, all of which closed after Bickle confessed to sexual misconduct. At its height, the ministry consisted of approximately 2,500 full-time staff members, students, and interns.
IHOPKC organized an annual Onething conference at the Kansas City Convention Center. In 2010, the event saw around 25,000 young adults in attendance. The conference focused on worship music and sermons on prayer, evangelism, and Christian eschatology. The final conference was held during the last week of 2018.
Bickle endorsed Ted Cruz for president in 2016.
IHOPKC's leadership placed Bickle on administrative leave in November 2023 due to allegations of abuse. After Bickle's confession and more allegations coming to light, IHOPKC cut all ties with Bickle on December 23, 2023.
== Theology ==
Bickle's teachings focused on eschatology, prayer, and fasting, with a particular emphasis on passion for Jesus, the first commandment, and prophecy. Bickle also taught the Song of Songs which he interprets as an allegory of the relationship between the body of believers (that is, the church) and God. Bickle also taught on God's spiritual purposes for Israel. He believes that it important for Christians to pray for the spiritual salvation of the Jews.
For a time, Bickle was affiliated with John Wimber's Vineyard movement, before leaving it in 1996.
== Criticism ==
There has been criticism of Bickle's theology and ministry practices. Aspects of his ministry which have been particularly controversial include his view of the prophetic ministry. Bickle's ministry was criticized for the sexual activities of some of the ministers that were closely connected with his ministry in the 1980s and 1990s, including Bob Jones and Paul Cain, though neither was directly involved with Bickle's ministry for several years as a result.
However, as of 2017, Bickle continued to praise Bob Jones and would credit him with the start of the International House of Prayer with no mention of the sexual abuse.
In 1990 Kansas City pastor Ernest Gruen published a report entitled "Documentation of the Aberrant Practices and Teaching of the Kansas City Fellowship (Grace Ministries)". After the publication of this document, Bickle announced that he was submitting to John Wimber's oversight and joined the Association of Vineyard Churches in part to address the issues raised by his critics. Bickle later noted that "We were tempted to say that the attacks were all of the devil. In retrospect, we see that God's hand in all of this – even using the things that came from Satan's hand as well. Some of the criticisms were valid (especially concerning our pride); others were not." Since that time, IHOP of Kansas City reported that the two had reconciled and forgiven one another, although an email reportedly from Gruen suggests no such change of mind on Gruen's part.
Prior to his dismissal for sexual misconduct, Bickle's ministry was endorsed by several American charismatic leaders, including Dr. Jack W. Hayford, Loren Cunningham, and C. Peter Wagner.
Bickle came under fire from the Anti-Defamation League for controversial statements deemed by them as antisemitic and intolerant of Jews.
== Sexual abuses ==
On October 28, 2023, news broke that Bickle faced allegations of sexual abuse from women over several decades. The next day, International House of Prayer announced that Bickle had been placed on administrative leave from all public ministry pending investigation. IHOPKC subsequently contracted Stinson LLP to conduct the investigation. Following criticism about its decision to hire Stinson LLP, the organization chose instead a local Kansas City law firm to lead the investigation.
On November 30, 2023 "Jane Doe" alleged that Bickle sexually abused her from 1996 to 1999, starting when she was 19. He was 42.
On December 12, 2023, Bickle confessed to past misconduct, while denying some of the allegations.
On December 22, IHOPKC announced that the internal investigation confirmed Bickle had engaged in "inappropriate behavior" of a nature that required IHOPKC to "immediately, formally, and permanently" sever ties with him.
On February 7, 2024, the Kansas City Star published a first-hand account of Bickle's grooming and sexual abuse of Tammy Woods in the 1980s beginning when Woods was 14 years of age and Bickle was in his mid-20s. The article details Woods' experiences, her reason for not reporting until 2024, corroborating testimony from Woods' family and a close friend, and Bickle's attempt to communicate with Woods after the initial allegations were made known in 2023.
On February 3, 2025; Tikkun Global, a Messianic Jewish group which was partnering with Firefly Independent Sexual Abuse Investigations in handling the investigation of the allegations against Bickle, issued a report stating that 17 people came forward reporting that they had either been sexually abused or experienced sexually abusive misconduct (which included spiritual abuse and rape) from Bickle dating to the mid-1970s; with some of the victims being minors at the time of the actions in question.
In March 2025, survivors including Tammy Woods testified before Missouri lawmakers in support of legislation to eliminate statute of limitations for child sexual abuse cases and ban non-disclosure agreements in settlements, with their advocacy contributing to the passage of Trey's Law in June 2025.
== Books ==
Dynamic Intercession by Mike Bickle ISBN 0-85009-806-8
Passion for Jesus: Perfecting Extravagant Love for God by Mike Bickle (1994) ISBN 0-88419-258-X
Growing in the Prophetic by Mike Bickle (1996/2008) ISBN 978-1-59979-312-2
The Pleasures of Loving God by Mike Bickle (2000) ISBN 0-88419-662-3
After God's Own Heart by Mike Bickle (2003) ISBN 1-59185-230-7
The Rewards of Fasting by Mike Bickle and Dana Candler (2005) ISBN 0-9776738-1-2
The Seven Longings of the Human Heart by Mike Bickle and Deborah Hiebert (2006) ISBN 0-9776738-4-7
Loving God by Mike Bickle (2007) ISBN 978-1-59979-175-3
Passion for Jesus: Cultivating Extravagant Love for God by Mike Bickle (2007) ISBN 978-1-59979-060-2
Growing in Prayer: A Real-Life Guide to Talking with God by Mike Bickle (2014) ISBN 978-1-62136-046-9
== See also ==
International House of Prayer
Pasadena International House of Prayer
TheCall
Youth with a Mission
Lou Engle
Justice House of Prayer
Independent Network Charismatic Christianity
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website
International House of Prayer |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kama%CA%BBehuakanaloa_Seamount | Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount | Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount (previously known as Lōʻihi) is an active submarine volcano about 22 mi (35 km) off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii. The top of the seamount is about 3,200 ft (975 m) below sea level. This seamount is on the flank of Mauna Loa, the largest active subaerial shield volcano on Earth. Kamaʻehuakanaloa is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a string of volcanoes that stretches about 3,900 mi (6,200 km) northwest of Kamaʻehuakanaloa. Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Kamaʻehuakanaloa and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary. Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot, and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Kamaʻehuakanaloa is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development.
Kamaʻehuakanaloa began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000–100,000 years from now. At its summit, Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount stands more than 10,000 ft (3,000 m) above the seafloor, making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption. A diverse microbial community resides around Kamaʻehuakanaloa many hydrothermal vents.
In the summer of 1996, a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Kamaʻehuakanaloa. At the time this was the most energetic earthquake swarm in Hawaii recorded history. The swarm altered 4 to 5 sq mi (10 to 13 km2) of the seamount's summit; one section, Pele's Vents, collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele's Pit. The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory (HUGO) provided real-time data on Kamaʻehuakanaloa between 1997 and 1998. Kamaʻehuakanaloa's last known eruption was in 1996, before the earthquake swarm of that summer.
== Naming ==
The name Kamaʻehuakanaloa is a Hawaiian language word for "glowing child of Kanaloa", the god of the ocean. This name was found in two Hawaiian mele from the 19th and early twentieth centuries based on research at the Bishop Museum and was assigned by the Hawaiʻi Board on Geographic Names in 2021 and adopted by the U.S. Geological Survey. From 1955 to 2021 the seamount was called "Lōʻihi", the Hawaiian word for "long", describing its shape. The change to Kamaʻehuakanaloa was made in an effort to be more culturally appropriate given native Hawaiian traditions for naming.
== Characteristics ==
=== Geology ===
Kamaʻehuakanaloa is a seamount, or underwater volcano, on the flank of Mauna Loa, the Earth's tallest shield volcano. It is the newest volcano produced by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Kamaʻehuakanaloa is about 50 mi (80 km), which is, coincidentally, also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot. Kamaʻehuakanaloa consists of a summit area with three pit craters, a 7 mi (11 km) long rift zone extending north from the summit, and a 12 mi (19 km) long rift zone extending south-southeast from the summit.
The summit's pit craters are named West Pit, East Pit, and Pele's Pit. Pele's Pit is the youngest of this group and is located at the southern part of the summit. The walls of Pele's Pit stand 700 ft (200 m) high and were formed in July 1996 when its predecessor, Pele's Vent, a hydrothermal field near Kamaʻehuakanaloa summit, collapsed into a large depression. The thick crater walls of Pele's Pit – averaging 70 ft (20 m) in width, unusually thick for Hawaiian volcanic craters – suggest its craters have filled with lava multiple times in the past.
Kamaʻehuakanaloa's north–south trending rift zones form a distinctive elongated shape, from which the volcano's earlier Hawaiian name "Lōʻihi," meaning "long", derives. The north rift zone consists of a longer western portion and a shorter eastern rift zone. Observations show that both the north and south rift zones lack sediment cover, indicating recent activity. A bulge in the western part of the north rift zone contains three 200–260 ft (60–80 m) cone-shaped prominences.
Until 1970, Kamaʻehuakanaloa was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by sea-floor spreading. The seafloor under Hawaii is 80–100 million years old and was produced at the East Pacific Rise, an oceanic spreading center where new sea floor forms from magma that erupts from the mantle. New oceanic crust moves away from the spreading center. Over a period of 80–100 million years, the sea floor under Hawaii moved from the East Pacific Rise to its present location 3,700 mi (6,000 km) west, carrying ancient seamounts with it. When scientists investigated a series of earthquakes off Hawaii in 1970, they discovered that Kamaʻehuakanaloa was an active member of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.
Kamaʻehuakanaloa is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees. Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is 2,100 yd (1,900 m) below sea level, but its southern base is a more substantial 15,600 ft (4,755 m) below the surface. Thus, the summit is 3,054 ft (931 m) above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank, but 12,421 ft (3,786 m) high when measured from the base of its southern flank. Kamaʻehuakanaloa is following the pattern of development that is characteristic of all Hawaiian volcanoes. Geochemical evidence from Kamaʻehuakanaloa's lavas indicates that Kamaʻehuakanaloa is in transition between the preshield and shield volcano stage, providing valuable clues to the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. In the preshield stage, Hawaiian volcanoes have steeper sides and a lower level of activity, producing an alkali basalt lava. Continued volcanism is expected to eventually give birth to an island at Kamaʻehuakanaloa. It experiences frequent landslides; the growth of the volcano has destabilized its slopes, and extensive areas of debris inhabit the steep southeastern face. Similar deposits from other Hawaiian volcanoes indicate that landslide debris is an important product of the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. Kamaʻehuakanaloa is predicted to rise above the surface in 10,000 to 100,000 years.
=== Age and growth ===
Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Kamaʻehuakanaloa. The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions, notably the 1978 expedition, which provided 17 dredge samples. Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin; the oldest dated rock is around 300,000 years old. Following the 1996 event, some young breccia was also collected. Based on the samples, scientists estimate Kamaʻehuakanaloa is about 400,000 years old. The rock accumulates at an average rate of 1⁄8 in (3.5 mm) per year near the base, and 1⁄4 in (7.8 mm) near the summit. If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Kamaʻehuakanaloa, 40% of the volcano's mass formed within the last 100,000 years. Assuming a linear growth rate, Kamaʻehuakanaloa is 250,000 years old. However, as with all hotspot volcanoes, Kamaʻehuakanaloa's level of activity has increased with time; therefore, it would take at least 400,000 years for such a volcano to reach Kamaʻehuakanaloa's mass. As Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest at a rate of about 4 in (10 cm) a year, Kamaʻehuakanaloa was 25 mi (40 km) southeast of its current position at the time of its initial eruption.
== Activity ==
Kamaʻehuakanaloa is a young and fairly active volcano, although less active than nearby Kīlauea. In the past few decades, several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Kamaʻehuakanaloa, the largest of which are summarized in the table below. The volcano's activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity, which commenced in 1959. Most earthquake swarms at Kamaʻehuakanaloa have lasted less than two days; the two exceptions are the 1990-1991 earthquake, lasting several months, and the 1996 event, which was shorter but much more pronounced. The 1996 event was directly observed by an ocean bottom seismometer (OBS), allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as 4 mi (6 km) to 5 mi (8 km) below the summit, approximating to the position of Kamaʻehuakanaloa's extremely shallow magma chamber. This is evidence that Kamaʻehuakanaloa's seismicity is volcanic in origin.
The low-level seismic activity documented on Kamaʻehuakanaloa since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit. Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Kamaʻehuakanaloa's rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions. This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes, each swarm composed of up to hundreds of earthquakes. The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit, though they follow a north–south trend. Rather, most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Kamaʻehuakanaloa. The largest recorded swarms took place on Kamaʻehuakanaloa in 1971, 1972, 1975, 1991–92 and 1996. The nearest seismic station is around 20 mi (30 km) from Kamaʻehuakanaloa, on the south coast of Hawaii. Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often, but their location cannot be determined as precisely as it can for larger events. In fact, HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory), positioned on Kamaʻehuakanaloa's flank, detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) seismic network.
=== 1996 earthquake swarm ===
The largest amount of activity recorded for the Kamaʻehuakanaloa seamount was a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9, 1996. This series of earthquakes was the largest recorded for any Hawaiian volcano to date in both amount and intensity. Most of the earthquakes had moment magnitudes of less than 3.0. "Several hundred" had a magnitude greater than 3.0, including more than 40 greater than 4.0 and a 5.0 tremor.
The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a rapid response cruise launched in August 1996. The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaiʻi scientists, led by Frederick Duennebier, that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996. The scientists' assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed. Follow-up expeditions to Kamaʻehuakanaloa took place, including a series of crewed submersible dives in August and September. These were supplemented by a great deal of shore-based research. Fresh rock collected during the expedition revealed that an eruption occurred before the earthquake swarm.
Submersible dives in August were followed by NOAA-funded research in September and October 1996. These more detailed studies showed the southern portion of Kamaʻehuakanaloa's summit had collapsed, a result of a swarm of earthquakes and the rapid withdrawal of magma from the volcano. A crater 0.6 mi (1 km) across and 330 yd (300 m) deep formed out of the rubble. The event involved the movement of 100 million cubic meters of volcanic material. A region of 3.9 to 5.0 sq mi (10 to 13 km2) of the summit was altered and populated by bus-sized pillow lava blocks, precariously perched along the outer rim of the newly formed crater. "Pele's Vents", an area on the southern side, previously considered stable, collapsed completely into a giant pit, renamed "Pele's Pit". Strong currents make submersible diving hazardous in the region.
The researchers were continually met by clouds of sulfide and sulfate. The sudden collapse of Pele's Vents caused a large discharge of hydrothermal material. The presence of certain indicator minerals in the mixture suggested temperatures exceeded 250 °C (482 °F), a record for an underwater volcano. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, the hydrothermal vent plumes located along mid-ocean ridges. Samples from mounds built by discharges from the hydrothermal plumes resembled white smokers.
The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift. Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there, and high lava columns were still standing upright. A new hydrothermal vent field (Naha Vents) was located in the upper-south rift zone, at a depth of 1,449 yd (1,325 m).
=== Recent activity ===
Kamaʻehuakanaloa has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004. The seamount showed signs of unrest again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there. USGS-ANSS (Advanced National Seismic System) reported two earthquakes, magnitudes 5.1 and 5.4, on May 13 and July 17. Both originated from a depth of 27 mi (44 km). On April 23, a magnitude 4.3 earthquake was recorded at a depth of approximately 21 mi (33 km). Between December 7, 2005, and January 18, 2006, a swarm of around 100 earthquakes occurred, the largest measuring 4 on the Moment magnitude scale and 7 to 17 mi (12 to 28 km) deep. Another earthquake measuring 4.7 was later recorded approximately midway between Kamaʻehuakanaloa and Pāhala (on the south coast of the island of Hawaii).
== Exploration ==
=== Early work ===
Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, a bathymetric rendering of part of Hawaiʻi compiled by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940. At the time, the seamount was non-notable, being one of many in the region. A large earthquake swarm first brought attention to it in 1952. That same year, geologist Gordon A. Macdonald hypothesized that the seamount was actually an active submarine shield volcano, similar to the two active Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Macdonald's hypothesis placed the seamount as the newest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot. However, because the earthquakes were oriented east–west (the direction of the volcanic fault) and there was no volcanic tremor in seismometers distant from the seamount, Macdonald attributed the earthquake to faulting rather than a volcanic eruption.
Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano, but without evidence the idea remained speculative. The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event, and was often mislabeled as an "older volcanic feature" in subsequent charts. Geologist Kenneth O. Emery is credited with naming the seamount in 1955, describing the long and narrow shape of the volcano as Lōʻihi. In 1978, an expedition studied intense, repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Kamaʻehuakanaloa area. Rather than finding an old, extinct seamount, data collected revealed Kamaʻehuakanaloa to be a young, possibly active volcano. Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows. Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found.
In 1978, a US Geological Survey research ship collected dredge samples and photographed Kamaʻehuakanaloa's summit with the goal of studying whether Kamaʻehuakanaloa is active. Analysis of the photos and testing of pillow lava rock samples appeared to show that the material was "fresh", yielding more evidence that Kamaʻehuakanaloa is still active. An expedition from October 1980 to January 1981 collected further dredge samples and photographs, providing additional confirmation. Studies indicated that the eruptions came from the southern part of the rift crater. This area is closest to the Hawaiʻi hotspot, which supplies Kamaʻehuakanaloa with magma. Following a 1986 seismic event, a network of five ocean bottom observatories (OBOs) were deployed on Kamaʻehuakanaloa for a month. Kamaʻehuakanaloa's frequent seismicity makes it an ideal candidate for seismic study through OBOs. In 1987, the submersible DSV Alvin was used to survey Kamaʻehuakanaloa
Another autonomous observatory was positioned on Kamaʻehuakanaloa in 1991 to track earthquake swarms.
=== 1996 to present ===
The bulk of information about Kamaʻehuakanaloa comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption. In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported, visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water. The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele's Pit (formed from the collapse of the old ones), and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents. They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory. An OBO briefly sat on the summit before a more permanent probe could be installed.
Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse. Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy, and dissolved minerals emanating from Kamaʻehuakanaloa. Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory, HURL's 2,000 m (6,562 ft) submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters, microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits.
Since 2006, the Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO), funded by the National Science Foundation and Microbial Observatory Program, has led cruises to Kamaʻehuakanaloa investigate its microbiology every October. The first cruise, on the ship R/V Melville and exploiting the submersible JASON2, lasted from September 22 to October 9. These cruises study the large number of Fe-oxidizing bacteria that have colonized Kamaʻehuakanaloa. Kamaʻehuakanaloa's extensive vent system is characterized by a high concentration of CO2 and iron, while being low in sulfide. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in.
=== HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory) ===
In 1997, scientists from the University of Hawaiʻi installed an ocean bottom observatory on the summit of Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount. The submarine observatory was nicknamed HUGO (Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory). HUGO was connected to the shore, 34 km (21 mi) away, by a fiber optic cable. It was designed to give scientists real-time seismic, chemical and visual data about the state of Kamaʻehuakanaloa, which had by then become an international laboratory for the study of undersea volcanism. The cable that provided HUGO with power and communications broke in April 1998, effectively shutting it down. The observatory was recovered from the seafloor in 2002.
== Ecology ==
=== Hydrothermal vent geochemistry ===
Kamaʻehuakanaloa's mid-Pacific location and its well-sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem. Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Kamaʻehuakanaloa's crater floor and north slope, and along the summit of Kamaʻehuakanaloa itself. Active hydrothermal vents were first discovered at Kamaʻehuakanaloa in the late 1980s. These vents are remarkably similar to those found at the mid-ocean ridges, with similar composition and thermal differences. The two most prominent vent fields are at the summit: Pele's Pit (formally Pele's Vents) and Kapo's Vents. They are named after the Hawaiian deity Pele and her sister Kapo. These vents were considered "low temperature vents" because their waters were only about 30 °C (86 °F). The volcanic eruption of 1996 and the creation of Pele's Pit changed this, and initiated high temperature venting; exit temperatures were measured at 77 °C (171 °F) in 1996.
=== Microorganisms ===
The vents lie 1,100 to 1,325 m (3,609 to 4,347 ft) below the surface, and range in temperature from 10 to over 200 °C (392 °F). The vent fluids are characterized by a high concentration of CO2 (up to 17 mM) and Fe (Iron), but low in sulfide. Low oxygen and pH levels are important factors in supporting the high amounts of Fe (iron), one of the hallmark features of Kamaʻehuakanaloa. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in. An example of these species is Mariprofundus ferrooxydans, sole member of the class Zetaproteobacteria. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, that are a habitat of archaea extremophiles. Dissolution and oxidation of the mineral observed over the next two years suggests the sulfate is not easily preserved.
A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele's Pit.
The Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL), NOAA's Research Center for Hawaiʻi and the Western Pacific, monitors and researches the hydrothermal systems and studies the local community.
The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded an extremophile sampling expedition to Kamaʻehuakanaloa in 1999. Microbial mats surrounded the 160 °C (320 °F) vents, and included a novel jelly-like organism. Samples were collected for study at NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center (MarBEC). In 2001, Pisces V collected samples of the organisms and brought them to the surface for study.
NOAA's National Undersea Research Center and NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea extremophiles. The fourth FeMO (Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory) cruise occurred during October 2009.
=== Macroorganisms ===
Marine life inhabiting the waters around Kamaʻehuakanaloa is not as diverse as life at other, less active seamounts. Fish found living near Kamaʻehuakanaloa include the Celebes monkfish (Sladenia remiger), and members of the cutthroat eel family, Synaphobranchidae. Invertebrates identified in the area include two species endemic to the hydrothermal vents, a bresiliid shrimp (Opaepele loihi) of the family Alvinocarididae (described in 1995), and a tube or pogonophoran worm. Dives conducted after the 1996 earthquake swarms were unable to find either the shrimp or the worm, and it is not known if there are lasting effects on these species.
From 1982 to 1992, researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount, Johnston Atoll, and Cross Seamount at depths between 40 and 2,000 m (130 and 6,560 ft). A small number of species identified at Kamaʻehuakanaloa were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi, including the tasseled coffinfish (Chaunax fimbriatus), and the Celebes monkfish.
== See also ==
List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Hawaii Center for Volcanology, University of Hawaiʻi.
Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount – USGS website.
Loihi Submarine Volcano: A unique, natural extremophile laboratory – NOAA research site.
HURL Current Research – Loihi after the July–August event, on the 1996 Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount Exploration
Recent volcanic activity at Loihi – University of Hawaiʻi
Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory Project (FeMO) Webpage – Earthref.org |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky_Whittle#Awards_and_nominations | Ricky Whittle | Richard George Whittle (born 31 December 1979) is a British actor. Whittle first came to prominence as a model for Reebok in the early 2000s. He is known in the United Kingdom for his role as Calvin Valentine in the soap opera Hollyoaks. In 2009, he finished second in the BBC reality competition Strictly Come Dancing. In 2012, Whittle crossed over to American television when he booked a recurring role on VH-1's Single Ladies, followed by a recurring role on ABC's Mistresses in 2014. From 2014 to 2016, Whittle appeared in The CW's post-apocalyptic drama The 100 as Lincoln. Whittle starred in the Starz television series American Gods for three seasons.
== Early life and education ==
Richard George Whittle was born on 31 December 1979 in Oldham, England, to Harry and Maggie (Goodwin) Whittle. He is the oldest of three children. His mother is from England and his father is from Jamaica. His father was in the Royal Air Force so the family moved to a different country every few years. However, Whittle was primarily raised in Northern Ireland and revealed that he had been bullied as a child because he was the only black child in school. At one point, Whittle told his mother he wanted to be white so he could fit in. Whittle studied law at Southampton Solent University where he was football team captain. In order to pay for text books, he started to model. However, Whittle left university just before graduation.
== Career ==
=== 2002–2011: Career beginnings and Hollyoaks ===
Whittle took up modelling in college. He would go on to become the face of Reebok in 2000. Whittle made his acting debut in 2002 the television series Dream Team which aired on Sky 1. The actor said the show was a "dream job" for a young actor just starting out. Whittle's agent surprised him and sent him to audition for Dream Team. Whittle credits his career to his co-star Terence Maynard whom he auditioned with. Whittle left the show in 2006 after series 9 and in May 2006, it was announced that Whittle had joined the cast of the Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks in the role of Calvin Valentine. In December 2009, it was announced that Whittle would leave Hollyoaks and the character would be killed off in 2010. In an interview with Digital Spy he explained his reasons for leaving Hollyoaks and revealed his plans to try his hand at American television and film. He only planned to do four years with the series.
In the summer of 2009, Whittle joined series 7 of the BBC reality series, Strictly Come Dancing. He was paired with professional dancer Natalie Lowe. Whittle would place second after sports presenter Chris Hollins. He permanently relocated to Los Angeles in the summer of 2011 to further his career.
=== 2012–2016: American TV breakthrough and The 100 ===
Upon his arrival in the US, Whittle met with someone to put a reel together. The meeting led to him signing with manager Ken Jacobsen. Jacobsen has also represented James Franco, Michelle Williams and Hilary Swank. Not long after, Whittle was cast in the feature film Austenland opposite Keri Russell, Jane Seymour and Jennifer Coolidge. Whittle joked that he only booked the role because of his body as the audition tape he submitted cut off his head. He found it ironic that it filmed on location in the UK when he travelled to Los Angeles to pursue American TV projects. After that, Whittle had no problem booking gigs. However, his immigration status caused him to pull out of a few projects. Whittle was set to film an episode of the NBC sitcom Up All Night when his management contacted him the night before to inform him that the network would not accept his visa. After this incident, Whittle decided to apply for his green card.
In March 2012, it was announced that Whittle was cast in the recurring role of Charles, a love interest of Denise Vasi's character, in the second season of the VH1 comedic-drama Single Ladies. Whittle submitted his audition tape just as he returned to the UK for Christmas. While he was too young for the role he initially auditioned for, the producers found another role for him. Whittle was initially supposed to appear in two episodes, and that turned into six. However, Whittle made such an impression on producer Stacy A. Littlejohn that she wrote him into the rest of the season. Whittle filmed the series in Atlanta from January to June 2012.
In 2013, Whittle appeared in an episode of the CBS drama NCIS, "Detour." In 2014, Whittle joined the cast of The CW's post-apocalyptic drama The 100 in the role of Lincoln. On 25 July 2014, at San Diego Comic-Con, it was announced that Whittle had been promoted to series regular for season 2. Around the same time, Whittle booked the recurring role of Daniel on ABC's prime-time drama Mistresses. Whittle wrapped filming for The 100 the week before he was scheduled to start production on Mistresses. Daniel Zamora is the love interest for April played by Rochelle Aytes. Whittle appeared in 10 episodes.
In January 2016, it was reported that Whittle was in talks for the lead role on another series. During an interview with AfterBuzz TV in April 2016, Whittle announced his decision to leave The 100. Whittle controversially accused the show's creator Jason Rothenberg of bullying him into leaving the series by marginalizing his character. The actor explained that once Warner Bros. Television President Peter Roth and The CW President Mark Pedowitz were made aware of the situation, he was allowed to audition for other projects.
=== 2017–present: American Gods and Nappily Ever After ===
In January 2016, it was announced that Whittle had been cast as Shadow Moon, the lead role in Starz television adaptation of Neil Gaiman's 2001 novel American Gods opposite Ian McShane. Though Whittle had no prior knowledge of the novel, he was a fan favourite pick to play Shadow when Starz announced the series in August 2015. Out of the 2,000 audition tapes submitted, Whittle was chosen out of approximately 600 actors that met with the producers. Whittle submitted 16 audition tapes over the five-month process. In September 2017 Whittle was cast opposite Sanaa Lathan in the Netflix original film, Nappily Ever After based on the novel of same name by Trisha R. Thomas. On 16 April 2018 it was announced that Whittle signed with talent agency William Morris Endeavor.
== Personal life ==
Whittle dated his Hollyoaks co-star Carley Stenson from 2007 to 2009. The two have remained close friends. Whittle dated Kirstina Colonna from 2016 until 2018.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Ricky Whittle at IMDb
Ricky Whittle interview |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somnath_Bharti#Activism | Somnath Bharti | Somnath Bharti (born 10 May 1974) is an Indian politician and lawyer.
As a member of the Aam Aadmi Party, Bharti served as a Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) of Delhi from Malviya Nagar constituency. He has previously served as minister of Law, Tourism, Administrative Reforms, Art & Culture in the Government of Delhi, from December 2013 to February 2014 in the first Arvind Kejriwal government.
He is a practicing lawyer in the Supreme Court of India and Delhi High Court. He had represented the Malviya Nagar constituency in the Delhi Legislative Assembly from 2013 till 2025.
== Early life ==
Bharti was born in Baranwal Bania family at Hisua Bazar in Nawada. He was educated firstly at a local school and went to Patna for intermediate education. After completing his post-graduate M.Sc. Mathematics from IIT Delhi, Bharti pursued a degree in law at Delhi University. He served IIT Delhi Alumni Association as its Secretary for 2007-08 and 2011–12, as a President of IIT DAA in 2012-13 and as IIT Delhi Senator in 2008.
== Career ==
=== Business ===
In the 2000s, Somnath Bharti ran a Delhi-based IT firm Madgen Solutions. The Spamhaus Project accused him of spamming on behalf of TopSites LLC, naming him in Register of Known Spam Operations (ROKSO) as one of the top spam operators in the world. According to Bharti, he was listed in ROKSO after an Open Directory Project editor Conrad Longmore ran a story on him. Responding to a PCQuest investigation in 2005, he insisted that all the e-mails sent by his company complied with the laws and regulations. PCQuest found that he had been sued in a California Superior Court for spamming by Daniel Balsam. Balsam's attorney Timothy Walton revealed that in 2004, Bharti and two others had paid Balsam in damages apart from making a court declaration agreeing to use only confirmed opt-in e-mail addresses when sending commercial e-mails. Bharti defended himself by saying that he chose to settle because defending the case in the United States would have been costlier for him. Bharti also claimed that he was in touch with SpamHaus, but the SpamHaus CEO Steve Linford denied this to PCQuest.
=== Legal ===
In 2009 Bharti represented Vikram Buddhi. He led a movement against the abeyance of sentencing of Buddhi in the USA.
In 2013, Delhi High Court quashed the FIR and released 8 accused falsely charges in the Constable Tomar's death during the Nirbhaya protests. Advocate He has sought the quashing of the FIR against the eight accused on the grounds that they have been falsely implicated by the Delhi Police for offences during the public protests that erupted after the Delhi gangrape.
Advocate Somnath Bharti, appearing for the accused, told the court that according to the video footage of news channels and two witnesses, the accused were innocent.
=== Activism ===
In June 2012, Bharti was involved in a campaign against the alleged interference of the then Minister of Human Resources and Development, Kapil Sibal, in the Joint Entrance Examination process for admission to Indian Institutes of Technology.
In 2010–2013, he appeared in news for defending the rights of homeschooled children and subscribers of alternate education system in view of the binding provision of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act through Public Interest Litigations filed in Delhi High Court thrice. In response to his PILs, the Ministry of Human Resources and Development, through an affidavit, clarified that they are not against homeschooling.
=== Political career ===
Bharti was the Aam Aadmi Party candidate for the Malviya Nagar constituency in the Delhi state assembly elections, 2013. Bharti won the seat, defeating Arti Mehra of the Bharatiya Janata Party and the incumbent Kiran Walia of the Indian National Congress. Walia had won the seat in 1999, 2003, and 2008 and had been education minister in the earlier government, while Mehra, who has represented the neighbouring Hauz Khas constituency for many years, had been Mayor of Delhi in 2007–2009. In contrast, Bharti was new to politics.
He served as Chairman, Committee on Privileges of Delhi Legislative Assembly for the year 2016–17. On 10 August 2018, Delhi Legislative Assembly appointed him as chairman, Committee to examine the Stray Dog and Monkey Menace in Delhi. He won the 2020 Delhi Elections by 18,144 votes. By Delhi Legislative Assembly he was appointed Chairman, Public Accounts Committee (one of the three most important Committees of a legislative assembly or Indian Parliament viz. Public Accounts Committee, Committee on Govt Undertakings and Committee on Estimates), Chairman, House Committee on Violation of Protocol Norms and Contemptuous Behaviour By Government Officers with MLAs, Members of Standing Committee on Education (Education; Higher Education; Training & Technical Education; Art, Culture and Language; Sports) and Committee on Govt Undertakings.
Bharti was briefly Minister of Law, Tourism, Administrative Reforms, Art & Culture in the Government of Delhi. He was appointed on 28 December 2013 and left office on 14 February 2014 when the government of which he was a part resigned due a failure to enact a Jan Lokpal bill.
The government's resignation, led by Arvind Kejriwal, pre-empted a personal resignation by Bharti in response to accusations of vigilantism.
He was elected again by the people of Malviya Nagar constituency in Feb 2015 by double the margin than the last time when Delhi gave mandate of 67 out of 70 seats in Delhi assembly to AAP. He was sent to Delhi Development Authority as a member of the Board which controls Land and development of Delhi. His work can be gauged from the fact that his efforts and continuous efforts made DDA claim their unclaimed and open to encroachers over 65000 pieces of lands across Delhi.
He was appointed Vice Chairman of Delhi Jal Board in March 2023.
Bharti started a direct dialogue program using the term "mohalla groups" on WhatsApp after being elected as MLA from Malviya Nagar constituency.
In 2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election, he lost from his seat Malviya Nagar by a margin of 2,131 votes to BJP candidate Satish Upadhyay
== Electoral performance ==
=== 2025 ===
== Controversies ==
=== Evidence tampering ===
Patiala House Court had in 2013 indicted Bharti for "tampering with evidence" along with his client, Pawan Kumar, in a corruption case. He was asked by the Bar Council of Delhi to explain why he should not be debarred.
=== Khirki Extension raid ===
In January 2014, less than a month after being elected, Bharti mobilized his supporters and television camera crews to lead a vigilante raid in his constituency's Khirki Extension area. He had been tipped off about a drug and prostitution racket involving some African nationals operating in the area. He quarrelled with the Station House Officer, who refused to raid a house, citing a lack of a warrant. The group allegedly caught four women and forced them to undergo urine tests. The tests, conducted at AIIMS, did not find any drug traces in their system. The women alleged that they had been threatened and molested by the mob.
Protests were held against Bharti and AAP's attack on African Nationals. The BJP and CPM condemned Bharti's actions as racist and criticized the mob for violating the women. AAP supported Bharti, calling the women's allegations false and stating that his actions were not racist, adding that residents had long complained of criminal activities in the area. Kejriwal demanded the suspension of the police officers who had refused to conduct the raid. A court directed the police to lodge a First Information Report against the mob, and the Delhi Commission for Women also opened an investigation into the matter. Kejriwal's government came under increasing political pressure to act against Bharti in the hours before its resignation. An independent judicial inquiry ordered by the Lieutenant Governor of Delhi announced on 28 February 2014 that the police had been correct not to comply with Bharti's demands and that Bharti should not have taken the law into his own hands by leading the raid.
Around two years later, The Hindu reported that the raid led to an "exodus" of African nationals from the area, and emboldened the locals to abuse and taunt the remaining ones more freely.
=== Domestic violence case ===
In June 2015, Bharti's wife filed a complaint against him with the Delhi Commission for Women alleging domestic violence. On 10 September 2015, Bharti surrendered at the Dwarka Police Station late at night on 29 September 2015 under directions from the Supreme Court and obtained conditional bail. Bharti told a Delhi court that the couple had resolved the matrimonial dispute through mediation, however the court charged him with harassment, cheating and criminal intimidation. In May 2019, the FIR was quashed by Delhi High Court which noted that the couple are living happily together.
=== Unlawful assembly at AIIMS ===
In 2021, he was sentenced to two years in prison for leading a mob into AIIMS Delhi. Bharti claimed that there was no evidence and the case was based on a fabricated story. Subsequently, the Delhi High Court stayed the judgment and granted him bail.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Somnath Bharti at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tom_and_Jerry_characters | List of Tom and Jerry characters | This article contains the list of characters featured in the Tom and Jerry animated series, given in the order of the era, they first appeared in.
== Main ==
=== Tom and Jerry ===
Thomas "Tom" (originally called "Jasper") is a bluish grey and white domestic shorthair cat. He is usually, but not always, portrayed as living a comfortable and pampered life, while Gerald "Jerry" (originally called "Jinx"), a brown house mouse, is always living in close proximity to Tom. Despite being very energetic, determined, and much larger, Tom is no match for Jerry's wits. Jerry also possesses surprising strength for his size, sometimes even greater than Tom's, being able to lift items such as anvils with relative ease, and withstand big impacts. Although cats usually chase mice to eat them, it is quite rare for Tom to actually try to eat Jerry. Instead, he tends to compete with Jerry to taunt him (even as revenge) or to obtain a reward from a human (including his owner(s) or master(s)) for catching him or for generally doing his job as a house cat well. By the final "fade-out" of each cartoon, Jerry usually gets the best of Tom.
However, on rare occasions Tom triumphs over Jerry. This usually happens when the latter pushes Tom a little too far, such as in The Million Dollar Cat, where Jerry learns that Tom will lose his newly acquired wealth if he harms any animal, "including mice." He then torments Tom a touch too much until he retaliates. In Timid Tabby, Tom's look-alike cousin pushes Jerry over the edge. Occasionally and ironically, there are times when they both lose, like when Jerry's final trap or attack on Tom backfires or he overlooks something, like in Filet Meow, where Jerry orders a shark from the pet store to scare Tom away from eating a goldfish, but finds himself entirely intimidated as well. They even occasionally end up as friends, although within this set of stories, the truce is often ruined by some last minute event. One story that has a friendly ending is Snowbody Loves Me.
Both characters display sadistic tendencies, usually taking pleasure in tormenting each other, although it is often in response to a triggering event. However, when one character appears to be in mortal danger from an unplanned situation, or due to actions by a third party, the other will develop a conscience and save him. Occasionally, the duo bonds over a mutual sentiment toward an unpleasant experience and ultimately, attacking each other is more of a game than serious. Multiple shorts show the two getting along with minimal difficulty and they are more than capable of teamwork when the situation calls for it, usually against a third party who manages to torture and humiliate them both. These partnerships are usually forgotten when an unexpected event happens, or when one character feels that the other is no longer necessary. This is the case in Posse Cat, when they agree that Jerry will allow himself to be caught if Tom agrees to share his reward dinner, but Tom then reneges. Other times, Tom does keep his promise to Jerry and the partnerships do not so quickly dissolve after a solution to the problem is found.
== Hanna-Barbera era (1940–1958, 2000–2005) ==
The following characters were introduced in the theatrical shorts that were directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera.
=== Spike and Tyke ===
Spike, occasionally referred to as Butch or Killer, is a stern though occasionally dim-witted grey bulldog who is particularly disapproving of cats, but is gentle towards mice (though in his debut appearance, Dog Trouble (1942), Spike goes after both Tom and Jerry), and later, his son Tyke. In the shorts, Jerry would often try to get Tom in trouble with Spike so that the bulldog would beat him. Spike has a few weaknesses that Tom tries to capitalize upon: his possessiveness about his bone and his ticklishness. His first speaking role was in The Bodyguard (1944), where he was voiced by Billy Bletcher up until 1949, from which point he was voiced by other actors, including Patrick McGeehan, Jerry Mann, Bob Shamrock, John Brown, Fred Karbo, Stan Freberg, and Daws Butler. Spike is very protective towards his son and gets very angry at Tom if Tyke is bothered or harmed. After Daws Butler, Maurice LaMarche, Frank Welker, John DiMaggio, Michael Donovan, Phil LaMarr, Rick Zieff, and Bobby Cannavale would all perform Spike's voice. Unlike his father Spike, Tyke does not speak in Tom and Jerry or the 2014 TV series (aside from laughing in one short); he does speak in Tom and Jerry Kids, voiced by Patric Zimmerman.
=== Nibbles ===
Nibbles (also known as Tuffy) is a little, blue/gray, diaper-wearing orphan mouse who is close to Jerry and appears frequently with him, especially in the comics. His cartoon debut came in the short The Milky Waif (1946). Nibbles was later featured in the Academy Award-winning short The Little Orphan (1949).
He is sometimes seen as Jerry's nephew, but occasionally referred to as an orphan. Although these details are very inconclusive. Nibbles is often shown eating excessively as he is always hungry. In his first animated appearance, Tuffy was left on Jerry's doorstep, abandoned by his parents. Tom enjoys chasing Nibbles/Tuffy as much as he does Jerry.
Though the character was created under the name Tuffy for the comics in 1942, his early animated appearances (from 1945) gave him the name Nibbles. During the 1950s and subsequently, the mouse was called Tuffy on-screen as well. In Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring (2002), the name Nibbles was used again; and he was depicted as a pet-store mouse whom Jerry doesn't know.
In the Mouseketeer shorts, Nibbles speaks in French and English. He also is not Jerry's nephew; rather, he is the son of François Mouse—who does not make an appearance, but his name was given in two letters in the short Touché, Pussy Cat! (1954).
Like his guardian Jerry, Nibbles is often mistaken for a girl due to his extraordinarily high pitched voice. He was voiced by Francoise Brun-Cottan in the Mouseketeer shorts, Lucille Bliss in Robin Hoodwinked, Lou Scheimer and Frank Welker in The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show, Charlie Adler in Tom & Jerry Kids, Tara Strong in Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring, Reece Thompson in Tom and Jerry Tales (season 1), Chantal Strand in Tom and Jerry: A Nutcracker Tale and Tom and Jerry Tales (season 2), Kath Soucie from 2010 onwards, and Alan Marriott in the video games Fists of Furry (2000) and War of the Whiskers (2002).
=== Butch ===
Butch is a black alley cat who made his first appearance in the Tom and Jerry series in the short Baby Puss (1943), alongside Topsy and the already-established Meathead. His character, however (along with the character of Toodles Galore), first appeared in the MGM short (and Butch's only solo cartoon) The Alley Cat (1941), directed by Hugh Harman. Though unnamed in the short, he was referred to as "Tom" in a model sheet. Butch is the leader of the alley cat bullies who are usually friends with Tom and help him catch Jerry. In his first appearance, Baby Puss, Butch was an antagonist, tormenting Tom after Tom's young girl owner treated him like a baby—to the point of dressing Tom up in a diaper, a bonnet, and pink paw mittens. Thus costumed, Tom couldn't help, but be a figure of fun—both for Butch and his gang, and for Jerry. Butch also battles with Tom over Toodles Galore and her affections, creating a love triangle between him and Tom in a couple of shorts including the shorts, Springtime for Thomas (1946) and Casanova Cat (1951). In some cartoons, such as A Mouse in the House (1947), Butch battles with Tom to catch Jerry. Butch is usually portrayed as a homeless alley/street cat although in the short, Blue Cat Blues (1956), Butch is apparently a millionaire who wins the attention of Tom's love interest due to his immense wealth much to Tom's dismay. Butch also appears in a cartoon in the short-lived Spike and Tyke cartoon series, Scat Cats (1957), as a house cat owned by George and Joan, who in later installments of the original series own Tom.
He is voiced by Harry E. Lang in The Alley Cat, Jack Mather in Baby Puss, Frank Graham in Springtime for Thomas and Trap Happy (1946), Raul Martinez in Springtime for Thomas (singing voice), Jerry Mann in Casanova Cat, Stan Freberg in Baby Butch (1954), Daws Butler in Smarty Cat (1955) and Scat Cats (1957), Alan Marriott in Tom and Jerry in Fists of Furry (video game, 2000), Marc Silk in Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers (video game, 2002), Maurice LaMarche in Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring (2002), Tony Cervone in The Karate Guard (2005), Colin Murdock in Tom and Jerry Tales (2006–08), Joey D'Auria in The Tom and Jerry Show (2014–2021) and Tom and Jerry in New York (2021), and Nicky Jam in Tom & Jerry (2021).
=== Toodles Galore ===
Toodles Galore is an attractive white female cat, who usually wears a large blue bow around her neck, and is supposedly Tom's love interest, although Tom is a reputed playboy, and had other love interests before and after Toodles. Toodles is the only love interest who appeared more than twice. During the classic era, Tom had to compete twice against Butch and even once against Spike for Toodles's affection, and he lost them all. In Casanova Cat (1951), Toodles even fell in love once with Jerry.
Toodles is one of the more anthropomorphic animals in the early series, but her depiction varies by period. She never speaks and she rarely moves around. She has a feline main body, not a human one; however, details like whiskers come and go. She also has cat ears and nose. However, she has many human attributes. She sits in very human poses and walks on two feet (as does Tom in all but the very early shorts, where he chases Jerry on all fours). She has human-shaped hands with painted nails, and rather human eyes and lips made up as a human woman of the era might. In most appearances, like the other cats, she wears nothing but her fur, but she wears a bathing-suit in Salt Water Tabby (1947) with a human feminine figure.
Toodles appears in four episodes of Tom and Jerry Tales (2006–08); "Joy Riding Jokers", "Spaced Out Cat", "Piranha Be Loved By You", "Abracadumb", and "Flamenco Fiasco", credited in the latter episode as "Senorita Cat" and voiced by Chantal Strand. In the later series, The Tom and Jerry Show (2014–2021), she makes cameo appearances in the episodes "Belly Achin'", "Cat Napped", "Don't Cut the Cheese", and "A Star Forlorn". She would later make a full appearance in the Season 4 episode "Tap Cat". She also appears in Tom and Jerry in New York, voiced by Rachael MacFarlane. A white cat similar in appearance to her appears in the 2021 film.
=== Mammy Two Shoes ===
Mammy Two Shoes (voiced by Lillian Randolph) is an African-American woman. Whether or not she is a maid taking care of the home in which Tom and Jerry reside or the homeowner is never made clear. Her face is never seen (with the exception of Saturday Evening Puss (1950), in which her face is very briefly seen as she runs towards the viewer), and she usually wallops the cat (whom she usually addresses as "Thomas") with a broom whenever he misbehaves. She sometimes tries to get rid of Jerry's presence in the house. Mammy would appear in 19 cartoons, starting with Puss Gets the Boot (1940) and ending with Push-Button Kitty (1952). She was voiced by Lillian Randolph in most of her appearances, with Anita Brown performing the role in The Mouse Comes to Dinner. The character eventually became controversial due to being based on the Mammy archetype, and was retired from the series in 1953. Gene Deitch opted not to use Mammy's character in his shorts, as he felt a "stereotypical black housekeep" character "didn't work in a modern context." MGM Animation/Visual Arts, under the supervision of Chuck Jones, created replacement characters for Mammy in the Tom and Jerry cartoons featuring her for television. These versions used rotoscoping techniques to replace Mammy on-screen with a similarly stocky white woman (in most shorts) or a thin white woman (in Saturday Evening Puss); Randolph's voice on the soundtracks was replaced by an Irish-accented (or, in Puss, generic young adult) voice performed by actress June Foray. Three years after Turner Broadcasting System acquired Tom and Jerry, the cartoons featuring Mammy were edited again, with Lillian Randolph's voice replaced with that of Thea Vidale, who re-recorded the dialogue to remove Mammy's stereotype.
=== Quacker ===
Little Quacker is a duck and another recurring character in the series. He appears in Little Quacker (1950), Just Ducky (1953), Downhearted Duckling (1954), Southbound Duckling (1955), That's My Mommy (also 1955), Happy Go Ducky (1958), and The Vanishing Duck (1958). Quacker talks a lot compared to Tom and Jerry. His voice is a "duck voice" similar to Disney's Donald Duck. In many shorts, he is the only character who speaks. He is very trusting, even trusting Tom in many situations in which Tom wishes to eat him. He is a friend of Jerry, but unlike Jerry harbors no hard feelings towards Tom. In three cartoons, Quacker becomes separated from his mother at birth, only to reunite with her later in two of them (Little Quacker and Just Ducky). In That's My Mommy however, he is adopted by Tom. In Little Quacker, Quacker's father, Henry makes an appearance. Because his birth is shown differently in different cartoons, he may have siblings as seen in Just Ducky and Happy Go Ducky. Quacker also gets a girlfriend named Fifi in Downhearted Duckling. He appeared in The Tom and Jerry Show episode "The Lost Duckling" (1975). Quacker was used as a template for the Hanna-Barbera character Yakky Doodle, who made guest appearances in several Hanna-Barbera TV shows before starring in his own series of shorts on The Yogi Bear Show. In 1995, he was used as a template for the character Hard Luck Duck in the short of the same name in What a Cartoon!, voiced by Russi Taylor.
He was voiced by Red Coffey in the classic shorts, Don Messick in The Tom and Jerry Show (1975), Alan Marriott in Tom and Jerry in Fists of Furry and Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers (he was named "Duckling" in those games), and Sam Kwasman in The Tom and Jerry Show (2014) and Tom and Jerry in New York.
=== Cuckoo ===
Cuckoo is a canary that first appeared in Kitty Foiled (1948). He also appeared in The Flying Cat (1952), Life with Tom (1953), Hic-cup Pup (1954), Two Little Indians (where he is red in color), and Matinee Mouse (which reuses clips from the previous episodes). He is Jerry's best friend. Despite being a little bird, he can actually carry heavy objects like a bowling ball in Kitty Foiled and a 2000 lb. weight in The Flying Cat.
=== Lightning ===
Lightning is a ginger orange cat who first appeared in the short Old Rockin' Chair Tom (1948) as Tom's rival. Lightning is named as such because in his first short, he practically moved at the speed of lightning. In later cartoons, Lightning often appeared as one of Tom's alley cat buddies/rivals. Lightning has the same character design as Butch, but with an orange color (although his tone of his coloring and even his design occasionally varies from film-to-film). In Mucho Mouse, he speaks Spanish and is a house cat. He also appears in the Gene Deitch short Switchin' Kitten. In the Chuck Jones short Catty-Cornered (his final appearance), Lightning is portrayed with more of an orange-yellow color than before, with the additional changes of a black tail and ears. Lightning also appears in the live action film where he is voiced by Joey Wells.
=== Topsy ===
Topsy is a grey/brown Scottish Fold kitten. He is one of Tom's alley cat friends/foes, although in Professor Tom he befriends Jerry. He first appeared in Baby Puss; his final appearance in the original theatrical shorts was in Scat Cats. He also appears in Tom and Jerry Tales with a more yellowish color (similar to Life with Tom). In Professor Tom, Topsy is explicitly a house cat; more often (as in Saturday Evening Puss and elsewhere), he is depicted as an alley cat or a cat of unknown origin. In the live action film, Topsy is voiced by Harry Ratchford.
=== Meathead ===
Meathead is a brown, mangy alley cat who wears a red toupee (which is occasionally seen the same color as the rest of his fur). He is generally portrayed as dull-witted and first appeared in the short, Sufferin' Cats! (1943), as Tom's rival. He also appears in Baby Puss and additional shorts as one of Tom's alley cat buddies/foes. He is known as Frankie in Heavenly Puss. In Scat Cats, his final appearance in the original theatrical shorts, he is portrayed with an all-gray color.
Meathead appears in several episodes of Tom and Jerry Tales with an orange color similar to that of Lightning and also has a red nose and, in two episodes, a bushy tail. He re-appeared in The Tom and Jerry Show episode Cruisin' for a Bruisin' as a lead antagonist, while a drag version of the character named Meathelda appeared in the episode Hop to It! Meathead also makes multiple appearances in later seasons, usually alongside Butch and other alley cats. He appears in the live action film, voiced by Na'im Lynn.
=== George and Joan ===
George and Joan (voiced by Daws Butler (1954–1957; George) and Richard Anderson (1958; George) and June Foray (1954–1956; Joan), Julie Bennett (1956–1958; Joan), Pilar Arcos (1957; Joan) and Perry Sheehan (1958; Joan), respectively) are an average middle-class white couple, who debuted in the short Pet Peeve (1954), replacing Mammy Two Shoes. They are the owners of Tom, Jerry, and Spike, but Tom likes to keep Joan company and Spike likes to keep George company. Joan is often seen either cooking or sitting on her armchair knitting or sewing a dress with Tom keeping her company. George, on the other hand, hates the monthly bills and complains that they're too expensive. But when he's not complaining about the bills, he is sitting in his armchair or on the sofa reading the newspaper wearing his smart purple or grey suit and Spike is keeping him company. Both George and Joan are very kind and polite towards each other and Tom and Spike. In Pet Peeve, George and Joan decided to keep Jerry as a pet because he is easy to look after and doesn't eat too much and tell Tom and Spike to leave. However, in later shorts with George and Joan, Tom and Spike still happily live with them and Jerry is not a pet.
George and Joan also appeared in three other Tom and Jerry shorts: Tom's Photo Finish, Busy Buddies, and The Vanishing Duck (Quacker's last short), and one Spike and Tyke short, Scat Cats.
In some shorts, Joan appears without George, such as Mouse for Sale, The Flying Sorceress, Mucho Mouse, and Tot Watchers. It could be presumed that George would be working at his office during the settings of these cartoons.
=== Jeannie and the Baby ===
Jeannie, the babysitter of George and Joan's baby, is an average teenager who spends much of her time talking on the phone. She is often called on to look after the baby if they're going out. Jeannie proceeds to leap straight onto the phone just as George and Joan shut the front door, which implies that she is very negligent about her job. Despite this, Jeannie is very kind, friendly, cheerful, and rarely loses a smile—except to scold Tom for "bothering the baby", which she thinks that he and Jerry are doing on purpose to annoy her. Jeannie and the baby were seen in only two cartoons: Busy Buddies (1956) and Tot Watchers (1958). Jeannie is voiced by Janet Waldo in the original shorts. The baby also appears in Tom & Jerry Kids where the babysitter is slightly younger and a redhead instead of a blonde. Due to modern sensibilities, this negligent-based climax would no longer be replicated in the newer entrees since child neglect became a very serious matter.
A handful of teenage babysitters do the similar climax as Jeannie's on The Flintstones.
=== The Ants ===
The Ants are an army of red ants who steal food as they see them. They appeared in four cartoons Cat Napping, Pup on a Picnic, Barbecue Brawl, and Carmen Get It!. They also appeared in Tom & Jerry Kids. They are unusually heavy for their size, and their combined weight often causes many items, such as Tom's hammock, to break. It is unclear how or why the ants are so heavy, as they are even capable of making tables and diving boards shake as they march onto them.
=== Guardian devils ===
Each guardian devil for Tom and Jerry appeared in three cartoons Sufferin' Cats! (1943), Springtime for Thomas (1946), and Smitten Kitten (1952). In the first of these cartoons, one served as evil conscience for Tom and in the other one for Jerry.
=== Goldfish ===
A tiny goldfish who lives in the same house as Tom and Jerry. She appeared in first debuts in The Little Goldfish (1939) by Rudolf Ising. Later, major roles in Jerry and the Goldfish (1951) and Filet Meow (1966) (although the goldfish in the latter could be a different one), where Tom's attempts to eat her lead to Jerry winning her affections. She mostly appeared in cameo roles in other cartoons Puss Gets the Boot (1940), Puss n' Toots (1942), Baby Puss (1943), The Million Dollar Cat (1944), Casanova Cat (1951), The Missing Mouse (1953), Haunted Mouse (1965), and The Brothers Carry-Mouse-Off (1965).
=== Muscles ===
Muscles is Jerry's cousin and a mouse with incredible strength. In Jerry's Cousin (1951), Muscles appears to hate cats, including Tom. In Haunted Mouse, another mouse named Merlin, who is also a cousin of Jerry's, appears as a wizard with magical abilities. Muscles' other appearance was in Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring, however, his name was changed to Freddie and he was hostile towards Jerry (although it could be a different mouse who is identical to Muscles). He was voiced by Paul Frees in Jerry's Cousin and by Billy West in Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring. He also appeared in The Tom and Jerry Show.
=== George the Cat ===
George is the cat counterpart of Muscles, but with a personality that is in stark contrast to him. Like Muscles, George is identical to Tom (although he is shorter) and is his cousin. Unlike Muscles, however, George is a coward and is scared of mice. He first appeared at the beginning of Jerry's Cousin where he gets thrashed by Muscles (possibly the reason for his fear of mice). His bigger role was in Timid Tabby (1957) where he finally overcomes his fear. He also appeared in Tom & Jerry Kids, the early 1990s television series, where his fear seems to have re-instated even though he pretended it had not (his name was changed to Tim in that short). He is voiced by Bill Thompson.
=== Fluff, Muff, and Puff ===
Fluff, Muff, and Puff are a trio of brown, black, and orange kittens that first featured in Heavenly Puss (1949) in a cameo appearance (during Tom's dream) as charming kittens who drowned. They also appeared as cute but mischievous kittens in Triplet Trouble (1952). They also appeared on The Tom and Jerry Show.
=== Chérie ===
Chérie is a brown/grey female mouse who serves as Jerry's love interest. She first appeared at the end of Springtime for Thomas (1946), and then later in Smitten Kitten (1952), Touché, Pussy Cat! (1954, the only cartoon where she has an identical twin), Tom and Chérie (1955, the first cartoon where she is named, but only seen in silhouette form) and The Mouse from H.U.N.G.E.R. (1967, as a ticking time bomb set by Tom).
=== Toots ===
Toots is the name given to three different characters that have appeared infrequently. The first of these is a fluffy beige cat who appears in Puss n' Toots (1942) and in The Mouse Comes to Dinner (1945), the latter being her only speaking role. She also has a cameo in The Bodyguard (1944) and Smitten Kitten (1952). This version of Toots also appeared in some 1940s Tom and Jerry comics, and in The Tom and Jerry Show (2014–2021), mistakenly credited as "Toodles" and voiced by Alicyn Packard. Toots is also a different cat by the same name who appears in The Zoot Cat (1944) and in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode "Kitty Cat Blues". She has occasionally and erroneously been referred to as "Sheikie", but this is actually Tom's nickname, as seen on a gift card in the cartoon. Finally, Toots is the name of a mouse who serves as Jerry's love interest in Blue Cat Blues (1956). Toots also appeared as an antagonist in Love Me, Love My Mouse (1966).
=== King of France ===
In some of the mouseketeer series of cartoons, Tom serves the king of France. This is an obvious reference to Louis XIV, who is shown as an extremely short-tempered and cruel monarch. In The Two Mouseketeers (1952), the king executes Tom while in Royal Cat Nap (1958), he orders for Tom's execution.
=== Mechano cat and Robot-Mouse ===
Mechano cat first appeared in Push Button Kitty (1952) as Tom's rival. Later, Mechano and Robot-Mouse are seen as a cat-like-robot and mouse-like-robot who serve Tom and Jerry (except at the end of Advance and Be Mechanized (1967), when they get revenge and switch roles with Tom and Jerry, as they control their minds and make them do the work) in the three Chuck Jones outer space cartoons O-Solar Meow , Guided Mouse-ille, and Advance and Be Mechanized (both 1967). Mechano's efforts to catch or trap Jerry or Robot-Mouse always backfire for Tom, except in Advance and Be Mechanized, when he succeeds to catch Robot-Mouse in the beginning. In Guided Mouse-ille, he can stand upright and have hands to use a gun to try and blast Jerry in his mobile tank. This backfired and left Mechano with a black face, while crying in frustration. He sneaks back and promptly shoots Tom, who attempts to shoot Mechano back for his insubordination. However, the shot came out on the wrong end and Tom faints leaving Mechano laughing himself silly. He also appeared in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode "Tin Cat of Tomorrow" (2006) where he is named Verminator 7000. Mechano (called "Robot Cat") also appeared as a fighter in the video game, War of the Whiskers (2002), and was voiced by Marc Silk.
=== The St. Bernard ===
The St. Bernard is a dog who first appeared in Puttin' on the Dog (1944) and then again in The A-Tom-Inable Snowman (1966). Unlike the other dogs in the franchise, he is not hostile to cats and on one occasion becomes Tom's medical aid. He also appeared in War Dogs and Little Cesario.
=== Eagle ===
Eagle is an eagle that tries to steal Jerry for food from Tom. He first appeared in Flirty Birdy, then in The Tom and Jerry Show episode "The Egg and Tom and Jerry" (1975, where he is female instead of male) and then again in Tom and Jerry Tales episode "Bend it like Thomas" (2007). Eagle also appeared as a playable character in the video game War of the Whiskers (2002), voiced by Marc Silk.
=== Lion ===
Lion is a lion that debuted in Slap Happy Lion (1947) by Tex Avery. He has switched from a tame one in Jerry and the Lion (1950), to a nervous one in The Tom and Jerry Show episode "The Hypochondriac Lion" (1975) to a monster in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode "You're Lion" (2007). He is also a playable character in Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers where he is voiced by Alan Marriott.
=== Baby Woodpecker ===
A baby woodpecker that first appeared in Hatch Up Your Troubles (1949) and its remake The Egg and Jerry (1956) where he could peck into virtually anything including Tom's stomach or his golf club in Tee for Two (1945). Baby Woodpecker and his Mama would re-appear by making cameo appearances in The Tom and Jerry Show which ran from 2014.
=== Uncle Pecos ===
Uncle Pecos is Jerry's cowboyish uncle who appears in Pecos Pest (1955). He was voiced by Shug Fisher. He is known to always play a guitar and wears a black cowboy hat that covers his eyes. He plucks each of Tom's whiskers off to replace broken strings on the guitar. Being from Texas, he is shown to be super strong and is also shown to have a stammer, especially while singing.
Uncle Pecos returned in the Tom and Jerry Tales episode "Cry Uncle" (2006), voiced by Scott McNeil. In the episode, he arrives at Tom and Jerry's house and annoys Tom and Jerry with his music. He later leaves with Auntie Spinner in the end of the episode. Uncle Pecos made his second return in The Tom and Jerry Show, voiced by Stephen Stanton. He appears in the episodes, "I Quit" , "Uncle Pecos Rides Again" and "Cat-A-Tonic Mouse" (all 2018).
=== The Exterminators ===
A trio of cats colored black, brown and orange who offer 'extermination' services on demand. They first appeared in Jerry's Cousin and then again in Karate Guard, failing to live on their promise in each cartoon. Butch is the leader of the gang in the latter cartoon, but he appeared in this role alone in Trap Happy.
=== Radio ===
A radio with a male human voice that broadcasts music, cookery shows and warnings on escaped animals, bomb threats etc. In Jerry's Diary (1949), the radio is shown to be anthropomorphic (with the announcer's name as "Uncle Dudley") but this is not the case with other cartoons. The radio's announcements often cause troubles for Tom, as in Jerry and the Lion (1950), Little Runaway, (1952) The Missing Mouse (1953), and Down Beat Bear (1956), fear in Fraidy Cat (1942), embarrassment in Jerry's Diary (1949) and Life with Tom (1953) or as in Jerry and the Goldfish (1951) may be the cause of evil intentions.
The radio was voiced by Martha Wentworth in Fraidy Cat, Jerry Mann in The Zoot Cat and Life with Tom, Harry E. Lang in Jerry's Diary, Frank Graham in Jerry and the Lion, Daws Butler in Jerry and the Goldfish and Down Beat Bear, and Paul Frees in The Missing Mouse and Down Beat Bear.
=== Jackass ===
Unlike the other Tom and Jerry characters, this one is not a character per se, but rather a substitution for a character, such as Spike the Bulldog, for a brief visual gag. Usually, a character turns into a jackass when it is fooled such as Spike in Solid Serenade (1946), The Framed Cat (1950), and Pet Peeve (1954) or Tom in Polka-Dot Puss (1949). In Pup on a Picnic (1955), 'Jackass' is replaced with 'Sucker'.
== Gene Deitch era (1961–1962) ==
The following characters were introduced in the theatrical shorts that were directed by Gene Deitch in the early 1960s.
=== The Grumpy Owner ===
An overweight, short-tempered, average height, middle-aged, and bald white man became Tom's owner only in three of the thirteen cartoons: Down and Outing (1961), High Steaks (1962), and Sorry Safari (also 1962). Unlike any of the other owners and like Spike, he has severe anger issues and is repeatedly violent toward Tom for his actions. He is voiced by Allen Swift.
The Grumpy Owner bears a strong resemblance to another character created by Deitch: Clint Clobber (also voiced by Swift), the property manager of a rundown apartment building who had been created for Terrytoons in the mid to late 1950s. There is some debate as to whether the Owner and Clobber were the same character; however, Deitch claimed they were in fact different characters.
=== Mad Scientist ===
He is a mad scientist reminiscent of Frankenstein. He first appeared in Switchin' Kitten (1961) and subsequently was the subject of a number of television episodes (for e.g. 'Trojan Dog' in The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show, 1980–82) and movies thereafter. In his first appearance, the mad scientist is the owner of Jerry (who is also his assistant) and has numerous cats trapped in a prison. When Jerry picks an orange cat named Lightning, the other cats flee in terror as the scientist pulls him out for his latest experiment. He switches the mind of the orange cat with that of a bulldog and presents him as his present to Jerry.
=== Thin Lady ===
An unnamed thin white lady was Tom's owner in Buddies Thicker Than Water (1962). Chuck Jones would also use her in The Unshrinkable Jerry Mouse (1964) and in the revised version of Saturday Evening Puss. She also appeared in the movie Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry (2005). Like many other early owners, her face was never shown.
== Chuck Jones era (1963–1967) ==
The following characters were introduced in the theatrical shorts that were produced by Chuck Jones in the mid to late-1960s.
=== Tiny Bulldog ===
This nameless mouse-sized bulldog, designed similarly to Spike the Bulldog, is Jerry's pet dog companion in only two shorts: The Cat's Me-Ouch (1965) and Purr-Chance to Dream (1967). His role is similar to Spike in cartoons such as The Bodyguard (1944), Fit To Be Tied (1952), and Much Ado About Mousing (1964), which is to defend Jerry against Tom. He is presumably the oldest son of Spike before Tyke, and this could be identified by his looks and personality that is similar to his father Spike. Unlike Spike and Tyke, he has a big bite (similar to those of Looney Tunes' Tasmanian Devil).
=== Shark ===
A shark who tries to eat Tom and Jerry. He appears in Puss 'n' Boats and Filet Meow (both 1966) and Surf-Bored Cat and Cannery Rodent (both 1967). The creature's color and species varies, in Cannery Rodent and Surf-Bored Cat it is a blue shark, while in Filet Meow and Puss 'n' Boats it is a great white shark.
== The Tom and Jerry Show (1975) ==
The following characters were introduced in The Tom and Jerry Show television series which ran for the first half of the 1975 season.
=== Broke ===
A gopher that devours vegetables, who appears in Gopher Broke and The Son of Gopher Broke.
=== Robin Ho Ho and His Merry Men ===
A parody of Robin Hood and His Merry Men, they appeared in Robin Ho Ho. They also appeared in Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse (2012).
=== Sheriff of Nottingham ===
The primary antagonist in Robin Ho Ho and also in Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse. He is based on the character from the Robin Hood tales.
=== Yvonne Jockalong ===
Love interest to both Tom and Jerry, she appears in The Ski Bunny and The Tennis Menace.
=== Sergeant Farce ===
A police officer who appears in See Dr. Jackal and Hide and in The Police Kitten where he is the superior officer to both Tom and Jerry.
== The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show (1980 series) ==
The following characters were introduced in the television series The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show.
=== Droopy ===
A Basset Hound often with a miserable look on his face, originally introduced in the Tex Avery shorts of the 1940s. He first made a poster cameo in Matinee Mouse (1966) in the Chuck Jones era. He also appeared in the Droopy and Dripple segments of Tom and Jerry Kids. He is sometimes an adversary of Spike. He would also appear in Tom and Jerry Tales and would appear in the direct-to-video films.
=== Barney Bear ===
An anthropomorphic cartoon character, a sluggish, sleepy bear who often is in pursuit of nothing, but peace and quiet, originally introduced in the Harman-Ising shorts of the 1930s. He would also appear in the direct-to-video films.
=== McWolf ===
McWolf, initially named "Slick Wolf" is the villain of the "Droopy and Dripple" segments. A bad and cruel wolf whose only mission is to ruin the life of Droopy (and Dripple and sometimes to remain with Miss Vavoom in Tom & Jerry Kids). McWolf sometimes appears as a crazy scientist whom loves to try and dominate the world, as a space villain, or a criminal fat person (known as "The Chubby Man"), etc. His character is based on the wolf in Red Hot Riding Hood. He is voiced by Frank Welker.
== Tom & Jerry Kids (1990–92) ==
The following characters were introduced in the television series Tom & Jerry Kids.
=== Dripple ===
The son of Droopy, essentially an older version of the infant pup from Homesteader Droopy (1954). He is always with his father and they always do the same (although sometimes Dripple thinks "better" than his father). The identity of his mother is never mentioned or even addressed, although, due to Droopy's frequent relationships with Miss Vavoom, it can be assumed that his mother is either dead or is divorced from Droopy with no visitation rights prior to the events of the series. He is voiced by Charlie Adler.
=== Miss Vavoom ===
The contiguous woman of the show. She is very seductive and she always takes different hairdos. She always is conquered by Droopy and most of times is the greater target of McWolf. Sometimes, she is called Bubbles Vavoom, Ultra Vavoom, Sugar Vavoom, etc. Her character is based on Red from Red Hot Riding Hood (1943). She is voiced by Teresa Ganzel.
=== Calaboose Cal ===
A gold cat owner of a show of demonstration and participation. He is arrogant (sometimes), has a rancher accent, and is sometimes presented as an enemy to Tom. Purportedly inspired by legendary Southern California car dealer Cal Worthington. He is voiced by Phil Hartman.
=== Urfo ===
Urfo is a six-legged alien dog that arrives on Earth many times and helps Jerry fend off Tom. His owners often send people to retrieve him.
=== Clyde ===
A fat cat who often causes problems for Tom while trying to be friendly and helpful to him. He is voiced by Brian Cummings. He also appears (uncredited) in the live action film as one of the many alley cats in Butch's gang.
=== Kyle the Cat ===
A mangy orange cat that first appeared as the antagonist of Spike and/or Tyke. Voiced by Pat Fraley.
=== Bernie the Swallow ===
A medically challenged yellow swallow that is friends with Jerry in "Hard to Swallow". He had a color change to blue in "Swallow the Swallow" and "Grab that Bird" as he is chased mostly by Clyde and Kyle. Voiced by David L. Lander.
=== Wild Mouse ===
A grayish-green, shaggy fanged mouse who occasionally replaces Jerry and outwits his foes. Like Tom and Jerry, Wildmouse is voiced by Frank Welker. He first appears in the episode "Wildmouse" and is last seen in the episode "King Windmouse."
=== Moncy ===
A cougar who loves tormenting Spike and Tyke. He wants to eat Tyke's lunch (and Spike prevents him). He was voiced by Frank Welker.
=== Sheriff Potgut ===
The elderly sheriff of Hokey Finokey Swamp. He is arrogant, rude, and self-centered. He threatened to send Swampy back to the circus (which Swampy is aware of the fact that it promotes animal cruelty), throwing Swampy into tears. He also envies the map Swampy made to search for the hidden treasure. He appears in the episode "Cajun Gumbo" as the episode's main antagonist. Aside from the lone episode where he battled Swampy, the Sheriff and the Gator Brothers were also used as antagonists in an episode featuring Wild Mouse.
=== Gator Brothers ===
Sheriff Potgut's henchmen. They appear in the episode "Cajun Gumbo" as antagonists and in another episode featuring Wild Mouse.
=== Stinky Jr. McWolf ===
Stinky Jr. is the son of McWolf who has the same personality as him.
=== Screwball Squirrel ===
Screwball Squirrel is based on the original Screwball "Screwy" Squirrel in 1944, but now his adventures take place in a public city park, as he messes with hot-headed park attendant Dweeble and his dumb guard dog, Rumpley. He was voiced by Charlie Adler. He would also appear in one direct-to-video film, Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure, voiced by Paul Reubens. He would also make a cameo appearance in the Season 3 episode of The Tom and Jerry Show, "Kid Stuff".
=== Lightning Bolt the Super Squirrel ===
A squirrel superhero. He is a rather campy and flamboyant superhero who throws lightning bolts. He also speaks with a slight Minnesotan accent and appeared in the spin-off series Droopy, Master Detective. He was voiced by Charlie Adler.
== Tom and Jerry Tales (2006 series) ==
The following characters were introduced in the television series Tom and Jerry Tales.
=== Mauricio ===
Mauricio is a very amorous octopus gentleman who first appeared in the mainly live-action musical film Dangerous When Wet (1953) during a Tom and Jerry sequence with Esther Williams. He was voiced by Fernando Lamas. In the Tom and Jerry Tales episode "Octo Sauve", Tom encounters him, and he mistakes Tom for a mermaid. Mauricio wants to date Tom, and they end up getting lost in the sea. He is voiced by David Kaye.
=== Princess ===
The princess appears in Medieval Menace, where she kisses Tom, who has turned into a frog, thinking he is a prince transformed by a spell. She is voiced by Nicole Bouma.
=== Mrs. Two Shoes ===
Mrs. Two Shoes is a white woman with a personality and a name similar to Mammy Two Shoes. Several photos on a mantel in "Ho, Ho Horrors" imply that Mrs. Two Shoes has a family (a man and a boy, also shown only as legs and partial torsos). Mrs. Two Shoes would be voiced by Nicole Oliver.
== The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 series) ==
The following characters were introduced in the 2014 television series Tom and Jerry Show.
=== Rick and Ginger ===
Rick (voiced by Jason Alexander and later Stephen Stanton) and Ginger (voiced by Grey DeLisle) are a middle-class couple. Rick is more sympathetic towards Spike while Ginger favors Tom. Their faces are never seen in the show, but their voices are featured.
=== Hamster ===
The Hamster is a small "anti-social, overachieving" hamster with light brown fur. He wears glasses and is the smartest hamster in the lab.
=== Bot ===
Bot is a robot that cleans the lab with its vacuum cleaner and control arm. It has a red screen that spots trash all over the lab and most often mistakes Tom as such out of its programming.
=== Beatie and Hildie ===
Beatie and Hildie are witch sisters who act as Tom and Jerry's medieval owners.
=== The Detective ===
The detective is a detective who is the owner of Tom (and presumably Jerry too). In his absence, Tom and Jerry work as sleuths themselves, in the process using his name and fame. He appeared in the first-season episodes, "Feline Fatale", "One of a Kind", "Haunted Mouse", "Sleuth or Consequences", "Poof!", "Bone Dry", "Cat Napped", and "Curse Case Scenario".
=== Dr. Bigby ===
Dr. Bigby is an eccentric scientist whose experiments don't always often go according to plan, he is also an owner of Jerry, Napoleon, Hamster and Bot.
=== Skid ===
Skid is an orange cat that was always the great leader and also always makes the election of the Top cat. Both Tom and Butch compete for the Golden Fez in the United Mouse Catchers when they both attempt to capture Jerry.
=== George and Junior ===
George and Junior are based on the original George and Junior from their only four shorts in the 1940s directed by Tex Avery. They appear in the Season 4 episode of The Tom and Jerry Show, "Shadow of a Doubt".
== Tom and Jerry movies ==
The following recurring characters were introduced in the various Tom and Jerry movies.
=== Robyn Starling ===
Robyn Starling is a young girl whose father Tom and Jerry helped her to find in Tom and Jerry: The Movie. She is voiced by Anndi McAfee.
=== Biff Buzzard and Buzz Blister ===
Biff Buzzard and Buzz Blister are characters in Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars and Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry. In Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry, they were news reporters. In Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars, they were astronauts. Biff is voiced by Billy West and Buzz by Jess Harnell.
=== Blue Parrot Betty ===
Blue Parrot Betty is a pet parrot owned by Blue Pirate Bob in Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers. She is voiced by the American actress, Kathy Najimy.
=== Red ===
=== Tin, Pan, and Alley ===
Tin, Pan, and Alley are a trio of male Siamese cats created especially for the new direct-to-video films, they are secondary antagonists in Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes, Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse, Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure, Tom and Jerry: The Lost Dragon, and Tom and Jerry: Spy Quest, acting as henchmen for the main antagonists. In their first appearance in Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes, they are local gravediggers who work for Professor Moriarty. In Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse, they worked as spies for Prince John. In Tom and Jerry: The Lost Dragon, they are the Hench-cats of Drizelda. In Tom and Jerry: Spy Quest, they are seen working for Doctor Zin. They also make an appearance in Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory. They were named after the Warner Bros. 1943 short Tin Pan Alley Cats. Tin is voiced by Greg Ellis, Pan by Jess Harnell, and Alley by Richard McGonagle.
=== Butch (dog) ===
Butch (originally known as Spike, until renamed as Butch to avoid confusion with Spike from the Tom and Jerry cartoons) is the name of another bulldog from Tex Avery's shorts in the 1940s and 1950s. He was one of the main antagonists in Droopy shorts (although he was replaced by Hanna-Barbera's Spike in the 1980s) and also had a series of his own. He appears in a number of movies e.g. Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz and Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyre_Chatterton#:~:text=Eyre%20Chatterton%20(22%20July%201863,also%20an%20amateur%20tennis%20player. | Eyre Chatterton | Eyre Chatterton (22 July 1863 – 8 December 1950) was an eminent Anglican author who served as a bishop in India from 1903 to 1926. He was also an amateur tennis player.
== Life ==
He was born in Monkstown, County Cork on 22 July 1863 and educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College and Trinity College, Dublin. He was ordained by Bishop Lightfoot in 1887, and began his career with a curacy at Holy Trinity, Stockton-on-Tees. He was head of the Dublin University Mission to Chhöta Nagpur from 1891 to 1900 when he returned briefly to England to be curate of St Mary Magdalene, Richmond, Surrey. In 1902 it was announced he would become the inaugural bishop of Nagpur, a post he held for 23 years. He died on 8 December 1950.
Chatterton competed on the amateur tennis tour during the 1880s.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (FRGS) in December 1901.
In 1926 he was appointed an assistant bishop in the Diocese of Canterbury.
== Works ==
The Story of Fifty Years' Mission Work in Chhota Nagpur. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1901.
With the Troops in Mesopotamia, 1916
The Story of Gondwana. Sir I. Pitman & Sons. 1916. with Stephen Hislop and Sir Richard Carnac Temple
A History of the Church of England in India: Since the Early Days of the East India Company. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1924.
Alex Wood, bishop of Nagpur, missionary, sportsman, philosopher: a memoir. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1939.
India Through a Bishop's Diary: Or, Memories of an Indian Diocese, by Its First Bishop. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. 1935.
Our Anglican Church in India, 1815-1946. Indian Church Aid Association. 1946.
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._P._Weston | R. P. Weston | Robert Patrick Weston (né Harris; 7 March 1878 – 6 November 1936) was an English songwriter. He was responsible for many successful songs and comic monologues between the 1900s and 1930s, mostly written in collaboration with other writers, notably Fred J. Barnes and Bert Lee, and performed successfully by Harry Champion, Stanley Holloway, and Gracie Fields, among others.
== Biography ==
=== Early life and career ===
He was born in Kingsbury Road, Islington, close to Dalston Junction in London. His father ran a grocery shop and the family lived over it. Harris initially worked for an engineering company, from which he was dismissed for spending time writing verses on the back of scraps of emery paper. He married Maud Barker in 1900 and became a railway clerk, living in Hemmingford Road, Islington with his wife, but took up performing and songwriting. For his wife's health, they moved to Weston-super-Mare, where Harris joined a concert party, took the stage name Weston, and became half of a double act, Conway and Weston. He soon moved to Ramsgate, where he started writing songs, before returning to London.
He sold his first song, "Boys of the Chelsea School", to the publishing firm of Francis, Day and Hunter in 1902; it was popularised on stage by George Leyton. Weston continued to write songs himself, and in collaboration with other songwriters. Among the most successful and lasting songs from the early part of his career were "What a Mouth", sung by Harry Champion in 1906 and successfully revived in 1960 by Tommy Steele; and "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am", written with Fred Murray in 1910 and also popularised and first recorded by Champion, which became a Billboard Hot 100 number 1 for Herman's Hermits in the U.S. in 1965.
=== Partnerships ===
Bob Weston had a successful songwriting partnership with Fred J. Barnes. They co-wrote "Little Willie's Woodbines" (1908); "I've Got Rings On My Fingers" (1909); "When Father Papered the Parlour" (1910, popularised by Billy Williams); and "Hush Here Comes the Dream Man", recorded in 1911 by Florrie Forde, parodied by First World War soldiers as "Hush Here Comes a Whizzbang", and sung in the Theatre Workshop production of Oh, What a Lovely War! in 1963. Weston also co-wrote "Sister Susie's Sewing Shirts for Soldiers", written with Herman Darewski in 1914, which was Al Jolson's first hit.
In 1915, music publisher David Day, of Francis, Day and Hunter, introduced him to Bert Lee, the collaborator with whom Weston had the most lasting relationship. They worked together over the next twenty years on some 3000 songs and monologues, 75 stage shows and musicals, and 17 films, as well as for pantomimes and radio shows. They immediately found success together with "Lloyd George's Beer Song" (1915), "Good-bye-ee!" (1917, made popular by Florrie Forde), and "Paddy McGinty's Goat", which later received a new lease of life as part of the repertoire of Irish entertainer Val Doonican, who recorded it in 1964. From the start, their collaborations were conducted in Weston's house in Twickenham. They kept office hours, met every day and aimed to write at least one song each day. Both wrote both words and music, but according to Lee: "Bob has the brains. I put the laughs in." As well as songs for revues, notably those produced by Lupino Lane, they wrote sketches for such stars as Fred Karno, Robb Wilton and Wee Georgie Wood.
=== Theatre ===
In the 1920s, Weston and Lee wrote for many theatre productions, and adapted many American productions for the British stage. In 1926, they started working with theatre producers Jack Waller and Joe Tunbridge, and wrote several musical comedies together, many featuring the comedian Bobby Howes. They wrote the monologue "My Word, You Do Look Queer", first recorded by Ernest Hastings in 1922 and later popularised by Stanley Holloway.
Weston and Lee wrote sketches for the Crazy Gang, and several of Stanley Holloway's monologues in the 1930s. Together with Weston's son Harris Weston (born Robert Edgar Harris, 1901–1978), they wrote Holloway's 1934 monologue "With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm", about the ghost of Anne Boleyn haunting the Tower of London, seeking revenge on Henry VIII for having her beheaded. Father and son also collaborated on Gracie Fields' 1933 song "Heaven Will Protect an Honest Girl", and on "Harmonica Dan" in 1936.
Weston was also a talented amateur artist, whose paintings reflect his London background and include a watercolour of Houndsditch Market painted in 1916.
He died from a brain tumour in London in 1936, aged 58.
== Legacy and influence ==
After Weston's death, his house was occupied by his two daughters who lived there into old age, with Weston and Lee's papers sitting untouched and unlooked-at. Their present whereabouts are mostly unknown though several items have appeared on eBay, including Weston and Lee's three-volume workbook, containing manuscript versions of many, if not all, their songs, which it is now known is in the hands of a collector of music hall memorabilia. In 1985, the entertainer Roy Hudd created a stage show based on the songs of Weston and Lee, Just a Verse and a Chorus, performed by Hudd and Billy Dainty, and wrote about them in a now defunct periodical, Theatrephile. Hudd also adapted the stage show into a series of shows for BBC Radio 2. A programme exploring the lives and work of Weston and Lee was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 16 June 2009, presented by Children's Laureate Michael Rosen.
== Selected filmography ==
Up for the Cup (1931)
Splinters in the Navy (1931)
No Lady (1931)
The Mayor's Nest (1932)
Trouble (1933)
Up for the Derby (1933)
It's a King (1933)
This Is the Life (1933)
It's a Cop (1934)
Girls, Please! (1934)
Squibs (1935)
Where's George? (1935)
Fame (1936)
Splinters in the Air (1937)
O-Kay for Sound (1937)
== Selected stage works ==
He Wanted Adventure (1933)
These Foolish Things (1938)
== Songs ==
1914 "Sister Susie's Sewing Shirts for Soldiers" (m: Herman E. Darewski)
1915 '"Cassidy – Private Micheal Cassidy" with Jack Norworth
1915 "Lloyd George's Beer Song" with Bert Lee
1916 "Blighty, the Soldier's Home Sweet Home" with Bert Lee
1917 "Good-bye-ee!", with Bert Lee
1919 "It's Hard to Settle Down to Civilian Life Once More" (m: Bert Lee)
== References ==
== External links ==
A Busy Day (1917) by R.P. Weston and Bert Lee on Great War Theatre |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golda_Meir#:~:text=On%20February%2028%2C%201973%2C%20during,some%20of%20Sinai's%20strategic%20positions. | Golda Meir | Golda Meir (previously Meyerson; née Mabovitch; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was the prime minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974. She was Israel's first and, to date, only female head of government.
Born into a Jewish family in Kiev (within present-day Ukraine), Russian Empire, Meir immigrated with her family to the United States in 1906. She graduated from the Milwaukee State Normal School and found work as a teacher. While in Milwaukee, she embraced the Labor Zionist movement. In 1921, Meir and her husband immigrated to Mandatory Palestine, settling in Merhavia, later becoming the kibbutz's representative to the Histadrut. In 1934, she was elevated to the executive committee of the trade union. Meir held several key roles in the Jewish Agency during and after World War II. She was a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence, in 1948. Meir was elected to the Knesset, in 1949, and served as Labor Minister until 1956, when she was appointed Foreign Minister by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. She retired from the ministry in 1966 due to ill health.
In 1969, Meir assumed the role of prime minister following the death of Levi Eshkol. Early in her tenure, she made multiple diplomatic visits to western leaders to promote her vision of peace in the region. The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 caught Israel off guard and inflicted severe early losses on the army. The resulting public anger damaged Meir's reputation and led to an inquiry into the failings. Her Alignment coalition was denied a majority in the subsequent legislative election; she resigned the following year and was succeeded as prime minister by Yitzhak Rabin. Meir died in 1978 of lymphoma and was buried on Mount Herzl.
A controversial figure in Israel, Meir has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the war of 1973. In addition, her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians have been described as the most famous example of Israeli denial of Palestinian identity. Most historians believe Meir was more successful as Minister of Labour and Housing than as Premier.
== Early life ==
Meir was born Golda Mabovitch on 3 May 1898 into a Jewish family in downtown Kiev (now known by Kyiv) in present-day Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire. Her parents were Blume Neiditch (died 1951) and Moshe Yitzhak Mabovitch (died 1944), a carpenter. Meir wrote in her autobiography that her earliest memories were of Moshe boarding up the front door in response to rumours of an imminent pogrom. She was named after Blume's paternal grandmother, Golde. Meir had two sisters, Sheyna (born 1889) and Tzipke (later known as Clara; born 1902), as well as five other siblings who died in infancy.
Moshe left Russia to find work in New York City, United States, in 1903. In his absence, the rest of the family moved to Pinsk, a city in present-day Belarus, to join Blume's family. In 1905, Moshe moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in search of higher-paying work and found employment in the workshops of the local railroad yard. The following year, he had saved up enough money to bring his family to the United States. Meir, along with Blume, Sheyna, and Tzipke, landed in Quebec and traveled to Milwaukee by train.
Blume ran a grocery store on Milwaukee's north side. By the age of eight, Meir was often put in charge of watching the store when Blume went to buy supplies. Meir attended the Fourth Street Grade School, which is now known by the Golda Meir School, from 1906 to 1912. A leader early on, she and a close friend, Regina Hamburger, organized the American Young Sisters Society, a fundraiser to pay for her classmates' textbooks in 1908. As part of the organization's activities, Meir rented a hall and scheduled a public meeting for the event. She graduated as valedictorian of her class despite frequent tardiness due to having to work in Blume's store.
In 1912, Meir began studying at North Division High School and worked part-time. Her employers included Schuster's department store and the Milwaukee Public Library. Blume wanted Meir to leave school and marry, but the latter declined.
The following year, Meir took a train to live with her married sister, Sheyna Korngold, in Denver, Colorado. She attended North High School there. The Korngolds held intellectual evenings at their home, where she was exposed to debates on Zionism, literature, women's suffrage, trade unionism, and more. In her autobiography, Meir wrote: "To the extent that my own future convictions were shaped and given form ... those talk-filled nights in Denver played a considerable role." Around 1913, she began dating Morris Meyerson, a sign painter and socialist.
== Return to Milwaukee, Zionist activism, and teaching ==
In 1914, after disagreements with her sister, Golda left North High School, moved out of her sister's home, and found work. After reconciling with her parents, she returned to Milwaukee and resumed studies at North Division High, graduating in 1915. While there, she became an active member of Young Poale Zion, which later became Habonim, the Labor Zionist youth movement. She spoke at public meetings and embraced Socialist Zionism.
She attended the teachers college Milwaukee State Normal School (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee) in 1916, and likely part of 1917. In 1917, she took a position at a Yiddish-speaking Folks Schule in Milwaukee. There, she further embraced Labor Zionism.
On 9 July 1917, Golda became a naturalized US citizen, as her father had naturalized, and at that time children of naturalized citizens under the age of 21 received citizenship by descent.
On 24 December 1917, Meir and Meyerson married. However, Meir's precondition for marriage was to settle in Palestine. She had intended to make aliyah (immigration to Israel) straight away, but her plans were disrupted when all transatlantic passenger services were canceled due to the entry of the United States into the First World War. She then threw her energies into Poale Zion activities. A short time after their wedding, she embarked on a fund-raising campaign for Poale Zion that took her across the United States.
== Immigration to Mandatory Palestine ==
In 1921, after the conclusion of the war, the couple moved to Palestine, then part of the British Mandate, along with Meir's sister Sheyna, Sheyna's daughter, and Meir's childhood friend Regina. They sailed on the SS Pocahontas, from New York to Naples, then from there to Tel Aviv by train. Meir's parents subsequently moved to Palestine in 1926.
They were eventually accepted into kibbutz Merhavia in the Jezreel Valley after an initial rejected application. Her duties included picking almonds, planting trees, working in the chicken coops, and running the kitchen. Recognizing her leadership abilities, the kibbutz chose her as its representative to the Histadrut, the General Federation of Labour.
In 1924, the couple left the kibbutz and lived briefly in Tel Aviv before settling in Jerusalem. There, they had two children: a son Menachem in 1924, and a daughter Sarah in 1926. Meir returned to Merhavia for a brief period in 1925.
== Early political career ==
In 1928, Meir was elected secretary of Moetzet HaPoalot (Working Women's Council). She spent two years (1932–34) in the United States as an emissary for the organization and to get expert medical treatment for her daughter's kidney illness.
In 1934, when Meir returned from the United States, she joined the Executive Committee of the Histadrut and moved up the ranks to become the head of its Political Department. This appointment was important training for her future role in Israeli leadership.
In July 1938, Meir was the Jewish observer from Palestine at the Évian Conference, called by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States to discuss the question of Jewish refugees' fleeing Nazi persecution. Delegates from the 32 invited countries repeatedly expressed their sorrow for the plight of the European Jews, but refused to admit the refugees. The only exception was the Dominican Republic, which pledged to accept 100,000 refugees on generous terms. Meir was disappointed at the outcome and she remarked to the press, "There is only one thing I hope to see before I die and that is that my people should not need expressions of sympathy anymore."
Throughout World War II, Meir served several key roles in the Jewish Agency, which functioned as the arm of the Zionist Organization in British Palestine.
In June 1946, Meir became acting head of the Political Department of the Jewish Agency after the British arrested Moshe Sharett and other leaders of the Yishuv as part of Operation Agatha. This was a critical moment in her career: she became the principal negotiator between the Jews in Palestine and the British Mandatory authorities. After his release, Sharett went to the United States to attend talks on the UN Partition Plan, leaving Meir to head the Political Department until the establishment of the state in 1948.
In 1947, she traveled to Cyprus to meet Jewish detainees of the Cyprus internment camps, who had been interned by the British after being caught trying to illegally enter Palestine, and persuade them to give priority to families with children to fill the small quota of detainees allowed into Palestine. She was largely successful in this task.
== Role in the Palestine War and the establishment of Israel ==
On 17 November 1947, shortly before the outbreak of the 1947-1949 Palestine war, Meir met with King Abdullah I of Jordan. Abdullah I was seen as the only Arab leader willing to ally with a future Israeli state, as he also opposed the Mufti of Jerusalem and was rivals with other Arab countries. The meeting was cordial and confirmed that Abdullah was uninterested in invading and quietly willing to cooperate in the future.
=== First phase of the war ===
For most of the war, Meir reluctantly played what she felt was a minor role in Israel's activities. An article published by the Golda Meir institute said "she felt she was being pushed aside to a secondary arena".
However, she played a critical role in fundraising. In January 1948, the Jewish Agency needed to raise funds for the continuing war and the coming Israeli state. The treasurer of the Jewish Agency was convinced that they would not be able to raise more than $7 to $8 million from the American Jewish community. Meir raised over $30 million. Key to her success was an emotional speech she first delivered in Chicago on 22 January. She toured dozens of cities in the United States and returned to Israel on 18 March.
The funds were critical to the success of the war effort and the establishment of Israel; by comparison, the opposing Arab Higher Committee's annual budget was around $2.25 million, similar to Haganah's annual budget before the war. Ben-Gurion wrote that Meir's role as the "Jewish woman who got the money which made the state possible" would go down in history.
However, upon returning home, she suffered a political setback. The Jewish Agency and National Council Executives excluded her from the 13-member cabinet of the provisional government of Israel, and included her instead in the 37-member People's Council. Ben-Gurion protested this, saying "It is inconceivable that there shall be no adequate woman…it is a moral and political necessity, for the Yishuv, the Jewish world and the Arab world." At one point, he even considered offering her his spot on the cabinet.
On 13 April, she was hospitalized in Tel Aviv due to a suspected heart attack. Ben-Gurion and the political department heads urged her to guard her health and come to Jerusalem as soon as she could. They asked her to be "the mother of this city", and that her "words to 100,000 residents will be a source of blessing and encouragement". However, she felt it was a secondary and temporary role.
Instead, on 6 May, she visited Haifa after its 22 April occupation by Haganah. Meir called the mass expulsion and flight of Arabs before the 1948 Palestine war "dreadful", and likened it to what befell the Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. She returned to Tel Aviv, and eventually to Jerusalem two weeks before the end of the mandate.
On the 11th of May, alongside Ezra Danin, Meir had a second meeting with Abdullah I. Abdullah had refused to meet her at Naharayim again, citing safety concerns, and told her that if she wanted to meet with him she would need to make her way to Amman. He had also refused to notify the Arab Legion of her arrival, forcing Meir to travel to Amman in secret disguised as an Arab woman.
The two met Abdullah in the home of an associate of Danin. According to Meir's account, when asked if Abdullah would break the promise he made to her at Naharayim, he responded by claiming that he had made the promise when he was alone, but now he was "one of five", and that he did not have the capability to fulfill the promise alone. Abdullah asked Meir to let him integrate Jordan into Palestine, with Jews being granted representation in the Jordanian parliament, but Meir refused.
By the end of the meeting, the two failed to reach an agreement and Abdullah told Meir that he would be forced to invade due to pressure from the Arab League. Meir expressed that she would be open to meeting him again after Israel had won the war.
=== Second phase of the war and appointment to Minister Plenipotentiary ===
On 14 May 1948, Meir became one of 24 signatories (including two women) of the Israeli Declaration of Independence. She later recalled, "After I signed, I cried. When I studied American history as a schoolgirl and I read about those who signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence, I couldn't imagine these were real people doing something real. And there I was sitting down and signing a declaration of establishment."
A day after independence, the second phase of the war began. Meir also suddenly lost her job and administrative responsibilities, as the Political Department became the provisional Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and her leadership role in Jerusalem was taken over by Dov Yosef.
On 18 May, she embarked on a second and even more successful fundraising tour in which she raised around $50 million. In total, her fundraising efforts raised around $90 million, around a third of the cost of the war ($275 million). During preparations for this trip, she was issued the first Israeli passport. Over the ten weeks that she was gone, Israel was battered by the war and changed drastically.
On 25 June, while still in the United States, Meir was appointed by Sharett, then the Minister of Foreign Affairs, as the minister plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union, which recently recognized Israel.
Meir was displeased by the offer. In spite of being born in Russia, she spoke no Russian and feared being lonely in Moscow. She said "At last we have a state. I want to be there. I don't want to go thousands of miles away. Why do I always have to go away?"
Her return to Israel was delayed due to a car crash in which she tore a ligament and fractured a bone. Soviet officials refused to believe she was in hospital and wanted an Israeli envoy as soon as possible. Thus she ignored doctor's orders to rest and returned to Israel on 29 July. Years later, her leg would frequently pain her.
== Government career before premiership ==
=== Minister Plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union (1948–1949) ===
Meir served as minister plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union from 2 September 1948 to 10 March 1949.
She was reportedly impatient with diplomatic niceties and using interpreters. She did not drink or ballroom dance and had little interest in gossip and fashion. According to her interpreter, when asked by a Russian ambassador how she traveled to Moscow, she responded "tell His Excellency the Ambassador that we arrived riding on donkeys".
This was an important and difficult role. Good relations with the Soviet Union impacted Israel's ability to secure arms from Eastern European countries. In turn, Joseph Stalin and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov saw its relationship with Israel as a means of furthering the Soviet position in the Middle East. However, Soviet–Israeli relations were complicated by Soviet policies against religious institutions and nationalist movements, made manifest in actions to shut down Jewish religious institutions as well as the ban on Hebrew language study and the prohibition of promoting emigration to Israel.
Just 20 days after her term began, antisemitic crackdowns began in response to an article by Soviet Jewish writer Ilya Ehrenburg. Meir and the other Israeli representatives responded by making a point of visiting Russian Jewish businesses, synagogues, and performances.
On 3 October, during Rosh Hashanah celebrations at the Moscow Choral Synagogue, she was mobbed by thousands of Russian Jews chanting in Russian "Nasha Golda", meaning "Our Golda". In her autobiography she said "I felt as though I had been caught up in a torrent of love so strong that it had literally taken my breath away and slowed down my heart." This event was commemorated by the Israeli 10,000-shekel banknote issued in November 1984. It bore a portrait of Meir on one side and the image of the crowd greeting her in Moscow on the other.
To her close friends, she admitted she had little to do in Moscow and felt isolated from Israeli politics. Despite being a socialist that was born in Ukraine, her Jewish side caused friction with the Soviets that made progress difficult. By the end of her term, she felt she had accomplished little. She reportedly felt guilty for not achieving more for the Russian Jews, as she would have been in their situation if her father had not moved to the United States.
She planned to run for the first Knesset elections on 25 January 1949. The month before the elections, she returned to Israel and campaigned for Mapai. Mapai won 35% of the votes and formed a coalition, and Ben-Gurion invited her into the cabinet. She was sworn in on 8 March, and continued to serve in the Knesset until 1974.
=== Labor Minister (1949–1956) ===
Ben-Gurion initially offered Meir the position of "deputy prime minister", which she rejected. She found the title and responsibilities vague, and disliked the idea of needing to coordinate with so many government departments.
Instead, she took the role of Labor Minister, which she held from 10 March 1949 to 19 June 1956. Meir enjoyed this role much more than her previous, calling it her "seven beautiful years". In particular, she enjoyed the ability to act quickly and with little friction from others. She was also one of the most powerful Israeli politicians at the time.
The main source of friction in the role was funding, especially to deal with the millions of immigrants arriving in the new state. In October 1950, Meir announced in Washington a three-year-plan for Israel's development and stated a price tag of $15 billion over the next 15 years. The Israeli government managed to secure a loan from the United States government and American Jews that secured 40% of the budget. The newly created Israel Bonds only provided a small amount, although years later they would contribute billions to the Israeli economy.
Meir assisted in building over a hundred ma'abarot (Hebrew: מַעְבָּרוֹת), temporary immigrant camps with crude tin-roofed huts and tents for housing. She drew criticism from many new immigrants and contemporary politicians due to this, but responded by pointing to her limited budget and the time needed to construct proper housing. In 1953, she assisted in an effort to eliminate the ma'abarot. By 1956, two-thirds were eliminated, and 120,000 families moved to permanent housing.
Meir considered herself highly productive during this period. She carried out welfare state policies, orchestrated the integration of immigrants into Israel's workforce, and introduced major housing and road construction projects. From 1949 to 1956, 200,000 apartments and 30,000 houses were built, large industrial and agricultural developments were initiated, and new hospitals, schools, and roads were built. Despite the complaints of her colleagues in the Finance Ministry, Meir worked to establish social security, maternity benefits, work-related accident insurance, benefits to widows and orphans, and even burial costs.
In 1954, she sided with Ben-Gurion against Pinhas Lavon in the Lavon Affair.
In the summer of 1955, Meir reluctantly ran for the position of mayor of Tel Aviv on request of her party. At the time, mayors were elected by the city council and not directly. She lost by the two votes of the religious bloc who withheld their support on the grounds that she was a woman. While angered by the sexism she encountered, she was happy to rejoin her colleagues in the cabinet.
On 3 August 1955, she was again hospitalized after complaining of chest pains, and was diagnosed with arrhythmia.
=== Foreign minister (1956–1966) ===
In October 1955, Ben-Gurion appointed Meir as foreign minister, replacing Sharett. The occasional disagreements between Ben-Gurion and Sharett had escalated to snubbing in meetings and refusals to speak face-to-face. Meir, while less experienced in foreign affairs than Sharett, had a consistently loyal and friendly relationship with Ben-Gurion. While Meir eventually came to enjoy her new job, she disliked the lingering pro-Sharett colleagues in her department.
Meir served as foreign minister from 18 June 1956 to 12 January 1966. Her first months as Foreign Minister coincided with the 1956 Suez Crisis, in which Israel, Britain, and France invaded Egypt to regain Western control over the Suez Canal, remove the President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser, and secure freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran for Israel. Meir planned and coordinated with the French government and military prior to the start of the invasion. During United Nations debates about the crisis, Meir took charge of the Israeli delegation. After the fighting started, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations forced the three invaders to withdraw.
As foreign minister, Meir promoted ties with the newly established states in Africa in an effort to gain allies in the international community. She also believed that Israel had experience in nation-building that could be a model for the Africans. In her autobiography, she wrote:Like them, we had shaken off foreign rule; like them, we had to learn for ourselves how to reclaim the land, how to increase the yields of our crops, how to irrigate, how to raise poultry, how to live together, and how to defend ourselves. Israel could be a role model because it had been forced to find solutions to the kinds of problems that large, wealthy, powerful states had never encountered.She also devoted much effort to convincing the United States to sell Israel weaponry. One success in this area came in 1962, when the White House quietly agreed to sell Hawk missiles to Israel. Israel's relationship with the Soviet Union remained frosty during her tenure.
On 29 October 1957, Meir's foot was slightly injured when a Mills bomb was thrown into the debating chamber of the Knesset. David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Carmel were more seriously injured. The attack was carried out by 25-year-old Moshe Dwek. Born in Aleppo, his motives were attributed to a dispute with the Jewish Agency, but he was described as being "mentally unbalanced".
In 1958, shortly after the death of Pope Pius XII, Meir praised the late pope for assisting the Jewish people. The pontiff's legacy as a wartime pope has continued to be controversial into the 21st century.
The same year, during the wave of Jewish migration from Poland to Israel, Meir sought to prevent disabled and sick Polish Jews from immigrating to Israel. In a letter sent to Israel's ambassador in Warsaw, Katriel Katz, she wrote:
A proposal was raised in the coordination committee to inform the Polish government that we want to institute selection in aliyah, because we cannot continue accepting sick and handicapped people. Please give your opinion as to whether this can be explained to the Poles without hurting immigration."
In late 1965, 67-year-old Meir was diagnosed with lymphoma. In January 1966, she retired from her role as Foreign Minister, citing exhaustion and ill health, although she continued to serve in the Knesset and as secretary-general of Mapai.
During the 1960s, Meir lived in a flat on the upper level of a house that was once known as Villa Harun al-Rashid. The house was built in 1926 by Hanna Bisharat and later rented to British officers. The house was later given to Zionist militias, due to the prominent view from the roof. According to Hanna Bisharat's grandson George Bisharat, Meir had the tiles on the house's front sandblasted "to obliterate the 'Villa Harun ar-Rashid' and thereby conceal the fact that she was living in an Arab home."
== Premiership (1969–1974) ==
Prime Minister Levi Eshkol died suddenly on 26 February 1969, leading to the appointment of Yigal Allon as interim prime minister and an election to replace him. Before the vote, most suspected that Meir would be elected. On 7 March 1969, the party's central committee voted Meir as the new party leader. Now age 71, Meir had mixed feelings due to her health concerns, but eventually agreed, saying that she would honor the party's decision just as she had honored all of the party's past decisions.
Meir served as prime minister from 17 March 1969 to 3 June 1974. She maintained the national unity government formed in 1967 after the Six-Day War, in which Mapai merged with two other parties (Rafi and Ahdut HaAvoda) to form the Israeli Labor Party.
Six months after taking office, Meir led the reconfigured Alignment, comprising Labor and Mapam, into the 1969 general election. The Alignment managed what is still the best showing for a single party or faction in Israeli history, winning 56 seats. This is the only time that a party or faction has approached winning an outright majority in an election. The national unity government was retained.
In 1969 and the early 1970s, Meir met with many world leaders to promote her peace settlement idea, including Richard Nixon (1969), Nicolae Ceaușescu (1972) and Pope Paul VI (1973). In 1973, she hosted the chancellor of West Germany, Willy Brandt, in Israel.
In August 1970, Meir accepted a U.S. peace initiative that called for an end to the War of Attrition and an Israeli pledge to withdraw to "secure and recognized boundaries" in the framework of a comprehensive peace settlement. The Gahal party quit the national unity government in protest, but Meir continued to lead the remaining coalition.
On February 28, 1973, during a visit in Washington, D.C., Meir agreed with Henry Kissinger's peace proposal based on "security versus sovereignty": Israel would accept Egyptian sovereignty over all Sinai, while Egypt would accept Israeli presence in some of Sinai's strategic positions.
=== "There was no such thing as Palestinians" ===
In June 1969, on the second anniversary of the Six-Day War, Meir stated in an interview that "there was no such thing as Palestinians", a comment later described by Al Jazeera as "one of her defining – and most damning – legacies." This phrase is considered to be the most famous example of Israeli denial of Palestinian identity.
The interview entitled Who can blame Israel was published in The Sunday Times on June 15, 1969, and included the following exchange:
Frank Giles: Do you think the emergence of the Palestinian fighting forces, the Fedayeen, is an important new factor in the Middle East?
Golda Meir: Important, no. A new factor, yes. There was no such thing as Palestinians. When was there an independent Palestinian people with a Palestinian state? It was either southern Syria before the First World War and then it was a Palestine including Jordan. It was not as though there was a Palestinian people in Palestine considering itself as a Palestinian people and we came and threw them out and took their country from them. They did not exist.
=== Munich Olympics (1972) ===
In the wake of the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics, Meir appealed to the world to "save our citizens and condemn the unspeakable criminal acts committed". Outraged at the perceived lack of global action, she ordered the Mossad to hunt down and assassinate suspected leaders and operatives of Black September and the PFLP.
=== Dispute with Austria (1973) ===
During the 1970s, about 200,000 Soviet Jewish emigrants were allowed to leave the Soviet Union for Israel by way of Austria. When seven of these emigrants were taken hostage at the Austria–Czechoslovakia border by Palestinian militants in September 1973, the Chancellor of Austria, Bruno Kreisky, closed the Jewish Agency's transit facility in Schönau, Austria. A few days later in Vienna, Meir tried to convince Kreisky to reopen the facility by appealing to his own Jewish origin, and described his position as "succumbing to terrorist blackmail". Kreisky did not change his position, so Meir returned to Israel, infuriated. A few months later, Austria opened a new transition camp.
=== Yom Kippur War (1973) ===
A common criticism of Meir is that she could have avoided the Yom Kippur War in 1973. For months preceding the attack, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made repeated overtures for peace in exchange for a full Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai, but these gestures were rebuffed by Meir, who had offered previously to discuss ceding "most of the Sinai", but was not willing to restore the pre-1967 borders, and Egypt had no interest in peace talks under Meir's conditions. As the nation's leader during this short war, her main goal was deciding on the timing of preliminary operations, and providing the IDF with the necessary time and munitions to pull off a victory.
In the days leading up to the Yom Kippur War, Israeli intelligence could not conclusively determine that an attack was imminent. However, on 5 October 1973, Meir received information that Syrian forces were massing on the Golan Heights. She was alarmed by the reports, and believed that the situation was similar to what preceded the Six-Day War. However, her advisers counseled her not to worry, saying they would have adequate notice before any war broke out. This made sense at the time; after the Six Day War, most in the Israeli intelligence community considered the Arabs unprepared to launch another attack. Consequently, although the Knesset passed a resolution granting her power to demand a full-scale call-up of the military (instead of the typical cabinet decision), Meir did not mobilize Israel's forces early. Soon, though, the threat of war became very clear. Six hours before the outbreak of hostilities, Meir met with Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan and General David Elazar. While Dayan continued to argue that war was unlikely and favored calling up the air force and only two divisions, Elazar advocated full-scale army mobilization and the launch of a full-scale preemptive strike on Syrian forces.
On October 6, Meir approved full-scale mobilizing but rejected a preemptive strike, citing concerns that Israel might be perceived as initiating hostilities, which would hurt Israel's access to crucial foreign aid and military support, in particular from the United States, in the resulting conflict. She made it a priority to inform Washington of her decision. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger later confirmed Meir's assessment by stating that if Israel had launched a preemptive strike, Israel would not have received the backing of the United States.
=== Resignation (1974) ===
Following the Yom Kippur War, Meir's government was plagued by infighting and questions over Israel's lack of preparation for the war. The Agranat Commission appointed to investigate the war cleared Meir of "direct responsibility". It said about her actions on Yom Kippur morning:
She decided wisely, with common sense and speedily, in favour of the full mobilization of the reserves, as recommended by the chief-of-staff, despite weighty political considerations, thereby performing a most important service for the defence of the state.
Her party won the elections in December 1973, but the coalition lost seats and was unable to form a majority. Meir resigned as prime minister on 11 April 1974, and gave up her Knesset seat on 7 June 1974. She never held office again. She believed that was the "will of the people" and that she had served enough time as premier. She believed the government needed to form a coalition. She said, "Five years are sufficient ... It is beyond my strength to continue carrying this burden." Yitzhak Rabin succeeded her on June 3, 1974.
== After premiership and death (1974–1978) ==
In 1975, Meir published her autobiography, My Life, which became a New York Times Best Seller.
On 21 November 1977, Meir spoke at the Knesset on behalf of the Labor Party to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat during his historic trip as the first Arab leader to visit Israeli-controlled territory. She said his visit was important for the sake of the next generations' avoiding war, praised Sadat for his courage and vision, and expressed the hope that while many differences remained to be resolved, that vision would be achieved in a spirit of mutual understanding.
On 8 December 1978, Meir died of lymphatic cancer (lymphoma) in Jerusalem at the age of 80. She was buried on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.
== Personal life ==
Meir's husband Morris Meyerson (also "Myerson") was born on 17 December 1893 in Chicago, Illinois. They married on December 24, 1917, and remained married until his death in Jerusalem on 25 May 1951. She never remarried. Despite never divorcing, the couple grew apart over the course of the marriage. When Meir took her children with her to the United States in the 1930s, Morris stayed behind in Jerusalem.
Meir had two children. Her son, Menachem, was born in Jerusalem in 1924 and died on 14 December 2014 in Tel Aviv. He was a professional cellist who studied at the Israel Conservatory and Manhattan School of Music. Her daughter Sarah was born on 17 May 1926 and died on 30 January 2010 in Revivim.
She had two sisters, Sheyna (1889–1972) and Tzipke (1902–1981), as well as five other siblings who died in childhood.
Morris, Sheyna Korngold and her husband Shamai were buried on Nahalat Yitzhak Cemetery in Givatayim.
In 1956, after becoming Foreign Minister, she changed her surname from "Meyerson" to "Meir", meaning "illuminate", as her predecessor Moshe Sharett had all members of the foreign service take a Hebrew surname.
She was a heavy smoker and coffee drinker, and did not exercise often, which may have contributed to her recurring heart problems.
Of her Jewish identity, Meir said in the 1975 edition of her autobiography My Life that:It is not only a matter, I believe, of religious observance and practice. To me, being Jewish means and has always meant being proud to be part of a people that has maintained its distinct identity for more than 2,000 years, with all the pain and torment that has been inflicted upon it.
She strongly identified with Judaism culturally, but was an atheist in religious belief. She is famously reported to have stated: "I believe in the Jewish people, and the Jewish people believe in God." In her later years she widened her religious attitude, especially concerning the State of Israel: "This country exists as the fulfillment of a promise made by God himself. It would be ridiculous to ask it to account for its legitimacy."
== Awards and recognition ==
In 1974 Meir was awarded the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service by Princeton University's American Whig–Cliosophic Society.
Also in 1974, Meir was awarded the honor of World Mother by American Mothers.
In 1975, Meir was awarded the Israel Prize for her special contribution to society and the State of Israel.
In 1985, Meir was inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame.
In 2019, Time created 89 new covers to celebrate women of the year starting from 1920; it chose her for 1956.
== Legacy ==
Biographer Meron Medzini argues that a perspective of forty years makes possible an appreciation of her deep nationalism and Zionism. Historians find her main legacy includes effective leadership of the Labor Movement, and building good relationships with Third World nations. Medzini states, "Apart from laying the foundations for Israel’s presence in Africa, she was never taken with the routine and often dull diplomatic work in the Foreign Ministry and abhorred its outer manifestations of ceremonies and rites." Most historians agree she was a success as Secretary of Labor and Housing, but a failure as prime minister.
A controversial figure in Israel, she has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. She was also criticized for her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians.
=== Portrayals in film and theater ===
Meir's story has been the subject of many fictionalized portrayals. In 1977, Anne Bancroft played Meir in William Gibson's Broadway play Golda. The Australian actress Judy Davis played a young Meir in the television film A Woman Called Golda (1982), opposite Leonard Nimoy. Ingrid Bergman played the older Meir in the same film. Actress Colleen Dewhurst portrayed Meir in the 1986 TV movie Sword of Gideon.
In 2003, American Jewish actress Tovah Feldshuh portrayed her on Broadway in Golda's Balcony, Gibson's second play about Meir's life. The play was controversial for implying that Meir considered using nuclear weapons during the Yom Kippur War. Valerie Harper portrayed Meir in the touring company production and in the film version of Golda's Balcony. In 2005, actress Lynn Cohen portrayed Meir in Steven Spielberg's film Munich.
Tovah Feldshuh assumed the role of Meir again in the 2006 English-language French movie O Jerusalem. She was played by the Polish actress Beata Fudalej in the 2009 dramatic film The Hope directed by Márta Mészáros.
English actor Helen Mirren portrayed Meir in the 2023 biopic film Golda, directed by Guy Nattiv and produced by Michael Kuhn. The film centres on the Yom Kippur War.
As of April 2021, a TV miniseries Lioness starring Shira Haas is also currently being produced and will be directed by Barbra Streisand.
=== Commemoration ===
Golda Meir House Museum and Education Center, Auraria Campus, 1149 9t Street, Denver CO 80204
Golda Meir School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Golda Meir School, in Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Golda Meir Library, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Golda Meir Boulevard, Jerusalem, Israel (and various other streets, neighborhoods and schools in Israel)
Golda Meir Center for the Performing Arts – home to the Israeli Opera and the Cameri Theater, Tel Aviv
Bust of Golda Meir at Golda Meir Square, New York City
Golda Meir Center for Political Leadership at Metropolitan State University of Denver
Golda Meir House, Denver, Colorado
Golda Meir House, Newton, Massachusetts
Golda Meir Street in the city of Kyiv
=== Cultural references ===
In Israel, the term "Golda's shoes" (na'alei Golda) has become a reference to the sturdy orthopedic shoes that Golda favored. These shoes were also supplied to women soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces from its foundation to 1987.
== Published works ==
This Is Our Strength (1962) – Golda Meir's collected papers
My Father's House (1972)
My Life (1975). Putnam, ISBN 0-399-11669-9.
== See also ==
Évian Conference
List of Israel Prize recipients
List of prime ministers of Israel
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Avner, Yehuda (2010). The Prime Ministers: An Intimate Narrative of Israeli Leadership. Toby Press. ISBN 978-1-59264-278-6. OCLC 758724969.
Burkett, Elinor (2008). Golda Meir: The Iron Lady of the Middle East. Gibson Square. ISBN 978-1-906142-13-1.
Medzini, Meron. "Golda Meir–A Forty Year Perspective." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 73-85. online
== Further reading ==
Agrees, Elijahu (1969). Golda Meir: Portrait of a Prime Minister. Sabra Books. ISBN 0-87631-020-X.
Bachleitner, Kathrin. "Golda Meir and Bruno Kreisky–A Political and Personal Duel." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 26-49. online; in 1973 she clashed with leader of Austria regarding Palestinian terrorist attacks against Jewish transit through Vienna.
Fallaci, Oriana (1976). Interview With History. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-25223-7.
Klagsbrun, Francine (2017). Lioness: Golda Meir and the Nation of Israel. Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-80524-237-9., a standard scholarly biography; excerpt
Lahav, Pnina. "“A Great Episode in the History of Jewish Womanhood”: Golda Meir, the Women Workers' Council, Pioneer Women, and the Struggle for Gender Equality." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 1-25. online
Martin, Ralph G. (1988). Golda Meir: The Romantic Years. Ivy Books. ISBN 0-8041-0536-7., popular online
Meir, Menahem (1983). My Mother Golda Meir: A Son's Evocation of Life With Golda Meir. Arbor House Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87795-415-1.
Medzini, Meron. Golda Meir: A Political Biography (2017) excerpt; a standard scholarly biography
Medzini, Meron. Golda Meir: A Reference Guide to Her Life and Works (2020) excerpt
Skard, Torild (2014) "Golda Meir" in Women of Power – Half a century of female presidents and prime ministers worldwide. Bristol: Policy Press, ISBN 978-1-44731-578-0.
Steinberg, Blema S. Women in power: The personalities and leadership styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2008).
Syrkin, Marie (1969). Golda Meir: Israel's Leader. Putnam., highly flattering
Syrkin, Marie (1963). Golda Meir: Woman with a Cause.
Tsoref, Hagai. "Golda Meir's Leadership in the Yom Kippur War." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 50-72. online Archived September 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Weitz, Yechiam. "Golda Meir, Israel's Fourth Prime Minister (1969–74)." Middle Eastern Studies 47.1 (2011): 43-61. online
=== Historiography ===
Schmidt, Sarah. "Hagiography in the diaspora: Golda Meir and her biographers." American Jewish History 92.2 (2004): 157-188. online
== External links ==
Golda Meir on the Knesset website
Golda Meir at the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Meir, Golda (née Mabovitch; 1898–1978) at the Jewish Agency For Israel
Women's International Center
The short film Golda Meir Interview (Reel 1 of 2) (1973) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
The short film Golda Meir Interview (Reel 2 of 2) (1973) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
Video Lecture on Golda Meir by Henry Abramson
Prime Minister Golda Meir, Exhibition in the IDF&Defense establishment archives Archived March 29, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
Golda Meir Personal Manuscripts, Shapell Manuscript Foundation
The Golda Meir Mount Carmel International Training Center (MCTC) – established in 1961 to assist in the training of women engaged in community work in the newly emerging states in Africa and Asia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqbool_Bhat#Political_career | Maqbool Bhat | Maqbool Bhat (18 February 1938 – 11 February 1984) was a Kashmiri separatist, who went to Pakistan and founded the National Liberation Front (NLF), which was a precursor to the present day Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF). He is called the "Father of the Nation of Kashmir(Baba-e-Qaum)" by the locals. He was arrested and sentenced to a double death sentence. He was hanged on 11 February 1984 in Tihar Jail in Delhi.
== Early life ==
Muhammad Maqbool Bhat was born on 18 February 1938 in the Trehgam in the Kashmir Valley of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu in British India (now Jammu and Kashmir, India) into a Kashmiri Muslim family. His father was called Ghulam Qadir Bhat. His mother died when Maqbool was 11 years old, and his father remarried.
After studying locally, Bhat studied at the St. Joseph's School and College in Baramulla, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History and Political Science around 1957.
== Political career ==
The feudal system under the princely state and the politics of Sheikh Abdullah after independence shaped Bhat's political views. During the college days, he was involved with the student activities of the Plebiscite Front (founded by Mirza Afzal Beg when Sheikh Abdullah was in prison for canvassing for independence). In December 1957, Sheikh Abdullah was released, leading to agitations. He was rearrested in April 1958. The student activists of the Plebiscite Front were also targeted at this time, causing Maqbool Bhat to leave for Pakistan in August 1958.
Bhat joined the Peshawar University, studying for an MA Urdu Literature in Peshawar, Pakistan He worked for some time as a journalist for the local newspaper Anjaam. In 1961, Bhat contested in the 'Basic Democracy' elections introduced by President Ayub Khan's military regime, and won the Kashmiri diaspora seat from Peshawar. The elected government of K. H. Khurshid lasted till 1964, when Pakistan forced its resignation.
In April 1965, the Azad Kashmir Plebiscite Front was formed in Muzaffarabad at the initiative of Abdul Khaliq Ansari, its president, and Amanullah Khan, its general secretary. Maqbool Bhat was appointed as the publicity secretary, owing to his journalistic background. Journalist Arif Jamal states that, the participants drove to an unguarded location of the Kashmir Line of Control at Suchetgarh and, bringing back soil from the Indian-held Kashmir, took an oath that they would work exclusively for the liberation of Jammu and Kashmir.
Amanullah Khan and Maqbool Bhat also wanted to set up an armed wing for the Plebiscite Front, but the proposal did not get the majority support in the Plebiscite Front. Undeterred, they established an underground group called National Liberation Front (NLF), obtaining some support for it in August 1965. The group was fashioned after the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale. Major Amanullah, a former soldier in the Azad Kashmir forces, was in charge of the armed wing while Amanullah Khan and Mir Abdul Qayoom took charge of the political and financial wings. Maqbool Bhat was made responsible for the overall coordination. All the members swore in blood that they would be ready to sacrifice their lives for the objective of the NLF, viz., to create conditions in Jammu and Kashmir that enable its people to demand self-determination. The organisation was successful in recruiting members from Azad Kashmir, and obtained backing from the bureaucracy of the state.
== Militancy ==
=== First reentry ===
For ten months, The NLF recruited and trained a cadre of militants in the use of explosives and small arms. On 10 June 1966, two groups of NLF crossed into Jammu and Kashmir. The first group consisting of Maqbool Bhat, a student from Gilgit called Tahir Aurangzeb, an immigrant from Jammu called Mir Ahmad, and a retired subedar called Kala Khan, went around the cities to find recruit and set up secret cells. The second group, under Major Amanullah, trained the recruit in sabotage activities in the forests of Kupwara. However, in September 1966, Bhat's group was compromised near Srinagar. The group kidnapped a CID police inspector called Amar Chand as a hostage and, when he tried to escape, shot and killed him. The police mounted a search and zeroed in on them, leading to an exchange of fire in the Kunial village near Handwara. A member of Bhat's group, Kala Khan, was killed. Bhat and Mir Ahmad were captured and tried for sabotage and murder, receiving death sentences from a Srinagar court in September 1968. Major Amanullah's wing waiting to receive the volunteers at the Line of Control retreated, but it was arrested by the Pakistan Army.
Maqbool Bhat's arrest brought the group's activities into the open, and sharply divided the Plebiscite Front. Nevertheless, they declared it an unconstitutional body and "banned" it. Meanwhile, Maqbool Bhat and Mir Ahmad escaped from the Indian prison in December 1968, along with another inmate Ghulam Yasin, tunneling their way out of the prison complex. They returned to Azad Kashmir in January 1969, creating a sensation in the militant circles. Their standing increased within the community, forcing the Plebiscite Front to abandon its opposition. However, the NLF's failed operations in Jammu and Kashmir put at risk all its sympathisers in the state, many of whom were arrested.
Their escape from an Indian prison was viewed with suspicion by Pakistan. Bhat and his colleagues were detained and brutally interrogated for several months. Long after their release, Bhat was still suspected of being a double agent. Pakistan extended little support to the other Indian youth that crossed over into Azad Kashmir for arms and training. Praveen Swami suggests that, as Pakistan was waging a covert war through its own network in Jammu and Kashmir, it did not want those official operations jeopardised by the amateur operators of the NLF.
=== Ganga hijacking ===
Hashim Qureshi, a Srinagar resident who went to Peshawar on family business in 1969, met Maqbool Bhat and got inducted into the NLF. He was given an ideological education and lessons in guerrilla tactics in Rawalpindi. In order to draw the world's attention to the Kashmiri independence movement, the group planned an airline hijacking fashioned after the Dawson's Field hijackings by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Hashim Qureshi, along with his cousin Ashraf Qureshi, was ordered to execute one. A former Pakistani air force pilot Jamshed Manto trained him for the task. However, Qureshi was arrested by the Indian Border Security Force when he tried to reenter into Jammu & Kashmir, India via LoC with arms and equipment. He negotiated his way out by claiming to help find other conspirators that were allegedly in the Indian territory, sought an appointment in the Border Security Force to provide such help. Maqbool Bhat sent Qureshi replacement equipment for the hijacking, but it fell into the hands of a double agent, who then turned it over to the Indian authorities. Undeterred, the Qureshis made look-alike explosives out of wood and hijacked an Indian Airlines plane called Ganga on 30 January 1971.
The hijackers landed the plane at Lahore and demanded the release of 36 NLF prisoners lodged in Indian jails. However, they succumbed to pressure from the airport authorities and ended up releasing all the passengers and the crew. Years later, Ashraf Qureshi admitted that they were naive and didn't realise that "the passengers were more important than the actual plane." Pakistan's Prime Minister Zulfikar Bhutto showed up at the airport and paid a handsome tribute to the hijackers. Indian Government then refused to carry out the demands. The plane lay on the tarmac for eighty hours, during which the Pakistani security personnel thoroughly searched the air plane and removed papers and postal bags they found in it. Eventually, upon the advice of the authorities, Hashim Qureshi burnt the plane down.
For some time, the Qureshis were lauded as heroes. After India reacted by banning overflight of Pakistani planes over India, the Pakistani authorities claimed that the hijack was staged by India, and arrested the hijackers and all their collaborators. A one-man investigation committee headed by Justice Noorul Arifeen declared the hijacking to be an Indian conspiracy, citing Qureshi's appointment in the Border Security Force. In addition to the hijackers, Maqbool Bhat and 150 other NLF fighters were arrested. Seven people were eventually brought to trial (the rest being held without charges). The High Court acquitted them of treason charges. Hashim Qureshi alone was sentenced to seven years in prison. Ironically, Ashraf Qureshi was released even though he was an equal participant in the hijacking. This is said to have been a deal made by Zulfikar Bhutto , by now the President of Pakistan, who declared that he would convict one hijacker but release the other.
Amanullah Khan was also imprisoned for 15 months in a Gilgit prison during 1970-72, accused of being an Indian agent. He was released after protests broke out in Gilgit. Thirteen of his colleagues were sentenced to 14 years in prison, but released after a year. According to Hashim Qureshi, 400 activists of the Plebiscite Front and NLF were arrested in Pakistan after the Ganga hijacking. Abdul Khaliq Ansari, who was arrested and tortured, testified in the High Court that the Ganga hijacking had emboldened the people to question the corrupt practices of the Azad Kashmir leaders and, in reaction, the government arrested them and forced them to confess to being Indian agents.
=== Second reentry ===
Further attempts by the NLF to infiltrate into Jammu & Kashmir, India also met with failure. The organisation did not have enough funds and infrastructure, or support from other sources, to make an impact inside India.
In May 1976, Maqbool Bhat reentered Jammu & Kashmir. He was encouraged by the student protests against the 1974 Indira-Sheikh accord, by which Sheikh Abdullah surrendered his demand and joined Indian system. Bhat attempted to rob a bank in Kupwara. A bank employee was killed in the course of the robbery. Bhat was rearrested and received a second death sentence.
=== JKLF ===
Bhat's arrest effectively broke the back of the NLF in Azad Kashmir. Amanullah Khan moved to England, where he received the enthusiastic support of the British Mirpuri community. The UK chapter of the Plebiscite Front was converted into the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) in May 1977 and formed an armed wing called the `National Liberation Army'. Amanullah Khan took charge as the General Secretary of JKLF the following February.
Several attempts were made by different Kashmiri groups for the release of Maqbool Bhat, including the hijacking of an Indian plane by Abdul Hameed Diwani in 1976 and an unsuccessful attempt to blow up the Delhi conference hall of Non Alignment Movement in 1981. In the first week of February 1984, the ‘National Liberation Army’ of JKLF kidnapped an Indian diplomat Ravindra Mhatre from the Indian consulate in Birmingham. They demanded the release of Maqbool Bhat and a sum of money from the Indian government but killed him just two days after abduction.
== Death ==
Within a week of the diplomat's killing, Bhat's petition for clemency was rejected. He was executed in the Tihar Jail in New Delhi on 11 February 1984, amidst heavy security. Bhat was described as calm and composed, who did not "utter any word as he was being taken to the gallows".
His body was buried within the Tihar Jail premises against his wishes. High-ranking officials in the government said that the hanging was meant to signal a harder line against political violence.
Sporadic incidents of protest against Bhat's execution were reported in the newspapers, which were described as "tremors of tension". In Trehgam, no shops opened for four consecutive days. In old Srinagar, streets were deserted even though there was no call for any bandh. The police had already arrested around 1,000 opposition members in the preceding days in order to preempt protests.
Abdul Ghani Lone, then a member of the legislative assembly, described the hanging as "judicial murder". Bhat's lawyers called it a "political and hasty decision".
They believed it was a violation of Bhat's constitutional rights to hang him in haste.
== Legacy ==
Five years after Bhat’s hanging, the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) launched a militant movement for the separation of the UT of Jammu & Kashmir from India. Since his death, the JKLF has demanded that the mortal remains of the party's founder, which were buried inside the Tihar Jail, be handed over. Separatist leaders also call for shutdown each year, which is observed in the Valley to mark his anniversary of death. JKLF announced a ceasefire in 1994.
On 4 November 1989, JKLF militants allegedly shot dead judge Neelkanth Ganjoo, who had presided over the Amar Chand murder trial, and declared sentence of death on Maqbool Bhat.
== See also ==
All Parties Hurriyat Conference
Syed Ali Shah Geelani
Kashmir conflict
2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bhat, Gh. Rasool (February 2015), "Social Background and Political Ideology of Maqbool Bhat (18th February 1938 – 11th February 1984)", Research Directions, 2 (8), CiteSeerX 10.1.1.672.6784, ISSN 2321-5488
Jamal, Arif (2009), Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir, Melville House, ISBN 978-1-933633-59-6
Faheem, Farrukh (27 April 2013), "Kashmir: Dead Men Do Tell Tales", Economic and Political Weekly, 48 (17): 18–21, JSTOR 23527180
Schofield, Victoria (2003) [First published in 2000], Kashmir in Conflict, London and New York: I. B. Taurus & Co, ISBN 1860648983
Snedden, Christopher (2013) [first published as The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir, 2012], Kashmir: The Unwritten History, HarperCollins India, ISBN 978-9350298985
Staniland, Paul (2014), Networks of Rebellion: Explaining Insurgent Cohesion and Collapse, Cornell University Press, pp. 68–, ISBN 978-0-8014-7102-5
Swami, Praveen (2007), India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad: The covert war in Kashmir, 1947-2004, Asian Security Studies, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-40459-4
== Further reading ==
"Pakistan Moves to Block March By Supporters of a Free Kashmir". The New York Times. 11 February 1992.
"The Rediff Interview/Jammu and Kashmir Democratic Liberation Front Chief Hashim Qureshi". Rediff.com. 14 February 2001.
== External links ==
Maqbool Butt Foundation Archived 13 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Sagar_Sarowar_and_Meherun_Runi#Second_investigation | Murder of Sagar Sarowar and Meherun Runi | The murder of Sagar Sarowar and Meherun Runi (also known as the Sagar-Runi murder case) is about the unsolved double murder case of two well-known, married Bangladeshi journalists who were stabbed to death in 2012. The case is still open.
Rumors have been circulating for a long time that the Awami League and India were involved in the BDR murders because they had secret information about them.
Leaked call records recently revealed evidence that the Sagar-Runi murders were carried out by MP Shaon's killer squad, under the direct orders of the then Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, who is currently ousted and in exile in India.
The couple's murder received high-level political attention and widespread media coverage in Bangladesh, and attracted German interest as Sarowar had lived in Germany and had worked as a journalist for Deutsche Welle. The case was also closely watched by journalists and international press freedom organisations. The couple's murder also unified organisations representing Bangladeshi journalists that had once been separate.
A representative of the family said, "In the past 25 years, this has been the most talked/written about, prioritized case in Bangladesh." A demonstration was called in 2017 for the fifth anniversary of the murder in order to call for the release of the investigation report.
== Biographical and career information ==
Golam Mustofa Sarowar was better known as Sagar Sarowar. His family is from old Dhaka. He was a broadcast news editor for Maasranga Television since December 2011. He had previously worked for Deutsche Welle's Bangla service for three years as part of the German broadcaster's South Asia department in Bonn, Germany. Before Deutsche Welle he worked in print as a columnist and a reporter for Ittefaq (ca. 1997), Jugantor, and Sangbad. He was known as an energy reporter and his work also appeared in the trade magazine Platts Oilgram News. He was a founder and leader of the Forum for Energy Reporters Bangladesh (FERB) and an editor-in-chief for the online magazine Energy Bangla. Sarowar was a director on the nine-member board of FERB, which created a network of energy reporters across the subcontinent. In addition, Sarowar was known as a blogger, and he also wrote for the OhMyNews citizen journalism website for a brief time (c. 2006–2007).
Meherun Nahar Runi was a senior television reporter for ATN Bangla, where she had been working at least since 2001. Before that she worked in broadcast media for Channel i and in print media for Sangbad and Jugantor. She also frequently reported on energy issues in Bangladesh. She was also known as a crime reporter.
The couple had one son, who was five years old at the time of their murder.
They are buried in old Dhaka in the Azimpur graveyard. It is a well-known graveyard for Dhaka citizens who are Muslim.
== Death ==
The married Bangladeshi couple, Sagar and Runi, lived with their five-year-old child on the fourth floor of a five-story building in the West Raja Bazar neighbourhood (mahallah) of Dhaka. Neighbors say that Sarowar and Runi had more than one person in the apartment as guests before they were killed.
Sarowar didn't leave his office at Maasranga until about 1:30 a.m. on the morning of 11 February 2012. From information gathered from a security guard, police believe the couple was killed some time after Sarowar arrived home and before the dawn Fajr prayer, which occurs before sunrise. According to sources, this would place the murder event sometime between 2 and 5 in the morning. Each victim died of multiple stabbing wounds, and sources said Sarowar's limbs were tied and he had the most stab wounds. Their son woke up at around 7 a.m. and discovered his parents dead in a pool of blood and called Runi's mother sometime around 7:30 a.m. by a cell phone. The site became an active crime scene around 11 a.m.
The crime scene showed evidence that it had been searched and the couple's possessions were strewn around the apartment. A kitchen window grill was cut and had an opening of approximately 1.8 feet, which Imam Hossain, deputy commissioner with the Tejgaon police, said would be too small for an adult to pass through.
== Investigations ==
=== Initial investigation ===
Investigators from two different main law enforcement agencies arrived at the crime scene around 11 a.m. on 11 February. The investigation fell under the jurisdiction of Bangladesh Police from Tejgaon Thana, a subdistrict of the Dhaka District, but was also being investigated by the intelligence branch of the Rapid Action Battalion. The RAB was founded in 2004 as a paramilitary arm of the police. Since the couple was well known, the crime scene attracted the attention of those in the upper echelon of Dhaka's law enforcement, as well as politicians. Among the law enforcement officials at the couple's apartment were Hassan Mahmood Khandker, who is the inspector general of the Bangladesh Police, and Benajir Ahmed, commissioner of the Dhaka metropolitan police. The Dhaka Courier reported that 14 teams were sent to the crime scene. Days after the investigation began, journalists from the Crime Reporters Association of Bangladesh reported that the two organisations were working independently from one another.
A number of politicians and other high-placed individuals visited the crime scene. Home Minister Sahara Khatun ordered the Bangladesh Police to arrest the murderers of Sagar and Runi within 48 hours. Later, the police told the family that the traffic through the residence had damaged evidence. The traffic through the crime scene could have also contaminated the DNA samples that were later discovered in the labs. Another Home Minister—Muhiuddin Khan Alamgir, who was appointed in September 2012—said after a year had passed, "Journalists and common people destroyed all the important evidences from the spot before police could reach there."
One of the two security guards was initially detained but was released shortly thereafter, and then he disappeared until his arrest almost one year after the case began.
The autopsies in the case were conducted at Dhaka Medical College. The autopsy revealed that possibly three knives were used during the murder. No viscera test was conducted during the autopsy, which was later criticised. The bodies were later exhumed for further testing.
Nowsher Alam Roman, who is Runi's brother represented both families, and he officially filed the couple's murder case with the police over a day after the murder was discovered. Officer Rabiul Alam was the assigned to be the lead detective in the case and headed the investigation for the next two months.
=== Second investigation ===
After two months and passing of deadlines issued by the Home Minister, justices ruled on a petition by Human Rights and Peace for Bangladesh and said the case had become stalled. The similarities between the stalled investigation in the Sagar-Runi murder case and another high-profile murder of a Saudi Arabian diplomat, Khalaf Al-Ali, on 6 March, along with the political pressure exerted in both cases on investigators, prompted Professor M. Shahiduzzaman from the University of Dhaka to call the latter case "a sequel". By order of the High Court in Bangladesh on 18 April 2012, the Sagar-Runi murder case was reassigned from the Detective Branch to the RAB, both of which are under the Bangladesh Police. The court called for the new investigators to use of advanced criminal investigation technologies. And the court also established a monitoring committee that was to be headed by a member of the police who achieved inspector general rank or higher and would be composed of journalists, lawyers, human rights activists, academicians and non-government organisations and other agencies. Zafar Ullah was appointed the lead investigating officer for the RAB. In late May 2013, Hasanul Haq Inu, information minister, told journalists the government was still analysing the DNA tests against the suspects and the investigation was proceeding according to law.
On 26 April 2012, the RAB with a court order oversaw the exhumation of the corpses at the Azimpur cemetery for a viscera test. The RAB said that the viscera test was for checking whether the couple had been poisoned and for DNA. Nowsher Alam Roman, who represented the families, was also present. The samples were sent to a lab in the United States for analysis. In August 2012, it was announced that two US labs had discovered the DNA of others and the RAB announced it would at a later date test the DNA samples of suspects for a match. After the announcement, the RAB then came under criticism from Bangladesh's National DNA Profiling Laboratory Programme. The RAB had suggested that the analysis could not have been done by a domestic lab when the Programme said it had handled over 1800 cases since 2006 and they would have been able to use the same technologies in Bangladesh.
After one year, 127 people had been interviewed about the case. The RAB also conducted videotaped interviews of the six-year-old son and those images were shown on national television.
Even after a decade, no progress has been made in the investigation. The investigation probe report has been delayed 91 times as of 24 August 2022.
=== Suspects ===
The names of 8 suspects were announced by Home Minister MK Alamgir in October 2012. Alamgir had been appointed the new Home Minister in September. The RAB arrested seven suspects around 9 October for their alleged involvement in the double murder, and the organisation made another related arrest on 9 February 2013. The father of Enamul, the suspect who was arrested in 2013, was reported missing 27 September 2012, shortly before the arrests in the case. Alamgir reported that several of the suspects were also alleged to be suspects in the murder of Dr Narayan Chandra Datta Nitai. At the time of the arrests in 2012, no motive was revealed but police alleged that several of the arrested were professional killers for hire.
Rafique Islam, alleged robber
Bakul Miah, alleged robber
Masum Mintu Peyada, alleged robber
Md Sayeed Sayeed, alleged robber
Tanvir Rahman, Runi's acquaintance
Kamrul Hassan Arun, driver
Palash Rudra Paul, security guard
Humayun alias Enamul, security guard – He was arrested on 9 February 2013.
The families of the victims were sceptical that the announced, alleged suspects were the perpetrators. In late January 2013, the RAB announced that the DNA identified by the labs had failed to match 13 samples, including samples from the suspects. Journalists had also been sceptical that the suspects were the perpetrators.
=== Calls for an international commission ===
After a year-long investigation by the Bangladesh Police, the case was called stalled. One NGO specialising in press freedom and security, Reporters Without Borders, requested an international commission be established. This was also requested by the families.
== Motive ==
Lieutenant Colonel Ziaul Ahsan, then officer in charge from RAB in this investigation said, investigators believed the murder was pre-meditated and committed by someone who knew the victims. Police said at least two people murdered the couple. At first police reported that nothing was stolen, but later reports said Sarowar's laptop computer and cell phones could be missing. Another report, however, claimed that police had retrieved three cell phones as evidence. But in the petition brought to the High Court, it was learned that the couple's computers and laptops had been stolen.
Police announced 26 February 2012 they were "almost certain" about the motive. However, the motive was never made public by investigators. More than a month after the murder, the organisation Human Rights and Peace for Bangladesh appealed to the High Court of Bangladesh on the question of whether the police should reveal the motive and report their progress. In response to the case, the police were obliged to deliver a report to the court for informational purposes. The defendants in the case were the two law enforcement units and the Home Minister. By 18 April, when the High Court reassigned the case to RAB, the police admitted that it had not discovered a motive.
Journalists identified stories that both Sarowar and Runi were working on that could possibly have been a motive for violence. Runi's reporting involved corruption in Bangladesh's energy industry and Sarowar was working on violence and minority rights. The online magazine about free speech Sampsonia Way reported that a rumour in Dhaka about the motive was that the couple had sensitive information about land acquisition by a "powerful corporation". The Committee to Protect Journalists has not verified their murder was related to their reporting.
Mahfuzur Rahman, chairman of ATN Bangla where Runi worked, later publicly asserted that the murder motive involved an extramarital affair and at the same time took a case to court to stop journalists from protesting to push for charges to be filed. While his case included names of 59 journalists active in protests, Rahman did not include the names of his own employees. Journalist organisations responded angrily. Rahman lost his case. After Rahman's statement, the RAB interviewed him at the RAB's Uttara office.
In observing the first anniversary of the murder, the International Federation of Journalists said that law enforcement had failed to "establish a motive". Monjurul Ahsan Bulbul, Boishakhi TV CEO, said to an audience of journalists, "If the government failed to unearth the mystery of Sagar-Runi murder, we can unearth the mystery through investigative reports."
== Context ==
=== Crime ===
According to official Dhaka police records, there were 23 reported murders in February 2012, including the Sagar-Runi murder case, but media reports revealed that more murders were not reported or recorded.
=== Politics ===
Bangladesh's politicians quickly became involved in the high-profile double murder case. Initial statements to the media were given by President Zillur Rahman, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed of the Awami League party and BNP Chairperson Khaleda Zia. Shortly after the murder, Home Minister Sahara Khatun delivered a statement that police would apprehend the perpetrator or perpetrators within 48 hours. A case was filed 36 hours after the discovery of the murder, and the document did not list any suspected name. Khatun issued another statement closer to the deadline that suggested imminent progress. She delivered a further promise in April after journalists announced a nationwide action.
The crime scene was visited by a number of high-profile Bangladeshis active in politics:
Sahara Khatun, who was a member of the cabinet as home minister
Mahbubul Haque Shakil, special assistant to Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina
Mirza Fakhrul Islam Alamgir, Bangladesh Nationalist Party acting secretary general
AAMS Arefin Siddique, vice-chancellor of Dhaka University
Syed Fahim Munaim, Maasranga Television CEO
Mirza Fakhrul Islam Alamgir, who is a leader from the opposition BNP told reporters, "We've been saying repeatedly that the country is turning into a slaughter ground gradually. This brutal killing again proves there is no law and order and rule of law in the country." The Dhaka Courier countered that calling the country a "slaughter ground" was made to score political points.
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina met two days after the murder with family members representing Sarowar and Runi, along with their son, and she told them that she would see to it that their son would educated and there would be no impunity in the couple's case and justice would be quick. The Prime Minister later criticised journalists for carrying out demonstrations and at other times praised them for raising awareness. In a widely repeated quote in connection with the case, she said the government could not protect everyone by posting a guard outside their bedrooms. She also told party members that more journalists were killed when her political opponents were in power.
=== Press freedom in Bangladesh ===
According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, twelve journalists have been confirmed killed for their reporting in Bangladesh since the organisation first started keeping records in 1992, while six others remain unconfirmed. Of the 18 cases, only three led to convictions. The CPJ has ranked Bangladesh eleventh on its Impunity Index for countries with the most unsolved crimes for the murder of journalists from 2001 through 2010. Journalists Jamal Uddin of Gramer Kagoj and Talhad Ahmed Kabid of Dainik Narsingdi Bani were also killed in 2012.
In 2015, Bangladesh was 146th out of 180 countries in the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index and it has been on the decline since at least 2011. The organisation expressed concern over impunity in Bangladesh murder cases involving journalists.
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, who leads the Awami League party, claimed 16 journalists were killed while the coalition of the BNP, Jamaat-e-Islami and other smaller political parties controlled government.
== Impact ==
=== Domestic media coverage ===
Journalists covered the death of one of their own. In Bangladesh, the double murder of the high-profile media couple received significant exposure. Prominent people in politics, education, law enforcement and media visited the crime scene.
The couple's 5-year-old son, who discovered his parents murdered and had to call for help, was frequently mentioned in news stories. Some journalists interviewed the boy about his discovery shortly after the murder. The ethics of those reporters were questioned at the time in light of a 2010 UNESCO report "Ethical Reporting on and for Children". Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina criticised the news media for both interviewing the couple's son and for destroying evidence.
=== Protests by journalists ===
The murder of the two journalists unified reporters across Bangladesh. Bangladesh Federal Union of Journalists and Dhaka Union of Journalists, that had been separate since 1992, began to work together to organise rallies, actions such hunger strikes, panel discussions, and lobbying efforts to pressure politicians and police for action.
The mobilisation of journalists began immediately after their murder and funerals. The Dhaka Union of Journalists rallied as early as 12 February. The Bangladesh Federal Union of Journalists, Dhaka Union of Journalists, National Press Club, Dhaka Reporters Unity, and Crime Association Bangladesh united for a human chain and nationwide rally 22 February.
Journalists held a symbolic hunger strike and work stoppage for one hour on 27 February 2012. Further hunger strikes were held 1 March and 23 December.
The held another grand rally around 18 March 2012 and in different districts and a further sit-in on 8 April.
After the Home Minister Sahara Khatun assured them the police would produce results in the case soon, journalists stood down.
On 5 June 2012, journalists delivered written correspondence for the Speaker in support of laws to protect the safety of journalists.
On 26 June 2012, journalists marched toward the Prime Minister's office.
In addition, the journalists organised panels discussion their professional perspective about the Sagar-Runi case and its handling by the police and government. On the first anniversary a panel of journalists was assembled with participation by Monjurul Ahsan Bulbul, Boishakhi TV CEO; A B M Musa, a columnist for Prothom Alo; Samakal editor Golam Sarowar; Shahed Chowdhury, who is president of Dhaka Reporters Unity; Iqbal Sobhan Chowdhury, editor of The Bangladesh Observer and president of the BFUJ; Ruhul Amin Gazi, a president within the BFUJ organisation; Kamal Uddin Sabuj, president of the Jatiya Press Club; and Syed Abdal Ahmad with the Jatiya Press Club.
Journalists clashed with Home Minister Muhiuddin Khan Alamgir when he made negative remarks at a press conference about the families' lack of co-operation that journalists said were unfounded. Alamgir had prefaced his remarks by going off the record and withdrew his statement when journalists reacted to his assertion.
=== European protests ===
In Germany, Bangladeshi expatriates, Germans and citizens from other European countries met in Frankfurt and Bonn protested the lack of results in the double murder investigation. The protesters were attempting to create publicity to get the attention of the United Nations and EU politicians. A human chain was formed around the UN building in Bonn.
=== Reactions ===
Irina Bokova, director-general of UNESCO, said the murder of the couple was "is an intolerable attack on the profession and on the fundamental human right for freedom of expression."
The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) released the following statement: "Journalists in Bangladesh have waged a long and arduous battle to improve security conditions and the IFJ believes that this terrible double murder threatens to set back gains achieved in recent months and years."
Information Minister Hasanul Haq Inu said, "The killing of all the journalists, including Sagar-Runi, is disgraceful for democracy, and our duty is to remove it."
After one year with no progress in the case, Nowsher Alam Roman, Runi's brother, said, "For the last year, we have been struggling with agony, frustration and fear. Words fail to make any sense of our sufferings. All these days we have been continuously pacified by fake sympathy and promises of capturing the perpetrators and ensuring justice."
The IFJ-Asia Pacific, released another statement at the one-year mark: "We share the anguish of our Bangladeshi colleagues, at the slow pace of investigations and the failure to establish any manner of motive for this brutal double murder."
The Daily Star (Bangladesh) published an editorial summing up sentiment: "... today it is not just the families of Sagar and Runi but also people across the spectrum who remain skeptical about the authorities being able to actually take the matter to a definitive, credible conclusion."
In 2012, in an end-of-the-year, unsigned editorial, the Dhaka Courier wrote, "The gruesome murder of the journalist couple Sagar-Runi still remains unresolved and this will be taken to the coming year by the media with force. The government has failed totally in providing any satisfactory explanation for the murder of the journalists, though from time to time an array of salacious motives were mentioned along with the names of prominent men."
Saleha Manir, who is Sagar Sarowar's mother, addressed journalists at a rally, "The government had declared a 48-hour ultimatum to arrest the murderers. I want to know, how many days more will I have to count to see full 48 hours?"
== Notable quotations/statements ==
The following quotes were widely reported or the source of additional commentary after their expression:
Home Minister Sahara Khatun told law enforcement to arrest the Sagar-Runi murderers within 48 hours.
Mirza Fakhrul Islam Alamgir, a BNP leader and opponent of the ruling Awami League party, said, "... the country is turning into a slaughter ground gradually. This brutal killing again proves there is no law and order and rule of law in the country."
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina: "Government can't guard one's bedroom."
== Exhibits ==
Sagar-Runi: Crime Scene, Do Not Cross, an exhibition of photographs, documents and personal possessions about the Sagar-Runi family and their case, 11–13 February 2013, Drik Gallery, Dhanmondi Thana, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
== See also ==
List of journalists killed in Bangladesh
List of unsolved murders (2000–present)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukpe-okhue#:~:text=The%20ukpe%2Dokhue%20(Edo%20for,%22royal%22)%20cylindrical%20beads. | Ukpe-okhue | The ukpe-okhue (Edo for "parrot's beak") is a crown traditionally worn by the Iyoba (queen mother) of the Oba of Benin. It is formed of a snood-like net of precious coral beadwork, using ileke ("royal") cylindrical beads.
This type of crown was originated, and first worn, by the original queen mother Idia, the first woman granted the privilege to wear ileke beads.
Named after a parrot's beak, it is a pointed hat, with its shape somewhat resembling a Phrygian cap with its point curving forward.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bader_Award#:~:text=2000,Thomas%20L.%20Gilchrist | Bader Award | The Bader Award is a prize for organic chemistry awarded annually by the Royal Society of Chemistry since 1989. The winner, who receives £2,000 and a medal, gives a lecture tour in the UK.
== Winners ==
Source:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Hug | Ed Hug | Edward Ambrose Hug (July 14, 1880 – May 11, 1953) was an American Major League Baseball catcher. He played in one game for the Brooklyn Superbas in 1903. Hug's sole Major League appearance came in the second game of a doubleheader in Cincinnati on July 6. He was a local amateur catcher at the time and was called upon to relieve a fatigued Lew Ritter in the fifth inning. He walked in his only plate appearance. The game was called in the seventh inning, to allow the Brooklyn team to catch their train out of town.
Hug shares the major league records for the shortest name and the shortest career.
He is buried at New St. Joseph Cemetery in Cincinnati.
== References ==
== External links ==
Career statistics from Baseball Reference · Fangraphs · Baseball Reference (Minors) · Retrosheet · Baseball Almanac |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peso_Pluma | Peso Pluma | Hassan Emilio Kabande Laija (born 15 June 1999), known professionally as Peso Pluma, is a Mexican singer and rapper recognized for his work in regional Mexican music, particularly corridos tumbados. Kabande began playing guitar in his teens and started writing songs influenced by regional Mexican styles. He achieved moderate recognition with his first two studio albums, Ah y Qué? (2020) and Efectos Secundarios (2021). He rose to fame with the singles "Por Las Noches" and the RIAA-certified "El Belicón" (with Raúl Vega). This success was followed by the EP Sembrando (2022) and the controversial "Siempre Pendientes" (with Luis R. Conriquez), which marked his first entry on the Billboard Global 200.
His collaborations with Natanael Cano, including "AMG" (with Gabito Ballesteros) and "PRC", went viral on TikTok and charted on the US Billboard Hot 100. During the week of 29 April 2023, his duet with Eslabón Armado, "Ella Baila Sola", became the first regional Mexican song to reach the top 10 of the Hot 100, peaking at number 4. That same week, Kabande achieved a record-breaking eight simultaneous entries on the chart, the most ever for a Mexican artist. The song was also the fifth most-streamed globally on Spotify in 2023.
His third studio album, Génesis (2023), earned him his first Grammy Award for Best Música Mexicana Album (including Tejano) and became his first album to reach the top 10 on the Billboard 200. His fourth studio album, the double album Éxodo (2024), debuted at number 5 on the same chart, marking two consecutive top 10 albums in the US. Known for his distinctive fusion of Sinaloa-style sierreño corridos with Urbano music; specifically Latin hip hop and reggaeton, Kabande is considered a key figure in the revival of the corrido and is currently Mexico's most-streamed artist of all time.
== Life and career ==
Hassan Emilio Kabande Laija was born on 15 June 1999, in Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico to Hassan Kabande and Rubí Laija. The relatives of his mother were residents of Badiraguato, Sinaloa. Both parents were born in Mexico; his father was born in Chiapas and is of Lebanese descent, his ancestors emigrating from Bethlehem in the early 1900s. Growing up in Guadalajara, he began playing the guitar at age 15 by watching videos on YouTube. Kabande started writing songs in a diary, admitting to being ridiculed by peers. Describing his initial approach to songwriting, he explained how writing became his therapy: "That’s where I’d write how I was feeling, then I realized some stuff would rhyme. I kept practicing and became better with time."
=== 2020–2021: Career beginnings ===
After years of writing music together, Kabande worked with his cousin, fellow singer and songwriter, Roberto "Tito" Laija Garcia, also known as Tito Double P, on releasing two live albums, Disco en Vivo on 21 February 2020 and Disco en Vivo, Vol. 2 on 4 July. Published by the independent label El Cartel de los Ángeles, the collections consisted of recordings of his performances around Jalisco. In April 2020, he released his debut studio album, Ah y Qué? featuring twelve songs and collaborations with El Choforo, Lalo Reyes, and Jorge Morales El Jilguero. Kabande published his live recording with Decreto Real of "Relajado Voy" to streaming platforms on 7 October as his first single release. He followed up with the singles "Mil Historias" with Hector Rubio on 13 November and "El Petter" with Decreto Real on 4 December before deciding to work on a new body of work.
Kabande published his second studio album, Efectos Secundarios, on 19 March 2021, preceded by the singles "Con Dinero Baila el Perro" and "Lo Que Me Das", a music video for the latter, as well as songs with previous collaborators El Choforo and Hector Rubio. Focusing on building his sound, Kabande issued the single "Por Las Noches" on 11 June, a slowed-down sierreño track about an unintended breakup. Kabande's "Todo Es Playa", a song about smoking marijuana, was his last single with El Cartel de los Ángeles before he switched labels to Prajin Records under George Prajin. To mark this shift, the singer published the socio-political track "Spiral" on 25 November.
=== 2022: Breakthrough ===
On 4 February 2022, Kabande teamed up with Raul Vega on the single "El Belicón", a corrido anthem on the local narcoculture. Working on-hand with the song's production, Kabande and Vega played the roles of members of a drug cartel for the song's music video directed by Barush, instantly going viral among locals. The track gained momentum after its usage in TikTok and Instagram, with its music video racking 10 million views on YouTube in one month and gaining a lot of playlisting on Spotify. In April, "El Belicón" debuted at number 50 on Billboard Hot Latin Songs, peaking at number 46 two weeks after and becoming Kabande's first entry on the charts.
Kabande released Sembrando, an extended play containing "Signal" with five new songs, on 20 April in celebration of his fans and the recreational holiday. A six-part thematic and fictional story, the singer explained how the EP was recorded simultaneously, with themes "specifically for that day (420)". Upon its release, the EP was credited on solidifying the singer's contribution on the rise of corridos tumbados, a fusion of regional Mexican elements with trap music. He teamed up with Tornillos and Polo Gonzales on the song "Sentosa" for the Latin American esports division of Garena Free Fire. On 3 June, the singer published "30 Tiros", an acoustic corrido about his success story, along with an accompanying music video directed by Barush surrounded by women and luxuries.
The singer collaborated with Luis R. Conriquez on the song "Siempre Pendientes" released on 15 August. The track immediately attracted controversy among news outlets for glorifying labor for drug lord Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán, containing the lyrics "JGL, traigo en las cachas orgullosamente" and "Cuido la plaza del señor Guzmán". A music video directed by Cesar Acosta starring Kabande and Conriquez holding rifles in the desert supported by a large crew was uploaded to YouTube upon its release, receiving 2 million views in its first 24 hours and being removed from the platform three days later due to public outrage. On 1 October, Kabande sang the song live onstage at the 8 Music Fest in Culiacán, serving as a replacement act for Junior H after his sudden cancelation from the event. In celebration of the city's 491st anniversary, an image of El Chapo was projected on screen for the entirety of his performance, attaining backlash from the audiences, organizers, the city council, and netizens for allegations of promoting drug trafficking. El Colectivo de Mujeres Activas Sinaloenses, A.C. (CMAS AC) publicly denounced the act, claiming how the performance went against the goal of the festivities to mark "the beginning of the end of drug culture in Culiacán". On the association's official Twitter account, they claimed accountability from municipal president Juan de Dios Gámez to apply sanctions on the singer "to guarantee non-repetition", attaching an excerpt of Article 254 of the Penal Code for the State of Sinaloa and indicating the application of up to two years in prison for the accusation. In defense, the city council declared that while it disapproved of the projection of the drug leader's image, the municipal authority was "in favor of the freedom of expression of all artists", also considering how the singer was a last-minute addition. Kabande's songs have also led to threats from the Jalisco New Generation Cartel, a rival to the Sinaloa Cartel.
In retrospect of the incident, Kabande defended himself in a 2023 interview with Pepe Garza on YouTube: "They tried to smear me there, but [it's] nothing that cannot be fixed. I kept going forward with my career." He denied rumors of actual connections to the cartel, clarifying, "I am an artist, and we do nothing more than appear on stage and sing what we write." The incident gave attention to the rise of the genre narcocorrido, which comprises ballads dedicated to themes of marijuana and the illegal drug trade. "Siempre Pendientes" peaked at number 27 in Hot Latin Songs, 155 on the Global Excl. U.S., and number 174 on the Global 200, becoming Kabande's first global hit in the Billboard charts. The track was the artist's first entry in Mexico Songs, debuting at number 9 on the week dated 3 September and charting for 20 weeks. Kabande announced "El Gavilán" as his next single due on 21 October, working with Tony Aguirre and becoming his second collaboration with Conriquez. The song rose to number 41 in Hot Latin Songs by the end of the year. On 18 November, he released "Ando Enfocado" with Jaziel Aviles and Codiciado.
Natanael Cano and Gabito Ballesteros co-released "AMG" with the singer on 24 November, marking the highly anticipated first collaboration of Cano and Kabande as forefront figures in the subgenre of corridos tumbados. Written by Tito about the path to success and named after the Mercedes-AMG G 63, a music video was uploaded on Cano's YouTube channel featuring the trio partying in the Mexican city nightlife, splicing in between footage of Mexican brass players. "AMG" debuted at number 25 on Mexico Songs on 17 December. The singer partnered with Alemán on "Delivery" on 9 December, setting an experimental shift in his sound with the prominence of hip-hop beats. On 30 December, American regional Mexican band Fuerza Regida released their album Pa Que Hablen (2022), containing the track "Igualito a Mi Apá" with Kabande.
=== 2023: Mainstream success and Génesis ===
"AMG" climbed to number 10 in Mexico Songs on the chart dated 14 January 2023 as the singer's first top-ten hit. The song rose to number 3 in the following week after receiving placements on major playlists on Spotify, the premiere of the "Igualito a Mi Apá" music video directed by Miguel, and the announcement of a new collaboration between Kabande and Cano titled "PRC". With 5.8 million US streams, "AMG" debuted at number 92 in the Billboard Hot 100 chart ending on 4 February, marking as the singer's first Hot 100 entry. "AMG" ascended to number 10 on Hot Latin Songs and surged to number one on the Mexico Songs chart dated 25 February, becoming his first chart-topper. On 20 January, he began his nationwide tour for the year at the Camara Sonora in Guadalajara, Jalisco. He concluded the Mexican tour on 26 April to a sold-out audience at the Palenque ExpoGan in Hermosillo, Sonora.
Released on 23 January, "PRC" (short for polvo, ruedas y cristal) was written about the daily life of a gangster. The music video starred Cano and Kabande as dealers on the job, standing as the first music video uploaded directly on Kabande's official YouTube channel and gaining 10 million views in its first week of publication. Varied versions of the track's first line (Me levanto, un baño y luego me pongo a forjar) went viral on TikTok, along with a dance craze originally performed by Kabande in the music video, stirring controversy for being re-enacted by children and its implications. "PRC" served as Kabande's second Hot 100 hit on 18 February.
Kabande and Junior H co-released "El Azul" on 10 February, accompanied by a live performance video directed by Johnny Ragr. A war corrido about working for El Chapo using his infamous 701 moniker, the song made headlines after the line "Como el de aquellos botones" was censored by Spotify on late April for its allusion to the drug fentanyl. The song debuted at number 15 on 4 March in Mexico Songs. On 27 February, Argentine rapper Nicki Nicole remixed "Por Las Noches", providing a new verse and additional vocals and adding a female perspective to the sierreño. A music video directed by Pepe Garrido was previewed on 2 March, starring Kabande and Nicole in a local bar taking turns singing the serenade as a distraught man cries in the background. After creating speculations on Nicole's breakup with rapper Trueno with the line "Todo lo que yo te di y todo lo que me diste, fue para nada", the remix fueled the original version of the song's resurgence on the charts, appearing on the Hot 100 dated 25 March.
A collaboration with Colombian producer Ovy on the Drums titled "El Hechizo" was published on 9 March to rave reviews, together with a music video directed by Cristian Aguilar. Kabande's concert stop in León, Guanajuato on 11 March was postponed to 30 March after the organizers of his concert encountered issues with the logistics and local permit. The mishap created buzz for possibly being controlled by the authorities considering the singer's activism on narcoculture and his immense appeal among the city with the highest number of adolescents in Mexico living in poverty.
"Ella Baila Sola", a track performed by Kabande with the American Hispanic group Eslabon Armado as the lead single from their sixth studio album, Desvelado, was officially released to streaming services on 16 March after initially premiering on TikTok. Written by the group's lead vocalist Pedro Tovar as a sierreño about friends spotting a beautiful girl on the dance floor, Tovar previewed the song to Kabande at an airport via a phone call. On 17 March, Kabande hopped on a remix for the 2021 Latin reggaeton single "La Bebé" by Mexican singer-songwriter Yng Lvcas, citing about wanting a sonic shift from his previous releases. Aiming to collaborate with a fellow Mexican artist, Lvcas recorded the song with the singer at Querétaro, releasing its music video on 23 March.
On 28 March, following its first full week of tracking, "Ella Baila Sola" debuted at number 1 on both Latin Streaming Songs and Mexico Songs for the week ending on 1 April, becoming both artists' first number-one single on the latter. The song also debuted at number 2 on Hot Latin Songs, number 10 on Streaming Songs, and number 26 on the Hot 100, acquiring 16 million official streams in the US during its first week. In the same period, the "La Bebé" remix charted at number 77 on the Hot 100 with 6.8 million streams in the United States. With "AMG", "PRC", and "Por Las Noches" concurrently charting with the arrivals of "Ella Baila Sola" and "La Bebé", Kabande recorded the most Hot 100 Spanish-language entries for any Mexican artist. In celebration of his success, the singer announced the Doble P Tour across 17 cities in the United States.
Singer Becky G recruited Kabande for the single "Chanel" on 30 March as the first single for her regional Mexican album Esquinas. The collaboration, co-written by the duo with Tito and Grammy-winning producer Edgar Barrera, narrated the story of a failed relationship. Coinciding with the release of "Chanel", Kabande received updated Latin certifications from the Recording Industry Association of America, with "El Belicón" declared as 8× Platinum having 480,000 units sold, "Siempre Pendientes" as 5× Platinum with 300,000 units, and "PRC" as 4× Platinum with 240,000 sold. The music video for "Chanel" directed by Ricky Alvarez featuring its performers crooning in various minimalistic outdoor settings was published on 6 April.
Becky G brought Kabande onstage during her set in Coachella 2023 on 14 April for surprise performances of "Chanel" and "PRC". Seeing a rise in streams, "Ella Baila Sola" reached number one on the daily chart of Spotify Top 50 - Global on 15 April, dethroning "Flowers" by Miley Cyrus. During the same period, the singer monopolized the top 6 of the Mexico Songs chart and placed 5 songs in the top ten of Hot Latin Songs chart, with "Ella Baila Sola" in the lead for both. On 17 April, Billboard announced that with their jump from 17 to 10, Kabande and Armado made history with "Ella Baila Sola" as the first regional Mexican top-ten song in the 64-year history of the Billboard Hot 100. "El Azul" entered the chart at number 87, extending his record to sixth simultaneous Hot 100 entries.
In partnership with Prajin, Kabande launched his own independent record label named Double P Records on 20 April, signing artists Tito, Vega, and Jasiel Nuñez upon its public announcement. Aiming to propel the careers of its signees inside and outside of Mexico, he stressed that his label's goal relied on "making union, being grateful, and being humble". Serving as its chief executive officer and head of A&R, the singer released the track "Rosa Pastel" featuring Nuñez as his first single under the label to mark its foundation. At the 2023 Latin American Music Awards in Las Vegas, Nevada, Kabande joined Becky G onstage to sing "Chanel", signaling his first American televised performance.
On the weekly chart of Spotify Global dated 20 April, the singer became the first Mexican act to attain number one with "Ella Baila Sola". According to Billboard on 24 April, "Ella Baila Sola" climbed 10–5 on the Hot 100 chart, eclipsing its previous record and emerging as the first regional Mexican top-five hit in the chart's history. "Chanel" and "Igualito a Mi Apá" debuted at number 88 and number 90 respectively, increasing his record to eight concurrent Hot 100 entries in a single week. During the timeframe, "Ella Baila Sola" also rose to number one in the Global 200, the first leader in the chart for any Mexican song. To promote the song, Kabande was invited to perform at The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on 29 April as the first regional Mexican performance ever on the show. The event was met with polarizing responses; while fans and Mexican audiences commended the rare achievement as the representation of regional Mexican music to a wider scope, critics questioned the absence of Eslabon Armado from the monumental feat and the possible romanticization of narcoculture. On 1 May, "Ella Baila Sola" peaked at number 4 in the Hot 100. "AMG" became 7× Platinum with 420,000 units tracked by the RIAA as "El Azul" received 2× Platinum status.
Puerto Rican rapper Eladio Carrión collaborated with Kabande for the song "77" on 5 May. A track about living a luxurious life with an abundance of work, the music video was directed by Jose Ovi Jimenez and released on 9 May. On 13 May, Puerto Rican rapper Anuel AA teased on social media about an upcoming collaboration with Kabande, posting a photo with the singer guesting at the Inglewood stop of his Legends Never Die Tour to his Instagram account. Kabande released the solo track "Bye" on 26 May along with a music video directed by Edgar Nito. On 31 May, Argentine producer Bizarrap featured the singer on the fusion track "Bzrp Music Sessions, Vol. 55". In June 22, Kabande released his third studio album Génesis, which was supported by three singles, "Rosa Pastel", "77", and "Bye". Eight days after the album's release, Kabande released a deluxe version of Génesis, which adds three previously released singles, "PRC" with Natanael Cano, "Las Morras" with Blessd, and "Tulum" with Grupo Frontera.
In July 2023, Génesis peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 charts, making it the highest charting and fast selling regional Mexican album in Billboard history. In September 2023, Kabande became the first música mexicana star to perform at the MTV Video Music Awards. Later that month, Kabande canceled an October 14 show in Tijuana, Mexico after he was threatened in a series of banners signed with the initials of the Jalisco New Generation Cartel. In the end of October, American singer Arcángel and Kabande released "La Chamba", which is the lead single on the former's fifth studio album. In November, Kabande released "Peligro", in promotion of the 2023 video game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare III and at the end of November 2023, the singer and Milo J released "Una Bala", which is part of Milo J's debut album 111. Days later, Brazilian singer Anitta collaborated with Kabande on "Bellakeo". Kabande would later release "Rompe la Dompe" with Junior H and Óscar Maydon, as the final single of 2023.
=== 2024–present: Éxodo ===
Through interviews and live performances from 2023, it was speculated that Kabande would release a collaborative EP with fellow singer Jasiel Nuñez in 2024, as well as his fourth studio album. Released as his first song of 2024, Kabande would collaborate with fellow singer Luis R. Conriquez on their third collaboration "Pixelados". Kabande would be invited to the 2024 Viña del Mar International Song Festival, but his invitation has been criticized for the artist's purported exaltation of narcoculture by Chilean public intellectual Alberto Mayol. Citing Mayol, councilor of Viña del Mar René Lues wrote an open letter petitioning alcalde Macarena Ripamonti to recall the invitation of Kabande for the festival. Following this, Chilean ministers of the interior and of justice, Carolina Tohá and Luis Cordero Vega joined the criticism of the invitation of Kabande. The criticism and potential cancellation of Kabande has been widely covered by the international press.
In the later days of January 2024, the singer would release other singles as secondary artist, which appeared on the Billboard Hot 100, which include the dance-pop track "Igual que un Ángel" with Kali Uchis, and ranchera track "La Intención" with Christian Nodal. At the 66th Annual Grammy Awards, Kabande would win the award for Best Música Mexicana Album (including Tejano) for his third studio album Génesis (2023). In February 2024, after a video of the singer with another woman in Las Vegas spread around social media, Nicki Nicole officially announced that her and Kabande would break up, with most of their posts with each other being deleted. After both singers broke up, Kabande would release the bachata-infused song "A Tu Manera" with Junior H, with the Latin rap single "No Son Klle" with fellow Mexican rapper Santa Fe Klan and Argentine rapper Duki being released a week later.
Following the release of singles, Kabande announced his second headlining tour, Éxodo Tour, as well as his accompanying fourth studio album Éxodo which was revealed in an interview with Rolling Stone, where he also became the first Mexican artist to be on their front cover. He would collaborate with Tito Double P and Joel de la P on the sequel-track "La People II", which debuted at number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 making it both latter artists' first appearances on the chart. Kabande would also release a reggaeton track with Chencho Corleone titled "Humo". A day before his performance at 23rd Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, the singer would announce his second collaboration single with Arcángel titled "Peso Completo", and confirmed that it would be part of his album Éxodo. Kabande released a trailer featuring Irish professional MMA fighter Conor McGregor, which revealed the release date for Éxodo and another single titled "La Durango". He later joined DJ Snake on the electronic dance track "Teka" on 17 April 2024.
It was also speculated that he would collaborate with Junior H and Eslabon Armado after all three artists shared a short clip of an animated image with a song playing on Instagram. "La Durango" by all three artists was then released on 9 May 2024, and was performed with Pedro Tovar of Eslabon Armado on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. He collaborated with Gabito Ballesteros on the single "Sin Yolanda", which was released alongside the latter's debut album The GB as one of its singles on 24 May 2024. He then collaborated with American rapper Rich the Kid on "Gimme a Second", which was released on the same day as "Sin Yolanda". Later on the same day, Kabande revealed the cover art and tracklist for Éxodo, containing collaborations with Chino Pacas, Iván Cornejo, Cardi B, Quavo, among others. Éxodo debuted at number five on the US Billboard 200 after its next full tracking week, with 64,000 album-equivalent units which only consisted of 87.51 million official streams within all 24 tracks. In addition, it also debuted atop the US Top Latin Albums and Regional Mexican Albums charts, earning his second number-one album on both charts.
"Vino Tinto", a collaborative song with Natanael Cano and Ballesteros from Éxodo, was released as its eighth single on 26 June 2024 and peaked at number four in Mexico. A collaboration with fellow Mexican singer Kenia Os, "Tommy & Pamela" and its music video were also released as the album's ninth single on 18 July 2024. On 8 August 2024, Kabande released the single "Los Cuadros" with his cousin Tito Double P, along with its music video. On the same day, he featured alongside American rapper Kodak Black on "Drunk", a track by hip hop supergroup ¥$, composed of rappers Kanye West and Ty Dolla Sign, as part of a digital deluxe version of the group's collaborative album Vultures 2 (2024). On 22 August, he was featured on the track "Dos Días" by Tito Double P, from his debut album Incómodo (2024). On the same day, he was also featured on American rapper Myke Towers' album La Pantera Negra (2024), on the track "Se Te Nota".
Another track from Éxodo, "La Patrulla" with fellow Mexican singer-songwriter Netón Vega, and its music video, was released as its tenth single on 5 September 2024. In the wake of Hurricane Milton, Kabande cancelled his scheduled final two concert dates for the Éxodo Tour, 16 October at Amalie Arena in Tampa, Florida and 17 October at Kaseya Center in Miami, with the tour concluding on 13 October in First Horizon Coliseum in Greensboro. Éxodo received a nomination to win the award for Best Música Mexicana Album (including Tejano) at the 67th Annual Grammy Awards, which will take place in February 2025, making it Kabande's second Grammy nomination. On 7 November, he appeared on Double P Records signee Jasiel Nuñez's second studio album La Odisea (2024), appearing on the songs "California Sunset", "Amiri" alongside Tito Double P, and "En Mi Mundo"., also he took part in Neton Vega album Mi Vida Mi Muerte with a duet named "Morena".
== Artistry ==
The singer recalled, "I've always listened to reggaeton, hip-hop, and rap, but I realized that my voice was made to sing corridos because I would hear them played around family all the time. My voice shined differently there than in any other genre."
Kabande considered the late young Mexican singers Ariel Camacho and Valentín Elizalde as his primary influences for his sound, interpreting their songs at an early age. An avid listener of hip-hop music, he enlisted Canadian rapper Drake as his favorite artist, citing him as a reflection of growing up across borders. He has also referenced the Weeknd, 21 Savage, Post Malone, Suicideboys, and Shoreline Mafia as musical influences.
After becoming the top streamed artist in Mexico, several media outlets have compared the success of the singer with Puerto Rican artist Bad Bunny. In spite of this, Kabande has repeatedly acknowledged Bunny as a musical inspiration, conversing privately with the rapper while waiting for the set of Rosalía during Coachella 2023: "There are really only good things to say about him, and I have a lot of admiration and respect for him." Bunny posted to his Instagram Stories a video of himself and Kendall Jenner singing along to "AMG", officially debunking the rumored conflict publicly.
In 2025, Kabande became the first Mexican ambassador of the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) for New York Fashion Week. He made his official debut at the CFDA cocktail event at Rockefeller Center, wearing a design by Willy Chavarría with styling by Anastasia Walker.
== Personal life ==
According to a report by El Gordo y la Flaca on 12 May 2023, Kabande purchased a 174 m² apartment in the Andares district of Puerta de Hierro, Zapopan, for approximately MXN$14,400,000 (US$800,000), which serves as his official residence. He has expressed an interest in soccer; in his youth he played for the junior teams of C.D. Guadalajara, although he is a supporter of their city rivals, Atlas F.C.
=== Relationships ===
In July 2023, rumors circulated online that Kabande was dating Argentine singer Nicki Nicole. Nicole initially denied the speculation, stating that they were only friends, but later confirmed their relationship in November of that year. In February 2024, after the circulation of a video showing Kabande with another woman in Las Vegas, Nicole announced the end of their relationship.
In August 2024, Kabande confirmed that he was in a relationship with American influencer Hanna Howell, who had hinted at the romance in social media posts the previous month. In September, Howell announced their breakup, stating that Kabande had returned all of her belongings except for her pet dog.
In January 2025, speculation arose that Kabande was romantically involved with Mexican singer Kenia OS. The couple publicly confirmed their relationship in April 2025 during the Coachella festival.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Ah y Qué? (2020)
Efectos Secundarios (2021)
Génesis (2023)
Éxodo (2024)
== Tours ==
=== Headlining tours ===
Doble P Tour (2023)
Éxodo Tour (2024)
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Peso Pluma at Wikimedia Commons
Peso Pluma at AllMusic |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cindy_Sherman#Publications | Cindy Sherman | Cynthia Morris Sherman (born January 19, 1954) is an American artist whose work consists primarily of photographic self-portraits, depicting herself in many different contexts and as various imagined characters.
Her breakthrough work is often considered to be the collection Untitled Film Stills, a series of 70 black-and-white photographs of herself evoking typical female roles in performance media (especially arthouse films and popular B-movies).
== Early life and education ==
Sherman was born in 1954, in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, the youngest of the five children of Dorothy and Charles Sherman. Shortly after her birth, her family moved to the township of Huntington, Long Island. Her father worked as an engineer for Grumman Aircraft. Her mother taught reading to children with learning difficulties. Sherman has described her mother as good to a fault, and her father as strict and cruel. She was raised Episcopalian.
In 1972, Sherman enrolled in the visual arts department at Buffalo State University, where she majored in painting. During this time, she began to explore the ideas which became a hallmark of her work: She dressed herself as different characters, cobbled together from thrift-store clothing. Frustrated with what she saw as the limitations of painting as a medium of art, she abandoned it and took up photography. "[T]here was nothing more to say [through painting]", she recalled. "I was meticulously copying other art, and then I realized I could just use a camera and put my time into an idea instead." Sherman has said about this time:
"One of the reasons I started photographing myself was that supposedly in the spring one of my teachers would take the class out to a place near Buffalo where there were waterfalls and everybody romps around without clothes on and takes pictures of each other. I thought, 'Oh, I don't want to do this. But if we're going to have to go to the woods I better deal with it early.' Luckily we never had to do that." She spent the remainder of her college education focused on photography. Though Sherman had failed a required photography class as a freshman, she repeated the course with Barbara Jo Revelle, whom she credited with introducing her to conceptual art and other contemporary forms. At college she met Robert Longo, a fellow artist who encouraged her to record her process of "dolling up" for parties. This was the beginning of her Untitled Film Stills series.
In 1974, together with Longo, Charles Clough and Nancy Dwyer, she created Hallwalls, an arts center intended as a space that would accommodate artists from diverse backgrounds. Sherman was also exposed to the contemporary art exhibited at the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, the two Buffalo campuses of the SUNY school system, Media Studies Buffalo, and the Center for Exploratory and Perceptual Arts, and Artpark, in nearby Lewiston, N.Y.
It was in Buffalo that Sherman encountered the photo-based conceptual works of artists Hannah Wilke, Eleanor Antin, and Adrian Piper. Along with artists like Laurie Simmons, Louise Lawler, and Barbara Kruger, Sherman is considered to be part of the Pictures Generation. She graduated with a BA in 1976.
== Photography ==
Sherman works in series, typically photographing herself in a range of costumes. To create her photographs, Sherman shoots alone in her studio, assuming multiple roles as author, director, make-up artist, hairstylist, wardrobe mistress, and model.
=== Early work ===
Bus Riders (1976–2000) is a series of photographs that feature the artist as a variety of meticulously observed characters. The photographs were shot in 1976 for the Bus Authority for display on a bus. Sherman used costumes and make-up, including blackface, to transform her identity for each image, and the cutout characters were lined up along the bus's advertising strip. Some critiques say that this work showed insensitivity to race through the use of blackface makeup while others state that it was rather with the intention of exposing racism embedded in society. The American theatre critic Margo Jefferson has written, "[The African-American figures] all have nearly the same features, too, while Ms. Sherman is able to give the white characters she impersonates a real range of skin tones and facial features. This didn't look like irony to me. It looked like a stale visual myth that was still in good working order."
Other early works involved cutout figures, such as the Murder Mystery and Play of Selves.
In her landmark photograph series Untitled Film Stills, (1977–80), Sherman appears as B-movie and film noir actresses. When asked if she considers herself to be acting in her photographs, Sherman said, "I never thought I was acting. When I became involved with close-ups I needed more information in the expression. I couldn't depend on background or atmosphere. I wanted the story to come from the face. Somehow the acting just happened."
Many of Sherman's photo series, like the 1981 Centerfolds, call attention to stereotypes of women in society, films, television and magazines. When talking about one of her centerfold pictures Sherman stated, "In content I wanted a man opening up the magazine suddenly look at it with an expectation of something lascivious and then feel like the violator that they would be looking at this woman who is perhaps a victim. I didn't think of them as victims at the time... Obviously I'm trying to make someone feel bad for having a certain expectation".
She explained to The New York Times in 1990, "I feel I'm anonymous in my work. When I look at the pictures, I never see myself; they aren't self-portraits. Sometimes I disappear." She describes her process as intuitive, and that she responds to elements of a setting such as light, mood, location, and costume, and will continue to change external elements until she finds what she wants. She has said of her process, "I think of becoming a different person. I look into a mirror next to the camera...it's trance-like. By staring into it I try to become that character through the lens ... When I see what I want, my intuition takes over—both in the 'acting' and in the editing. Seeing that other person that's up there, that's what I want. It's like magic."
=== Untitled Film Stills ===
The series Untitled Film Stills (1977–1980), with which Cindy Sherman achieved international recognition, consists of 69 black-and-white photographs. The artist poses in different roles (librarians, hillbillies, and seductresses), and settings (streets, yards, pools, beaches, and interiors), producing a result reminiscent of stills typical of Italian neorealism or American film noir of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s.
Sherman avoided putting titles on the images in order to preserve their ambiguity. She would often pose her heroines as alone, expressionless, and in private. An overarching characteristic of her heroines were those that did not follow conventional ideas of marriage and family; they were rebellious women who either died as that or who were later tamed by society. In this series, the gaze seems to come from another subject – "usually a man" – to highlight the concept of the male gaze.
Modest in scale compared to Sherman's later cibachrome photographs, they are all 8 1/2 by 11 inches, each displayed in identical, simple black frames.
Sherman used her own possessions as props, or sometimes borrowed, as in Untitled Film Still #11 in which the doggy pillow belongs to a friend. The shots were also largely taken in her own apartment.
The Untitled Film Stills fall into several distinct groups:
The first six are grainy and slightly out of focus (e.g. Untitled #4).
The next group was taken in 1978 at Robert Longo's family beach house on the north fork of Long Island. (Sherman met Longo in 1976 and began a relationship with him)
Later in 1978, Sherman began taking shots in outdoor locations around the city. E.g. Untitled Film Still #21
Sherman later returned to her apartment, preferring to work from home. She created her version of a Sophia Loren character from the movie Two Women. (E.g. Untitled Film Still #35 (1979))
She took several photographs in the series while preparing for a road trip to Arizona with her parents. Untitled Film Still#48 (1979), also known as The Hitchhiker, was shot by Sherman's father at sunset one evening during the trip.
The remainder of the series was shot around New York, like Untitled #54, often featuring a blonde victim typical of film noir.
The Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan purchased the series for an estimated $1 million in 1995.
Untitled Film Still #21 was listed as one of the 100 influential photographs by TIME Magazine.
=== 1980s ===
In addition to her film stills, Sherman has appropriated a number of other visual forms—the centerfold, fashion photograph, historical portrait, and soft-core sex image. These and other series, like the 1980s Fairy Tales and Disasters sequence, were shown for the first time at the Metro Pictures Gallery in New York City.
It was with her series Rear Screen Projections, 1980, that Sherman switched from black-and-white to color and to clearly larger formats. Centerfolds/Horizontals, 1981, are inspired by the center spreads in fashion and pornographic magazines. The twelve (24 by 48 inches) photographs were initially commissioned — but not used — by Artforum's Editor in Chief Ingrid Sischy for an artist's section in the magazine. She poses either on the floor or in bed, usually recumbent and often supine. About her aims with the self-portraits, Sherman has said: "Some of them I'd hope would seem very psychological. While I'm working I might feel as tormented as the person I'm portraying."
In 1982, Sherman began her Pink Robes series which includes Untitled #97, #98, #99 and #100.
In Fairy Tales, 1985, and Disasters, 1986–1989, Cindy Sherman uses visible prostheses and mannequins for the first time. Provoked by the 1989 NEA funding controversy involving photographs by Robert Mapplethorpe and Andres Serrano at the Corcoran Gallery of Art, as well as the way Jeff Koons modeled his porn star wife in his "Made in Heaven" series, Sherman produced the Sex series in 1989. For once she removed herself from the shots, as these photographs featured pieced-together medical dummies in flagrante delicto.
Between 1989 and 1990, Sherman made 35 large, color photographs restaging the settings of various European portrait paintings of the fifteenth through early 19th centuries under the title History Portraits.
Rear Screen Projections
Rear Screen Projections is a series of photographs created by Cindy Sherman in 1980. This particular body of work features herself as the model in each image, posing in front of various rear-projected landscape scenes. Sherman appears in various guises, often described as "hitchhiker" or "runaway" types. The use of rear-projected images creates a sense of artifice and theatricality, as Sherman's character seems to be placed within, but not truly a part of, the depicted landscape. The settings range from mundane roadside scenes to more exotic, dreamlike vistas.
The series is seen as a continuation of themes explored in Sherman's earlier work Untitled Film Stills (1977-1980), particularly the exploration of female stereotypes and the construction of identity through photography. However, Rear Screen Projections differs in its overt use of artifice, drawing attention to the constructed nature of the image.
This body of work is considered a significant series in Sherman's oeuvre, bridging her early work with her later, more elaborate series. It's recognized for its innovative use of rear projection and its continued exploration of themes of identity, representation, and the constructed nature of reality. [11] The series has been influential on subsequent generations of photographers and artists working with constructed photography and staged self-portraiture.
Fairy Tales
Fairy Tales is a series of photographs created by Cindy Sherman in 1985. The series marks a significant departure from her earlier work, such as the Untitled Film Stills, in its overt engagement with grotesque and abject imagery.
In Fairy Tales, Sherman transforms herself into a cast of disturbing and often repulsive characters, drawing inspiration from classic fairy tales, though not illustrating specific narratives. The photographs feature Sherman in elaborate costumes and makeup, often surrounded by decaying props, discarded objects, and unsettling environments. The images evoke a sense of decay, horror, and psychological distress, subverting the traditional, idealized representations of fairy tale characters.
The series is characterized by its use of vivid color, theatrical staging, and a focus on the grotesque. Sherman employs prosthetics, masks, and other theatrical devices to create monstrous and deformed figures, challenging conventional notions of beauty and femininity.
=== 1990s ===
==== Sex Pictures ====
Sherman uses prosthetic limbs and mannequins to create her Sex Pictures series (1992). Hal Foster, an American art critic, describes Sherman's Sex Pictures in his article Obscene, Abject, Traumatic as "[i]n this scheme of things the impulse to erode the subject and to tear at the screen has driven Sherman [...] to her recent work, where it is obliterated by the gaze."
Reviewer Jerry Saltz told New York magazine that Sherman's work is "[f]ashioned from dismembered and recombined mannequins, some adorned with pubic hair, one posed with a tampon in vagina, another with sausages being excreted from vulva, this was anti-porn porn, the unsexiest sex pictures ever made, visions of feigning, fighting, perversion. ... Today, I think of Cindy Sherman as an artist who only gets better."
Greg Fallis of Utata Tribal Photography describes Sherman's Sex Pictures series and her work as follows: "With her Sex Pictures, Sherman posed medical prostheses in sexualized positions, recreating—and strangely modifying—pornography. An example of this can be seen in her work entitled Untitled,#264. Sherman displays herself with a body made of prosthetic. Her face is the only part of her that shows but is covered by a gas mask meant to emphasize the parts of the female body that tend to be over-sexualized.
=== Society Portraits ===
The Society Portraits is a series of photographs created by Cindy Sherman in 2008. The series features Sherman posing as wealthy, older women.
In Society Portraits, Sherman embodies a range of aging, affluent women. The portraits are characterized by their elaborate costumes, styled hair, and heavy makeup. The women are often adorned with jewelry and designer clothing, and posed in luxurious, though somewhat sterile, settings. Despite the trappings of wealth, the portraits often convey a sense of loneliness, vulnerability, and anxiety. Sherman employs digital manipulation in this series, enhancing wrinkles, sagging skin, and other signs of aging, contributing to the overall effect of unease.
=== 2000s ===
Between 2003 and 2004, Sherman produced the Clowns cycle, where the use of digital photography enabled her to create chromatically garish backdrops and montages of numerous characters. Set against opulent backdrops and presented in ornate frames, the characters in Sherman's 2008 untitled Society Portraits are not based on specific women, but the artist has made them look entirely familiar in their struggle with the standards of beauty that prevail in a youth- and status-obsessed culture.
Her exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in 2012 also presented a photographic mural (2010–11) accompanied by films selected by Sherman. In this mural, she photoshopped her face with a decorative backdrop to transform herself into a fictitious environment. Along with other characters, Sherman toys with the idea of reality and fantasy together. Based on a 32-page insert Sherman did for POP using vintage clothes from Chanel's archive, a more recent series of large-scale pictures from 2012 depict outsized enigmatic female figures standing in striking isolation before ominous painterly landscapes the artist had photographed in Iceland during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull and on the isle of Capri.
In 2017, she collaborated on a "selfie" project with W Magazine that was based on the concept of the "plandid", or "the planned candid photograph". Sherman utilized a variety of photo-correction apps to create her Instagram portraits.
From 2019 she showed self-portraits executed as tapestries by a Belgian workshop.
=== Fashion ===
Sherman's career has also included several fashion series, including designs for Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, and Marc Jacobs. In 1983, fashion designer and retailer Dianne Benson commissioned her to create a series of advertisements for her store, Dianne B., that appeared in several issues of Interview magazine. Untitled #122 from this collection was especially iconic; by working to deemphasise the clothing, she played with the conventions of fashion photography popular at this time. Sherman also created photographs for an editorial in Harper's Bazaar in 1993. In 1994, she produced the Post Card Series for Comme des Garçons for the brand's autumn/winter 1994–95 collections in collaboration with Rei Kawakubo.
In 2006, Sherman created a series of fashion advertisements for designer Marc Jacobs. The advertisements themselves were photographed by Juergen Teller and released as a monograph by Rizzoli. For Balenciaga, Sherman created the six-image series Cindy Sherman: Untitled (Balenciaga) in 2008; they were first shown to the public in 2010. Also in 2010, Sherman collaborated with Anna Hu on a design for a piece of jewelry. She returned to working with Teller on Marc Jacobs' Spring/Summer 2024 campaign.
== Music and films ==
In the early 1990s, Sherman worked with Minneapolis band Babes in Toyland, providing photographs for covers for the albums Fontanelle and Painkillers, creating a stage backdrop used in live concerts, and acting in the promotional video for the song "Bruise Violet." She also worked as a film director.
Sherman moved from photographs to film with her movie Office Killer in 1997, starring Jeanne Tripplehorn, Molly Ringwald and Carol Kane. Dorine, played by Carol Kane, is a stand-in for Sherman. They have a shared interest in arranging bodies, like a puppeteer, in diorama-like scenes. According to author Dahlia Schweitzer, Office Killer is full of unexpected characters and plot twists. Schweitzer considers the film to be a comedy, horror, melodrama, noir, feminist statement, and an art piece. Echoing similar grisly and gory elements as her Untitled Horror series, the film includes several artistically executed murder scenes. Office Killer grossed $37,446 and received generally poor reviews, which called the film "crude" and "laugh-free." In a review for The New York Times, art critic Roberta Smith states that the film lacks the artist's usual finesse and is a retrospective of her work – "a fascinating if lumpish bit of Shermaniana." Movie critic colleague to Roberta Smith, Stephen Holden, called the film "sadly inept."
Later, she had a cameo role in John Waters' film Pecker, and also appeared in The Feature in 2008, starring ex-husband Michel Auder, which won a New Vision Award.
In 2009, Paul Hasegawa-Overacker and Tom Donahue completed a feature documentary, Guest of Cindy Sherman, about the former's relationship with Sherman. She was initially supportive, but later opposed the project.
In the catalog essay by Philipp Kaiser for Sherman's 2016 exhibition at the Metro Pictures Gallery, he mentioned six short films that Sherman made while in college, and how they were the precursors that eventually led to Office Killer being created. The catalog also includes a conversation between Sherman and the director of the exhibit, Sofia Coppola, in which Sherman admits that she may star in an upcoming film project.
== Exhibitions ==
Sherman's first solo show in New York was presented at a noncommercial space The Kitchen in 1980. When the Metro Pictures Gallery opened later that year, Sherman's photographs were the first show. "Untitled Film Stills" were shown first at the non-profit gallery Artists Space where Sherman was working as a receptionist. Her first solo exhibitions in France were presented by Galerie Chantal Crousel in Paris.
Sherman has since participated in many international events, including SITE Santa Fe (2004); the Venice Biennale (1982, 1995); and five Whitney Biennials. In addition to numerous group exhibitions, Sherman's work was the subject of solo exhibitions at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam (1982), Whitney Museum of American Art in New York (1987), Kunsthalle Basel (1991), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C. (1995), the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1998), the Serpentine Gallery in London and the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art (2003), and Martin-Gropius-Bau in Berlin (2007), among others. Major traveling retrospectives of Sherman's work have been organized by the Museum Boymans-van Beuningen in Rotterdam (1996); the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles and the Museum of Modern Art in New York (1997), which was sponsored by Madonna; and Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria, Louisiana Museum for Moderne Kunst, Denmark, and Jeu de Paume in Paris (2006–2007). In 2009, Sherman was included in the seminal show "The Pictures Generation, 1974–1984" at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
In 2012, the Museum of Modern Art mounted Cindy Sherman, a show that chronicled Sherman's work from the mid-1970s on and include more than 170 photographs. The exhibition travelled to the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis. In 2013, Sherman was invited to organize a show within that year's Venice Biennale.
In 2016, after a sabbatical from her studio which was spent "coming to terms with health issues and getting older," Sherman produced and staged her first photo gallery in five years. The series, "The Imitation of Life," named after a 1959 melodrama by Douglas Sirk, tackles aging by presenting Sherman in highly stylized glamour portraits inspired by the divas of old Hollywood, such as Gloria Swanson, Mary Pickford, and Ruby Keeler. The series was exhibited in 2016 at the Metro Pictures Gallery in New York City, and also at the Broad Museum in Los Angeles. In 2017 it was shown at the Spruth Magers gallery in Berlin, Germany, and at the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, Ohio.
In 2019, the National Portrait Gallery, London, organized a major retrospective of Sherman's works from the mid-1970s to the present. In 2024, at the Goulandris Museum of Cycladic Art, Athens, Sherman's first exhibition in Greece was held, gathering together over a hundred of her early works.
In 2024, Cindy Sherman exhibited Tapestries at Fotografiska Stockholm, presenting a series of tapestries based on her digitally altered Instagram selfies, marking her first major exploration of this medium.
== Feminism ==
In Sherman's Imitation of Life series of 2016 she poses, in vintage costume and theatrical makeup, as a variety of ageing actress-like women.
When writing about Sherman's "Film Stills" in the journal October, the scholar Douglas Crimp states that Sherman's work is "a hybrid of photography and performance art that reveals femininity to be an effect of representation."
However, Sherman does not consider her work or herself to be feminist, stating "The work is what it is and hopefully it's seen as feminist work, or feminist-advised work, but I'm not going to go around espousing theoretical bullshit about feminist stuff."
Many scholars emphasize the relationship Cindy Sherman's work has with the concept of the gaze. In particular, scholars like Laura Mulvey have analyzed Sherman's Untitled series in relation to the male gaze. In a 1991 essay on Sherman, Mulvey states that ″the accouterments of the feminine struggle to conform to a facade of desirability haunt Sherman's iconography,″ which functions as a parody of different voyeurisms captured by the camera.
Others question whether this confrontation with the male gaze and a feminine struggle was an intentional consideration of Sherman's, and whether this intentionality is important in considering the feminist standpoint of Sherman's photography.
Sherman herself has identified an uncertainty toward the Untitled series' relationship with the male gaze. In a 1991 interview with David Brittain in Creative Camera, Sherman said that "I didn't really analyze it at the time as far as knowing that I was commenting upon some feminist issue. The theories weren't there at all... But now I can look back on some of them, and I think some of them are a little blatantly obvious, too much like the original pin-up pictures of those times, so I have mixed feelings about them now as a whole series."
In addition to questions of the gaze, Sherman's work is also given feminist analysis in the context of abjection. Scholars like Hal Foster and Laura Mulvey interpret Sherman's use of the abject via the grotesque in 1980s projects like Vomit Pictures as de-fetishizing the female body.
Scholar Michele Meager interprets Sherman as having been "crowned a resistant celebrity" to feminist theory.
== Art market ==
In 2010, Sherman's nearly six foot tall chromogenic color print Untitled#153 (1985), featuring the artist as a mud-caked corpse, was sold by Phillips de Pury & Company for $2.7 million, near the $3 million high estimate. In 2011, a print of Untitled#96 fetched $3.89 million at Christie's, making it the most expensive photograph at that time.
Sherman was represented by Metro Pictures for 40 years and also by Sprüth Magers before moving to Hauser & Wirth in 2021.
In April 2023, Phillips NY auctioned the 159 cm x 359 cm sized-Untitled #546 (2010) for a well above-estimate $355,600.
== Influence on contemporary artists ==
Sherman's work is often credited as a major influence for contemporary portrait photographers. One such photographer is Ryan Trecartin, who manipulates themes of identity in his videos and photography. Her influence stretches to artists in other art mediums, including painter Lisa Yuskavage, visual artist Jillian Mayer, and performance artist Tracey Ullman.
In April 2014, actor and artist James Franco exhibited a series of photographs at the Pace Gallery called New Film Stills, in which Franco restaged twenty-nine images from Sherman's Untitled Film Stills. The exhibit garnered mainly negative reviews, calling Franco's appropriations 'sophomoric,' 'sexist,' and 'embarrassingly clueless.'
== Personal life ==
Sherman lived with artist Robert Longo, from 1974 to 1980, who also included her in his 'Men in the Cities' series of photographs. She married director Michel Auder in 1984, making her stepmother to Auder's daughter, Alexandra, and her half-sister Gaby Hoffmann. They divorced in 1999. She was then in a 5-year relationship with Paul Hasegawa-Overacker, creator of a documentary film about Sherman. From 2007 to 2011, she had a relationship with the artist David Byrne.
Between 1991 and 2005, Sherman lived in a fifth-floor co-op loft at 84 Mercer Street in Manhattan's Soho neighborhood; she later sold it to actor Hank Azaria. She bought two floors in a 10-story condo building overlooking the Hudson River in West Soho, and currently uses one as her apartment and the other as her studio and office.
For many years, Sherman spent her summers in the Catskill Mountains. In 2000, she bought songwriter Marvin Hamlisch's 4,200-square-foot house on 0.4 acre in Sag Harbor for $1.5 million. She later acquired a 19th-century home on a ten-acre waterfront property on Accabonac Harbor in East Hampton, New York.
Sherman has expressed contempt for social media platforms, calling them "so vulgar." However, she maintains an active Instagram account featuring her selfies.
== Industry and advocacy work ==
Sherman serves on the artistic advisory committee of the New York City-based Stephen Petronio Company and on the Artists Committee of the Americans for the Arts. Along with David Byrne, she was a member of Portugal's Estoril Film Festival's jury in 2009.
In 2012, she joined Yoko Ono and nearly 150 fellow artists in the founding of Artists Against Fracking, a group in opposition to hydraulic fracturing to remove gas from underground deposits.
In 2023, Sherman served on the jury that chose Sarah Lucas as first winner of the New Museum's $400,000 Hostetler/Wrigley Sculpture Award.
Ahead of the 2024 United States presidential election, Sherman was one of 165 leading contemporary artists who contributed pieces to Artists for Kamala, an online sale with all proceeds raised going directly to Kamala Harris' campaign.
== Publications ==
Inverted Odysseys: Claude Cahun, Maya Deren, Cindy Sherman. MIT Press, 1999. Edited by Shelley Rice. ISBN 0-262-68106-4.
Essential, The: Cindy Sherman. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1999. ISBN 0-8109-5808-2.
Cindy Sherman: Retrospective (Paperback). Thames & Hudson, 2000. By Amanda Cruz and Elizabeth A. T. Smith. ISBN 0-500-27987-X.
In Real Life: Six Women Photographers. Holiday House, 2000. By Leslie Sills, et al. ISBN 0-8234-1498-1.
Early Work of Cindy Sherman. Glenn Horowitz Bookseller, 2001 ISBN 0-9654020-3-7.
Cindy Sherman: Photographic Works 1975-1995 (Paperback). Schirmer/Mosel, 2002. By Elisabeth Bronfen, et al. ISBN 3-88814-809-X.
Cindy Sherman: The Complete Untitled Film Stills. Museum of Modern Art, 2003. ISBN 0-87070-507-5.
Cindy Sherman: Centerfolds. Skarstedt Fine Art, 2004. ISBN 0-9709090-2-0.
Cindy Sherman: Working Girl. St. Louis, Missouri: Contemporary Art Museum St. Louis, 2006. ISBN 978-0-9712195-8-8.
Cindy Sherman. The MIT Press, 2006. Edited by Johanna Burton. ISBN 0-262-52463-5.
Cindy Sherman: A Play of Selves. Hatje Cantz, 2007. ISBN 978-3-7757-1942-1.
Cindy Sherman. Museum of Modern Art, 2012. ISBN 0870708120.
Cindy Sherman: Untitled Horrors. Hatje Cantz, 2013. ISBN 978-3-7757-3487-5.
Cindy Sherman's Office Killer: Another Kind of Monster. Intellect Books, 2014. By Dahlia Schweitzer. ISBN 1841507075.
== Films ==
Cindy Sherman [videorecording] : Transformations. by Paul Tschinkel; Marc H Miller; Sarah Berry; Stan Harrison; Cindy Sherman; Helen Winer; Peter Schjeldahl; Inner-Tube Video. 2002, 28 minutes, Color. NY: Inner-Tube Video.
== Artistic Style ==
Cindy Sherman’s artistic style is rooted in conceptual photography and explores the construction of identity, gender, and social roles through self-portraiture.She often assumes multiple characters in her work, using costumes, makeup, and props to transform herself, challenging traditional representations of women in media and popular culture. Her early work, such as the Untitled Film Stills series, is characterized by cinematic references and the portrayal of archetypal female figures, highlighting the influence of visual culture on individual identity.In later series, Sherman experimented with digital manipulation and grotesque imagery to question notions of beauty, fame, and social perception.
Sherman’s style is widely recognized for its critical approach to representation, blending realism with theatricality, and making the viewer aware of the artificiality inherent in images.
== Awards and other recognition ==
1981: Artist-in-residence, Light Work, Syracuse, New York
1994: Larry Aldrich Foundation Award
1995: MacArthur Fellowship
1997: Wolfgang Hahn Prize
1999: Hasselblad Award from the Hasselblad Foundation
2001: National Arts Award
2003: American Academy of Arts and Sciences Award
2005: Guild Hall Academy of the Arts Lifetime Achievement Award for Visual Arts
2009: Jewish Museum's Man Ray Award
2009: International Artist Award from Anderson Ranch Arts Center, Snowmass Village, Colorado.
2010: Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Arts, London
2012: Roswitha Haftmann Prize
2012: Honored by actor Steve Martin at the 10th anniversary Gala in the Garden at the Hammer Museum
2012: Sherman was among the artists whose works were given as trophies to the filmmakers of winning pictures in the 2012 Tribeca Film Festival's jury competitions
2013: Honorary doctorate degree from the Royal College of Art, London
2017: Induction into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum
2020: Wolf Prize in Art
2024: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, presented by Awards Council member Jeff Koons
== Collections ==
Works by Sherman are held in the following collections:
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL
The Broad, Los Angeles, CA
Jewish Museum (Manhattan), New York, NY
Madison Museum of Contemporary Art, Madison, WI
Menil Collection, Houston, TX
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, TX
Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY
Tate Modern, Bankside, London
== See also ==
Self-portraiture
Blackface in contemporary art
Laurel Nakadate
List of most expensive photographs
Nikki S. Lee
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Kelly, Michael, "Danto and Krauss on Cindy Sherman". In: M. A. Holly & K. Moxey (eds.), Art History, Aesthetics, Visual Studies. Massachusetts: Clark Art Institute, 2002.
Grosenick, Uta; Riemschneider, Burkhard, eds. (2005). Art Now (25th anniversary ed.). Köln: Taschen. pp. 288–291. ISBN 9783822840931. OCLC 191239335.
Hoban, Phoebe, "The Cindy Sherman Effect". Artnews.com. 2012.
== External links ==
Video on Untitled Film Stills and mass media representations |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvind_Kejriwal | Arvind Kejriwal | Arvind Kejriwal (Hindi pronunciation: [əɾʋin̪d̪ ked͡ʒɾiːʋaːl]; born 16 August 1968) is an Indian politician, activist and former bureaucrat, who served as the 7th Chief Minister of Delhi. He was the chief minister from 2013 to 2014 and from 2015 to 2024. He is also the national convener of the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) since 2012. He represented the New Delhi constituency in the Delhi Legislative Assembly from 2015 to 2025, and previously from 2013 to 2014.
In 2006, Kejriwal was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for his involvement in the Parivartan movement using right to information legislation in a campaign against government corruption. The same year, after resigning from government service, he founded the Public Cause Research Foundation to campaign for transparent governance. Before entering politics, Kejriwal had worked in the Indian Revenue Service. Prior to that, he was a mechanical engineer from IIT Kharagpur.
In 2012, he launched the AAP. In 2013, he assumed office as the Chief Minister of Delhi and resigned 49 days later over his inability to mobilise support for his proposed anti-corruption legislation. In the 2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly elections, the AAP registered an unprecedented majority. In subsequent 2020 elections, AAP re-emerged victorious and retained power in Delhi, following which, Kejriwal was sworn in as the Chief Minister of Delhi for the third time in a row. Outside Delhi, his party registered another major victory in 2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election.
He was arrested on 21 March 2024 by the Enforcement Directorate on allegations of a liquor scam against the Aam Aadmi Party led Delhi Government. He became the first ever sitting chief minister in India to be arrested. His other party leaders, Satyendra Jain, Sanjay Singh and Manish Sisodia have also spent months to years in jail without bail, trial or conviction. The opposition alliance called the arrest weeks before the 2024 Indian general election, a case of fabrication and "match-fixing" by the BJP. Amnesty International said that financial and terrorism laws have been weaponised to go after political opponents. On 10 May, the Supreme Court ordered Kejriwal's release on interim bail until 1 June 2024, on account of campaigning for the election. Kejriwal surrendered at Tihar Jail after the expiry of his bail period on 2 June 2024. On 13 September 2024, he was granted bail by Supreme Court with certain conditions, the case still continues. On 17 September 2024, he resigned as Delhi Chief Minister saying he will only become CM again if he receives a public mandate.
His party suffered a heavy defeat in the 2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election, with he himself losing his seat to Parvesh Verma by a margin of over 4,000 votes from the New Delhi Assembly constituency along with many other notable party members of AAP
== Early life and education ==
Kejriwal was born in a Haryanvi Agrawal-Baniya family in Siwani in the Bhiwani district of Haryana, India on 16 August 1968, the first of the three children of Gobind Ram Kejriwal and Gita Devi. His father was an electrical engineer who graduated from the Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra. Kejriwal spent most of his childhood in north Indian towns such as Sonipat, Ghaziabad and Hisar. He was educated at Campus School in Hisar and at Holy Child School at Sonipat. In 1985, he took the IIT-JEE exam and secured All India Rank (AIR) of 563. He graduated from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, majoring in mechanical engineering.
He joined Tata Steel in 1989 and was posted in Jamshedpur, Bihar (now in Jharkhand). Kejriwal resigned in 1992, having taken leave of absence to study for the Civil Services Examination. He spent some time in Calcutta (present-day Kolkata), where he met Mother Teresa, and volunteered with The Missionaries of Charity and at the Ramakrishna Mission in North-East India and at Nehru Yuva Kendra.
== Career ==
Arvind Kejriwal joined the Indian Revenue Service (IRS) as an Assistant Commissioner of Income Tax in 1995, after qualifying through the Civil Services Examination. In February 2006, he resigned from his position as Joint Commissioner of Income Tax in New Delhi.
In 2012, Arvind Kejriwal founded the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) to fight corruption and improve governance. The party made its mark in the 2013 Legislative Assembly election, but his first government lasted only 49 days. In 2015, Kejriwal returned with a decisive victory, focusing on education, healthcare, and welfare. He was re-elected in 2020, further cementing his leadership in Delhi. However, his defeat in 2025 in Delhi polls revealed his short comings. Since 2012, he has acted as the main national convenor of AAP.
== Activism ==
=== Parivartan and Kabir ===
In December 1999, while still in service with the Income Tax Department, Kejriwal, Manish Sisodia and others founded a movement named Parivartan (which means "change"), in the Sundar Nagar area of Delhi. A month later, in January 2000, Kejriwal took a sabbatical from work to focus on Parivartan.
Parivartan addressed citizens' grievances related to Public Distribution System (PDS), public works, social welfare schemes, income tax and electricity. It was not a registered NGO - it ran on individual donations, and was characterised as a jan andolan ("people's movement") by its members. Later, in 2005, Kejriwal and Manish Sisodia launched Kabir, a registered NGO named after the medieval philosopher Kabir. Like Parivartan, Kabir was also focused on RTI and participatory governance. However, unlike Parivartan, it accepted institutional donations. According to Kejriwal, Kabir was mainly run by Sisodia.
In 2000, Parivartan filed a public interest litigation (PIL) demanding transparency in public dealings of the Income Tax department, and also organised a satyagraha outside the Chief Commissioner's office. Kejriwal and other activists also stationed themselves outside the electricity department, asking visitors not to pay bribes and offered to help them in getting work done for free.
In 2001, the Delhi government enacted a state-level Right To Information (RTI) Act, which allowed the citizens to access government records for a small fee. Parivartan used RTI to help people get their work done in government departments without paying a bribe. In 2002, the group obtained official reports on 68 public works projects in the area, and performed a community-led audit to expose misappropriations worth ₹ 7 million in 64 of the projects. On 14 December 2002, Parivartan organised a Jan sunvai (public hearing), in which the citizens held public officials and leaders accountable for the lack of development in their locality.
In 2003 (and again in 2008), Parivartan exposed a PDS scam, in which ration shop dealers were siphoning off subsidised foodgrains in collusion with civic officials. In 2004, Parivartan used RTI applications to access communication between government agencies and the World Bank, regarding a project for privatisation of water supply. Kejriwal and other activists questioned the huge expenditure on the project and argued that it would hike water tariffs ten-fold, thus effectively cutting off the water supply to the city's poor. The project was stalled as a result of Parivartan's activism. Another campaign by Parivartan led to a court order that required private schools, which had received public land at discounted prices, to admit more than 700 poor kids without a fee.
Along with other social activists like Anna Hazare, Aruna Roy and Shekhar Singh, Kejriwal came to be recognised as an important contributor to the campaign for a national-level Right to Information Act (enacted in 2005). He resigned from his job in February 2006, and later that year, he was given the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Emergent Leadership, for his involvement with Parivartan. The award recognised him for activating the RTI movement at the grassroots and empowering New Delhi's poor citizens to fight corruption.
By 2012, Parivartan was largely inactive. Sundar Nagri, where the movement was concentrated, suffered from irregular water supply, unreliable PDS system and poorly done public works. Calling it "ephemeral and delusionary in nature", Kejriwal noted that Parivartan's success was limited, and the changes brought by it did not last long.
=== Public Cause Research Foundation ===
In December 2006, Kejriwal established the Public Cause Research Foundation in December 2006, together with Manish Sisodia and Abhinandan Sekhri. He donated his Ramon Magsaysay Award prize money as a seed fund. Besides the three founders, Prashant Bhushan and Kiran Bedi served as the Foundation's trustees. This new body paid the employees of Parivartan. Kejriwal used the RTI Act in corruption cases in many government departments including the Income Tax Department, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi, the Public Distribution System and the Delhi Electricity Board.
=== Jan Lokpal movement ===
In 2010, Kejriwal protested against corruption in the Commonwealth Games. He argued that the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) did not have any powers to take any action against the guilty, while CBI was incapable of launching an unbiased investigation against the ministers who controlled it. He advocated appointment of public ombudsman - Lokpal at the Centre and Lokayuktas in states.
In 2011, Kejriwal joined several other activists, including Anna Hazare and Kiran Bedi, to form the India Against Corruption (IAC) group. The IAC demanded enactment of the Jan Lokpal Bill, which would result in a strong ombudsman. The campaign evolved into the 2011 Indian anti-corruption movement. In response to the campaign, the government's advisory body - the National Advisory Council - drafted a Lokpal Bill. However, the NAC's Bill was criticised by Kejriwal and other activists on the grounds that it did not have enough powers to take action against the prime minister, other corrupt officeholders, and the judiciary. The activists also criticised the procedure for the selection of Lokpal, the transparency clauses and the proposal to disallow the Lokpal from taking cognizance of public grievances.
Amid continuing protests, the Government constituted a committee to Draft a Jan Lokpal Bill. Kejriwal was one of the civil society representative members of this committee. However, he alleged that the IAC activists had an unequal position in the committee, and the government appointees kept ignoring their recommendations. The Government argued that the activists could not be allowed to blackmail the elected representatives through protests. Kejriwal retorted that democratically elected representatives could not be allowed to function like dictators, and asked for a public debate on the contentious issues.
The IAC activists intensified their protests, and Anna Hazare organised a hunger strike. Kejriwal and other activists were arrested for defying a police directive to give a written undertaking that they will not go to JP Park. Kejriwal attacked the government on this and said there was a need for a debate over police power to detain and release people at will. In August 2011, a settlement was reached between the Government and the activists.
Besides the government, the Jan Lokpal movement was also criticised by some citizens as 'undemocratic' on the grounds that the ombudsman had powers over elected representatives. Arundhati Roy claimed that the movement was not a people's movement; instead, it was funded by foreigners to influence policymaking in India. She pointed out that the Ford Foundation had funded the Emergent Leadership category of the Ramon Magsaysay Award, and also donated $397,000 to Kejriwal's NGO Kabir. Both Kejriwal and Ford Foundation termed the allegations as baseless, stating that the donations were made to support the RTI campaigns. Besides, several other Indian organisations had also received grants from the Ford Foundation. Kejriwal also denied the allegations that the movement was a plot against the ruling Congress by the RSS, or that it was an upper-caste conspiracy against the Dalits.
By January 2012, the Government had backtracked on its promise to implement a strong Jan Lokpal, resulting in another series of protests from Kejriwal and his fellow activists. These protests attracted lower participation compared to the 2011 protests. By mid-2012, Kejriwal had replaced Anna Hazare as the face of the remaining protestors. In January 2014, Kejriwal said that he will quit from the government if Jan Lokpal Bill is not passed. In 2015, during the second term of the AAP government in Delhi, the Jan Lokpal Bill was passed by the assembly awaiting the president's approval.
== National Convener of AAP ==
One of the major criticisms directed at the Jan Lokpal activists was that they had no right to dictate terms to the elected representatives. As a result, Kejriwal and other activists decided to enter politics and contest elections. In November 2012, they formally launched the Aam Aadmi Party; Kejriwal was elected as the party's National Convener. The party name reflects the phrase Aam Aadmi, or "common man", whose interests Kejriwal proposed to represent. The establishment of AAP caused a rift between Kejriwal and Hazare.
AAP decided to contest the 2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election, with Kejriwal contesting against the incumbent Chief Minister Sheila Dikshit. Kejriwal became the fifth most-mentioned Indian politician on social media channels in the run-up to the elections.
== Chief Minister of Delhi ==
=== First term ===
In the 2013, Delhi Legislative Assembly elections for all 70 seats, the Bharatiya Janata Party won 31 seats, followed by Aam Aadmi Party with 28 seats. Kejriwal defeated incumbent Chief Minister, Sheila Dikshit of the Indian National Congress (INC), in her constituency of New Delhi by a margin of 25,864 votes.
AAP formed a minority government in the hung assembly, (claiming support for the action gauged from opinion polls) with outside support from the eight INC MLAs, one Janata Dal MLA and one independent MLA. Kejriwal was sworn in as the second-youngest chief minister of Delhi on 28 December 2013, after Chaudhary Brahm Prakash who became chief minister at the age of 34. He was in charge of Delhi's home, power, planning, finance, services and vigilance ministries.
On 14 February 2014, he resigned as Chief Minister after failing to table the Jan Lokpal Bill in the Delhi Assembly. He recommended the dissolution of the Assembly. Kejriwal blamed the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party for stalling the anti-corruption legislation and linked it with the government's decision to register a First Information Report (FIR) against industrialist Mukesh Ambani, chairman and managing director of Reliance Industries. In April 2014 he said that he had made a mistake by resigning without publicly explaining the rationale behind his decision.
=== Second term ===
Kejriwal led Aam Aadmi Party won 67 of the 70 constituencies in the 2015 Delhi Assembly elections, leaving the BJP with three seats and the INC with none. In those elections, he was again elected from the New Delhi constituency, defeating Nupur Sharma by 31,583 votes. He took oath on 14 February 2015 as Delhi's chief minister for a second time at Ramlila Maidan. Since then his party has passed the Jan Lokpal Bill though with some differences.
There has been a long-running dispute between Kejriwal's office and that of the Lieutenant-Governor of Delhi during Kejriwal's second term as Chief Minister. Various issues have been involved, relating which office has ultimate responsibility for various aspects of government, including some significant public appointments. Manish Sisodia characterised it as "a battle between the selected and the elected" and indicated after a legal setback that the government was prepared to take the issues to the Supreme Court of India.
Mohalla Clinics that are primary health centres in Delhi was first set up by the Aam Aadmi Party government in 2015, and as of 2018, 187 such clinics have been set up across the state and served more than 2 million residents. The Government has kept a target of setting up 1000 such clinics in the city before 2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly Elections. Mohalla Clinics offer a basic package of essential health services including medicines, diagnostics, and consultation free of cost. These clinics serve as the first point of contact for the population, offer timely services, and reduce the load of referrals to secondary and tertiary health facilities in the state. Beginning in October 2019, New Delhi began rolling out free bus transit for women on the Delhi Transport Corporation, with women travelling for free when using pink tickets carrying a message from Kejriwal. He has been criticised for his controversial remarks over Biharis and "outsiders".
Shunglu Committee submitted a report to LG of Delhi raising questions over decisions of Government of Delhi.
=== Third term ===
AAP won 62 seats out of 70 in the 2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly election. He took oath on 16 February 2020 as Delhi's chief minister for a third time at Ramlila Maidan, equalling the record of Sheila Dikshit. On 21 March 2024, he became the first ever sitting chief minister in India to be arrested and imprisoned. After being released on bail by the Supreme Court, he vowed to resign from the post of chief minister on 15 September 2024 to campaign for the upcoming Delhi assembly elections. He resigned formally on 17 September 2024 and AAP named education minister Atishi Marlena as his replacement.
==== COVID-19 Mismanagement ====
During the COVID-19 pandemic in India in April 2021, Congress accused the Kejriwal government of spending significant amounts on publicity campaigns while failing to augment oxygen storage capacity and set up new oxygen plants in the National Capital Territory over the preceding year. A Central government-appointed committee criticised the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)-led Delhi government for using state funds for advertisements that promoted Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal and his party, allegedly violating Supreme Court guidelines.
In a reply to a Right to Information (RTI) query, it was revealed that funds were allocated in December 2020 to establish eight oxygen plants in Delhi, but only one plant was completed. The remaining funds were reportedly diverted to advertising expenditures. During the oxygen crisis in 2021, the central government increased oxygen allocations for Delhi, prompting Kejriwal to publicly thank the central government for providing 730 tons of oxygen. Critics accused Kejriwal of being "criminally liable" for the deaths of several patients in two Delhi hospitals due to oxygen shortages.
In July 2022, a Supreme Court-appointed audit panel concluded that the Delhi government had exaggerated its oxygen requirements by four times during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.
==== Attack by BJP members ====
On 30 March 2022, the official residence of Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal was attacked by a group of BJP supporters during a protest. Deputy Chief Minister Manish Sisodia alleged that the incident was part of a conspiracy to murder Kejriwal.
Following the incident, AAP MLA Saurabh Bhardwaj filed a petition in the Delhi High Court seeking the constitution of a Special Investigation Team (SIT) to investigate the attack. The petition claimed that the attack appeared to have been carried out with the "tacit complicity" of the Delhi Police. It alleged that the attackers breached the security cordon, damaged property including CCTV cameras, and vandalised the residence while police personnel failed to intervene.
On 31 March 2022, eight individuals involved in the attack were arrested. Charges under provisions related to obstructing public servants and damaging public property were filed. The Delhi High Court observed that the security arrangements at the Chief Minister's residence were inadequate to control the crowd and sought a status report from the Delhi Police on their investigation into the incident.
==== 2024 arrest ====
After skipping nine summons from the Enforcement Directorate (ED), Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal was arrested on 21 March 2024 by the ED after the Delhi High Court rejected his anticipatory bail in connection with the Delhi liquor policy money laundering case. This made him the first sitting chief minister of India to be arrested (all others arrested before him had resigned from their post before being arrested). The opposition alliance called it a fabricated case and "match-fixing" before the 2024 general elections by the Bharatiya Janata Party led union government. The Delhi High Court dismissed Kejriwal's petition against his arrest and all his bail requests. The Supreme Court ultimately granted him interim bail from 10 May 2024 to 1 June 2024 on account of campaigning for the elections.
Following the end of his interim bail and failure to extend it on medical grounds, Kejriwal surrendered at Tihar Jail on 2 June. He was then sent to judicial custody until 5 June 2024. A Delhi court denied the plea filed by Kejriwal seeking a seven-day interim bail and extended judicial custody until 19 June and subsequently till 3 July 2024. On 20 June 2024 Kejriwal was granted bail by the trial court on a bail bond of 100,000 INR. However, his bail was put on hold before his release as ED appealed against it in the Delhi Hight Court. Kejriwal was then questioned for 3 days by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and arrested on 26 June 2024 from Tihar Jail in the same case. Subsequently, he was sent to judicial custody till 12 July.
On 12 July 2024, the Supreme Court granted interim bail to Kejriwal in money laundering case related to the alleged excise policy scam. However, he remained in jail due to the CBI arrest made in the previous month. On 5 September 2024, the Supreme court reserved an order on his bail in the CBI case. The reserved order was pronounced by the SC on 13 September 2024, granting him bail and ultimately leading to his release from Tihar Jail after five months. However he served in prison for more than 5 months.
== Electoral history ==
=== Lok Sabha elections ===
=== Delhi Legislative Assembly elections ===
== Political views ==
Kejriwal discussed his views on corruption and the state of the Indian democracy in his book Swaraj. He advocates for a decentralisation of government and the involvement of the panchayat in local decisions and budgets. He claims that foreign multinational corporations have too much power in the decision-making process of the central government and that the politicians at the centre are not being held accountable for their actions and inaction after their election.
== Personal life ==
In 1995, Kejriwal married Sunita, a 1993-batch IRS officer. She took voluntary retirement in 2016 as Commissioner of Income Tax in the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal.
The couple have a daughter and a son. Kejriwal follows Hinduism. Kejriwal is a vegetarian and has been practising the Vipassanā meditation technique for many years. He is diabetic. In 2016, he underwent a surgery for his persistent cough problem.
Kejriwal considers himself an Ambedkarite and calls himself a 'devotee' of B. R. Ambedkar.
== Controversies ==
=== COVID-19 ===
In May 2021, Kejriwal called for the Indian central government to immediately stop air travel between India and Singapore, and develop "vaccine alternatives for children", due to "a new variant of coronavirus found in Singapore" which "is being said to be very dangerous for children". However, the Singapore Health Ministry stated that there was no known Singaporean variant of COVID-19; a recent report discussing the threat of COVID-19 to Singaporean children was discussing a variant of COVID-19 first detected in India: B.1.617. Many of the recent COVID-19 cases in Singapore were of B.1.617. Further, it said “There is no truth whatsoever in the assertions found within the reports”. The foreign minister of India, Subrahmanyam Jaishankar, and the foreign minister of Singapore, Vivian Balakrishnan, criticised Kejriwal's comment as "irresponsible" and counter-factual respectively.
In 2022, the Kejriwal government was accused by a central government panel of inflating the reported oxygen need of Delhi during the second wave of COVID-19 infections.
=== Lawsuits ===
Several defamation cases were filed against Arvind Kejriwal by his political opponents. In January 2014, Kejriwal released a list of most corrupt politicians that included several leaders across the political spectrum. Of the several on the list, Nitin Gadkari immediately filed a defamation suit against Kejriwal. Subsequently, Kejriwal apologised to union minister Nitin Gadkari for his unverified allegations and also sought apology from former minister Kapil Sibal.
In 2016, Kejriwal made allegations against Bikram Majithia, the then revenue minister of Punjab of involvement in drug trade for which Majithia filed a defamation case against him and two others from Aam Aadmi party. Kejriwal apologised to Majithia a couple of years later in March 2018.
Kejriwal made allegations against finance minister Arun Jaitley for irregularities in DDCA. Arun Jaitley filed a 10-crore defamation suit against Kejriwal. On 2 March 2016, Delhi High Court asked Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal and suspended BJP MP Kirti Azad to file their written statements in a civil defamation suit of Rs 5 crores filed by DDCA for their alleged remarks against the cricket body regarding its functioning and finances. Following this, in April 2018 Arvind Kejriwal and three others from his party including Sanjay Singh, Raghav Chaddha and Ashutosh apologised to Arun Jaitley in a joint letter.
In his affidavit to Election Directorate before the second term elections in 2015 Kejriwal had declared that he has 10 criminal charges and 47 total charges against him.
In 2021, a Delhi court dismissed an assault case filed by a Delhi bureaucrat against Kejriwal and ten AAP MLAs and discharged them of all charges. The court noted that "no prima facie case" was made against them.
In February 2024, Kejriwal was involved in a defamation lawsuit and issued an apology to the Supreme Court of India for retweeting YouTuber Dhruv Rathee's 2018 video on BJP IT Cell. The Delhi high court, in its earlier ruling had stated that sharing "purportedly libelous" content would fall under defamation laws. On 11 March 2025, a Delhi court ordered an FIR against Arvind Kejriwal for allegedly misusing public money on large hoardings
=== Official residence renovations ===
In late April 2023, BJP made allegations that Kejriwal had misappropriated public funds for renovations of his residence in Delhi. An investigation was announced on 29 April 2023. CBI said that they started investigating money spent on renovating Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal’s house complex. Its Vigilance Department said it was pursuing misappropriation of funds and financial irregularities.
=== Media fixing ===
In March 2014, in a leaked video of an interview with journalist Punya Prasun Bajpai, Kejriwal was seen giving instructions to Bajpai on promoting his interview by comparing his resignation to the sacrifice of Bhagat Singh and dropping a certain portion of interview on privatisation of industries which would portray him anti-middle class. Later, when the interview was telecasted it was found that Punya Prasun Bajpai had actually complied to the instructions and raised questions on his journalistic integrity and ethics. This controversy was called "media fixing" at that time.
=== Delhi liquor scam ===
He was arrested on 21 March 2024 by the Enforcement Directorate on allegations of a Delhi liquor scam against Aam Aadmi Party's Delhi Government. He became the first ever incumbent chief minister in India to be arrested while still holding the post. The ED also accused him of spying on their officials. He had skipped nine summons by the Enforcement Directorate as well, before that. The Delhi High Court dismissed Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal's petition against his arrest. He was granted bail by the Delhi High Court on 20 June 2024. His ministers, Satyendra Jain and Manish Sisodia have also been in jail without bail, trial or conviction with the exception of a bail to the former once for treatment. Satyendra Jain spent more than two years in jail. Manish Sisodia was granted bail by the Supreme Court on 9 August 2024. The opposition alliance called the arrest weeks before the 2024 Indian general election a case of fabrication and "match-fixing" by the BJP. Amnesty International said that financial and terrorism laws have been weaponised to go after political opponents while the BJP has denied that it had any political agenda to go after Kejriwal. On 20 June 2024, Kejriwal was released on bail after paying bail bond of one lakh Indian Rupees. His bail was put on hold before release as ED appealed against Kejriwal's bail. On 20 June, he was granted bail but his release was delayed due to an ED appeal. The CBI arrested him on 26 June, extending his custody to 12 July. On 12 July, the Supreme Court granted him interim bail for alleged Delhi liquor policy money laundering case, but he remains in jail in CBI case related to alleged Liquor policy scam. On 5 September 2024, the Supreme court upheld Delhi High Court's order of not granting bail to Kejriwal. On 13 September 2024, Kejriwal was granted bail by Supreme Court while imposing certain restrictions to his office of the Chief Minister.
== In the media ==
An Insignificant Man is a 2017 Hindi/English Indian socio-political documentary co-produced and directed by Khushboo Ranka and Vinay Shukla and also co-produced by filmmaker Anand Gandhi. The documentary is about the rise of anti-corruption protests in India and the formation and rise to power of the Aam Aadmi Party and Arvind Kejriwal.
Kejriwal has appeared on the talk-shows and interviews of News channels. He spoofed himself on the third episode of the first season of The Viral Fever's Barely Speaking With Arnub, where actor Jitendra Kumar cosplayed as Kejriwal while sitting next to him in the latter half of the interview. He also appeared in stand-up comedian Kunal Kamra's YouTube interview series Shut Up Ya Kunal.
== See also ==
Fifth Legislative Assembly of Delhi
2017 Punjab Legislative Assembly election
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
== External links ==
Swaraj. HarperCollins India. 2012. ISBN 978-93-5029-937-1. (co-author)
Arvind Kejriwal & the Aam Aadmi Party: An Inside Look. Bloomsbury India. 2016. ISBN 978-93-85936-98-2. by Pran Kurup
प्रदूषण खत्म करने के लिए केजरीवाल ने लॉन्च किया Green Delhi App. Archived 16 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine (Maha Khabar).
Arvind Kejriwal – profile (archived)
Arvind Kejriwal at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxi_Gnauck#:~:text=She%20was%20one%20of%20the,at%20the%20University%20of%20Leipzig. | Maxi Gnauck | Maxi Gnauck (born 10 October 1964) is a German former artistic gymnast who represented East Germany. With a total of 27 medals at the Olympic Games, World Championships, World Cups, and European Championships she is considered one of the most successful woman gymnasts that Germany has ever produced. In 1980 she was selected East German Sportspersonality of the Year.
Her parents were expecting a boy and they planned to name him Max so, when the baby turned out to be a girl, they simply added an 'i', creating an uncommon name for Germany. When Maxi was five, her mother took her to a gymnastics centre in their area. By age eight, Maxi had won her first medals at the Kreisspartakiade. When she was nine she changed her club to SC Dynamo Berlin, where she was coached by Jürgen Heritz. Considered one of the best uneven bars competitors of all time, Maxi was also an excellent tumbler. She was one of the first female gymnasts to perform a triple twist on floor.
In April 1986, Maxi officially announced her retirement and began a four-year course in sports coaching at the University of Leipzig. In 1988 she was severely injured while sliding down a waterslide while working as an aide at a children's summer camp by the Baltic Sea. She broke her C5 vertebra and was nearly paralysed. Three vertebrae were later reinforced with a metal plate.
Facing a strong competition after the reunification of East Germany and West Germany, she first took temporary coaching positions in South Africa and Great Britain, both for a few months in 1990. From 1993 until 2004 she worked as a full-time coach at the Harksheide Gymnastics Center in Norderstedt near Hamburg. Since 2005 she has worked at the Artistic and Apparatus Gymnastics Center (Kunst- und Gerätturnzentrum) at Liestal in Switzerland. In 2000, she was inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame. She is the first German gymnast to be awarded that honour.
== Results ==
== See also ==
List of top medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
== References ==
== External links ==
Maxi Gnauck at the International Gymnastics Federation
Maxi Gnauck at the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame
Maxi Gnauck at Olympics.com
Maxi Gnauck at Olympedia
Maxi in Switzerland at the Wayback Machine (archived 12 June 2008) (in German) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini | Benito Mussolini | Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who was the dictator of Italy during the Fascist period, which lasted from the March on Rome in 1922 until his overthrow in 1943. He founded the National Fascist Party (PNF) and served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1922, later adopting the title Duce ("leader") of Italian fascism. Mussolini first organized the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (lit. 'Italian Fasces of Combat') in 1919, which evolved into the PNF that established a totalitarian regime. As the founder of fascism, Mussolini was a key inspiration and contributor to the rise of similar movements across Europe during the interwar period.
Mussolini was originally a socialist journalist at the Avanti! newspaper. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but was expelled for advocating military intervention in the First World War. In 1914, Mussolini founded a newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, and served in the Royal Italian Army until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. He eventually denounced the PSI, his views pivoting to focus on Italian nationalism, and founded the fascist movement which opposed egalitarianism and class conflict, instead advocating "revolutionary nationalism" transcending class lines. In October 1922, following the March on Rome, he was appointed prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III. After removing opposition through his secret police and outlawing labour strikes, Mussolini and his followers consolidated power through laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years, he established dictatorial authority by legal and illegal means and aspired to create a totalitarian state. In 1929, he signed the Lateran Treaty to establish Vatican City.
Mussolini's foreign policy was based on the fascist doctrine of spazio vitale (lit. 'living space'), which aimed to expand Italian possessions and have an Italian sphere of influence in southeastern Europe. In the 1920s, he ordered the Pacification of Libya, the bombing of Corfu over an incident with Greece, and his government annexed Fiume after a treaty with Yugoslavia. In 1936, Ethiopia was conquered following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and merged into Italian East Africa (AOI) with Eritrea and Somalia. In 1939, Italian forces annexed Albania. Between 1936 and 1939, Mussolini ordered an intervention in Spain in favour of Francisco Franco, during the Spanish Civil War. Mussolini took part in the Treaty of Lausanne, Four-Power Pact and Stresa Front. However, he alienated the democratic powers as tensions grew in the League of Nations, which he left in 1937. Now hostile to France and Britain, Italy formed the Axis powers with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan.
The wars of the 1930s cost Italy enormous resources, leaving it unprepared for the Second World War; Mussolini initially declared Italy's non-belligerence. However, in June 1940, believing Allied defeat imminent, he joined the war on Germany's side, to share the spoils. After the tide turned, and the Allied invasion of Sicily, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini as head of government and placed him in custody in July 1943. After the king agreed to an armistice with the Allies in September 1943, Mussolini was rescued by Germany in the Gran Sasso raid. Adolf Hitler made Mussolini the figurehead of a puppet state in German-occupied north Italy, the Italian Social Republic, which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans. With Allied victory imminent, Mussolini and mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland, but were captured by communist partisans and executed on 28 April 1945.
== Early life ==
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born on 29 July 1883 in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in the province of Forlì in Romagna. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed "Duce's town" and Forlì was called "Duce's city", with pilgrims going to Predappio and Forlì to see the birthplace of Mussolini.
Benito Mussolini's father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a socialist, while his mother, Rosa (née Maltoni), was a devout Catholic schoolteacher. Given his father's political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after liberal Mexican president Benito Juárez, while his middle names, Andrea and Amilcare, were for Italian socialists Andrea Costa and Amilcare Cipriani. In return his mother required that he be baptised at birth. Benito was followed by his siblings Arnaldo and Edvige. Mussolini's family was of comparatively humble status, and fascist biographers frequently emphasized that the dictator had "come from the people". Nevertheless, the family did not belong to the lowest social stratum, and Benito's father played a prominent role in regional politics, at one point holding the office of deputy mayor of Predappio.
As a young boy, Mussolini helped his father in his smithy. Mussolini's early political views were strongly influenced by his father, who idolised 19th-century Italian nationalist figures with humanist tendencies such as Carlo Pisacane, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Giuseppe Garibaldi. His father's political outlook combined views of anarchist figures such as Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, and the nationalism of Mazzini. In 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldi's death, Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist.
Mussolini was sent to a boarding school in Faenza run by Salesians. Despite being shy, he often clashed with teachers and fellow boarders due to his proud, grumpy, and violent behaviour. During an argument, he injured a classmate with a penknife and was severely punished. After joining a new non-religious school in Forlimpopoli, Mussolini achieved good grades, was appreciated by his teachers despite his violent character, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in July 1901.
=== Emigration to Switzerland and military service ===
In July 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid compulsory military service. He worked briefly as a stonemason but was unable to find a permanent job.
During this time he studied the ideas of the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, the sociologist Vilfredo Pareto, and the syndicalist Georges Sorel. Mussolini also later credited Charles Péguy and Hubert Lagardelle as influences. Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, the general strike, and the use of neo-Machiavellian appeals to emotion, impressed Mussolini deeply.
Mussolini became active in the Italian socialist movement in Switzerland, working for the paper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore (The Future of the Worker), organising meetings, giving speeches to workers, and serving as secretary of the Italian workers' union in Lausanne. John Gunther alleged that Angelica Balabanov introduced Mussolini, then a bricklayer, to Vladimir Lenin. In 1903, he was arrested by Bernese police because of his advocacy of a violent general strike, spent two weeks in jail, and was handed over to Italian police in Chiasso. After he was released in Italy, he returned to Switzerland. He was arrested again in Geneva, in April 1904, for falsifying his passport expiration date, and was expelled from the canton of Geneva. He was released in Bellinzona following protests from Genevan socialists. Mussolini then returned to Lausanne, where he entered the University of Lausanne's Department of Social Science on 7 May 1904, attending the lectures of Vilfredo Pareto. In 1937, when he was prime minister of Italy, the University of Lausanne awarded Mussolini an honorary doctorate.
In December 1904, Mussolini returned to Italy to take advantage of an amnesty for desertion from the military. He had been convicted for this in absentia. Since a condition for being pardoned was serving in the army, he joined the corps of the Bersaglieri in Forlì on 30 December 1904. After serving for two years in the military (from January 1905 until September 1906), he returned to teaching.
=== Political journalist, intellectual and socialist ===
In February 1909, Mussolini again left Italy, this time to take the job as the secretary of the labour party in the Italian-speaking city of Trento, then part of Austria-Hungary. He also did office work for the local Socialist Party, and edited its newspaper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore (The Future of the Worker). Returning to Italy, he spent a brief time in Milan, and in 1910 he returned to his hometown of Forlì, where he edited the weekly Lotta di classe (The Class Struggle).
Mussolini thought of himself as an intellectual and was considered to be well-read. He read avidly; his favourites in European philosophy included Sorel, the Italian Futurist Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, French Socialist Gustave Hervé, Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta, and German philosophers Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, the founders of Marxism. Mussolini had taught himself French and German and translated excerpts from Nietzsche, Schopenhauer and Kant.
During this time, he published Il Trentino veduto da un Socialista (Trentino as viewed by a Socialist) in the radical periodical La Voce. He also wrote several essays about German literature, some stories, and one novel: L'amante del Cardinale: Claudia Particella, romanzo storico (The Cardinal's Mistress). This novel he co-wrote with Santi Corvaja, and it was published as a serial book in the Trento newspaper Il Popolo from 20 January to 11 May 1910. The novel was bitterly anticlerical, and years later was withdrawn from circulation after Mussolini made a truce with the Vatican.
He had become one of Italy's most prominent socialists. In September 1911, Mussolini participated in a riot, led by socialists, against the Italian war in Libya. He bitterly denounced Italy's "imperialist war," an action that earned him a five-month jail term. After his release, he helped expel Ivanoe Bonomi and Leonida Bissolati from the Socialist Party, as they were two "revisionists" who had supported the war.
In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). He was rewarded with the editorship of the Socialist Party newspaper Avanti! Under his leadership, its circulation soon rose from 20,000 to 100,000. John Gunther in 1940 called him "one of the best journalists alive"; Mussolini was a working reporter while preparing for the March on Rome, and wrote for the Hearst News Service until 1935. Mussolini was so familiar with Marxist literature that in his writings he would not only quote from well-known Marxist works but also from the relatively obscure works. During this period Mussolini considered himself an "authoritarian communist" and a Marxist and he described Karl Marx as "the greatest of all theorists of socialism."
In 1913, he published Giovanni Hus, il veridico (Jan Hus, true prophet), a historical and political biography about the life and mission of the Czech ecclesiastic reformer Jan Hus and his militant followers, the Hussites. During this socialist period of his life, Mussolini sometimes used the pen name "Vero Eretico" ("sincere heretic").
Mussolini rejected egalitarianism, a core doctrine of socialism. He was influenced by Nietzsche's anti-Christian ideas and negation of God's existence. Mussolini felt that socialism had faltered, in view of the failures of Marxist determinism and social democratic reformism, and believed that Nietzsche's ideas would strengthen socialism. Mussolini's writings came to reflect an abandonment of Marxism and egalitarianism in favour of Nietzsche's übermensch concept and anti-egalitarianism.
=== Expulsion from the Italian Socialist Party ===
When World War I began in August 1914, many socialist parties worldwide followed the rising nationalist current and supported their country's intervention in the war. In Italy, the outbreak of the war created a surge of Italian nationalism and intervention was supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention. The Italian Liberal Party under the leadership of Paolo Boselli promoted intervention on the side of the Allies and utilised the Società Dante Alighieri to promote Italian nationalism. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war. Prior to Mussolini taking a position on the war, a number of revolutionary syndicalists had announced their support of intervention, including Alceste De Ambris, Filippo Corridoni, and Angelo Oliviero Olivetti. The Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors had been killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week.
Mussolini initially held official support for the party's decision and, in an August 1914 article, Mussolini wrote "Down with the War. We remain neutral." He saw the war as an opportunity, both for his own ambitions as well as those of socialists and Italians. He was influenced by anti-Austrian Italian nationalist sentiments, believing that the war offered Italians in Austria-Hungary the chance to liberate themselves from rule of the Habsburgs. He eventually decided to declare support for the war by appealing to the need for socialists to overthrow the Hohenzollern and Habsburg monarchies in Germany and Austria-Hungary who he said had consistently repressed socialism.
Mussolini further justified his position by denouncing the Central Powers for being reactionary powers; for pursuing imperialist designs against Belgium and Serbia as well as historically against Denmark, France, and against Italians, since hundreds of thousands of Italians were under Habsburg rule. He argued that the fall of Hohenzollern and Habsburg monarchies and the repression of "reactionary" Turkey would create conditions beneficial for the working class, and that the mobilisation required for the war would undermine Russia's reactionary authoritarianism and bring Russia to social revolution. He said that for Italy the war would complete the process of Risorgimento by uniting the Italians in Austria-Hungary into Italy and by allowing the common people of Italy to be participating members in what would be Italy's first national war. Thus he claimed that the vast social changes that the war could offer meant that it should be supported as a revolutionary war.
As Mussolini's support for the intervention solidified, he came into conflict with socialists who opposed the war. He attacked the opponents of the war and claimed that those proletarians who supported pacifism were out of step with the proletarians who had joined the rising interventionist vanguard that was preparing Italy for a revolutionary war. He began to criticise the Italian Socialist Party and socialism itself for having failed to recognise the national problems that had led to the outbreak of the war. He was expelled from the party for his support of intervention.
A police report prepared by the Inspector-General of Public Security in Milan, G. Gasti, describes his background and his position on the First World War that resulted in his ousting from the Italian Socialist Party:
Professor Benito Mussolini, ... 38, revolutionary socialist, has a police record; elementary school teacher qualified to teach in secondary schools; former first secretary of the Chambers in Cesena, Forlì, and Ravenna; after 1912 editor of the newspaper Avanti! to which he gave a violent suggestive and intransigent orientation. In October 1914, finding himself in opposition to the directorate of the Italian Socialist party because he advocated a kind of active neutrality on the part of Italy in the War of the Nations against the party's tendency of absolute neutrality, he withdrew on the twentieth of that month from the directorate of Avanti! Then on the fifteenth of November [1914], thereafter, he initiated publication of the newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, in which he supported—in sharp contrast to Avanti! and amid bitter polemics against that newspaper and its chief backers—the thesis of Italian intervention in the war against the militarism of the Central Empires. For this reason he was accused of moral and political unworthiness and the party thereupon decided to expel him ... Thereafter he ... undertook a very active campaign in behalf of Italian intervention, participating in demonstrations in the piazzas and writing quite violent articles in Popolo d'Italia ...
In his summary, the Inspector also noted:
He was the ideal editor of Avanti! for the Socialists. In that line of work he was greatly esteemed and beloved. Some of his former comrades and admirers still confess that there was no one who understood better how to interpret the spirit of the proletariat and there was no one who did not observe his apostasy with sorrow. This came about not for reasons of self-interest or money. He was a sincere and passionate advocate, first of vigilant and armed neutrality, and later of war; and he did not believe that he was compromising with his personal and political honesty by making use of every means—no matter where they came from or wherever he might obtain them—to pay for his newspaper, his program and his line of action. This was his initial line. It is difficult to say to what extent his socialist convictions (which he never either openly or privately abjure) may have been sacrificed in the course of the indispensable financial deals which were necessary for the continuation of the struggle in which he was engaged ... But assuming these modifications did take place ... he always wanted to give the appearance of still being a socialist, and he fooled himself into thinking that this was the case.
John Gunther alleged that Lenin criticised Italian socialists for having lost Mussolini from their cause.
=== Beginning of Fascism and service in World War I ===
After being ousted by the Italian Socialist Party, Mussolini made a radical transformation, ending his support for class conflict and joining in support of revolutionary nationalism transcending class lines. He formed the interventionist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasces of International Action") in October 1914. The funds to create Il Popolo d'Italia—funneled through entrepreneur Filippo Naldi—came from many sources, including domestic industrial and agrarian interests, such as the engineering giants Fiat and Ansaldo, and the governments of France and Britain.
On 5 December 1914, Mussolini denounced orthodox socialism for failing to recognise that the war had made national identity and loyalty more significant than class distinction. He fully demonstrated his transformation in a speech that acknowledged the nation as an entity, a notion he had rejected prior to the war, saying:
The nation has not disappeared. We used to believe that the concept was totally without substance. Instead we see the nation arise as a palpitating reality before us! ... Class cannot destroy the nation. Class reveals itself as a collection of interests—but the nation is a history of sentiments, traditions, language, culture, and race. Class can become an integral part of the nation, but the one cannot eclipse the other.The class struggle is a vain formula, without effect and consequence wherever one finds a people that has not integrated itself into its proper linguistic and racial confines—where the national problem has not been definitely resolved. In such circumstances the class movement finds itself impaired by an inauspicious historic climate.
Mussolini continued to promote the need of a revolutionary vanguard elite to lead society. He no longer advocated a proletarian vanguard, but instead a vanguard led by dynamic and revolutionary people of any social class. Though he denounced orthodox socialism and class conflict, he maintained at the time that he was a nationalist socialist and a supporter of the legacy of nationalist socialists in Italy's history, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Carlo Pisacane. As for the Italian Socialist Party and its support of orthodox socialism, he claimed that his failure as a member of the party to revitalise and transform it to recognise the contemporary reality revealed the hopelessness of orthodox socialism as outdated and a failure. This perception of the failure of orthodox socialism in the light of the outbreak of World War I was not solely held by Mussolini; other pro-interventionist Italian socialists such as Filippo Corridoni and Sergio Panunzio had also denounced classical Marxism in favour of intervention.
These basic political views and principles formed the basis of Mussolini's newly formed political movement, the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria in 1914, who called themselves Fascisti (Fascists). At this time, the Fascists did not have an integrated set of policies and the movement was small, ineffective in its attempts to hold mass meetings, and was regularly harassed by government authorities and orthodox socialists. Antagonism between the interventionists versus the anti-interventionist orthodox socialists resulted in violence between the Fascists and socialists. These early hostilities between the Fascists and the revolutionary socialists shaped Mussolini's conception of the nature of Fascism in its support of political violence.
Mussolini became an ally with the irredentist politician and journalist Cesare Battisti. When World War I started, Mussolini, like many Italian nationalists, volunteered to fight. He was turned down because of his radical Socialism and told to wait for his reserve call up. He was called up on 31 August and reported for duty with his old unit, the Bersaglieri. After a two-week refresher course he was sent to Isonzo front where he took part in the Second Battle of the Isonzo, September 1915. His unit also took part in the Third Battle of the Isonzo, October 1915.
The Inspector General continued:
He was promoted to the rank of corporal "for merit in war". The promotion was recommended because of his exemplary conduct and fighting quality, his mental calmness and lack of concern for discomfort, his zeal and regularity in carrying out his assignments, where he was always first in every task involving labor and fortitude.
Mussolini's military experience is told in his work Diario di guerra. He totalled about nine months of active, front-line trench warfare. During this time, he contracted paratyphoid fever. His military exploits ended in February 1917 when he was wounded accidentally by the explosion of a mortar bomb in his trench. He was left with at least 40 shards of metal in his body and had to be evacuated from the front. He was invalided out of the army in June 1917 and resumed his editor-in-chief position at Il Popolo d'Italia.
On 25 December 1915, in Treviglio, he married his compatriot Rachele Guidi, who had already borne him a daughter, Edda, at Forlì in 1910. In 1915, he had a son with Ida Dalser, a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento. He legally recognised this son on 11 January 1916.
== Rise to power ==
=== Formation of the National Fascist Party ===
Mussolini returned to politics following his return from service in the Allied forces of World War I. In early 1918 he called for the emergence of a man "ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep" to revive the Italian nation. On 23 March 1919 Mussolini re-formed the Milan fascio as the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squad), initially consisting of 200 members.
The ideological basis for fascism came from a number of sources. Mussolini drew from the works of Plato, Georges Sorel, Nietzsche, and the economic ideas of Vilfredo Pareto. Mussolini admired Plato's The Republic, which he often read for inspiration. The Republic expounded a number of ideas that fascism promoted, such as rule by an elite promoting the state as the ultimate end, opposition to democracy, protecting the class system and promoting class collaboration, rejection of egalitarianism, promoting the militarisation of a nation by creating a class of warriors, demanding that citizens perform civic duties in the interest of the state, and utilising state intervention in education to promote the development of warriors and future rulers of the state.
The idea behind Mussolini's foreign policy was that of spazio vitale ('living space'), a concept in Italian Fascism that was analogous to Lebensraum in German National Socialism. The concept of spazio vitale was first announced in 1919, when the entire Mediterranean, especially the so-called Julian March, was redefined to make it appear a unified region that had belonged to Italy from the times of the ancient Roman province of Italia, and was claimed as Italy's exclusive sphere of influence. The right to colonise the neighbouring Slovene ethnic areas and the Mediterranean, being inhabited by what were alleged to be less developed peoples, was justified on the grounds that Italy was allegedly suffering from overpopulation.
Borrowing the idea first developed by Enrico Corradini before 1914 of the natural conflict between "plutocratic" nations like Britain and "proletarian" nations like Italy, Mussolini claimed that Italy's principal problem was that "plutocratic" countries like Britain were blocking Italy from achieving the necessary spazio vitale that would let the Italian economy grow. Mussolini equated a nation's potential for economic growth with territorial size, thus in his view the problem of poverty in Italy could only be solved by winning the necessary spazio vitale.
Though biological racism was less prominent in Italian Fascism than in National Socialism, right from the start the spazio vitale concept had a strong racist undercurrent. Mussolini asserted there was a "natural law" for stronger peoples to subject and dominate "inferior" peoples such as the "barbaric" Slavic peoples of Yugoslavia. He stated in a September 1920 speech: When dealing with such a race as Slavic—inferior and barbarian—we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy ... We should not be afraid of new victims ... The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps ... I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians ...
In the same way, Mussolini argued that Italy was right to follow an imperialist policy in Africa because he saw all black people as "inferior" to whites. Mussolini claimed that the world was divided into a hierarchy of races (though this was justified more on cultural than on biological grounds), and that history was nothing more than a Darwinian struggle for power and territory between various "racial masses". Mussolini saw high birthrates in Africa and Asia as a threat to the "white race". Mussolini believed that the United States was doomed as the American blacks had a higher birthrate than whites, making it inevitable that the blacks would take over the United States to drag it down to their level. The fact that Italy was suffering from overpopulation was seen as proving the cultural and spiritual vitality of the Italians, who were thus justified in seeking to colonise lands that Mussolini argued—on a historical basis—belonged to Italy anyway. In Mussolini's thinking, demography was destiny; nations with rising populations were nations destined to conquer; and nations with falling populations were decaying powers that deserved to die. Hence, the importance of natalism to Mussolini, since only by increasing the birth rate could Italy ensure its future as a great power. By Mussolini's reckoning, the Italian population had to reach 60 million to enable Italy to fight a major war—hence his relentless demands for Italian women to have more children.
Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist; because this was vastly different from anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way". The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists, and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The Italian government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, owing in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew rapidly; within two years they transformed themselves into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. In 1921, Mussolini won election to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time. In the meantime, from about 1911 until 1938, Mussolini had various affairs with the Jewish author and academic Margherita Sarfatti, called the "Jewish Mother of Fascism" at the time.
=== March on Rome ===
In the night between 27 and 28 October 1922, about 30,000 Fascist blackshirts gathered in Rome to demand the resignation of liberal Prime Minister Luigi Facta and the appointment of a new Fascist government. On the morning of 28 October, King Victor Emmanuel III, who according to the Albertine Statute held the supreme military power, refused the government request to declare martial law, which led to Facta's resignation. The King then handed over power to Mussolini (who stayed in his headquarters in Milan during the talks) by asking him to form a new government. The King's controversial decision has been explained by historians as a combination of delusions and fears; Mussolini enjoyed wide support in the military and among the industrial and agrarian elites, while the King and the conservative establishment were afraid of a possible civil war and thought they could use Mussolini to restore law and order, but failed to foresee the danger of a totalitarian evolution.
=== Appointment as Prime Minister ===
As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's rule were characterised by a right-wing coalition government of Fascists, nationalists, liberals, and two Catholic clerics from the People's Party. The Fascists made up a small minority in his original governments. Mussolini's domestic goal was the eventual establishment of a totalitarian state with himself as supreme leader (Il Duce), a message that was articulated by the Fascist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, which was now edited by Mussolini's brother, Arnaldo. To that end, Mussolini obtained from the legislature dictatorial powers for one year (legal under the Italian constitution of the time). He favoured the complete restoration of state authority, with the integration of the Italian Fasces of Combat into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the Voluntary Militia for National Security) and the progressive identification of the party with the state. In political and social economy, he passed legislation that favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatisations, liberalisations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).
On 1 November 1922, armed fascists raided the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Mission's Trade Department, broke into the foreign trade agent's office, then abducted and shot one Soviet official, prompting the Soviets to denounce the fascists to the Italian Foreign Ministry. In a letter written before 8 November to Georgy Chicherin, Lenin judged that incident "a very convenient pretext" for the Soviets to "kick at Mussolini and have everyone (Vorovsky and the whole delegation) leave Italy, starting to attack her over her fascists", to "stage an international demonstration", and to "give the Italian people some serious help".
In 1923 he was granted an honorary knighthood by King George V of The United Kingdom. The title was subsequently revoked when Italy declared war on the country in 1940.
Later in 1923, Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade Corfu during the Corfu incident. The League of Nations proved powerless, and Greece was forced to comply with Italian demands.
=== Acerbo Law ===
In June 1923, the government passed the Acerbo Law, which transformed Italy into a single national constituency. It also granted a two-thirds majority of the seats in Parliament to the party or group of parties that received at least 25% of the votes. This law applied in the elections of 6 April 1924. The "national alliance", consisting of Fascists, most of the old Liberals and others, won 64% of the vote.
=== Squadristi violence ===
The assassination of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who had requested that the elections be annulled because of the irregularities, provoked a momentary crisis in the Mussolini government. Mussolini ordered a cover-up, but witnesses saw the car that transported Matteotti's body parked outside Matteotti's residence, which linked fascist Amerigo Dumini to the murder.
Mussolini later confessed that a few resolute men could have altered public opinion and started a coup that would have swept fascism away. Dumini was imprisoned for two years. On his release, Dumini allegedly told other people that Mussolini was responsible, for which he served further prison time.
The opposition parties responded weakly or were generally unresponsive. Many of the socialists, liberals, and moderates boycotted Parliament in the Aventine Secession, hoping to force Victor Emmanuel to dismiss Mussolini.
On 31 December 1924, MVSN consuls met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum: crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, Mussolini decided to drop all pretense of democracy. On 3 January 1925, Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti). He did not abolish the squadristi until 1927, however.
== Prime Minister ==
=== Organizational innovations ===
German-American historian Konrad Jarausch has argued that Mussolini was responsible for an integrated suite of political innovations that made fascism a powerful force in Europe. First, he proved the movement could actually seize power and operate a comprehensive government in a major country. Second, the movement claimed to represent the entire national community, not a fragment such as the working class or the aristocracy. He made a significant effort to include the previously alienated Catholic element. He defined public roles for the main sectors of the business community rather than allowing it to operate backstage. Third, he developed a cult of one-man leadership that focused media attention and national debate on his own personality. As a former journalist, Mussolini proved highly adept at exploiting all forms of mass media. Fourth, he created a mass membership party with groups that could be more readily mobilised and monitored. Like all dictators he made liberal use of the threat of extrajudicial violence, as well as actual violence by his Blackshirts, to frighten his opposition.
=== Police state ===
Between 1925 and 1927, Mussolini progressively dismantled virtually all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power and built a police state. A law passed on 24 December 1925—Christmas Eve for the largely Roman Catholic country—changed Mussolini's formal title from "President of the Council of Ministers" to "Head of the Government", although he was still called "Prime Minister" by most non-Italian news sources. He was no longer responsible to Parliament and could be removed only by the King. While the Italian constitution stated that ministers were responsible only to the sovereign, in practice it had become all but impossible to govern against the express will of Parliament. The Christmas Eve law ended this practice, and also made Mussolini the only person competent to determine the body's agenda. This law transformed Mussolini's government into a de facto legal dictatorship. Local autonomy was abolished, and podestàs appointed by the Italian Senate replaced elected mayors and councils.
While Italy occupied former Austro-Hungarian areas between years 1918 and 1920, five hundred "Slav" societies (for example Sokol) and slightly smaller number of libraries ("reading rooms") had been forbidden, specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925), the Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926)—the closure of the classical lyceum in Pisino, of the high school in Voloska (1918), and the five hundred Slovene and Croatian primary schools followed. One thousand "Slav" teachers were forcibly exiled to Sardinia and to Southern Italy.
On 7 April 1926, Mussolini survived a first assassination attempt by Violet Gibson. On 31 October 1926, 15-year-old Anteo Zamboni attempted to shoot Mussolini in Bologna. Zamboni was lynched on the spot. Mussolini also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by anarchist Gino Lucetti, and a planned attempt by the Italian anarchist Michele Schirru, which ended with Schirru's capture and execution.
All other parties were outlawed following Zamboni's assassination attempt in 1926, though in practice Italy had been a one-party state since 1925. In 1928, an electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. Instead, the Grand Council of Fascism selected a single list of candidates to be approved by plebiscite. If voters rejected the list, the process would simply be repeated until it was approved. The Grand Council had been created five years earlier as a party body but was "constitutionalized" and became the highest constitutional authority in the state. On paper, the Grand Council had the power to recommend Mussolini's removal from office, and was thus theoretically the only check on his power. However, only Mussolini could summon the Grand Council and determine its agenda. To gain control of the South, especially Sicily, he appointed Cesare Mori as a Prefect of the city of Palermo, with the charge of eradicating the Sicilian Mafia. In the telegram, Mussolini wrote to Mori:Your Excellency has carte blanche; the authority of the State must absolutely, I repeat absolutely, be re-established in Sicily. If the laws still in force hinder you, this will be no problem, as we will draw up new laws.Mori did not hesitate to lay siege to towns, using torture, and holding women and children as hostages to oblige suspects to give themselves up. These harsh methods earned him the nickname of "Iron Prefect". In 1927, Mori's inquiries brought evidence of collusion between the Mafia and the Fascist establishment, and he was dismissed for length of service in 1929, at which time the number of murders in Palermo Province had decreased from 200 to 23. Mussolini nominated Mori as a senator, and fascist propaganda claimed that the Mafia had been defeated.
In accordance with the new electoral law, the general elections took the form of a plebiscite in which voters were presented with a single PNF-dominated list. According to official figures, the list was approved by 98.43% of voters.
=== "Pacification of Libya" ===
In 1919, the Italian state had brought in a series of liberal reforms in Libya that allowed education in Arabic and Berber and allowed for the possibility that the Libyans might become Italian citizens. Giuseppe Volpi, who had been appointed governor in 1921, was retained by Mussolini, and withdrew all of the measures offering equality to the Libyans. A policy of confiscating land from the Libyans and granting it to Italian colonists gave new vigor to Libyan resistance led by Omar Mukhtar, and during the ensuing "Pacification of Libya", the Fascist regime waged a genocidal campaign designed to kill as many Libyans as possible. Well over half the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 15 concentration camps by 1931 while the Royal Italian Air Force staged chemical warfare attacks against the Bedouin. On 20 June 1930, Marshal Pietro Badoglio wrote to General Rodolfo Graziani: As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be the ruin of the subdued population ... But now the course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica must perish.On 3 January 1933, Mussolini told the diplomat Baron Pompei Aloisi that the French in Tunisia had made an "appalling blunder" by permitting sex between the French and the Tunisians, which he predicted would lead to the French degenerating into a nation of "half-castes", and to prevent the same thing happening to the Italians gave orders to Marshal Badoglio that miscegenation be made a crime in Libya.
=== Economic policy ===
Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. His earliest (and one of the best known) was the "Battle for Wheat", by which 5,000 new farms were established and five new agricultural towns (among them Littoria and Sabaudia) on land reclaimed by draining the Pontine Marshes. In Sardinia, a model agricultural town was founded and named Mussolinia (it has long since been renamed Arborea). This town was the first of what Mussolini hoped would be thousands of new agricultural settlements across the country. The Battle for Wheat diverted valuable resources to wheat production from other more economically viable crops. Landowners grew wheat on unsuitable soil using all the advances of modern science, and although the wheat harvest increased, prices rose, consumption fell and high tariffs were imposed. The tariffs promoted widespread inefficiencies and the government subsidies given to farmers pushed the country further into debt.
Mussolini also initiated the "Battle for Land", a policy based on land reclamation outlined in 1928. The initiative had a mixed success; while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for agriculture were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the unemployed and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies, other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Wheat (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production), and the Pontine Marsh was lost during World War II. Fewer than 10,000 peasants resettled on the redistributed land, and peasant poverty remained high. The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940.
In 1930, in "The Doctrine of Fascism" he wrote, "The so-called crisis can only be settled by State action and within the orbit of the State." He tried to combat economic recession by introducing a "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, encouraging the public to voluntarily donate gold jewellery to government officials in exchange for steel wristbands bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". The collected gold was melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the national banks.
Government control of business was part of Mussolini's policy planning. By 1935, he claimed that three-quarters of Italian businesses were under state control. Later that year, Mussolini issued several edicts to further control the economy, e.g. forcing banks, businesses, and private citizens to surrender all foreign-issued stock and bond holdings to the Bank of Italy. In 1936, he imposed price controls. He also attempted to turn Italy into a self-sufficient autarky, instituting high barriers on trade with most countries except Germany.
In 1943, Mussolini proposed the theory of economic socialisation.
=== Railways ===
Mussolini was keen to take the credit for major public works in Italy, particularly the railway system. His reported overhauling of the railway network led to the popular saying, "Say what you like about Mussolini, he made the trains run on time." Kenneth Roberts, journalist and novelist, wrote in 1924:
The difference between the Italian railway service in 1919, 1920 and 1921 and that which obtained during the first year of the Mussolini regime was almost beyond belief. The cars were clean, the employees were snappy and courteous, and trains arrived at and left the stations on time — not fifteen minutes late, and not five minutes late; but on the minute.
In fact, the improvement in Italy's dire post-war railway system had begun before Mussolini took power. The improvement was also more apparent than real. Bergen Evans wrote in 1954:
The author was employed as a courier by the Franco-Belgique Tours Company in the summer of 1930, the height of Mussolini's heyday, when a fascist guard rode on every train, and is willing to make an affidavit to the effect that most Italian trains on which he travelled were not on schedule—or near it. There must be thousands who can support this attestation. It's a trifle, but it's worth nailing down.
George Seldes wrote in 1936 that although the express trains carrying tourists generally—though not always—ran on schedule, the same was not true for the smaller lines, where delays were frequent, while Ruth Ben-Ghiat has said that "they improved the lines that had a political meaning to them".
=== Propaganda and cult of personality ===
Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people through the use of propaganda. The regime promoted a lavish cult of personality centered on the figure of Mussolini. He pretended to incarnate the new fascist Übermensch, and his apparent tirelessness on the job "facilitated popular interpretations of his abilities as quasi-divine". At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defence, and public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party and the armed local fascist militia, the MVSN or "Blackshirts", who terrorised incipient resistance in the cities and provinces. He would later form the OVRA, an institutionalised secret police that carried official state support. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival.
All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini, and only those in possession of a certificate of approval from the Fascist Party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret; Mussolini thus skilfully created the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the "corporative" system. The aim was to place all Italians in various professional organisations or "corporations", all under clandestine governmental control.
Large sums of money were spent on highly visible public works and on international prestige projects. These included the Blue Riband ocean liner SS Rex; setting aeronautical records with the world's fastest seaplane, the Macchi M.C.72; and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of Italo Balbo, which was greeted with much fanfare in the United States when it landed in Chicago in 1933.
The principles of the doctrine of Fascism were laid down in an article by eminent philosopher Giovanni Gentile and Mussolini himself that appeared in 1932 in the Enciclopedia Italiana. Mussolini always portrayed himself as an intellectual, and some historians agree. Gunther called him "easily the best educated and most sophisticated of the dictators", and the only national leader of 1940 who was an intellectual. German historian Ernst Nolte said that "His command of contemporary philosophy and political literature was at least as great as that of any other contemporary European political leader."
=== Culture ===
Nationalists in the years after World War I thought of themselves as combating the liberal and domineering institutions created by cabinets—such as those of Giovanni Giolitti, including traditional schooling. Futurism, a revolutionary cultural movement which would serve as a catalyst for Fascism, argued for "a school for physical courage and patriotism", as expressed by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1919. Marinetti expressed his disdain for "the by now prehistoric and troglodyte Ancient Greek and Latin courses", arguing for their replacement with exercise modelled on those of the Arditi soldiers. It was in those years that the first Fascist youth wings were formed: Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista (Fascist Youth Vanguards) in 1919, and Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (Fascist University Groups) in 1922.
After the March on Rome that brought Mussolini to power, the Fascists started considering ways to politicise Italian society, with an accent on education. Mussolini assigned former ardito and deputy-secretary for Education Renato Ricci the task of "reorganizing the youth from a moral and physical point of view". The Opera Nazionale Balilla was created through Mussolini's decree of 3 April 1926, and was led by Ricci for the following eleven years. It included children between the ages of 8 and 18, grouped as the Balilla and the Avanguardisti.
According to Mussolini: "Fascist education is moral, physical, social, and military: it aims to create a complete and harmoniously developed human, a fascist one according to our views". The "educational value set through action and example" was to replace the established approaches. Fascism opposed its version of idealism to prevalent rationalism, and used the Opera Nazionale Balilla to circumvent educational tradition by imposing the collective and hierarchy, as well as Mussolini's own personality cult.
Another important constituent of the Fascist cultural policy was Catholicism. In 1929, a concordat with the Vatican was signed, ending decades of struggle between the Italian state and the papacy that dated back to the 1870 takeover of the Papal States by the House of Savoy during the unification of Italy. The Lateran Treaty, by which the Italian state was at last recognised by the Catholic Church, and through which the independence of Vatican City was recognised by the Italian state, was so much appreciated by the ecclesiastic hierarchy that Pope Pius XI acclaimed Mussolini as "the Man of Providence".
The 1929 treaty included a legal provision whereby the Italian government would protect the honour and dignity of the Pope by prosecuting offenders. Mussolini had had his children baptised in 1923 and himself re-baptised by a Catholic priest in 1927. After 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him.
=== Foreign policy ===
In foreign policy, Mussolini was pragmatic and opportunistic. His vision centered on forging a new Roman Empire in Africa and the Balkans, vindicating the so-called "mutilated victory" of 1918 imposed by Britain and France, which betrayed the Treaty of London and denied Italy its "natural right" to supremacy in the Mediterranean. However, in the 1920s, given Germany's weakness, post-war reconstruction, and reparations issues, Europe's situation was unfavorable for openly revising the Treaty of Versailles. Italy's foreign policy focused on maintaining an "equidistant" stance from major powers to exercise "determinant weight," using alignment with one power to secure support for Italian ambitions in Europe and Africa. Mussolini believed that Italy's population, then at 40 million, was insufficient for a major war, and sought to increase it to at least 60 million through relentless natalist policies, including making advocacy of contraception a criminal offense in 1924.
Initially, Mussolini operated as a pragmatic statesman, seeking advantages without risking war with Britain and France. An exception was the 1923 Corfu incident, where Mussolini was prepared for war with Britain over the assassination of Italian military personnel, but was persuaded to accept a diplomatic solution by the Italian Navy's leadership. In 1925, Mussolini secretly told Italian military leaders that Italy needed to win spazio vitale ('living space'), aiming to unite the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean under Italian control, though he acknowledged that Italy lacked sufficient manpower for war until the mid-1930s. Mussolini participated in the Locarno Treaties of 1925, which guaranteed Germany's western borders. In 1929, he began planning for aggression against France and Yugoslavia, and by 1932 sought an anti-French alliance with Germany. A planned attack on France and Yugoslavia in 1933 was aborted when Mussolini learned that French intelligence had broken Italian military codes. After Adolf Hitler rose to power, threatening Italian interests in Austria and the Danube basin, Mussolini proposed the Four Power Pact with Britain, France, and Germany in 1933. Italy also signed the Italo-Soviet Pact which was partly intended as a warning to Germany. When Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was assassinated in 1934 by Austrian Nazis during a coup, Mussolini threatened Hitler with war in the event of a German invasion of Austria, and opposed any German attempt at Anschluss, promoting the Stresa Front against Germany in 1935.
Despite earlier opposition to the Italo-Turkish War, after the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935–1936, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia following border incidents between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. Historians are divided on the reasons for the invasion. Some argue it was a distraction from the Great Depression, while others see it as part of a broader expansionist program. Italy’s forces quickly overwhelmed Ethiopia, leading to the proclamation of an Italian Empire in May 1936. Confident of French support due to his opposition to Hitler, Mussolini dismissed the League of Nations' sanctions imposed over the Ethiopian invasion. He viewed the sanctions as hypocritical attempts by older imperial powers to block Italy’s expansion. Italy was criticized for its use of mustard gas and brutal tactics against Ethiopian guerrillas. Mussolini ordered systematic terror against Ethiopian rebels, targeting both combatants and civilians. Mussolini ordered the execution of the entire adult male population in a town and in one district ordered that "the prisoners, their accomplices and the uncertain will have to be executed" as part of the "gradual liquidation" of the population. Mussolini favoured a policy of brutality partly because he believed the Ethiopians were not a nation because black people were too stupid to have a sense of nationality. The other reason was because Mussolini was planning on bringing millions of Italians into Ethiopia and wanted to kill off much of the population to make room.
Sanctions against Italy pushed Mussolini towards an alliance with Germany. In 1936, he told the German Ambassador that Italy had no objections to Austria becoming a German satellite, removing a key obstacle to Italo-German relations. After the sanctions ended, France and Britain tried to revive the Stresa Front, seeking to retain Italy as an ally. However, in 1936, Mussolini agreed to the Rome-Berlin Axis with Germany, and in 1939 signed the Pact of Steel, binding Italy and Germany in a full military alliance.
The conquest of Ethiopia cost 12,000 Italian lives and placed a severe financial burden on Italy. Mussolini had underestimated the cost of the invasion, which proved far higher than expected, and the ongoing occupation further strained Italy’s economy. The Ethiopian and Spanish wars consumed funds intended for military modernization, weakening Italy's military power. From 1936 to 1939, Mussolini provided substantial military support to Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War, further distancing Italy from France and Britain. This intervention and the worsening relationship with the Western powers led Mussolini to accept the German annexation of Austria and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. At the Munich Conference in 1938, Mussolini posed as a peacemaker while supporting Germany’s annexation of the Sudetenland.
In 1938, TIGR, a Slovene partisan group, plotted to assassinate Mussolini in Kobarid, but their attempt was unsuccessful.
== World War II ==
=== Gathering storm ===
By the late 1930s, Mussolini concluded that Britain and France were declining powers, and that Germany and Italy, due to their demographic strength, were destined to rule Europe. He believed that the declining birth rates in France were "absolutely horrifying" and that the British Empire was doomed because one-quarter of the British population was over 50. Mussolini preferred an alliance with Germany over Britain and France, viewing it as better to be allied with the strong instead of the weak. He saw international relations as a Social Darwinian struggle between "virile" nations with high birth rates destined to destroy "effete" nations with low birth rates. Mussolini had no interest in an alliance with France, which he considered a "weak and old" nation due to its declining birthrate.
Mussolini's belief in Italy's destino to rule the Mediterranean led him to neglect serious planning for a war with the Western powers. He was held back from full alignment with Berlin by Italy's economic and military unpreparedness and his desire to use the Easter Accords of April 1938 to split Britain from France. A military alliance with Germany, rather than the looser political alliance under the Anti-Comintern Pact, would end any chance of Britain implementing the Easter Accords. The Easter Accords were intended by Mussolini to allow Italy to take on France alone, with the hope that improved Anglo-Italian relations would keep Britain neutral in a Franco-Italian war (Mussolini had designs on Tunisia and some support in that country). Britain, in turn, hoped the Easter Accords would win Italy away from Germany.
Count Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law and foreign minister, summed up the dictator's objectives regarding France in his diary on 8 November 1938: Djibouti would be ruled jointly with France; Tunisia with a similar regime; and Corsica under Italian control. Mussolini showed no interest in Savoy, considering it neither "historically nor geographically Italian." On 30 November 1938, Mussolini provoked the French by orchestrating demonstrations where deputies demanded France turn over Tunisia, Savoy, and Corsica to Italy. This led to heightened tensions, with France and Italy on the verge of war through the winter of 1938–39.
In January 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain visited Rome. Mussolini learned that while Britain wanted better relations with Italy, it would not sever ties with France. This realization led Mussolini to grow more interested in the German offer of a military alliance, first made in May 1938. In February 1939, Mussolini declared that a state's power is "proportional to its maritime position," asserting that Italy was a "prisoner in the Mediterranean," surrounded by British-controlled territories.
The new pro-German course was controversial. On 21 March 1939, during a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council, Italo Balbo accused Mussolini of "licking Hitler's boots" and criticized the pro-German policy as leading Italy to disaster. Despite some internal opposition, Mussolini's control of foreign policy ensured that dissenting voices had little impact. In April 1939, Mussolini ordered the Italian invasion of Albania, quickly occupying the country and forcing King Zog I to flee. In May 1939, Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel, a full military alliance with Germany, after securing a promise from Hitler that there would be no war for three years.
Despite the pact, Mussolini was cautious. When Hitler expressed his intent to invade Poland, Ciano warned that this would likely lead to war with the Allies. Hitler dismissed the warning, suggesting Italy should invade Yugoslavia. Although tempted, Mussolini knew that Italy was unprepared for a global conflict, particularly given King Victor Emmanuel III's demand for neutrality. Thus, when World War II began with Germany’s invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, Italy remained uninvolved. However, when the Germans arrested 183 professors from Jagiellonian University in Kraków in November 1939, Mussolini intervened personally, resulting in the release of 101 Poles.
=== War declared ===
As World War II began, Ciano and Viscount Halifax were holding secret phone conversations. The British wanted Italy on their side against Germany as it had been in World War I. French government opinion was more geared towards action against Italy, as they were eager to attack Italy in Libya. In September 1939, France swung to the opposite extreme, offering to discuss issues with Italy, but as the French were unwilling to discuss Corsica, Nice and Savoy, Mussolini did not answer. Mussolini's Under-Secretary for War Production, Carlo Favagrossa, had estimated that Italy could not be prepared for major military operations until 1942 due to its relatively weak industrial sector compared to western Europe. In late November 1939, Adolf Hitler declared: "So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims."
Convinced that the war would soon be over, with a German victory looking likely at that point, Mussolini decided to enter the war on the Axis side. Accordingly, Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940. At 6 p.m., Benito Mussolini appeared on the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia to announce that in six hours, Italy would be in a state of war with France and Britain. After a speech explaining his motives for the decision, he concluded: "People of Italy: take up your weapons and show your tenacity, your courage and your valor." The Italians had no battle plans of any kind prepared. This caused FDR to say that "On this tenth day of June 1940, the hand that held the dagger has struck it into the back of its neighbor." Mussolini regarded the war against Britain and France as a life-or-death struggle between opposing ideologies—fascism and the "plutocratic and reactionary democracies of the west"—describing the war as "the struggle of the fertile and young people against the sterile people moving to the sunset; it is the struggle between two centuries and two ideas".
Italy joined the Germans in the Battle of France, by launching the Italian invasion of France just beyond the border. Just eleven days later, France and Germany signed an armistice and on 24 June, Italy and France signed the Franco-Italian Armistice. Included in Italian-controlled France were most of Nice and other southeastern counties. Mussolini planned to concentrate Italian forces on a major offensive against the British Empire in Africa and the Middle East, known as the "parallel war", while expecting the collapse of the UK in the European theatre. The Italians invaded Egypt, bombed Mandatory Palestine, and attacked the British in their Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland colonies (in what would become known as the East African Campaign); British Somaliland was conquered and became part of Italian East Africa on 3 August 1940, and there were Italian advances in the Sudan and Kenya with initial success. The British government refused to accept proposals for a peace that would involve accepting Axis victories in Europe; plans for an invasion of the UK did not proceed and the war continued.
=== Path to defeat ===
In September 1940, the Italian Tenth Army was commanded by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani and crossed from Italian Libya into Egypt, where British forces were located; this would become the Western Desert Campaign. Advances were successful, but the Italians stopped at Sidi Barrani waiting for logistic supplies to catch up. On 24 October 1940, Mussolini sent the Italian Air Corps to Belgium, where it took part in the Blitz until January 1941. In October, Mussolini also sent Italian forces into Greece, starting the Greco-Italian War. The Royal Air Force prevented the Italian invasion and allowed the Greeks to push the Italians back to Albania, but the Greek counter-offensive in Italian Albania ended in a stalemate.
Events in Africa had changed by early 1941 as Operation Compass had forced the Italians back into Libya, causing high losses in the Italian Army. Also in the East African Campaign, an attack was mounted against Italian forces. Despite putting up stiff resistance, they were overwhelmed at the Battle of Keren, and the Italian defence started to crumble with a final defeat in the Battle of Gondar. When addressing the Italian public on the events, Mussolini was open about the situation, saying "We call bread bread and wine wine, and when the enemy wins a battle it is useless and ridiculous to seek, as the English do in their incomparable hypocrisy, to deny or diminish it." With the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece, Italy annexed Ljubljana, Dalmatia and Montenegro, and established the puppet states of Croatia and the Hellenic State.
General Mario Robotti, Commander of the Italian XI Corps in Slovenia and Croatia, issued an order in line with a directive received from Mussolini in June 1942: "I would not be opposed to all (sic) Slovenes being imprisoned and replaced by Italians. In other words, we should take steps to ensure that political and ethnic frontiers coincide".
Mussolini first learned of Operation Barbarossa after the invasion of the Soviet Union had begun on 22 June 1941, and was not asked by Hitler to involve himself. On 25 June 1941, he inspected the first units at Verona, which served as his launching pad to Russia. Mussolini told the Council of Ministers of 5 July that his only worry was that Germany might defeat the Soviet Union before the Italians arrived. At a meeting with Hitler in August, Mussolini offered and Hitler accepted the commitment of further Italian troops to fight the Soviet Union. The heavy losses suffered by the Italians on the Eastern Front, where service was extremely unpopular owing to the widespread view that this was not Italy's fight, did much to damage Mussolini's prestige with the Italian people. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941. A piece of evidence regarding Mussolini's response to the attack on Pearl Harbor comes from the diary of his Foreign Minister Ciano:
A night telephone call from Ribbentrop. He is overjoyed about the Japanese attack on America. He is so happy about it that I am happy with him, though I am not too sure about the final advantages of what has happened. One thing is now certain, that America will enter the conflict and that the conflict will be so long that she will be able to realize all her potential forces. This morning I told this to the King who had been pleased about the event. He ended by admitting that, in the long run, I may be right. Mussolini was happy, too. For a long time he has favored a definite clarification of relations between America and the Axis.
Italian forces had achieved some success in the regions of Italian-occupied Balkans by suppressing partisan insurgency in Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania and in Montenegro. In 1942, Italy saw its greatest extent, as the Italian Regia Marina had controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea. In North Africa, together with German forces, Italian forces would drive the British forces out of Libya during the Battle of Gazala. They subsequently pushed towards Egypt with the aim of capturing Alexandria and the Suez Canal, but the offensive was halted at El Alamein in the summer of 1942. In October 1942, the Italian forces were severely defeated at the Second Battle of El Alamein by the British and Commonwealth forces and were driven out of Egypt. The British and Commonwealth forces would continue to push back the Italians until January 1943, when Italian Libya fell to the Allies.
Following Vichy France's collapse and the Case Anton in November 1942, Italy occupied the French territories of Corsica and Tunisia. Italian forces would use Tunisia as a base of military operations for the Tunisian campaign. Although Mussolini was aware that Italy, whose resources were reduced by the campaigns of the 1930s, was not ready for a long war, he opted to remain in the conflict to not abandon the occupied territories and the fascist imperial ambitions.
=== Dismissal and arrest ===
By 1943, Italy's military position had become untenable. Axis forces in North Africa were defeated in the Tunisian Campaign in early 1943. Italy suffered major setbacks on the Eastern Front and in the Allied invasion of Sicily. The Italian home front was also in bad shape as the Allied bombings were taking their toll. Factories all over Italy were brought to a virtual standstill because raw materials were lacking. There was a chronic shortage of food, and what food was available was being sold at nearly confiscatory prices. Mussolini's once-ubiquitous propaganda machine lost its grip on the people; a large number of Italians turned to Vatican Radio or Radio London for more accurate news coverage. Discontent came to a head in March 1943 with a wave of labour strikes in the industrial north—the first large-scale strikes since 1925. Also in March, some of the major factories in Milan and Turin stopped production to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. The German presence in Italy had sharply turned public opinion against Mussolini; when the Allies invaded Sicily, the majority of the public there welcomed them as liberators.
Mussolini feared that with Allied victory in North Africa, Allied armies would come across the Mediterranean and attack Italy. In April 1943, as the Allies closed into Tunisia, Mussolini had urged Hitler to make a separate peace with the USSR and send German troops to the west to guard against an expected Allied invasion of Italy. The Allies landed in Sicily on 10 July 1943, and within a few days it was obvious the Italian army was on the brink of collapse. This led Hitler to summon Mussolini to a meeting in Feltre on 19 July 1943. By this time, Mussolini was so shaken from stress that he could no longer stand Hitler's boasting. His mood darkened further when that same day, the Allies bombed Rome—the first time that city had ever been the target of enemy bombing. It was obvious by this time that the war was lost, but Mussolini could not extricate himself from the German alliance.
By this point, some prominent members of Mussolini's government had turned against him, including Grandi and Ciano. Several of his colleagues were close to revolt, and Mussolini was forced to summon the Grand Council on 24 July 1943. This was the first time the body had met since the start of the war. When he announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south, Grandi launched a blistering attack on him. Grandi moved a resolution asking the king to resume his full constitutional powers—in effect, a vote of no confidence in Mussolini. This motion carried by a 19–8 margin. Mussolini showed little visible reaction, even though this effectively authorised the king to sack him. He did, however, ask Grandi to consider the possibility that this motion would spell the end of Fascism. The vote, although significant, had no de jure effect, since in Italy's constitutional monarchy the prime minister was responsible only to the king and only the king could dismiss the prime minister.
Despite this sharp rebuke, Mussolini showed up for work the next day as usual. He allegedly viewed the Grand Council as merely an advisory body and did not think the vote would have any substantive effect. That afternoon, at 17:00, he was summoned to the royal palace by Victor Emmanuel. By then, Victor Emmanuel had already decided to sack him; the king had arranged an escort for Mussolini and had the government building surrounded by 200 carabinieri. Mussolini was unaware of these moves by the king and tried to tell him about the Grand Council meeting. Victor Emmanuel cut him off and formally dismissed him from office, although guaranteeing his immunity. After Mussolini left the palace, he was arrested by the carabinieri on the king's orders without telling him that he was formally arrested but rather under protective custody, as Victor Emmanuel III was trying to save the monarchy. The police took Mussolini in a Red Cross ambulance car, without specifying his destination and assuring him that they were doing it for his own safety. By this time, discontent with Mussolini was so intense that when the news of his downfall was announced on the radio, there was no resistance of any sort. People rejoiced because they believed that the end of Mussolini also meant the end of the war. The king appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as the prime minister.
In an effort to conceal his location from the Germans, Mussolini was moved around: first to Ponza, then to La Maddalena, before being imprisoned at Campo Imperatore, a mountain resort in Abruzzo where he was completely isolated. Badoglio kept up the appearance of loyalty to Germany, and announced that Italy would continue fighting on the side of the Axis. However, he dissolved the Fascist Party two days after taking over and began negotiating with the Allies. On 3 September 1943, Badoglio agreed to an Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces. Its announcement five days later threw Italy into chaos; German troops seized control in Operation Achse. As the Germans approached Rome, Badoglio and the king fled with their main collaborators to Apulia, putting themselves under the protection of the Allies, but leaving the Italian Army without orders. After a period of anarchy, they formed a government in Malta, and finally declared war on Germany on 13 October 1943. Several thousand Italian troops joined the Allies to fight against the Germans; most others deserted or surrendered to the Germans; some refused to switch sides and joined the Germans. The Badoglio government agreed to a political truce with the predominantly leftist Partisans for the sake of Italy and to rid the land of the Nazis.
=== Italian Social Republic ("Salò Republic") ===
Only two months after Mussolini had been dismissed and arrested, he was rescued from his prison at the Hotel Campo Imperatore in the Gran Sasso raid on 12 September 1943 by a special Fallschirmjäger (paratroopers) unit and Waffen-SS commandos led by Major Otto-Harald Mors; Otto Skorzeny was also present. The rescue saved Mussolini from being turned over to the Allies in accordance with the armistice. Hitler had made plans to arrest the king, the Crown Prince Umberto, Badoglio, and the rest of the government and restore Mussolini to power in Rome, but the government's escape south likely foiled those plans.
Three days after his rescue in the Gran Sasso raid, Mussolini was taken to Germany for a meeting with Hitler in Rastenburg at his East Prussian headquarters. Despite his public support, Hitler was clearly shocked by Mussolini's dishevelled and haggard appearance as well as his unwillingness to go after the men in Rome who overthrew him. Feeling that he had to do what he could to blunt the edges of Nazi repression, Mussolini agreed to set up a new regime, the Italian Social Republic (Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana, RSI), informally known as the Salò Republic because of its seat in the town of Salò, where he was settled 11 days after his rescue by the Germans. His new regime was much reduced in territory; in addition to losing the Italian lands held by the Allies and Badoglio's government, the provinces of Bolzano, Belluno and Trento were placed under German administration in the Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills, while the provinces of Udine, Gorizia, Trieste, Pola (now Pula), Fiume (now Rijeka), and Ljubljana (Lubiana in Italian) were incorporated into the German Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral.
Additionally, German forces occupied the Dalmatian provinces of Split (Spalato) and Kotor (Cattaro), which were subsequently annexed by the Croatian fascist regime. Italy's conquests in Greece and Albania were also lost to Germany, with the exception of the Italian Islands of the Aegean, which remained nominally under RSI rule. Mussolini opposed any territorial reductions of the Italian state and told his associates:I am not here to renounce even a square meter of state territory. We will go back to war for this. And we will rebel against anyone for this. Where the Italian flag flew, the Italian flag will return. And where it has not been lowered, now that I am here, no one will have it lowered. I have said these things to the Führer.
For about a year and a half, Mussolini lived in Gargnano on Lake Garda in Lombardy. Although he insisted in public that he was in full control, he knew he was a puppet ruler under the protection of his German liberators—for all intents and purposes, the Gauleiter of Lombardy. Indeed, he lived under what amounted to house arrest by the SS, who restricted his communications and travel. He told one of his colleagues that being sent to a concentration camp would be preferable.
Yielding to pressure from Hitler and the remaining loyal fascists who formed the government of the Republic of Salò, Mussolini helped orchestrate executions of some of the leaders who had betrayed him at the last meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. One of those executed was his son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano. As head of state and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini used much of his time to write his memoirs. Along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings would be combined and published by Da Capo Press as My Rise and Fall. In an interview in January 1945 by Madeleine Mollier, a few months before he was captured and executed, he stated flatly: "Seven years ago, I was an interesting person. Now, I am little more than a corpse." He continued:
Yes, madam, I am finished. My star has fallen. I have no fight left in me. I work and I try, yet know that all is but a farce... I await the end of the tragedy and—strangely detached from everything—I do not feel any more an actor. I feel I am the last of spectators.
== Death ==
On 25 April 1945, Allied troops were advancing into northern Italy, and the collapse of the Salò Republic was imminent. Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci set out for Switzerland, intending to board a plane and escape to Spain. Two days later on 27 April, they were stopped near the village of Dongo (Lake Como) by communist partisans named Valerio and Bellini and identified by the Political Commissar of the partisans' 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, Urbano Lazzaro. Petacci's brother posed as a Spanish consul. The assets on Mussolini's convoy at the time of his capture became known as the Dongo Treasure.
With the spread of the news of the arrest, several telegrams arrived at the command of the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy from the Office of Strategic Services headquarters in Siena with the request that Mussolini be entrusted to Allied forces. In fact, clause number 29 of the armistice signed in Malta by Eisenhower and the Marshal of Italy Pietro Badoglio on 29 September 1943, expressly provided that: Benito Mussolini, his main Fascist associates and all persons suspected of having committed crimes of war or similar crimes, whose names are on the lists that will be delivered by the United Nations and which now or in the future are in territory controlled by the Allied Military Command or by the Italian Government, will be immediately arrested and handed over to the United Nations forces.
The next day, Mussolini and Petacci were both summarily shot, along with most of the members of their 15-man train, primarily ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The shootings took place in the small village of Giulino di Mezzegra and were conducted by a partisan leader with the nom de guerre Colonnello Valerio. His real identity is unknown, but conventionally he is thought to have been Walter Audisio, who always claimed to have carried out the execution, though another partisan controversially alleged that Colonnello Valerio was Luigi Longo, subsequently a leading communist politician.
=== Mussolini's corpse ===
On 29 April 1945, the bodies of Mussolini, Petacci, and the other executed fascists were loaded into a van and moved south to Milan. At 3:00 a.m., the corpses were dumped on the ground in the old Piazzale Loreto. The piazza had been renamed "Piazza Quindici Martiri" (Fifteen Martyrs' Square) in honour of fifteen Italian partisans recently executed there.
After being kicked and spat upon, the bodies were hung upside down from the roof of a service station and stoned from below by civilians. This was done both to discourage any fascists from continuing the fight and as an act of revenge for the hanging of partisans in the same place by Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader was subjected to ridicule and abuse. Fascist loyalist Achille Starace was captured and sentenced to death, then taken to the Piazzale Loreto and shown the body of Mussolini, which he saluted just before being shot. His body was strung up beside Mussolini's.
== Personal life ==
Mussolini's first wife was Ida Dalser, whom he married in Trento in 1914. The couple had a son the following year and named him Benito Albino Mussolini. In December 1915, Mussolini married Rachele Guidi, who had been his mistress since 1910. Due to his upcoming political ascendency, the information about his first marriage was suppressed, and both his first wife and son were later persecuted. With Rachele, Mussolini had two daughters, Edda and Anna Maria; and three sons: Vittorio, Bruno and Romano. Mussolini had several mistresses, among them Margherita Sarfatti and his final companion, Clara Petacci. Mussolini also had many brief sexual encounters with female supporters, as reported by his biographer Nicholas Farrell.
Imprisonment may have been the cause of Mussolini's claustrophobia. He refused to enter the Blue Grotto and preferred large rooms like his 18 by 12 by 12 m (60 by 40 by 40 feet) office at the Palazzo Venezia.
Mussolini spoke the dialect of his native region and used it in familiar conversation with his brother Arnaldo. In addition to Italian, Mussolini spoke English, French, and sufficient German to dispense with an interpreter. This was notable at the Munich Conference, as no other national leader spoke anything other than his native language; Mussolini was described as effectively being the "chief interpreter".
== Religious views ==
=== Atheism and anti-clericalism ===
Mussolini was raised by a devoutly Catholic mother and an anti-clerical father. His mother Rosa had him baptised into the Roman Catholic Church, and took her children to Mass every Sunday. His father never attended. Mussolini regarded his time at a religious boarding school as punishment, compared the experience to hell, and "once refused to go to morning Mass and had to be dragged there by force."
Mussolini became anti-clerical like his father. As a young man, he "proclaimed himself to be an atheist and several times tried to shock an audience by calling on God to strike him dead." He believed that science had proven there was no God, and that the historical Jesus was ignorant and mad. He considered religion a disease of the psyche, and accused Christianity of promoting resignation and cowardice. Mussolini is claimed to be superstitious, because after hearing of the curse of the Pharaohs, he ordered the immediate removal of an Egyptian mummy that he had been gifted from the Palazzo Chigi.
Mussolini was an admirer of Friedrich Nietzsche. According to Denis Mack Smith, "In Nietzsche he found justification for his crusade against the Christian virtues of humility, resignation, charity, and goodness." He valued Nietzsche's concept of the superman, "The supreme egoist who defied both God and the masses, who despised egalitarianism and democracy, who believed in the weakest going to the wall and pushing them if they did not go fast enough." On his 60th birthday, Mussolini received a gift from Hitler of a complete twenty-four volume set of the works of Nietzsche.
Mussolini made vitriolic attacks against Christianity and the Catholic Church, which he accompanied with provocative remarks about the consecrated host, and about a love affair between Christ and Mary Magdalene. He denounced socialists who were tolerant of religion, or who had their children baptised, and called for socialists who accepted religious marriage to be expelled from the party. He denounced the Catholic Church for "its authoritarianism and refusal to allow freedom of thought ..." Mussolini's newspaper, La Lotta di Classe, reportedly had an anti-Christian editorial stance.
=== Lateran Treaty ===
Despite making such attacks, Mussolini tried to win popular support by appeasing the Catholic majority in Italy. In 1924, Mussolini saw to it that three of his children were given communion. In 1925, he had a priest perform a religious marriage ceremony for himself and his wife Rachele, whom he had married in a civil ceremony 10 years earlier. On 11 February 1929, he signed a concordat and treaty with the Roman Catholic Church. Under the Lateran Pact, Vatican City was granted independent statehood and placed under Church law—rather than Italian law—and the Catholic religion was recognised as Italy's state religion. The Church also regained authority over marriage, Catholicism could be taught in all secondary schools, birth control and freemasonry were banned, and the clergy received subsidies from the state and was exempted from taxation. Pope Pius XI praised Mussolini, and the official Catholic newspaper pronounced "Italy has been given back to God and God to Italy."
After this conciliation, he claimed the Church was subordinate to the State, and "referred to Catholicism as, in origin, a minor sect that had spread beyond Palestine only because grafted onto the organization of the Roman empire." After the concordat, "he confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years." Mussolini reportedly came close to being excommunicated from the Catholic Church around this time.
Mussolini publicly reconciled with the Pope Pius XI in 1932, but "took care to exclude from the newspapers any photography of himself kneeling or showing deference to the Pope." He wanted to persuade Catholics that "[f]ascism was Catholic and he himself a believer who spent some of each day in prayer ..." The Pope began referring to Mussolini as "a man sent by Providence." Despite Mussolini's efforts to appear pious, by order of his party, pronouns referring to him "had to be capitalized like those referring to God ..."
In 1938 Mussolini began reasserting his anti-clericalism. He would sometimes refer to himself as an "outright disbeliever", and once told his cabinet that "Islam was perhaps a more effective religion than Christianity" and that the "papacy was a malignant tumor in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all', because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and himself." He publicly backed down from these anti-clerical statements, but continued making similar statements in private.
After his fall from power in 1943, Mussolini began speaking "more about God and the obligations of conscience", although "he still had little use for the priests and sacraments of the Church". He also began drawing parallels between himself and Jesus Christ. Mussolini's widow, Rachele, stated that her husband had remained "basically irreligious until the later years of his life". Mussolini was given a funeral in 1957 when his remains were placed in the family crypt.
== Views on antisemitism and race ==
Over the span of his career, Mussolini's views and policies regarding Jews and antisemitism were often inconsistent, contradictory, and radically shifted depending on the situation. Most historians have generally labeled him as a political opportunist when it came to the treatment of the Jews rather than following a sincere belief. Mussolini considered Italian Jews to be Italians, but this belief may have been influenced more by his anti-clericalism and the general mood of Italy at the time, which denounced the abusive treatment of the Jews in the Roman Ghetto by the Papal States until the Unification of Italy. Although Mussolini had initially disregarded biological racism, he was a firm believer in national traits and made several generalisations about Jews. Mussolini blamed the Russian Revolution of 1917 on "Jewish vengeance" against Christianity with the remark "Race does not betray race ... Bolshevism is being defended by the international plutocracy. That is the real truth." He also made an assertion that 80% of Soviet leaders were Jewish. Yet, within a few weeks, he contradicted himself with the remark "Bolshevism is not, as people believe, a Jewish phenomenon. The truth is that Bolshevism is leading to the utter ruin of the Jews of Eastern Europe."
In the early 1920s, Mussolini stated that Fascism would never raise a "Jewish Question" and in an article he wrote he stated "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it", and then elaborated, "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed." In 1932, Mussolini during a conversation with Emil Ludwig described antisemitism as a "German vice" and stated that "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government." On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the Zionist movement, although Fascism remained suspicious of Zionism after the Fascist Party gained power. In 1934, Mussolini supported the establishment of the Betar Naval Academy in Civitavecchia to train Zionist cadets, arguing that a Jewish state would be in Italy's interest.
Until 1938 Mussolini had denied any antisemitism within the Fascist Party.
The relationship between Mussolini and Adolf Hitler was a contentious one early on. While Hitler cited Mussolini as an influence and privately expressed great admiration for him, Mussolini had little regard for Hitler, especially after the Nazis had his friend and ally, Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrofascist dictator of Austria, killed in 1934.
With the assassination of Dollfuss, Mussolini attempted to distance himself from Hitler by rejecting much of the racialism (particularly Nordicism) and antisemitism espoused by the Nazis. Mussolini during this period rejected biological racism, at least in the Nazi sense, and instead emphasised "Italianising" the parts of the Italian Empire he had desired to build. He declared that the ideas of eugenics and the racially charged concept of an Aryan nation were not possible. Mussolini dismissed the idea of a master race as "arrant nonsense, stupid and idiotic".
When discussing the Nazi decree that the German people must carry a passport with either Aryan or Jewish racial affiliation marked on it, in 1934, Mussolini wondered how they would designate membership in the "Germanic race":
But which race? Does there exist a German race? Has it ever existed? Will it ever exist? Reality, myth, or hoax of the theorists?Ah well, we respond, a Germanic race does not exist. Various movements. Curiosity. Stupor. We repeat. Does not exist. We don't say so. Scientists say so. Hitler says so.
When German-Jewish journalist Emil Ludwig asked about his views on race in 1933, Mussolini exclaimed:
Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. Amusingly enough, not one of those who have proclaimed the "nobility" of the Teutonic race was himself a Teuton. Gobineau was a Frenchman, (Houston Stewart) Chamberlain, an Englishman; Woltmann, a Jew; Lapouge, another Frenchman.
In a speech given in Bari in 1934, he reiterated his attitude towards the German concept of a master race:
Thirty centuries of history allow us to look with supreme pity on certain doctrines which are preached beyond the Alps by the descendants of those who were illiterate when Rome had Caesar, Virgil and Augustus.
Though Italian Fascism varied its official positions on race from the 1920s to 1934, ideologically Italian Fascism did not originally discriminate against the Italian-Jewish community: Mussolini recognised that a small contingent had lived there "since the days of the Kings of Rome" and should "remain undisturbed". There were even some Jews in the National Fascist Party, such as Ettore Ovazza, who in 1935 founded the Jewish Fascist paper La Nostra Bandiera ("Our Flag").
By mid-1938, the enormous influence Hitler now had over Mussolini became clear with the introduction of the Manifesto of Race. The Manifesto, which was closely modelled on the Nazi Nuremberg Laws, stripped Jews of their Italian citizenship and with it any position in the government or professions. The racial laws declared Italians to be part of the Aryan race and forbade sexual relations and marriages between Italians and those considered to be of an "inferior race", chiefly Jews and Africans. Jews were not permitted to own or manage companies involved in military production, or factories that employed over one hundred people or exceeded a certain value. They could not own land over a certain value, serve in the armed forces, employ non-Jewish domestics, or belong to the Fascist party. Their employment in banks, insurance companies, and public schools was forbidden. While many historians have explained Mussolini's introduction of the Manifesto of Race as being purely a pragmatic move to gain favour with Italy's new ally, others have challenged that viewpoint and pointed out that Mussolini, along with other Fascist officials, had encouraged antisemitic sentiment well before 1938, such as in response to significant Jewish participation in Giustizia e Libertà, a highly prominent anti-Fascist organisation. Proponents of this viewpoint argue that Mussolini's implementation of these laws reflected a homegrown Italian flavour of antisemitism distinct from that of Nazism, one which perceived Jews as being bound to decadence and liberalism and was influenced not just by Fascist ideology but also by the Catholic Church.
Even after the introduction of the racial laws, Mussolini continued to make contradictory statements about race. Many high government officials told Jewish representatives that the antisemitism in Fascist Italy would soon be over. Antisemitism was unpopular within the Fascist party; once when a Fascist scholar protested to Mussolini about the treatment of his Jewish friends, Mussolini is reported to have said "I agree with you entirely. I don't believe a bit in the stupid antisemitic theory. I am carrying out my policy entirely for political reasons." Hitler was disappointed with Mussolini's perceived lack of antisemitism, as was Joseph Goebbels, who once said that "Mussolini appears to have not recognized the Jewish question". Nazi racial theorist Alfred Rosenberg criticised Fascist Italy for its lack of what he defined as a true concept of 'race' and 'Jewishness', while the virulently racist Julius Streicher, writing for the unofficial Nazi propaganda newspaper Der Stürmer, dismissed Mussolini as a Jewish puppet and lackey.
Mussolini and the Italian Army in occupied regions openly opposed German efforts to deport Italian Jews to Nazi concentration camps. Italy's refusal to comply with German demands of Jewish persecution influenced other countries.
In September 1943 semi-autonomous militarised squads of Fascist fanatics sprouted up throughout the Republic of Salò. These squads spread terror among Jews and partisans for a year and a half. In the power vacuum that existed during the first three or four months of the occupation, the semi-autonomous bands were virtually uncontrollable. Many were linked to individual high-ranking Fascist politicians. Italian Fascists, sometimes government employees but more often fanatic civilians or paramilitary volunteers, hastened to curry favour with the Nazis. Informers betrayed their neighbours, squadristi seized Jews and delivered them to the German SS, and Italian journalists seemed to compete in the virulence of their anti-Semitic diatribes.
It has been widely speculated that Mussolini adopted the Manifesto of Race in 1938 for merely tactical reasons, to strengthen Italy's relations with Germany. Mussolini and the Italian military did not consistently apply the laws adopted in the Manifesto of Race. In December 1943, Mussolini made a confession to journalist/politician Bruno Spampanato that seems to indicate that he regretted the Manifesto of Race:
The Racial Manifesto could have been avoided. It dealt with the scientific abstruseness of a few teachers and journalists, a conscientious German essay translated into bad Italian. It is far from what I have said, written and signed on the subject. I suggest that you consult the old issues of Il Popolo d'Italia. For this reason I am far from accepting (Alfred) Rosenberg's myth.
Mussolini also reached out to the Muslims in his empire and in the predominantly Arab countries of the Middle East. In 1937, the Muslims of Libya presented Mussolini with the "Sword of Islam" while Fascist propaganda pronounced him as the "Protector of Islam".
Despite Mussolini's ostensible disbelief in biological racism, Fascist Italy implemented numerous laws rooted in such notions throughout its colonial empire on his orders as well as those of lower-ranking Fascist officials. Following the Second Italo-Senussi War, Mussolini directed Marshal Pietro Badoglio to ban miscegenation in Libya, fearing that Italian settlers in the colony would degenerate into "half-castes" if interracial relationships were permitted. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and the ensuing Italian colonisation of Ethiopia, Mussolini implemented numerous laws mandating strict racial segregation between black Africans and Italians in Italian East Africa. These racist laws were much more rigorous and pervasive than those in other European colonies, comparable in scope and scale to those of South Africa during the Apartheid era. Fascist Italy's segregationism further differed from that of other European colonies in that its impetus came not from within its colonies, as was usually the case, but from metropolitan Italy, specifically from Mussolini himself. Though many of these laws were ignored by local officials due to the difficulty of properly enforcing them, Mussolini frequently complained to subordinates upon hearing of instances of them being broken and saw the need to micromanage race relations as part of his ideological vision.
== Legacy ==
=== Family ===
Mussolini and his wife, Rachele Mussolini, had three sons (Vittorio, Romano, and Bruno) and two daughters, Edda (the widow of Count Ciano) and Anna Maria. Bruno was killed in an air accident on 7 August 1941.
Alessandra Mussolini, granddaughter of Mussolini, is politically active in Italian right-wing circles. She has been a member of the European Parliament for the far-right Social Alternative movement, a deputy in the Italian lower chamber and served in the Senate as a member of Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia party. Her half-sister Rachele Mussolini is also active in politics through Brothers of Italy, the main Italian right-wing party; she is the daughter of Romano and his second wife Carla Maria Puccini. Caio Giulio Cesare Mussolini, a great-grandson of Mussolini through Vittorio, is also active in politics in Brothers of Italy.
=== Neo-fascism ===
Mussolini inspired and supported the international spread of fascist movements during the inter-war period. Although the National Fascist Party was outlawed by the postwar Constitution of Italy, a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Historically, the largest neo-fascist party was the Italian Social Movement (Movimento Sociale Italiano), which disbanded in 1995 and was replaced by National Alliance, a conservative party that distanced itself from Fascism (its founder, former foreign minister Gianfranco Fini, declared during an official visit to Israel that Fascism was "an absolute evil"). National Alliance and a number of neo-fascist parties were merged in 2009 to create the short-lived People of Freedom party led by then Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, which eventually disbanded after the defeat in the 2013 general election. In 2012, many former members of National Alliance joined Brothers of Italy, led by current Prime Minister of Italy, Giorgia Meloni.
=== Public image ===
In February 2018, a poll conducted by the Demos & Pi research institute found that out of the total 1,014 people interviewed, 19% of voters across the Italian political spectrum had a "positive or very positive" opinion of Mussolini, 60% saw him negatively and 21% did not have an opinion.
== Writings ==
== See also ==
Fascist syndicalism – Italian trade syndicate movement
List of covers of Time magazine (1920s)
Mediterraneanism – Ideology of commonality between Mediterranean cultures
Order of the Golden Spur – Papal order of knighthood
Pact of Pacification
Villa Mussolini – Seaside villa in Riccione, Italy
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
=== Historiography ===
O'Brien, Paul. 2004. Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist. O'Brien evaluates the biographies in Italian and English in the Introduction.
== Further reading ==
Hibbert, Christopher. Benito Mussolini, a Biography. (London: Reprint Society, [1962) p., ill. with b&w photos. online
Kirkpatrick, Ivone, Sir. Mussolini, a study in power (1964) online
Ridley, Jasper. Mussolini: A Biography (1998) online
== External links ==
Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?
Benito Mussolini Speeches
Works by or about Benito Mussolini at the Internet Archive
Works by Benito Mussolini at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Il Duce 'sought Hitler ban' September 2003 BBC News
Authorized translation of Mussolini's The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism (1933)
Maximilian Schönherr – Archiv Mussolini shaking hands with King George V. of the United Kingdom, 1923, The Illustrated London News, published 25 January 1936.
Mussolini's Piazza Augusto Imperatore
"Islam, Duce, and Duke". Time. 5 April 1937. Archived from the original on 2 May 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2009.
"Death in Milan". Time. 7 May 1945. Archived from the original on 20 July 2010. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
References to Mussolini in European newspapers – The European Library
Benito Mussolini at IMDb
Newspaper clippings about Benito Mussolini in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Fitch_Shepard#cite_note-Obituary-3 | Elliott Fitch Shepard | Elliott Fitch Shepard (July 25, 1833 – March 24, 1893) was an American lawyer, banker, and owner of the Mail and Express newspaper, as well as a founder and president of the New York State Bar Association. Shepard was married to Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt, who was a member of the Vanderbilt family. Shepard's Briarcliff Manor residence Woodlea and the Scarborough Presbyterian Church, which he founded nearby, are contributing properties to the Scarborough Historic District.
Shepard was born in Jamestown, New York. He graduated from the University of the City of New York in 1855, and practiced law for about 25 years. During the American Civil War, Shepard was a Union Army recruiter and subsequently earned the rank of colonel. He was later a founder and benefactor of several institutions and banks. When Shepard moved to the Briarcliff Manor hamlet of Scarborough-on-Hudson, he founded the Scarborough Presbyterian Church and built Woodlea; the house and its land are now part of Sleepy Hollow Country Club.
== Early life ==
Shepard was born July 25, 1833, in Jamestown in Chautauqua County, New York. He was the second of three sons of Fitch Shepard and Delia Maria Dennis; the others were Burritt Hamilton and Augustus Dennis. Fitch Shepard was president of the National Bank Note Company (later consolidated with the American and Continental Note Companies), and Elliott's brother Augustus became president of the American Bank Note Company. Shepard's extended family lived in New England, with origins in Bedfordshire, England. Fitch, son of Noah Shepard, was a descendant of Thomas Shepard (a Puritan minister) and James Fitch (son-in-law of William Bradford). Delia Maria Dennis was a descendant of Robert Dennis, who emigrated from England in 1635. Elliott was described in 1897's Prominent Families of New York as "prominent by birth and ancestry, as well as for his personal qualities". He attended public schools in Jamestown, and moved with his father and brothers to New York City in 1845. He began attending the college-preparatory University Grammar School (then located in the University of the City of New York building), and graduated from the university in 1855. Shepard began reading law under Edwards Pierrepont, and was admitted to the bar in the city of Brooklyn in 1858.
== Military service ==
From January 1861 through the outbreak of the American Civil War and until 1862 Shepard served as an aide-de-camp to Union Army General Edwin D. Morgan with the rank of colonel. During this time Shepard was placed in command of the department of volunteers in Elmira, and enlisted 47,000 men from the surrounding area. In 1862 he was appointed Assistant Inspector-General for half of New York state, reporting to New York's governor on troop organization, equipment, and discipline.
In 1862 he visited Jamestown to inspect, equip and provide uniforms for the Chautauqua regiment, his first return since infancy, and was welcomed by a group of prominent citizens. Shepard recruited and organized the 51st Regiment, New York Volunteers, which was named the Shepard Rifles in his honor. George W. Whitman, brother of the poet Walt Whitman and a member of the regiment, was notified by Shepard of a promotion; Shepard may have influenced his subsequent promotion to major in 1865. In addition, Shepard was involved in correspondence with Walt Whitman. Although President Abraham Lincoln offered him a promotion to brigadier general, Shepard declined in deference to officers who had seen field service; Shepard himself never entered the field. From 1866 to 1868 Shepard served as aide-de-camp to Reuben E. Fenton.
== Career ==
In 1864, Shepard was a member of the executive committee and chair of the Committee on Contributions from Without the City for the New York Metropolitan Fair. He chaired lawyers' committees for disaster relief, including those in Portland, Maine and Chicago after the 1866 Great Fire and the 1871 Great Chicago Fire respectively, and was a member of the municipal committee for victims of the 1889 Johnstown Flood.
In 1867 Shepard was presented to Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt at a reception given by Governor Morgan. Their difficult courtship was opposed by Margaret's father, William Henry Vanderbilt. A year later, on February 18, 1868, they were married in the Church of the Incarnation in New York City. After an 1868 trip to Tarsus, Mersin he helped found Tarsus American College, agreeing to donate $5,000 a year to the school and leave it an endowment of $100,000 ($3.5 million in 2024). He became one of the school's trustees and vice presidents.
In 1868, Shepard became a partner of Judge Theron R. Strong in Strong & Shepard, continuing the business after Strong's death. He continued to practice law for the next 25 years; he helped found the New York State Bar Association in 1876, and in 1884 was its fifth president. In 1875 Shepard drafted an amendment establishing an arbitration court for the New York Chamber of Commerce, serving on its five-member executive committee the following year. In 1880, the New York City Board of Aldermen appointed Shepard and Ebenezer B. Shafer to revise and codify the city's local ordinances to form the New-York Municipal Code; the last revision was in 1859.
During the 1880s he helped found three banks. At the Bank of the Metropolis, he was a founding board member. The others were the American Savings Bank and the Columbian National Bank, where he served as attorney. In 1881, US President Rutherford B. Hayes nominated him for United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. In 1884, Shepard led the effort to create an arbitration court for the New York Chamber of Commerce. On March 20, 1888, Shepard purchased the Mail and Express newspaper (founded in 1836, with an estimated value in 1888 of $200,000 ($7 million in 2024) from Cyrus W. Field for $425,000 ($14.9 million in 2024). Deeply religious, Shepard placed a verse from the Bible at the head of each edition's editorial page. As president of the newspaper company until his death, he approved every important decision or policy. In the same year, Shepard became the controlling stockholder of the Fifth Avenue Transportation Company to force it to halt work on Sundays (the Christian Sabbath).
When Margaret's father died in 1885, she inherited $12 million ($420 million in 2024). The family lived at 2 West 52nd Street in Manhattan, one of three houses of the Vanderbilt Triple Palace which were built during the 1880s for William Henry Vanderbilt and his two daughters. After Elliott's death Margaret transferred the house to her sister's family, who combined their two houses into one. The houses were eventually demolished; the nine-story De Pinna Building was built there in 1928 and was demolished around 1969. 650 Fifth Avenue is the building currently on the site.
Shepard and his family toured the world in 1884, visiting Asia, Africa, and Europe. He documented his 1887 trip from New York to Alaska in The Riva.: New York and Alaska taken by himself, his wife and daughter, six other family members, their maid, a chef, butler, porter and conductor. According to Shepard, the family traveled 14,085 miles (22,668 km) on 26 railroads and stayed at 38 hotels in nearly five months. After the 1884 trip, aware of the opportunity for church work in the territory, he founded a mission and maintained it with his wife for about $20,000 ($699,900 in 2024) a year. For some time Shepard worshiped at the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church under John Hall, and was a vice president of the Presbyterian Union of New-York. Shepard was president of the American Sabbath Union for five years, and he also served as the chairman of the Special Committee on Sabbath Observance.
=== Briarcliff Manor developments ===
During the early 1890s Shepard moved to Scarborough-on-Hudson in present-day Briarcliff Manor, purchasing a Victorian house from J. Butler Wright. He had a mansion (named Woodlea, after Wright's house) built south of the house, facing the Hudson River, and improved its grounds. Construction of the mansion began in 1892, and was completed three years later. Shepard died in 1893, leaving Margaret to oversee its completion. The finished house has between 65,000 and 70,000 square feet (6,000 and 6,500 m2), making it one of the largest privately owned houses in the United States.
After Shepard's death Margaret lived there in the spring and fall, with her visits becoming less frequent. By 1900 she began selling property to Frank A. Vanderlip and William Rockefeller, selling them the house in 1910. Vanderlip and Rockefeller assembled a board of directors to create a country club; they first met at Vanderlip's National City Bank Building office at 55 Wall Street (Vanderlip was president of the bank at the time). Sleepy Hollow Country Club was founded, with Woodlea becoming its clubhouse and the J. Butler Wright house as its golf house.
Shepard established a small chapel on his Briarcliff Manor property, and founded the Scarborough Presbyterian Church in 1892. The church and its manse were donated by Margaret after his death. It was designed by Augustus Haydel (a nephew of Stanford White) and August D. Shepard Jr. (a nephew of Elliott Shepard and William Rutherford Mead). The church, dedicated on May 11, 1895, in Shepard's memory, was briefly known as Shepard Memorial Church.
== Family and personal life ==
Shepard and Margaret had five daughters and one son: Florence (1869–1869), Maria Louise (1870–1948), Edith (1872–1954), Margaret (1873–1895), Alice (1874–1950) and Elliott Jr. (1876–1927). The children attended Sunday school and church, and were educated by private tutors and governesses. Shepard also employed a private chef for his family. Shepard was a strict father known to beat his son, who was described as being as wild as his father was rigid and moralizing.
Shepard was tall, with a pleasant expression and manner, and The New York Times called him the "perfect type of well-bred clubman". He had thick hair, manicured nails, a well-trimmed beard and an athletic figure. An opponent of antisemitism, he attended dinners publicizing the plight of Russian Jews and regularly addressed Jewish religious and social organizations avoided by others. He rented pews in many New York churches, supported about a dozen missionaries and was described as a generous donor to hospitals and charitable societies. Shepard was politically ambitious, and decided to build Woodlea as a symbol of power and influence. Shepard had horses and carriages which were ridden by the family in parks, and he prided himself on his equestrianism. Shepard was a long-time friend of US Senator Chauncey Depew.
Shepard was a supporter of the Republican Party, contributing $75,000 ($2.62 million in 2024) to the 1888 Presidential campaign fund and $10,000 ($350,000 in 2024) to the state committee for the Fassett campaign. He furnished Shepard Hall, at Sixth Avenue and 57th Street in New York City, offering it rent-free to the Republican Club.
Shepard belonged to a number of organizations: the Adirondack League, the American Museum of Natural History, the American Oriental Society, the Association of the Bar of the City of New York, the Century Association, the Congregational Club, the Lawyers' Club of New York, the Manhattan Athletic Club, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the National Academy of Design, the New England Society of New York, the New York Athletic Club, the New York Press Club, the New York State Bar Association, the New York Yacht Club, the Presbyterian Union of New York, the Republican Club of the City of New York, the Riding Club, the Sons of the American Revolution, the Twilight Club, the Union League Club of New York, and the Union League of Brooklyn.
== Later life, death, and legacy ==
In 1892, the City University of New York gave Shepard a Master of Laws degree and the University of Omaha gave him a Doctor of Laws degree. On January 11, 1893, Shepard addressed the House Committee on the Columbian Exposition in an effort to convince the committee not to open the exposition on a Sunday - the Sabbath. Shepard himself attended, having spent $25,000 ($874,907 in 2024) on September 7, 1891, in reserving sixteen rooms with board at the Auditorium Hotel for six months during the fair.
Shepard died unexpectedly during the afternoon of March 24, 1893, at his Manhattan residence. Two doctors were attempting to remove a bladder stone from him. They instructed him to eat lightly, only well before the operation. They gave him the anesthetic ether at 12:45 p.m. For a few minutes Shepard did not seem to react, though soon afterward his color started changing and his respiration and pulse dimmed, so administration of ether was stopped, however not enough ether was given to continue with the operation. His condition started to worsen again; the doctors suspected food or vomit was blocking his windpipe or bronchial tubes. The doctors then administered oxygen, which helped temporarily; however, at 4:00 p.m. his pulse became steadily more feeble, he fell unconscious, and died at 4:10 p.m. His cause of death was edema and congestion of the lungs, after the administration of ether, but due to an unknown cause.
Many doctors considered the case to be unusual and debated the cause of death. Some, including family members, accused them of criminal negligence; that Shepard was fed well before the operation, which could have allowed him to choke on vomit. No autopsy was made, but an inquest was made by the coroner. The two doctors to perform the operation made a statement on March 28, 1893, that after prior examinations no diseases were found and his heart and lungs seemed healthy. A Tribune reporter met doctor William J. Morton, son of possible ether discoverer William T. G. Morton who had first used it in 1846. Morton said it was most improbable Shepard died of ether, ensuring its safety when properly used, and that deaths were one in 25,000. He recommended an autopsy.
The first funeral service was a small gathering of pallbearers and close friends of the family at the house; then Shepard's body was moved to their church. From the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, Shepard was moved to the Battery and then onto a ferry to Staten Island.
At the funeral, organizations that Shepard was part of sent representatives, including the Union League Club, the Republican County Committee, the Republican Club, the New York State Bar Association, the Presbyterian Union, the Chamber of Commerce, the American Sabbath Union, New York Sabbath Observance Committee, American Bible Society, St. Paul's Institute at Tarsus, the Union League of Brooklyn, the Republican Association of the 21st Assembly District, the Shepard Rifles, the New York Typothetae, the American Bank Note Company, the College of the City of New York, the Mail and Express, and the New-York Press Club. Those at the funeral included Albert Bierstadt, Noah Davis, Chauncey M. Depew, John S. Kennedy, John James McCook, Warner Miller, John Sloane, and John H. Starin. Notable family included his immediate family, as well as most of the living Vanderbilt family, including the majority of Margaret Louisa's siblings, their spouses, and Margaret Louisa's mother.
Shepard was first buried in the Vanderbilt mausoleum in Moravian Cemetery. On November 17, 1894, one of his daughters, his wife, and her brother George Vanderbilt oversaw the transfer of his remains and those of his daughter Florence to a new Shepard family tomb in the cemetery nearby.
Shepard's estate included the $100,000 Tarsus American College endowment, $850,000 in real estate and $500,000 in personal property for a total of $1.35 million ($47.2 million in 2024). His will distributed money and property to his wife and children, his brother Augustus, and religious organizations. Shepard funded a number of scholarships and prizes, including one at the City University of New York and New York University's annual Elliott F. Shepard Scholarship, and in 1888 he donated a large collection of books originally from lawyer Aaron J. Vanderpoel's library to the New York University School of Law. A year later, Shepard created an endowment for periodicals, necessitating the creation of the university's first reading room. In 1897, Shepard's wife donated his 1,390-volume collection of law books to the library.
When the wife of Chicago publisher Horace O'Donoghue read him the news of Shepard's death four days after the event, he picked up a razor and slit his throat. Although his suicide was first thought to be an impulsive reaction, it was later learned that the likely cause was O'Donoghue's large debts to Chicago publishing houses.
== Selected works ==
Shepard, Elliott Fitch; Shafer, Ebenezer B. (1881). Ordinances of the Mayor, Aldermen and Commonalty of the City of New York: In Force January 1, 1881. New York: Martin B. Brown. OCLC 680539530.
Shepard, Elliott Fitch (1886). Labor and Capital Are One. New York: American Bank Note Company. OCLC 43539083.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Crodise, L. F. (February 13, 1891). "Some of Col. Shepard's Good Points". The Epoch. 9 (210). New York: The Epoch Publishing Co.: 21–2. OCLC 31581175. For details on Elliott Fitch Shepard's average business day and family.
== External links ==
Letter to Walt Whitman, from The Walt Whitman Archive
Works by or about Elliott Fitch Shepard at the Internet Archive
Bust of Shepard by John Quincy Adams Ward, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Murphy_(mathematician) | Gerard Murphy (mathematician) | Gerard J. Murphy (November 1948 – 12 October 2006) MRIA was a prolific Irish mathematician. His textbooks are internationally acclaimed, and translated into different languages. He died from cancer in October 2006, at the age of 57.
== Research ==
Gerard's research was in functional analysis. In recent times his research was on quantum groups and non-commutative geometry, subjects of importance both for mathematics and physics. He authored more than 70 original mathematical papers, singly or with colleagues in Ireland, Europe and North America. He will also be remembered for his book, C*-algebras and Operator Theory, which was published in 1990 to worldwide acclaim.
Gerard's principal interests were in the general theory of C*-algebras, the spectral and index theory of Toeplitz operators on Hardy spaces of ordered groups and bounded symmetric domains, and the C*-algebra approach to quantum groups.
== Groups ==
Royal Irish Academy: He was a member of the Publications Committee of the Royal Irish Academy and Editor-in-Chief of the Mathematical Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. This is a journal devoted to current research in all areas of pure mathematics and appears twice yearly.
European Union Research Network: He was the Irish coordinator of the European Union Operator Algebras Network. This comprises a group of universities across seven countries in Europe that co-operate to promote research in operator algebras and noncommutative geometry.
== Quotes ==
"Gerard Murphy, like Pythagoras and Boole before him, discovered new mathematical truths, truths that will last forever. Generations of future students and researchers will build on and develop these results." Associate Professor Des MacHale, University College Cork
"Throughout his life, he took his teaching responsibility seriously, and designed his courses to further the student's understanding and appreciation of Mathematics, not only as a tool for understanding other disciplines, but also as one of mankind's greatest scientific and cultural achievements, with a history stretching back to antiquity. He strove to preserve academic standards, constantly resisting the modern tendency to lower them, and always sought to inculcate the notions of precision and proof handed down by the ancient Greeks." Professor Finbarr Holland, University College Cork
== Biography ==
Gerard was born to parents May and Larry Murphy in Drimnagh, Dublin. He came from a large family of 3 boys and 5 girls: John, Derek, Rita, Linda, Joan, Carol and Lauren. Gerard left school at 14 and worked in a variety of menial jobs, but all the while continued to educate himself at home with quiet determination.
Gerard worked his way into Trinity College Dublin on the strength of his performance on a correspondence course. In 1970 he was admitted to Trinity College and read for a degree in pure mathematics. His brilliant undergraduate career in Trinity College meant that he was awarded a Foundation Scholarship to support his studies. In 1974 he graduated with a First Class Honours BA, and he won the Berkeley Gold Medal. His success at Trinity marked him out as something special, and he was soon after awarded the Gulbenkian Scholarship to enable him to study for a PhD in the University of Cambridge. He acquired this in 1977 and won the Knight Prize for the quality of his research.
He returned to Trinity College in 1977 and took up a postdoctoral research fellowship, funded by the Department of Education and he commenced his career as a university lecturer. He then spent four years in North America in Dalhousie University, University of New Hampshire and University of Oregon. He was appointed as a lecturer in University College Cork, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was promoted twice in the minimum time period, to associate professor, in recognition of the quality and quantity of his research, the calibre of his teaching and overall contributions to the management of the college.
On foot of his expertise he was invited in the mid-1990s to participate in the EU Operator Algebras Network, and as a result of his involvement he succeeded in attracting substantial funding from the EU which enabled him to organise the first of a series of major conferences on Operators Algebras in UCC in 1995, which attracted mathematicians from all parts of the world, and to fund several postdoctoral research assistants to work under his direction. His membership of this network allowed him to establish an internationally recognised centre of excellence in UCC in operator algebras and non-commutative geometry, a legacy that will endure.
He was promoted to head of the Mathematics Department, University College Cork, when Professor P.D. Barry retired in 1999. He spent 5 years in this position.
Gerard was proud of his membership of the Royal Irish Academy and as Joint Editor-in-Chief of its Mathematical Proceedings, which he helped to modernise and produce in electronic form; he raised its profile as an international journal and expanded its readership.
In 2005 he was diagnosed with cancer of the colon and liver. He died peacefully at 57 and is survived by his wife Mary, one son and three daughters, his mother and siblings.
== Remembrance ==
Professor Richard Timoney of Trinity College Dublin, in his contribution to the book Trevor West: The Bold Collegian about the multi-talented Trevor West, wrote the following remembrance of Gerard:
Among the students he (Trevor) had, some were deserving of his particular interest ever after. One of those was Gerard Murphy (1948–2006) who was not a Ph.D. student of Trevor's but had a close relationship with him. Gerard came from a working-class background in Dublin and missed out on a normal secondary education, but came to the notice of the School of Mathematics in Trinity. Trevor took a special interest in him, and was pleased that Gerard turned out as a very good undergraduate in Mathematics. Gerard did
his doctorate at Cambridge, not with Trevor's supervisor Smithies but with one of Smithies' mathematical descendants, finishing in 1977. Then he got a postdoctoral fellowship back at Trinity, where he worked productively with Trevor. Following three years at TCD, Gerard held some positions in North America before being appointed in Cork, where he was again within close reach of Trevor from the West family home in Midleton. Trevor encouraged Gerard to organise international research meetings in Cork, of which there were quite a few, and Trevor was always in the thick of them.
Among the several joint papers between Murphy and West, Finbarr Holland picks out a spectral radius formula for special mention in an obituary of Gerard that appeared in the Bulletin of the Irish Mathematical Society (no. 59, 2007). It is a particularly elegant formula for the spectral radius of an element in a C*-algebra that was published in a paper in the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society in 1979. Gerard was elected to membership of the RIA and became editor of the Mathematical Proceedings, both of which events were surely engineered by Trevor. As with many things, Trevor would not miss opportunities to plug his favourites and the considerable merits of Gerard were easy to extol, but of course Gerard's terminal illness was a blow. Maybe the most notable joint effort between them was Trevor's second mathematical monograph, often referred to as 'the little red book', which was a joint effort between four authors, Bruce Barnes of Oregon, Gerard Murphy, Roger Smyth (former doctoral student) and Trevor. The book appeared in 1982 and has a lasting value that is really noteworthy. It is not so much that the overall thrust of the book is still current, but rather that there are definitions and lemmas in it that remain useful and are not available elsewhere.
Roger Smyth was the first of Trevor's two Ph.D. students and Trevor always spoke enthusiastically about their work together, which spanned many years. Roger was employed as a civil servant in the Northern Ireland Department of Health and Social Services, and so did his Mathematics outside of his working hours. Apart from the fact that Trevor got on very well with Roger, it suited Trevor to have Roger among his Northern Ireland friends and informants on political matters. In a different way, Alastair Gillespie was well placed in Edinburgh where there were rugby matches to attend every now and again, while the Cork connection with Gerard was a different kind of overlap of interests. By the way, the collaboration with Rien Kaashoek did not seem to have any similar coincidence but they did travel often between Dublin and Amsterdam to collaborate. Rainer Nagel of Tübingen was also a close contact of Trevor's but not a co-author.
With regard to the red book, actually entitled Riesz and Fredholm Theory in Banach Algebras and published by Pitman in 1982, Roger Smyth credits Trevor with being the mastermind and driving force behind the book. For instance, Trevor would have been the host for Bruce Barnes during his sabbatical year in Trinity (1979- 0) and Roger also recalls Trevor deciding rather late on that a significant section of the book was not written in the 'right way' and coming up with a new and clearer approach during the final
stages of preparation. It seems Trevor also did the management work such as dealing with the publisher and managing the production of the camera- ready copy (in those days using a typist with a golf ball typewriter). Roger's influence on the book is quite clearly related to his doctoral work and subsequent work with Trevor, Bruce Barnes' research at the time was also close to the topics discussed and perhaps Gerard was more interested in the parts where C*-algebras enter. It is appropriate to quote the last paragraph from
the Mathematical Review of the book:
'The aim of the authors is "to highlight the interplay between algebra and spectral theory which emerges in any penetrating analysis of compact, Riesz and Fredholm operators on Banach spaces". Their little book proves, among other things, that they have fully (and beautifully) achieved this aim.'
Possibly an important contribution from Gerard Murphy to the book, or maybe something he picked up while engaged in it, was a facility for explaining things particularly well. Later, in 1990, Gerard published a book called C*-algebras and operator theory (Academic Press) which has remained a standard reference. It covers the basics of the theory but also dips in to the more advanced and modern aspects in such a way that many new students of C*-algebras continue to fnd it a valuable introduction, preferable for the beginner to many fatter and more encyclopedic volumes.
This remembrance was added on the eleventh anniversary of Gerard's death by Carol Murphy, Gerard's sister, with permission from Dr Timoney and Maura Lee West (author) The Bold Collegian.
== Publications ==
C*-Algebras and Operator Theory
This book has become a standard textbook in many countries, and is often cited as a reference in research articles. The book was published in 1990 by Academic Press. Its aim is to give an introduction to one of the most dynamic areas of modern mathematics. It is directed at first and second year graduate students intending to specialise in research in operator algebras and at interested researchers from other areas, especially quantum physicists.
He attempted to give an accessible exposition of the core material and to cover a number of topics that have a high contemporary profile. No attempt is made to be encyclopedic but there are notes at the end of each chapter giving additional results not covered in the text. Each chapter also contains a list of problems for the reader to test his or her understanding of the material.
The reader is assumed to have a good background in undergraduate real and complex analysis, point set topology and elementary general functional analysis (Hahn–Banach theorem, uniform boundedness principle, Riesz-Kakutani theorem etc.). However, the theory of locally convex spaces is not presupposed and the requisite material is developed in a short appendix.
In Spring, 1997 a Russian translation of the book appeared. The translation was supervised by Prof. A. Ya. Helemskii of Moscow State University who has also written the preface.
The bibliographic details for ordering the book from its Moscow publisher are as follows:
DJ. Merfi, C*-Algebri i Teoria Operatorov,
Izdatelistvo "Factorial", Moskva, 1997.
== Papers ==
The following is a list of most of Gerard's papers published since 1991.
Ordered groups and crossed products of C*-algebras, Pacific J. Math. 148 (1991), 319–349.
Derivations mapping into the radical, Arch. Math. 57 (1991), 469—474 (with M. Mathieu).
Toeplitz operators and algebras, Math. Zeit. 208 (1991), 355–362.
Spectral and index theory for Toeplitz operators, Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 91A (1991), 1–6.
The analytic rank of a C*-algebra, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 115 (1992), 741–746.
Almost-invertible Toeplitz operators and K-theory, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 15 (1992), 72–81.
The index group, the exponential spectrum and some spectral containment theorems, Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 92A (1992), 229–238.
Toeplitz operators on generalised H^2 spaces, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 15 (1992), 825–852.
Inner functions and Toeplitz operators, Canad. Math. Bull. 36 (1993), 324–331.
An index theorem for Toeplitz operators, J. Operator Theory 29 (1993), 97–114.
Aspects of the theory of derivations, Funct. Anal. and Operator Theory 30 (1994), 267–275.
Crossed products of C*-algebras by semigroups of automorphisms, Proc. London Math. Soc. (3) 68 (1994), 423–448.
Fredholm index theory and the trace, Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 94A (1994), 161–166.
Translation-invariant function algebras on compact abelian groups, Ann. Acad. Sci. Fennicae 20A (1995), 175–178.
C*-algebras generated by commuting isometries, Rocky Mountain J. Math. 26 (1996), 237–267.
C*-algebras with the approximate positive factorisation property, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. (6) 348 (1996), 2291—2306 (with N.C. Phillips).
Crossed products of C*-algebras by endomorphisms, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 24 (1996), 298–319.
Extensions of multipliers and dilations of projective isometric representations, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 125 (1997), 121–127.
Type I Toeplitz algebras, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 27 (1997), 221–227.
Products of Toeplitz operators, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 27 (1997), 439–445.
Positive definite kernels and Hilbert C*-modules, Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc., 40 (1997), 367–374.
Averaging theorems for linear operators in compact groups and semigroups, Studia Math., 124 (1997), 249—258 (with T.T. West).
Products of positive operators, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 125 (1997), 3675–3677.
Compact topological semigroups, Proc. Royal Irish Acad., 97A (1997), 131—137 (with K. Abodayeh).
Unitarily-invariant linear spaces in C*-algebras, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 126 (1998), 3597—3605 (with L.W. Marcoux).
Invariant ideals in Toeplitz algebras, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 35 (1999), 118–121.
Uniqueness of the trace and simplicity, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 28 (2000), 3563–3570.
Co-amenability of compact quantum groups, J. Geom. and Physics, 40 (2001), 129—153 (with E. Bedos and L. Tuset).
Translation-invariant function algebras on compact groups, Adv. Stud. Contemp. Math., 3 (2001), 39–42.
Simplicity of crossed products by endomorphisms, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory, 42 (2002), 90–98.
Amenability and co-amenability of algebraic quantum groups, Int. J. Math. & Math. Sci., 31 (2002), 577—601 (with E. Bedos and L. Tuset).
Differential calculi over compact quantum groups and twisted cyclic co-cycles, J. Geom. Physics, 44 (2003), 570—594 (with J. Kustermans and L. Tuset).
Toeplitz operators associated to unimodular algebras, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory 46 (2003), 363–375.
Amenability and co-amenability of algebraic quantum groups II, J. Funct. Anal. 201 (2003), 303—340 (with J. Kustermans and L. Tuset).
Differential calculi over quantum groups Noncommutative Geometry and Quantum Groups, Banach Centre Publ. 61 (2003), 157–170.
Primitivity conditions for the full group C*-algebras, Bull. London Math. Soc. 35 (2003), 697–705.
The C*-algebra of a function algebra, J. Integr. Equ. Oper. Theory 47 (2003), 361–374.
Aspects of compact quantum group theory, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 132 (2004), 3055—3067 (with L. Tuset).
The index theory associated to a non-finite trace on a C*-algebra, Canad. Math. Bull. 48 (2005), 252–259.
Quantum groups, differential calculi and the eigenvalues of the Laplacian, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 357 (2005), 4681—4717 (with J. Kustermans and L. Tuset)
Topological and analytical indices in C*-algebras, J. Funct. Anal. (234) 2006, 261–276.
Note: Gerard has many publications before 1991.
== Sources ==
Obituary, Oct 16, 2006 from The Irish Times, by Professor Finbarr Holland of University College Cork.
Staff page for Gerard Murphy at the University College Cork
Gerard Murphy at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Holland, Finbarr (2007), "Gerard J. Murphy (1948—2006)" (PDF), Irish Mathematical Society Bulletin, 0059 (59): 9–27, doi:10.33232/BIMS.0059.9.27, ISSN 0791-5578, MR 2353405
== Notes == |
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