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earth_science-44/extraction_0.txt | Earth’s magnetic field guides the electrons such that the aurora forms two ovals approximately centered at the magnetic poles. During major geomagnetic storms these ovals expand away from the poles such that aurora can be seen over most of the United States. Aurora comes in several different shapes. Often the auroral f... | |
earth_science-44/extraction_2.txt | ## Plain Language Summary Historical records of solar observations and ground-level geomagnetic disturbance are analyzed for the magnetic superstorm of 25 September 1909. This storm was initiated by the arrival, at Earth, of a shock wave in the solar wind that can be linked to the ejection of plasma from a sunspot acti... | |
earth_science-44/extraction_3.txt | ## Abstract The importance of the investigation of magnetic superstorms is not limited to academic interest, because these superstorms can cause catastrophic impact on the modern civilisation due to our increasing dependency on technological infrastructure. In this context, the Carrington storm in September 1859 is con... | |
earth_science-44/extraction_5.txt | Abstract While low-latitude auroral displays are normally considered to be a manifestation of magnetic storms of considerable size, Silverman (2003, JGR, 108, A4) reported numerous “sporadic auroras” which appear locally at relatively low magnetic latitude during times of just moderate magnetic activity. Here, a case s... | |
earth_science-44/extraction_7.txt | ## Abstract Being footprints of major magnetic storms and hence major solar eruptions, mid- to low-latitude aurorae have been one of the pathways to understand solar–terrestrial environments. However, it has been reported that aurorae are also occasionally observed at low latitudes under low or even quiet magnetic cond... | |
earth_science-44/extraction_8.txt | ### GEOLOGICALLY RAPID WANDERING OF THE AURORAL OVAL The Earth’s magnetosphere is constantly interacting with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the surface of the Sun. This dynamic interaction results in the alignment of charged particles with Earth’s magnetic field, which are accelerated in ... | |
earth_science-45/extraction_0.txt | ### Volcanism Columnar basalt near Tower Fall; large floods of basalt and other lava types preceded mega-eruptions of superheated ash and pumice. Caldera rim on the horizon south of Yellowstone Lake Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain, a great bow-shaped arc through the mountains that extend... | |
earth_science-45/extraction_1.txt | The **geothermal areas of Yellowstone** include several geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles. The number of thermal features in Yellowstone is estimated at 10,000.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_areas_of_Yellowstone... | |
earth_science-45/extraction_3.txt | Yellowstone is one of the most dynamic places on Earth, with active volcanism, seismic swarms, strong earthquakes, episodic ground deformation of up to nearly 20 cm/yr (8 in/yr), and extraordinarily high heat flux that is greater than 40 times the continental average (in places it is up to 2000 times average!). It is t... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_0.txt | # The Sound of Thunder Regardless of whether lightning is positive or negative, thunder is produced the same way. Thunder is the acoustic shock wave resulting from the extreme heat generated by a lightning flash. Lightning can be as hot as 54,000°F (30,000°C), a temperature that is five times the surface of the sun! Wh... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_1.txt | Thunder is the acoustic shock wave resulting from the extreme heat generated by a lightning flash. It is produced the same way regardless of whether lightning is positive or negative. Lightning can be as hot as 54,000°F (30,000°C), a temperature that is five times hotter than the surface of the Sun! When lightning occu... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_2.txt | # The Sound of Thunder Regardless of whether lightning is positive or negative, thunder is produced the same way. Thunder is the acoustic shock wave resulting from the extreme heat generated by a lightning flash. Lightning can be as hot as 54,000°F (30,000°C), a temperature that is five times the surface of the sun! Wh... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_3.txt | ## 1\. Introduction Sound propagation through the air is attenuated by atmospheric absorption, mainly due to relaxation vibrations of the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. The air attenuation is negligible at low frequencies but increases rapidly with frequencies above 1 kHz. The molar concentration of water vapor influen... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_4.txt | ``` # 2 IMPLEMENTATION Implementation of the one-third octave-band adaptations of the ISO/ANSI1,2 pure-tone equations is described. The general ISO/ANSI equations for computing sound attenuation rates are arithmetically identical. These equations provide a means of computing attenuation rates at single, discrete freque... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_5.txt | In figures 6, 7, and 8, sound-pressure level is plotted for the 6, 8, and 11 Hz harmonics, respectively, as a function of slant range. These frequencies were chosen because of their low source variability. In the figures the symbols are the measured data. The top lire in each figure is a 3 dB per doubling of distance l... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_6.txt | When lightning strikes, a shock wave is generated at each point along the path of the lightning bolt (The above illustration shows only four points). When the shock wave is first created, there is a sharp boundary associated with it. Download Image !The initial sound reaches the ear with a loud bang, crack or snap. The... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_7.txt | ### 2.4 Model Analysis Figure 3 shows the resulting frequency responses !urn:x-wiley:grl:media:grl59624:grl59624-math-0022 (left column) and the signal spectra !urn:x-wiley:grl:media:grl59624:grl59624-math-0023 (right column) simulated at four distances from the impact point for the three randomly generated geometries ... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_8.txt | # The Sound of Thunder Regardless of whether lightning is positive or negative, thunder is produced the same way. Thunder is the acoustic shock wave resulting from the extreme heat generated by a lightning flash. Lightning can be as hot as 54,000°F (30,000°C), a temperature that is five times the surface of the sun! Wh... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_9.txt | ## 3.2 Evaluation of Acoustical Power In order to evaluate the acoustical power of a detected point source, we compensate the RMS level detected by PMCC !urn:x-wiley:2169897X:media:jgrd58935:jgrd58935-math-0100 at the array for geometrical attenuation, atmospheric density stratification and atmospheric absorption. For ... | |
earth_science-46/extraction_10.txt | This paper reviews the background of past measurements of acoustic energy at audible and infrasonic frequencies from severe weather and tornadoes. Infrasonic frequencies (i.e., sound below 20 Hz) can travel for great distances without significant absorption. Whereas a 1 kHz signal will have 90% of its energy absorbed a... | |
contrial_formation/gmd1.txt | Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 543–580, 2012
www.geosci-model-dev.net/5/543/2012/
doi:10.5194/gmd-5-543-2012
© Author(s) 2012. CC Attribution 3.0 License.
Geoscientific
Model Development
A contrail cirrus prediction model
U. Schumann
Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt, Institut f ¨ ur Physik der Atmosph ¨ are, Oberpfaff... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_0.txt | Contrails form, if, during mixing the plume gases become saturated with respect to liquid water. Contrails form at temperatures below a threshold temperature which is higher the steeper the mixing line in a diagram of water vapour partial pressure $e$ versus temperature $T$ , see figure 1 \[2,28\]. The slope $G$ of the... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_1.txt | # 2. Brief overview of contrail formation theory Many contrail-forecasting techniques rely on Schmidt-Appleman theory to determine the meteorological conditions necessary for persistent contrail formation. This theory is described in detail by Schumann (1996); only a brief description is provided here. Schmidt-Appleman... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_2.txt | # 2\. Brief overview of contrail formation theory Many contrail forecasting techniques rely on the Schmidt–Appleman theory to determine the meteorological conditions necessary for persistent contrail formation. This theory is described in detail by Schumann (1996); only a brief description is provided here. The Schmidt... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_3.txt | First, the formation of contrails has to be predicted with reasonable skill. Contrails form if (super)saturation with respect to water occurs during the mixing process of the ambient air with the exhaust gases from the aircraft. This criterion is called the Schmidt–Appleman criterion (SAC; see Schmidt, 1941; Appleman, ... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_4.txt | ## 3.2 Non-linear regression The dynamical candidate proxies are not independent quantities, and one has to take care that a regression is not formulated with redundant information. But, of course, a variable that has some relation with (i.e. information on) the relative humidity is welcome. Above, we see that RH_i_ ER... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_5.txt | The jet carries energy initially both in the form of internal enthalpy h and kinetic energy per unit mass. During mixing, the specific energy $1/\bar{2(V_p} - V)^2$ due to velocity differences between the speed $V_p$ of the jet (or plume) air and the speed $V$ of ambient air gets converted into internal enthalpy, so th... | |
earth_science-47/extraction_6.txt | This post is about contrails formation and prediction of this phenomena. The original paper by Schrader ( http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0450(1997)036<1725:COACFC>2.0.CO;2036%3C1725:COACFC%3E2.0.CO;2) \- Calculations of Aircraft Contrail Formation Critical Temperatures) gives us tables of critical tem... | |
ice_cover/Ablation_zone4.txt |
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Low-altitude area of a glacier
The ab... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_0.txt | ## Ice sheet formation Ice sheets form in areas where snow that falls in winter does not melt entirely over the summer. Over thousands of years, the layers of snow pile up into thick masses of ice, growing thicker and denser as the weight of new snow and ice layers compresses the older layers. Ice sheets are constantly... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_1.txt | Antarctica contains an ice volume that translates into a sea-level equivalent (SLE) of 57.2 m ( 1) ( Table 1 and _SI Appendix_, Table S1). Its annual net input of mass from snowfall is 2,100 Gt (gigatons = 109 tons), excluding ice shelves, equivalent to a 5.8-mm fluctuation in global sea level ( 2). In a state of mass ... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_2.txt | ## How does mass balance vary over Antarctica? Is Antarctica currently losing or gaining mass? Will this massive ice sheet grow or shrink in the future? And what effect will increased snowfall have over coming centuries? In order to answer these questions, we must analyse the surface mass balance of the Antarctic Ice S... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_3.txt | The Antarctic Ice Sheet and its $5 8 – \\mathrm { m }$ sea level equivalent $( I )$ is buttressed along most of its periphery by floating extensions of land ice called ice shelves and floating ice tongues (Fig. 1). Ice shelves cover an area ${ > } 1 . 5 6 1$ million $\\mathrm { k m } ^ { 2 }$ , comparable in size to th... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_4.txt | ## Basal Shear Stress At the base of a glacier with minimal slope, the **normal stress** ( _σ_) acting on the bed is mainly a result of the weight of a glacier. _σ_ = _ρigh_ Stress therefore increases with ice thickness, and normal stresses therefore increase from 0 at the ice surface to their maximum at the ice-bed in... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_5.txt | # 3.4 Shallow-ice approximation Everywhere in an ice sheet except for the immediate vicinity (some 10 km horizontal distance) of ice domes (local maxima of the surface elevation $h$) and ice margins, the flow regime is essentially simple, bed-parallel shear, and the slopes of the free surface and the ice base are small... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_6.txt | ### Rheology \# To derive expressions for deformation we will use a description of ice rheology, Glen’s flow law: ϵij˙=AτEn−1τij where ϵij are the elements of the strain rate tensor ϵ―― and τE is the so-called effective stress, defined as the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor: τE2=12(τxx2+τyy2+τzz2)+τxz2... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_7.txt | Low temperatures, low snow accumulation and a surface climate dominated by near-continuous, dry inversion-driven airflow leads to a complex interaction between snow, wind and topography on the East Antarctic ice sheet (EAIS) plateau. This interaction has important effects on the local surface net mass balance in undula... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_8.txt | ## Firn Firn is usually defined as snow that is at least one year old and has therefore survived one melt season, without being transformed to glacier ice. Firn is transformed gradually to glacier ice as density increases with depth, as older snow is buried by newer snow falling on top of it. Year after year, successiv... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_9.txt | # 1 Introduction Ice cores drilled in central Greenland and Antarctica provide highly valuable records to reconstruct and understand Quaternary climates. Ice cores drilled at EPICA Dome C (hereafter EDC) and Dome Fuji (hereafter DF) provide two of the three longest ice core records available so far (EPICA community mem... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_10.txt | ## Radio Echo Sounding (RES) [![379 subglacial lakes have now been identified beneath the Antarctic continent. This map, using data from Wright and Siegert 2012 [1] shows that many are located in ice-stream onset zones as well as underneath slow-moving ice domes.](https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/wp-content/uploads/20... | |
earth_science-48/extraction_11.txt | # Lake age and physiography Lake Vostok is at least $2 4 0 \\mathrm { k m }$ long and $5 0 \\mathrm { k m }$ wide, and lies between $3 , 7 5 0 \\mathrm { m }$ (over the south of the lake) and $4 , 1 5 0 \\mathrm { m }$ (over the north) beneath the central east Antarctic ice sheet (Fig. 2)11±13. The lake is located with... | |
prime_meridian/s00190_015_0844_y4.txt |
1 The situation at GreenwichThe Airy Transit Circle is a nineteenth-century telescopic instrument at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, famous as the origin for global longitude. Recognized as a place of world heritage by UNESCO, the observatory is now a museum with a line in the pavement running north to south... | |
earth_science-49/extraction_0.txt | ### What is the Prime Meridian? Any north-south line can be a meridian. A prime meridian, however, is the meridian chosen to be zero degrees longitude for common reference: the line from which all locations east and west can be measured. For centuries, people have chosen different meridians to be their prime meridian. ... | |
earth_science-49/extraction_1.txt | Abstract -------- In 1884, the International Meridian Conference recommended that the prime meridian “to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the globe” pass through the “centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich”. Today, tourists visiting its meridi... | |
earth_science-49/extraction_2.txt | The Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers show that the marking strip for the prime meridian at Greenwich is not exactly at zero longitude (zero degrees, zero minutes, and zero seconds) but at approximately 5.3 seconds of arc to the west of the meridian, meaning that the meridian appears to be 102 metres east. In t... | |
earth_science-49/extraction_6.txt | ##### World Geodetic System 1984 Reference System **Brief Description:** WGS 84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and geodetic datum. WGS 84 is based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that describe the Earth's size, shape, and gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS 84 is th... | |
ground_up_lightening/Lightning6.txt | part6 -------------------
Flashes and strikes
The best-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG) lightning. Although more common, intra-cloud (IC) and cloud-to-cloud (CC) flashes are very difficult to study given there are no "physical" points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, given the very lo... | |
earth_science-4/extraction_0.txt | There is still some debate in the scientific community about how the electrification of clouds occurs. However, scientists agree that positive and negative charges must separate within a cloud for lightning to take place. Scientists also agree that a developing storm must produce ice for it to form lightning. The turbu... | |
earth_science-4/extraction_1.txt | The usual cloud-to-ground discharge probably begins as a local discharge between the p-charge region in the cloud base and the N-charge region above it (Figs. 1 and 3). This discharge frees electrons in the N-region previously immobilized by attachment to water or ice particles. The free electrons overrun the p-region,... | |
earth_science-4/extraction_2.txt | I.INTRODUCTION and BACKGROUND Natural cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning has been shown to behave differently over land and ocean[1-3]. These differences likely reflect local variations in the speed at which storms develop over ocean, and possibly the local aerosol composition. A better understanding of these differences w... | |
earth_science-4/extraction_4.txt | # Types of Lightning A beautiful and deadly natural phenomenon, lightning is simply a sudden, electrostatic discharge - a ‘spark’ or ‘flash’ as charged atmospheric regions temporarily equalise themselves through this discharge. The polarity of lightning discharge can affect how it spreads and branches in space and time... | |
earth_science-4/extraction_5.txt | Does lightning go up or down? There are two ways that flashes can strike ground: naturally downward (those that occur because of normal electrification in the environment), and artificially initiated or triggered upward. Artificially initiated lightning is associated with things like very tall structures, rockets and t... | |
india_cyclone/nature10552_ref12.txt | Sign up for alerts
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letters
article
Letter
Published: 02 November 2011
Arabian Sea tropical cyclones intensified by emissions of black carbon and other aerosols
Amato T. Evan1, James P. Kossin2,3, Chul ‘Eddy’ Chung4 & …V. Ramanathan5 Show authors
Nature
volume 479, pages ... | |
earth_science-50/extraction_0.txt | The major environmental factors that influence the genesis of TCs are the Coriolis parameter, relative vorticity, vertical wind shear, atmospheric stability, mid-tropospheric relative humidity, sea surface temperature (SST), and oceanic heat content[6], [7], [8], [9]. These environmental factors are favourable for TC g... | |
earth_science-50/extraction_2.txt | # 1 Introduction Small-scale ocean mixing processes leading to diffusion of heat, salt and other tracers across density surfaces, are closely tied to the energetics of the global ocean circulation (Gregg et al., [2018]; Moum, [2021]; Munk & Wunsch, [1998]). Small-scale physical processes in the upper ocean determine th... | |
earth_science-50/extraction_3.txt | ### Abstract Improving a tropical cyclone’s forecast and mitigating its destructive potential requires knowledge of various environmental factors that influence the cyclone’s path and intensity. Herein, using a combination of observations and model simulations, we systematically demonstrate that tropical cyclone intens... | |
earth_science-50/extraction_4.txt | Tropical Cyclone Phailin developed from a low pressure system in the Andaman Sea and intensified to a category 5 storm before making landfall in Gopalpur on 12 October 2013, with a minimum surface pressure of 920 hPa and maximum sustained wind speed of 60 m s−1. We study the response of the salinity-stratified Bay of B... | |
earth_science-50/extraction_5.txt | #### 4.4. Vertical Wind Shear Vertical wind shear is the critical factor determining whether the latent heat released by convective condensation can be concentrated in a certain range of the air column. It is also the critical dynamic factor for the formation of a warm center structure for a TC, which ensures continuou... | |
earth_science-50/extraction_7.txt | ## 6\. Summary and Discussion The seasonal variation of TCG in the BOB and AS is a typical bimodal distribution. However, few studies have explicitly identified the similarities and differences between the TCG in the BOB and AS, especially the seasonal changes in large-scale conditions and environmental factors. This s... | |
zealandia/GSATG321A_1_htm4.txt | Continental crust varies considerably in thickness and physical properties. Christensen and Mooney (1995) give an average P wave velocity of 6.5 km−1 and mean density of 2830 kgm−3 with an average thickness of 46 km for orogens and 30 km for extended crust. In contrast, oceanic crust is typically 7 km thick, and, in it... | |
zealandia/GSATG321A_1_htm3.txt |
Cover Image
Table of Contents
Introduction
Zealandia as a Continent
Discussion and Implications
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References Cited
Search GoogleScholar for
N Mortimer
HJ Campbell
AJ Tulloch
PR King
V Stagpoole
RA Wood
MS Rattenbury
R Sutherland
CJ Adams
J Collot
M Seton
Search GSA Today
... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_0.txt | The Glossary of Geology defines a continent as “one of the Earth’s major land masses, including both dry land and continental shelves” (Neuendorf et al., 2005). It is generally agreed that continents have all the following attributes: (1) high elevation relative to regions floored by oceanic crust; (2) a broad range of... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_2.txt | Previously, some researchers had thought of Zealandia as a motley collage of continental crust fragments. Others, including National Geographic, have defined Zealandia as a microcontinent: a well-defined landmass that checks the geologic box of continental crust but is geologically disconnected from the nearest contine... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_3.txt | The Glossary of Geology defines a continent as “one of the Earth’s major land masses, including both dry land and continental shelves” (Neuendorf et al., 2005). It is generally agreed that continents have all the following attributes: (1) high elevation relative to regions floored by oceanic crust; (2) a broad range of... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_5.txt | - ### Is Te Riu-a-Māui / Zealandia really the world’s 8th Continent? On 10 February 2017, the Geological Society of America journalGSA Todaypublished a peer-reviewed, open access science article online calledZealandia: Earth's Hidden Continent. Read it here(external link)(external link) The authors were nine GNS Scienc... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_6.txt | Lead author Nick Mortimer of GNS Science said this latest publication was significant in that it described the results of more than 20 years geology and geophysics research in a summary paper that is fully referenced and peer-reviewed. !Mortimer Nick 1899 #### Nick Mortimer Emeritus Scientist View bio > Being more than... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_7.txt | At the other end of the size spectrum, a number of continental crust fragments in the world’s oceans are referred to as microcontinents. Examples include the Madagascar, East Tasman, Jan Mayen, Mauritia, and Gulden Draak microcontinents (Gaina et al., 2003; Torsvik et al., 2013; Whittaker et al., 2016). Discriminating ... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_8.txt | If a group of Australian and New Zealander researchers have their way, the seven longtime continents will soon be joined by an eighth: a vast, submerged land three times larger than Alaska whose highest peak is New Zealand’s Aoraki (Mount Cook). This drowned landmass, called “Zealandia” by researchers, lies east of Aus... | |
earth_science-51/extraction_9.txt | By convention, continents "are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water".[9] By this definition, all continents have to be an island of some metric. In modern schemes with five or more recognized continents, at least one pair of continents is joined by land in ... | |
teten/Clausius_E2_80_93Clapeyron_relation5.txt |
e
s
(
T
)
=
6.1094
exp
(
17.625
T
T
+
243.04
)
,
{\displaystyle e_{s}(T)=6.1094\exp \left({\frac {17.625T}{T+243.04}}\right),}
where
e
s
{\displaystyle e_{s}}
is in hPa, and
T
{\displaystyle T}
is in degrees Celsius (whereas everywhere else on this page,
T
{\displaystyle ... | |
earth_science-52/extraction_0.txt | !Previous Page!Table of Contents!Next Page * * * # APPENDIX 3 - HUMIDITY CALCULATIONS Barometric pressure ( _Pb_) from elevation ( _EL_): | | | | --- | --- | | | Eq. A3.1 | Latent heat of vaporization ( _l_)from air temperature ( _T_): | | | | --- | --- | | | Eq. A3.2 | Saturation vapour pressure over water is the vapo... | |
earth_science-52/extraction_1.txt | ## Air humidity * * * > Concepts > > Measurement > > Calculation procedures * * * ### Concepts The water content of the air can be expressed in several ways. In agrometeorology, vapour pressure, dewpoint temperature and relative humidity are common expressions to indicate air humidity. **_Vapour pressure_** Water vapou... | |
earth_science-52/extraction_2.txt | # 4. Approximations of vapor pressure over water Vapor pressure formulations wE76, GG46, and s090 are very complex and inconvenient. This complexity has led to various simplified and less' accurate approximations of vapor pressure. Good reviews of. these approximations can be founded in Sargent (1980), Abbott and Tabon... | |
earth_science-52/extraction_3.txt | Saturation vapor pressure formulations Holger Vömel National Center for Atmospheric Research Earth Observing Laboratory Boulder, CO A large number of saturation vapor pressure equations exists to calculate the pressure of water vapor over a surface of liquid water or ice. This is a brief overview of the most important ... | |
earth_science-52/extraction_4.txt | Although Eqs. (3) and (4) can readily be solved by. means of a digital computer, for many applications a simpler relation is desirable. The equation most widely used by meteorologists is that of Magnus. As given by Tetens (1930) it is $$ \\log \_ { 1 0 } e = \\frac { t u } { t + v } + w , $$ where $\\textit { t }$ is t... | |
mariana_trench/Oceanic_trench2.txt |
4.2Mantle interactions
5Hydrothermal activity and associated biomes
6Deepest oceanic trenches
7Notable oceanic trenches
8Ancient oceanic trenches
9See also
10References
11Bibliography
12External links
Toggle the table of contents
Ocea... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_0.txt | ## Results ### 3-D subduction velocity field and thermal regime The unstable megathrust is characterized by northwestward strike-slip motion in the northern part and southwestward strike-slip motion in the southernmost part. The oldest age of the incoming Pacific plate is Late Jurassic (> 145 Ma), and the plate is ther... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_1.txt | Two-thirds of the Ocean is underlain by the large northwestward-moving Pacific plate that is generated at the East Pacific Rise (EPR) and its southern continuation, the Pacific–Antarctic Ridge (figure 1). 1 The plate extends approximately 13 000 km from source to subduction 2 in the Mariana Trench, moving at 50–133 mm ... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_2.txt | \[66\] On the basis of new MCS and bathymetry data, we created a cross section showing the important features of Pacific Plate subduction beneath the central Mariana fore arc (Figure 14). Our data elucidate important attributes and along-strike variations of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction zone. Oceanic crustal thickn... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_3.txt | [30] The volcanic, plutonic, and mantle rocks that make up the forearc basement in erosive settings appear to have more strength than the accretionary wedge sedimentary rocks, allowing them to maintain a steeper trench slope that is not dependent on the dewatering characteristics of the subducting plate. [Figure 7a] sh... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_4.txt | ## 1. Introduction The existence of erosive processes responsible for the destruction of some active margins was first considered in the early 1970s along the Chilean subduction based on a mass balance deficit between sediment inputs from the Andes and those actually observed along the margin and in the trench \Scholl ... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_5.txt | ## The Mariana Trench !Cross-section of the Mariana subduction zone, showing the relationship between the Trench, Forearc, Volcanic Arc, and Back-Arc. **Figure 1:** Cross-section of the Mariana subduction zone, showing the relationship between the Trench, Forearc, Volcanic Arc, and Back-Arc. _Image adapted from Hussong... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_6.txt | The convergence between the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates is approximately orthogonal to the E-W trench in the southernmost Mariana margin, which differs significantly from the mostly N-S trend of the IBM arc (Figure 1; Bird, 2003). In the southernmost Mariana, the trench reaches the deepest point on Earth at the C... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_7.txt | ## Abstract Recent sidescan surveys of the deepest segment of the southern Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean provide the first detailed images of this plate boundary, which includes the world’s greatest ocean depth, the Challenger Deep. The surveys reveal details of the southern Mariana plate margin, identify... | |
earth_science-53/extraction_8.txt | ## Morphology [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg) Cross section of an oceanic trench formed along an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peru-Chile_trench.jpg) The Peru–Chile Trench is located just left of the sharp line between the blue deep ocean... | |
authigenic_zeolites/om2.txt | Silicates ’’
SiO2 phases
Clay minerals
Zeolites
SiO2 as opal-CT porcellanite or quartz chert mostly from diagenesis of biogenic
opal-A. Some opal forms at hydrothermal vents from elevated silica
concentrations and hydrothermal quartz cements sulfide stockworks. By reacting
with Fe opal-A may transform to nontronite. Th... | |
earth_science-55/extraction_0.txt | # WMO verifies one temperature record for Antarctic continent and rejects another News 01 July 2021 The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has recognized a new record high temperature for the Antarctic continent of 18.3° Celsius on 6 February 2020 at the Esperanza station (Argentina). However, it rejected an even ... | |
earth_science-55/extraction_1.txt | ## ABSTRACT Two reports of Antarctic region potential new record high temperature observations (18.3°C, 6 February 2020 at Esperanza station and 20.8°C, 9 February 2020 at a Brazilian automated permafrost monitoring station on Seymour Island) were evaluated by a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) panel of atmosphe... | |
earth_science-55/extraction_2.txt | The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has recognized a new record high temperature for the Antarctic continent of 18.3° Celsius on 6 February 2020 at the Esperanza station (Argentina). However, it rejected an even higher temperature, of 20.75°C, which was reported on 9 February 2020 at an automated permafrost mon... | |
earth_science-55/extraction_3.txt | In early February 2020, a large high pressure system was located in the Antarctic Peninsula region capable of producing pronounced subsidence, föhn winds, and subsequent high temperatures. The sites of interest are located near the tip of Graham Land on the Antarctic Peninsula. On 6 February 2020, an observation of 18.... | |
earth_science-55/extraction_5.txt | ## Results Figure 4a (left panel) shows the mean AP T2m anomaly for 6–11 February (4.5 °C; black dot) and the corresponding distributions reconstructed from past (1950–1984; blue boxplot) and recent (1985–2019; red boxplot) flow analogs (see Methods). The spread of the distributions accounts for internal variability th... | |
sunset_color/Rayleigh_scattering3.txt | 2
π
r
λ
{\displaystyle x={\frac {2\pi r}{\lambda }}}
where r is the particle's radius, λ is the wavelength of the light and x is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the particle's interaction with the incident radiation such that: Objects with x ≫ 1 act as geometric shapes, scattering light according to... | |
sunset_color/Rayleigh_scattering4.txt | 4
α
2
λ
4
R
2
(
1
+
cos
2
θ
)
{\displaystyle I_{s}=I_{0}{\frac {8\pi ^{4}\alpha ^{2}}{\lambda ^{4}R^{2}}}(1+\cos ^{2}\theta )}
and in SI-units by
I
s
=
I
0
π
2
α
2
ε
0
2
λ
4
R
2
1
+
cos
2
(
θ
)
2
{\displaystyle I_{s}=I_{0}{\frac {\... | |
sunset_color/Rayleigh_scattering5.txt | {\displaystyle I=I_{0}{\frac {\pi ^{2}V^{2}\sigma _{\epsilon }^{2}}{2\lambda ^{4}R^{2}}}{\left(1+\cos ^{2}\theta \right)}}
where
σ
ϵ
2
{\displaystyle \sigma _{\epsilon }^{2}}
represents the variance of the fluctuation in the dielectric constant
ϵ
{\displaystyle \epsilon }
.
Cause of the blue colo... | |
sunset_color/Rayleigh_scattering2.txt |
6Of sound in amorphous solids
7In amorphous solids – glasses – optical fibers
8In porous materials
9See also
10Works
11References
12Further reading
13External links
Toggle the table of contents
Rayleigh scattering
53 languages
Afrikaan... | |
sunset_color/Sunset4.txt |
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In other projects
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Daily falling of the Sun below the horizon
For other uses, see Sunset (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Dusk.
Actual sunset: Two minutes before the Sun di... | |
earth_science-56/extraction_0.txt | # Crepuscular Rays and Light Scattering An astronaut took this photograph while the International Space Station (ISS) was cruising over the Arabian Peninsula and through the terminator, or day-night boundary. The oblique photo captures some cumulus clouds with their tops flattened into an “ anvil” formation due to atmo... | |
earth_science-56/extraction_1.txt | Why is the sky blue?!blue bar On a clear sunny day, the sky above us looks bright blue. In the evening, the sunset puts on a brilliant show of reds, oranges, and pinks. Why is the sky blue? ## Understanding the atmosphere and light To understand why the sky is blue, we need to understand a little about our atmosphere a... | |
earth_science-56/extraction_2.txt | Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is **scattered** in all directions by all the gases and particles in the air. Blue light is scattered in all directions by the tiny molecules of air in Earth's atmosphere. Blue is scattered more than other colors because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is why we see a ... | |
earth_science-56/extraction_3.txt | ## If sunlight is white, why is the sky blue? The color of the sky is a result of light bouncing off gasses in the atmosphere in what is called Rayleigh scattering, named after physicist Lord Rayleigh. The atoms and molecules comprising the atmospheric gasses are much smaller than the wavelengths of light emitted by th... |
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