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Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Nov, 1829?	November 26, 1829	{ "text": [ "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_0	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Oct, 1830?	October 02, 1830	{ "text": [ "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_1	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Apr, 1831?	April 30, 1831	{ "text": [ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_2	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Oct, 1834?	October 11, 1834	{ "text": [ "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_3	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Apr, 1837?	April 21, 1837	{ "text": [ "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_4	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Sep, 1837?	September 23, 1837	{ "text": [ "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_5	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Daniel O'Connell hold in Apr, 1842?	April 23, 1842	{ "text": [ "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q314917_P39_6	Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1836 to Jul, 1837. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1829 to Jul, 1830. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Daniel O'Connell holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1841 to May, 1842.	Daniel O'ConnellDaniel O'Connell (; 6 August 1775 – 15 May 1847), hailed in his time as The Liberator, was the acknowledged political leader of Ireland's Roman Catholic majority in the first half of the 19th century. His mobilisation of Catholic Ireland through to the poorest class of tenant farmer helped secure Catholic emancipation in 1829 and allowed him to take a seat in the United Kingdom Parliament to which he had twice been elected. At Westminster O'Connell championed liberal and reform causes (he was renowned internationally as an abolitionist) but failed in his declared objective for Ireland: the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament through repeal of the 1800 Acts of Union. Against the background of a growing agrarian crisis and, in his final years, of the Great Irish Famine, O'Connell contended with dissension at home. Criticism of his political compromises and system of patronage led to a split in the national movement he had singularly led.O'Connell was born at Carhan near Cahersiveen, County Kerry, to the O'Connells of Derrynane, a wealthy Roman Catholic family that, under the Penal Laws, had been able to retain land only through the medium of Protestant trustees and the forbearance of their Protestant neighbours. His parents were Morgan O'Connell and Catherine O'Mullane. The poet Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill was an aunt; and Daniel Charles, Count O'Connell, an Irish Brigade officer in the service of the King of France (and twelve years a prisoner of Napoleon), an uncle. O'Connell grew up in Derrynane House, the household of his bachelor uncle, Maurice "Hunting Cap" O'Connell (landowner, smuggler and justice of the peace) who made the young O'Connell his heir presumptiveIn 1791, under his uncle's patronage, O'Connell and his elder brother Maurice were sent to continue their schooling in France. Revolutionary upheaval and their mob denunciation as "young priests" and "little aristocrats", persuaded them in January 1793 to flee their Jesuit college at Douai. They crossed the English Channel with the brothers and United Irishmen, John and Henry Sheares who displayed a handkerchief soaked, they claimed, in the blood of Louis XVI, the late executed king. The experience is said to have left O'Connell with a lifelong aversion to mob rule and violence.After further legal studies in London, including a pupillage at Lincoln's Inn, O'Connell returned to Ireland in 1795. Henry Grattan's third Catholic Relief Act in 1793, while maintaining the Oath of Supremacy that excluded Catholics from parliament, had granted them the vote on the same terms as Protestants and removed most of the remaining barriers to their professional advancement. O'Connell, nonetheless, remained of the opinion that in Ireland the whole policy of the Irish Parliament and of the London-appointed Dublin Castle executive, was to repress the people and to maintain the ascendancy of a privileged and corrupt minority.On 19 May 1798, O'Connell was called to the Irish Bar. Four days later, the United Irishmen staged their ill-fated rebellion. Toward the end of his life O'Connell claimed to have been a United Irishman. Asked how that could be reconciled with his membership of the government's volunteer Yeomanry (the Lawyers Artillery Corps), he replied that in '98 "the popular party was so completely crushed that the only chance of doing any good for the people was by affecting ultra loyalty."O'Connell appeared to have had little faith in the United Irish conspiracy or in their hopes of French intervention. He sat out the rebellion in his native Kerry. When in 1803 Robert Emmet faced execution for attempting an insurrection in Dublin he was condemned by O'Connell: as the cause of so much bloodshed Emmett had forfeited any claim to "compassion".In the decades that followed, O'Connell practised private law and, although invariably in debt, reputedly had the largest income of any Irish barrister. In court he sought to prevail by refusing deference, showing no compunction in studying and exploiting a judge's personal and intellectual weaknesses. He was long ranked below less accomplished Queen's Counsels, a status not open to Catholics until late in his career. But when offered he refused the senior judicial position of Master of the Rolls.In 1802 O'Connell married his third cousin, Mary O'Connell. He did so in defiance of his benefactor, his uncle Maurice, who believed his nephew should have sought out an heiress. They had four daughters (three surviving), Ellen (1805-1883), Catherine (1808-1891), Elizabeth (1810-1883), and Rickarda (1815-1817) and four sons. Maurice (1803), Morgan (1804), John (1810), and Daniel (1816), all of whom were all to join their father as Members of Parliament. Despite O'Connell's early infidelities, the marriage was happy and Mary's death in 1837 was a blow from which her husband is said never to have recovered.O'Connell's personal principles reflected the influences of the Enlightenment and of radical and democratic thinkers some of whom he had encountered in London and in masonic lodges. He was greatly influenced by William Godwin's "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (public opinion the root of all power, civil liberty and equality the bedrock of social stability), and was, for a period, converted to Deism by his reading of Thomas Paine's "The Age of Reason". O'Connell from the 1820s has been described as an "English rationalist utilitarian", a "Benthamite". For a time Jeremy Bentham and O'Connell did become personal friends as well as political allies.At Westminster O'Connell played a major part in passage of the Reform Act of 1832 and in the abolition of Slavery (1833) (a cause in which he continued to campaign). He welcomed the revolutions of 1830 in Belgium and France, and advocated "a complete severance of the Church from the State". Such liberalism made all the more intolerable to O'Connell the charge that as "Papists" he and his co-religionists could not be trusted with the defence of constitutional liberties.O'Connell protested that, while "sincerely Catholic", he did not "receive" his politics "from Rome". In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", O'Connell was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.In his travels in Ireland in 1835, Alexis de Tocqueville remarked on the "unbelievable unity between the Irish clergy and the Catholic population." The people looked to the clergy, and the clergy "rebuffed" by the "upper classes" ("Protestants and enemies"), had "turned all its attention to the lower classes; it has the same instincts, the same interests and the same passions as the people; [a] state of affairs altogether peculiar to Ireland". This is a unity, O'Connell argued, the bishops would have sacrificed had they agreed to Rome submitting their appointments for Crown approval. Licensed by the government they and their priests would have been as little regarded as the Anglican clergy of the Established Church. For O'Connell this would have represented a strategic loss. In most districts of the country, the priest was the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates, around whom a national movement could be reliably built. It would also have been to compromise the very conception of the Irish people as a nation.Against the charge of political dictation from Rome, O'Connell insisted that the Catholic Church in Ireland "is a national Church". At the same time, he openly declared that "if the people rally to me they will have a nation for that Church". For O'Connell Catholicism defined the nation for which he sought both a civil and political emancipation. The "positive and unmistakable" mark of distinction between Irish and English, according to O'Connell's newspaper, the "Pilot", was "the distinction created by religion".O'Connell "treasured his few Protestant Repealers". But to many of his contemporaries he appeared "ignorant" of the Protestant (largely Presbyterian) majority society of the north-east, Ulster, counties. Here there was already premonition of future Partition. While protesting that its readers wished only to preserve the Union, in 1843 Belfast's leading paper, the "Northern Whig", proposed that if differences in "race" and "interests" argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain then "the Northern 'aliens', holders of 'foreign heresies' (as O'Connell says they are)" should have their own "distinct kingdom", Belfast as its capital.O'Connell seemed implicitly to concede the separateness of the Protestant North. He spoke "invading" Ulster to rescue "our Persecuted Brethren in the North". In the event, and in the face of the hostile crowds that disrupted his one foray to Belfast in 1841 ("the Repealer repulsed!"), he "tended to leave Ulster strictly alone" Perhaps persuaded by their presence through much of the south as but a thin layer of officials, landowners and their agents, O'Connell proposed Protestants had not the staying power of true "religionists". Their ecclesiastical dissent (and not alone their unionism) was a function, he argued, of political privilege. To Dr Paul Cullen (the future Cardinal and Catholic Primate of Ireland) in Rome, O'Connell wrote:The Protestants of Ireland... are political Protestants, that is, Protestants by reason of their participation in political power... If the Union were repealed and the exclusive system abolished, the great mass of the Protestant community would with little delay melt into the overwhelming majority of the Irish nation. Protestantism would not survive the Repeal ten years.(O'Connell's view of the link between nation and faith is one that a number of Protestant Irish nationalists in converting to Catholicism may have embraced: Repealer and O'Connell's mayoral secretary William O'Neill Daunt, Home Ruler Joseph Biggar, Gaelic Leaguer William Gibson, Sinn Féiner William Stockley, and, on the day of his execution, Roger Casement).Consistent with the position he had taken publicly in relation to rebellions of 1798 and 1803, O'Connell focused upon parliamentary representation and popular, but peaceful, demonstration to induce change. "No political change", he offered, "is worth the shedding of a single drop of human blood". His critics, however, were to see in his ability to mobilise the Irish masses an intimation of violence. It was a standing theme with O'Connell that if the British establishment did not reform the governance of Ireland, Irishmen would start to listen to the "counsels of violent men".O'Connell insisted on his loyalty, greeting George IV effusively on his visit to Ireland in 1821. In contrast to his later successor Charles Stewart Parnell (although like O'Connell, himself a landlord), O'Connell was also consistent in his defence of property. Yet he was willing to defend those accused of political crimes and of agrarian outrages. In his last notable court appearance, the Doneraile conspiracy trials of 1829, O'Connell saved several tenant Whiteboys from the gallows.Irish was O'Connell's mother tongue and that of the vast majority of the rural population. Yet he insisted on addressing his (typically open-air) meetings in English, sending interpreters out among the crowd to translate his words. At a time when "as a cultural or political concept 'Gaelic Ireland' found few advocates", O'Connell declared: I am sufficiently utilitarian not to regret [the] gradual abandonment [of Irish]... Although the language is associated with many recollections that twine round the hearts of Irishmen, yet the superior utility of the English tongue, as the medium of all modern communication is so great, that I can witness, without a sigh, the gradual disuse of Irish.O’Connell's "indifference to the fate of the language", a decade before the Famine, was consistent with the policies of the Catholic Church (which under Cullen was to develop a mission to the English-speaking world) and of the government-funded National Schools. Together, these were to combine in the course of the century to accelerate the near complete conversion to English.There is no evidence to suggest that that O'Connell saw "the preservation or revival or any other aspect of 'native culture' (in the widest sense of the term) as essential to his political demands". O'Connell was not what would later be understood as a cultural nationalist.To broaden and intensify the campaign for emancipation, in 1823, O'Connell established Catholic Association. For a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month (typically paid through the local priest), this, for the first time, drew the labouring poor into a national movement. Their investment enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.The government moved to suppress the Association by a series of prosecutions, but with limited success. Already in 1822 O'Connell had manoeuvred his principal foe, the Attorney General, William Saurin, into actions sufficiently intemperate to ensure his removal by the Lord Lieutenant. His confrontation with Dublin Corporation, equally unbending in its defence of the "Protestant Constitution", took a more tragic turn.Outraged at O'Connell's refusal to retract his description of the corporation as "beggarly", one of their number, John D'Esterre, challenged O'Connell to a duel. As an experienced duellist, there was some hope that D'Esterre, would dispose of a man considered "worse than a public nuisance". In the event it was O'Connell who mortally wounded D'Esterre. Distressed by the killing, O'Connell offered to share his income with D'Esterre's widow. She consented to a small allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. Some months later, O'Connell was engaged to fight a second duel with the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Peel, O'Connell's repeated references to him as "Orange Peel" ("a man good for nothing except to be a champion for Orangeism") being the occasion. Only O'Connell's arrest in London "en route" to their rendezvous in Ostend prevented the encounter, and the affair went no further. But in 1816, following his return to faithful Catholic observance, O'Connell made “a vow in heaven” never again to put himself in a position where he might shed blood. In "expiation for the death d'Esterre", he is said thereafter to have accepted the insults of men whom he refused to fight "with pride".In 1828 O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, persuading the King, George IV, and the Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, engaging the Whig opposition, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829. The act was not made retroactive so that O'Connell had to stand again for election. He was returned unopposed in July 1829.Such was O'Connell's prestige as "the Liberator" that George IV reportedly complained that while "Wellington is the King of England", O'Connell was "King of Ireland", and he, himself, merely "the dean of Windsor." Some of O’Connell younger lieutenants in the new struggle for Repeal—the "Young Irelanders"—were critical of the leader's acclaim. Michael Doheny noted that the 1829 act had only been the latest in a succession of "relief" measures dating back to the Papists Act 1778. Honour was due rather to those who had "wrung from the reluctant spirit of a far darker time the right of living, of worship, of enjoying property, and exercising the franchise".Entry to parliament had not come without a price. Bringing it into line with England, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold, eliminating the middling tenantry (the Irish "forty-shilling freeholders") who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf in the Clare election. The measure reduced the Irish Catholic electorate from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses. In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. De Tocqueville recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting: The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same. O'Connell did seek to lead the agitation against the tithes levied upon that tenants in support of the Anglican establishment--"the landlords' Church". An initially peaceful campaign of non-payment turned violent in 1831 when the newly founded Irish Constabulary in lieu of payment began to seize property and conduct evictions. Although opposed to the use of force, O'Connell defended those detained in the so-called Tithe War. For all eleven accused in the death of fourteen constables in the Carrickshock incident, O'Connell helped secure acquittals. Yet fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies, in 1838 he rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Church of Ireland levy. O'Connell accepted the Tithe Commutation Act. This did effectively exempt the majority of cultivators—those who held land at will or from year to year—from the charge, while offering those still liable relief: a 25 percent reduction and a forgiveness of arrears. On the other hand, it transferred the onus for its collection from the church minister to the landlord who had the authority to evict and a still unchecked freedom to appropriate any and all tenant surpluses through increased rent.O'Connell's call for a repeal of the Act of Union, and for a restoration of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782, which he linked (as he had with emancipation) to a multitude of popular grievances, may have been less a considered constitutional proposal than "an invitation to treat".The legislative independence won by Grattan's "Patriot Parliament" in 1782 had left executive power in the hands of London-appointed Dublin Castle administration. In declining to stand as a Repeal candidate, Thomas Moore (Ireland's national bard) objected that with a Catholic Parliament in Dublin, "which they would be sure to have out and out", this would be an arrangement impossible to sustain. Separation from Great Britain was its "certain consequence", so that Repeal was a practical policy only if (in the spirit of the United Irishmen) Catholics were again "joined by the dissenters"—the Presbyterians of the North.But for O'Connell, the historian R.F. Foster suggests that "the trick was never to define what the Repeal meant—or did not mean". It was "emotional claim", an "ideal", with which "to force the British into offering "something"".O'Connell did prepare the ground for the "Home Rule" compromise negotiated between Irish-nationalists and British Liberals from the 1880s. He declared that while he would "never ask for or work" for anything less than an independent legislature, he would accept a "subordinate parliament" as "an instalment". But for the predecessors to Gladstone's Liberals, Lord Melbourne's Whigs, with whom O'Connell sought an accommodation in the 1830s, even an Irish legislature devolved "within" the United Kingdom was a step too far.Having assisted Melbourne, through an informal understanding (the Lichfield House Compact), to a government majority, in 1835 O'Connell suggested he might be willing to give up the project of an Irish parliament altogether. He declared his willingness to "test" the Union: The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice, but if not, we are Irishmen again. Underscoring the qualifying clause—"if not we are Irishmen again"—historian J.C. Beckett proposes that the change was less that it may have appeared. Under the pressure of a choice between "effectual union or no union", O'Connell was seeking to maximise the scope of shorter-term, interim, reforms.O'Connell failed to stall the application to Ireland of the new English Poor Law system of Workhouses, the prospect of which, as de Tocqueville found, was broadly dreaded in Ireland. As an alternative to outdoor relief, the Workhouses made it easier for landlords to clear their estates in favour of larger English-export oriented farms. But as regards the general conduct of the Dublin Castle administration under the Whigs, Beckett concludes that "O'Connell had reason to be satisfied, and "the more so as his influence carried great weight in the making of appointments". Reforms opened the police and judiciary to greater Catholic recruitment, and measures were taken to reduce the provocations and influence of the pro-Ascendancy Orange Order.In 1840 municipal government was reconstructed on the basis of a rate-payer franchise. In 1841, O'Connell became the first Roman Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin since the reign of James II. The measure was less liberal than municipal reform in England, and it left the majority of population to continue under the landlord-controlled Grand Jury system of county government.In view of Thomas Francis Meagher, in return for damping down Repeal agitation, a "corrupt gang of politicians who fawned on O'Connell" were being allowed an extensive system of political patronage. The Irish people were being "purchased back into factious vassalage."In 1842 all eighteen of O'Connell's parliamentary "tail" at Westminster voted in favour of the Chartist petition which, along with its radical democratic demands, included Repeal. But the Chartists in England, and in their much smaller number in Ireland, were also to accuse O'Connell of being unreliable and opportunistic in his drive to secure Whig favour.In April 1840, when it became clear that the Whigs would lose office, O'Connell relaunched the Repeal Association, and published a series of addresses criticising government policy and attacking the Union.The "people", the great numbers of tenant farmers, small-town traders and journeymen, whom O'Connell had rallied to the cause of Emancipation, did not similarly respond to his lead on the more abstract proposition of Repeal; neither did the Catholic gentry or middle classes. Many appeared content to explore the avenues for advancement emancipation had opened. As a body, Protestants remained opposed to a restoration of a parliament the prerogatives of which they had once championed. The Presbyterians in the north were persuaded that the Union was both the occasion for their relative prosperity and a guarantee of their liberty.In the June–July 1841 Westminster elections, Repeal candidates lost a third of their seats. In a contest marked by the boycott of Guinness as "Protestant porter", O'Connell's son John, a brewer of O'Connell's Ale, failed to hold his father's Dublin seat.The "Repeal election" 1841 Against a background of growing economic distress, O'Connell was nonetheless buoyed by Archbishop John McHale's endorsement of legislative independence. Opinion among all classes was also influenced from October 1842 by Gavan Duffy's new weekly "The Nation". Read in Repeal Reading Rooms and passed from hand to hand, its mix of vigorous editorials, historical articles and verse, may have reached as many as a quarter of a million readers.Breaking out of the very narrow basis for electoral politics (the vote was not restored to the forty-shilling freeholder until 1885), O'Connell initiated a new series of "monster meetings". These were damaging to the prestige of the government, not only at home, but abroad. O'Connell was becoming a figure of international renown, with large and sympathetic audiences in the United States and in France. The Conservative government of Robert Peel considered repression, but hesitated, unwilling to tackle the Anti-Corn Law League which was copying O'Connell's methods in England. Assuring his supporters that Britain must soon surrender, O'Connell declared 1843 "the repeal year."At the Hill of Tara (by tradition the inaugural seat of the High Kings of Ireland), on the feast-day of the Assumption, 15 August 1843, O'Connell gathered a crowd estimated in the hostile reporting of The Times as close to one million. It took O'Connell's carriage two hours to proceed through the throng, accompanied by a harpist playing Thomas Moore's "The Harp that once through Tara's Halls".O'Connell planned to close the campaign on 8 October 1843 with an even larger demonstration at Clontarf, on the outskirts of Dublin. As the site of Brian Boru's famous victory over the Danes in 1014, it resonated with O'Connell's increasingly militant rhetoric: "the time is coming", he had been telling his supporters, when "you may have the alternative to live as slaves or to die as freemen". Beckett suggests "O'Connell mistook the temper of the government", never expecting that "his defiance would be put to the test". When it was—when troops occupied Clontarf—O'Connell submitted at once. He cancelled the rally and sent out messengers to turn back the approaching crowds.O'Connell was applauded by the Church, his more moderate supporters and English sympathisers. But many of the movement rank and file who had been fired by his defiant rhetoric were disillusioned. His loss of prestige might have been greater had the government not, in turn, overplayed their own hand. They sentenced O'Connell and his son John to twelve months for conspiracy.When released after three months, the charges quashed on appeal to the House of Lords, O'Connell was paraded in triumph through Dublin on a gilded throne. But, approaching seventy years of age, O'Connell never fully recovered his former stature or confidence. Having deprived himself of his most potent weapon, the monster meeting, and with his health failing, O'Connell had no plan and ranks of the Repeal Association began to divide.In 1845 Dublin Castle proposed to educate Catholics and Protestants together in a non-denominational system of higher education. In advance of some the Catholic bishops (Archbishop Daniel Murray of Dublin favoured the proposal), O'Connell condemned the "godless colleges". (Led by Archbishop McHale, the bishops issued a formal condemnation of the proposed colleges as dangerous to faith and morals in 1850). The principle at stake, of what in Ireland was understood as "mixed education", may already have been lost. When in 1830 the government had proposals to educate Catholics and Protestants together at the primary level, it had been the Presbyterians (led by O'Connell's northern nemesis, the evangelist Henry Cooke) who had scented danger. They refused to cooperate in National Schools unless they had the majority to ensure there would be no "mutilating of scripture." But the vehemence of O'Connell's opposition to the colleges, was a cause of dismay among those O'Connell had begun to call Young Irelanders—a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's anti-clerical and insurrectionist Young Italy.When the "Nation"'s publisher (and promoter of Irish in print) Thomas Davis, a Protestant, objected that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life". O'Connell declared himself content to take a stand "for Old Ireland", and accused Davis of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic".Grouped around "The Nation", which had proposed as its "first great object" a "nationality" that would embrace as easily "the stranger who is within our gates" as "the Irishman of a hundred generations," the dissidents suspected that in opposing the Colleges Bill O'Connell was also playing Westminster politics. O'Connell opposed the colleges bill to inflict a defeat on the Peel ministry and to hasten the Whigs return to office.The Young Irelanders' dismay only increased when at the end of June 1846 O'Connell appeared to succeed in this design. The new ministry of Lord John Russell deployed the Whigs' new laissez-faire ("political economy") doctrines to dismantle the previous government's limited efforts to address the distress of the emerging, and catastrophic, Irish Famine.In February 1847 O’Connell stood for the last time before the House of Commons in London and pleaded for his country: "She is in your hands—in your power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself. One-fourth of her population will perish unless Parliament comes to their relief". As "temporary relief for destitute persons", the government opened soup kitchens. They were closed a few months later in August of the same year. The starving were directed to abandon the land and apply to the workhouses.After Thomas Davis's death in 1845 Gavan Duffy offered the post of assistant-editor on The Nation to John Mitchel. Mitchel brought a more militant tone. When the conservative "Standard" observed that the new Irish railways could be used to transport troops to quickly curb agrarian unrest, Mitchel replied combatively that railway tracks could be turned into pikes and that trains could be easily ambushed. O’Connell publicly distanced himself from "The Nation" setting Duffy up as editor for the prosecution that followed. When the courts absolved him, O'Connell pressed the issue.In 1847 the Repeal Association tabled resolutions declaring that under no circumstances was a nation justified in asserting its liberties by force of arms. The Young Irelanders had not advocated physical force, but in response to the "Peace Resolutions" Meagher argued that if Repeal could not be carried by moral persuasion and peaceful means, a resort to arms would be a no less honourable course. O'Connell's son John forced the decision: the resolution was carried on the threat of the O'Connells themselves quitting the Association.Meagher, Davis and other prominent dissidents, among them Gavan Duffy; Jane Wilde; Margaret Callan; William Smith O'Brien; and John Blake Dillon, withdrew and formed themselves as the Irish Confederation.In the desperate circumstances of the Famine and in the face of martial-law measures that a number of Repeal Association MPs had approved in Westminster, Meagher and some Confederates did take what he had described as the "honourable" course. Their rural rising broke up after a single skirmish, the Battle of Ballingarry.Some of the "Men of 1848" carried the commitment to physical force forward into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB)--Fenianism. Others followed Gavan Duffy, the only principal Young Irelander to avoid exile, in focussing on what they believed was a basis for a non-sectarian national movement: tenant rights.In what Duffy hailed as a "League of North and South" in 1852 tenant protection societies helped return 50 MPs. The seeming triumph over "O'Connelism", however, was short-lived. In the South Archbishop Cullen approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North William Sharman Crawford and other League candidates had their meetings broken up by Orange "bludgeon men".O’Connell championed the rights and liberties of people throughout the world including those of Jews in Europe, peasants in India, Maoris in New Zealand and Aborigines in Australia. It was, however, his unbending abolitionism, and in particular his opposition to slavery in the United States, that demonstrated commitments that transcended Catholic and national interests in Ireland.For his Repeal campaign O'Connell relied heavily on money from the United States, but he insisted that none should be accepted from those engaged in slavery. In 1829 he had told a large abolitionist meeting in London that "of all men living, an American citizen, who is the owner of slaves, is the most despicable". In the same Emancipation year, addressing the Cork Anti-Slavery Society, he declared that, much as he longed to go to America, so long as it was "tarnished by slavery", he would never "pollute" his foot "by treading on its shores".In 1838, in a call for a new crusade against "the vile union" in the United States "of republicanism and slavery", O'Connell denounced the hypocrisy of George Washington and characterised the American ambassador, the Virginian Andrew Stevenson, as a "slave-breeder". When Stevenson vainly challenged O'Connell to a duel, a sensation was created in the United States. On the floor of the House of Representatives the former U.S. president, John Quincy Adams denounced a "conspiracy against the life of Daniel O’Connell".In both Ireland and America the furore exasperated supporters. Young Irelanders took issue. Gavan Duffy believed the time was not right "for gratuitous interference in American affairs". This was a common view. Attacks on slavery in the United States were considered "wanton and intolerable provocation". In 1845 John Blake Dillon reported to Thomas Davis "everybody was indignant at O’Connell meddling in the business": "Such talk" was "supremely disgusting to the Americans, and to every man of honour and spirit". Joining O'Connell's British critic Thomas Carlyle, John Mitchel took this dissent a step further: to Duffy's disgust, Mitchel positively applauded black slavery. In the United States Bishop John Hughes of New York urged Irish Americans not to sign O'Connell's abolitionist petition ("An Address of the People of Ireland to their Countrymen and Countrywomen in America") lest they further inflame anti-Irish nativist sentiment.O'Connell was entirely undaunted: crowds gathered to hear him on Repeal were regularly treated to excursions on the evils of human traffic and bondage. When in 1845, Frederick Douglass, touring the British Isles following publication of his "Life of an American Slave", attended unannounced a meeting in Conciliation Hall, Dublin, he heard O'Connell explain to a roused audience:I have been assailed for attacking the American institution, as it is called,—Negro slavery. I am not ashamed of that attack. I do not shrink from it. I am the advocate of civil and religious liberty, all over the globe, and wherever tyranny exists, I am the foe of the tyrant; wherever oppression shows itself, I am the foe of the oppressor; wherever slavery rears its head, I am the enemy of the system, or the institution, call it by what name you will.I am the friend of liberty in every clime, class and color. My sympathy with distress is not confined within the narrow bounds of my own green island. No—it extends itself to every corner of the earth. My heart walks abroad, and wherever the miserable are to be succored, or the slave to be set free, there my spirit is at home, and I delight to dwell.The black abolitionist, Charles Lenox Remond said that it was only on hearing O'Connell speak in London (the first international Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840) that he realised what being an abolitionist really meant: "every fibre of my heart contracted [when I] listened to the scorching rebukes of the fearless O’Connell". In the United States William Lloyd Garrison published a selection of O’Connell's anti-slavery speeches, no man having "spoken so strongly against the soul-drivers of this land as O’Connell". It was as an abolitionist that O'Connell was honoured by his favourite author, Charles Dickens. In "Martin Chuzzlewit", O'Connell is the "certain Public Man", revealed as an abolitionist, whom otherwise enthusiastic friends of Ireland (the "Sons of Freedom") in the United States decide they would have "pistolled, stabbed—in some way slain".Following his last appearance in parliament, and describing himself "oppressed with grief", his "physical power departed", O'Connell travelled in pilgrimage to Rome. He died, age 71, in May 1847 in Genoa, Italy of a softening of the brain (Encephalomalacia). In accord with his last wishes, O'Connell's heart was buried in Rome (at Sant'Agata dei Goti, then the chapel of the Irish College), and the remainder of his body in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, beneath a round tower. His sons are buried in his crypt.In leading the charge against the Young Irelanders within the Repeal Association John O'Connell had vied for the succession. But Gavan Duffy records that the Liberator's death left no one with "acknowledged weight of character, or solidity of judgement" to lead the diminished movement out beyond the Famine: such, he suggests, was the "inevitable penalty of the statesman or leader who prefers courtiers and lackeys to counsellors and peers."John O'Connell opposed Duffy's Tenant Right League, and eventually accepted, in 1853, a sinecure position as "Clerk of the Crown and Hanaper" at Dublin Castle.O'Connell saw himself as a champion of Jewish emancipation. He publicly criticised Pope Gregory XVI's treatment of Jews in the Papal States. But in 1835 O'Connell elicited a charge of anti-Jewish slander. Stung by reports that Benjamin Disraeli had called him a "traitor and incendiary", on the floor of the House of Commons O'Connell referred to the future Conservative leader in the following terms:Disraeli responded, "Yes, I am a Jew, and while the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon." He also demanded "satisfaction". As it was known that O'Connell had forsworn duelling following the death of D'Esterre, the challenge went to his duelling son, and fellow MP, Morgan O'Connell. Morgan, however, declined responsibility for his father's controversial remarks.An article appearing in "The Times" on Christmas Day, 1845 created an international scandal by accusing O'Connell of being one of the worst landlords in Ireland. His tenants were pictured as "living in abject poverty and neglect". The Irish press, however, was quick to observe that this was a description of famine conditions and to dismiss the report as a politically motivated attack.Calling O'Connell an "incarnation of a people", Honoré de Balzac noted that for twenty years his name had filled the press of Europe as no man since Napoleon. Gladstone, an eventual convert to Irish Home Rule, described him as "the greatest popular leader the world as ever seen". Frederick Douglass said of O'Connell that his voice was "enough to calm the most violent passion, even though it were already manifesting itself in a mob. There is a sweet persuasiveness in it, beyond any voice I ever heard. His power over an audience is perfect".O'Connell's oratory is a quality to which James Joyce (a distant relative) plays tribute in "Ulysses": "a people", he wrote, "sheltered within his voice." Other Irish literary figures of the independence generation were critical. For W.B Yeats found O'Connell "too compromised and compromising" and his rhetoric "bragging". Sean O'Foalain sympathised with the Young Irelanders but allowed that if the nation O'Connell helped call forth and "define" was Catholic and without the Protestant north it was because O'Connell was "the greatest of all Irish realists". The man who led the south to statehood, however, was damning. Michael Collins saw O'Connell as "a follower and not a leader of the people". Urged on by "the zeal of the people, stirred for the moment to national consciousness by the teaching of Davis, he talked of national liberty, but he did nothing to win it". O'Connell's aim had never risen above establishing the Irish people as "a free Catholic community".The predominant interpretation of O'Connell in the last generation may that of liberal Catholic portrayed in Oliver MacDonagh's 1988 biography. This builds on the view of the historian Michael Tierney who proposes O'Connell as a "forerunner" of a European Christian Democracy. His more recent biographer Patrick Geoghegan has O'Connell forging "a new Irish nation in the fires of his own idealism, intolerance and determination", and becoming for a people "broken, humiliated and defeated" its "chieftain".After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, Sackville Street, Dublin's principal thoroughfare, was renamed in his honour. His statue (the work of John Henry Foley) stands at one end of the street, the figure of Charles Stewart Parnell at the other.O'Connell Streets also exist in Athlone, Clonmel, Dungarvan, Ennis, Kilkee, Limerick, Sligo, and Waterford. A Daniel O'Connell Bridge, opened in 1880, spans the Manuherikia River at Ophir in New Zealand.A set of Irish postage stamps depicting O'Connell were issued in 1929 to commemorate the centenary of Catholic emancipation.There is a statue of O'Connell outside St Patrick's Cathedral in Melbourne, Australia. Derrynane House, O'Connell's home in Kerry, has been converted into a museum honouring the Liberator.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which team did Federico Freire play for in Nov, 2012?	November 02, 2012	{ "text": [ "C.A. Vélez Sarsfield" ] }	L2_Q5440999_P54_0	Federico Freire plays for C.A. Vélez Sarsfield from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013. Federico Freire plays for Arsenal de Sarandí from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Federico Freire plays for CD Universidad San Martín from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Federico Freire plays for Calcio Catania from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.	Federico FreireFederico Freire (born 6 November 1990) is an Argentine footballer who currently plays as a midfielder for Club Atlético San Telmo.Freire began his professional career with Argentine outfit, Vélez Sarsfield in 2011, earning his first call-up on 29 May 2011, in a 2-1 loss against Tigre. He made his professional debut in a 1-1 home draw with Colón on 27 November 2011. He made 11 official league appearances for the Argentine outfit before moving to the Italian Serie A with Catania.On 5 July 2013, Freire officially signed for Catania, although the 22-year-old midfielder had already signed the contract on 10 June, but it was only deposited in the Lega Serie A today. He was signed on a Bosman free transfer and does not require a non-EU transfer being that the player also obtains a Spanish passport. He made his debut in Serie A match against Torino on 24 November 2013, as a substitute in the last 6 minutes. However, he failed to appear any other matches for Catania in a nearly half-year.On 3 February 2014, Freire returned to Argentina for Arsenal, ending a short-term career at Catania.Although he was brought to the team by coach Gustavo Alfaro he failed to play many minutes. On April 15, 2014, coach Alfaro was discharged from Arsenal and coach Martín Palermo was hired.Quickly, Martín Palermo noticed Freire's skills, and played for the first team two times for the local tournament and six times for the Copa Libertadores.	[ "Arsenal de Sarandí", "CD Universidad San Martín", "Calcio Catania" ]
Which team did Federico Freire play for in Feb, 2013?	February 20, 2013	{ "text": [ "Calcio Catania" ] }	L2_Q5440999_P54_1	Federico Freire plays for Calcio Catania from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Federico Freire plays for C.A. Vélez Sarsfield from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013. Federico Freire plays for Arsenal de Sarandí from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Federico Freire plays for CD Universidad San Martín from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.	Federico FreireFederico Freire (born 6 November 1990) is an Argentine footballer who currently plays as a midfielder for Club Atlético San Telmo.Freire began his professional career with Argentine outfit, Vélez Sarsfield in 2011, earning his first call-up on 29 May 2011, in a 2-1 loss against Tigre. He made his professional debut in a 1-1 home draw with Colón on 27 November 2011. He made 11 official league appearances for the Argentine outfit before moving to the Italian Serie A with Catania.On 5 July 2013, Freire officially signed for Catania, although the 22-year-old midfielder had already signed the contract on 10 June, but it was only deposited in the Lega Serie A today. He was signed on a Bosman free transfer and does not require a non-EU transfer being that the player also obtains a Spanish passport. He made his debut in Serie A match against Torino on 24 November 2013, as a substitute in the last 6 minutes. However, he failed to appear any other matches for Catania in a nearly half-year.On 3 February 2014, Freire returned to Argentina for Arsenal, ending a short-term career at Catania.Although he was brought to the team by coach Gustavo Alfaro he failed to play many minutes. On April 15, 2014, coach Alfaro was discharged from Arsenal and coach Martín Palermo was hired.Quickly, Martín Palermo noticed Freire's skills, and played for the first team two times for the local tournament and six times for the Copa Libertadores.	[ "Arsenal de Sarandí", "C.A. Vélez Sarsfield", "CD Universidad San Martín" ]
Which team did Federico Freire play for in Feb, 2014?	February 07, 2014	{ "text": [ "Arsenal de Sarandí" ] }	L2_Q5440999_P54_2	Federico Freire plays for C.A. Vélez Sarsfield from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013. Federico Freire plays for Calcio Catania from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Federico Freire plays for Arsenal de Sarandí from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Federico Freire plays for CD Universidad San Martín from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.	Federico FreireFederico Freire (born 6 November 1990) is an Argentine footballer who currently plays as a midfielder for Club Atlético San Telmo.Freire began his professional career with Argentine outfit, Vélez Sarsfield in 2011, earning his first call-up on 29 May 2011, in a 2-1 loss against Tigre. He made his professional debut in a 1-1 home draw with Colón on 27 November 2011. He made 11 official league appearances for the Argentine outfit before moving to the Italian Serie A with Catania.On 5 July 2013, Freire officially signed for Catania, although the 22-year-old midfielder had already signed the contract on 10 June, but it was only deposited in the Lega Serie A today. He was signed on a Bosman free transfer and does not require a non-EU transfer being that the player also obtains a Spanish passport. He made his debut in Serie A match against Torino on 24 November 2013, as a substitute in the last 6 minutes. However, he failed to appear any other matches for Catania in a nearly half-year.On 3 February 2014, Freire returned to Argentina for Arsenal, ending a short-term career at Catania.Although he was brought to the team by coach Gustavo Alfaro he failed to play many minutes. On April 15, 2014, coach Alfaro was discharged from Arsenal and coach Martín Palermo was hired.Quickly, Martín Palermo noticed Freire's skills, and played for the first team two times for the local tournament and six times for the Copa Libertadores.	[ "C.A. Vélez Sarsfield", "CD Universidad San Martín", "Calcio Catania" ]
Which team did Federico Freire play for in Oct, 2017?	October 05, 2017	{ "text": [ "CD Universidad San Martín" ] }	L2_Q5440999_P54_3	Federico Freire plays for Calcio Catania from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Federico Freire plays for Arsenal de Sarandí from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Federico Freire plays for CD Universidad San Martín from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Federico Freire plays for C.A. Vélez Sarsfield from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.	Federico FreireFederico Freire (born 6 November 1990) is an Argentine footballer who currently plays as a midfielder for Club Atlético San Telmo.Freire began his professional career with Argentine outfit, Vélez Sarsfield in 2011, earning his first call-up on 29 May 2011, in a 2-1 loss against Tigre. He made his professional debut in a 1-1 home draw with Colón on 27 November 2011. He made 11 official league appearances for the Argentine outfit before moving to the Italian Serie A with Catania.On 5 July 2013, Freire officially signed for Catania, although the 22-year-old midfielder had already signed the contract on 10 June, but it was only deposited in the Lega Serie A today. He was signed on a Bosman free transfer and does not require a non-EU transfer being that the player also obtains a Spanish passport. He made his debut in Serie A match against Torino on 24 November 2013, as a substitute in the last 6 minutes. However, he failed to appear any other matches for Catania in a nearly half-year.On 3 February 2014, Freire returned to Argentina for Arsenal, ending a short-term career at Catania.Although he was brought to the team by coach Gustavo Alfaro he failed to play many minutes. On April 15, 2014, coach Alfaro was discharged from Arsenal and coach Martín Palermo was hired.Quickly, Martín Palermo noticed Freire's skills, and played for the first team two times for the local tournament and six times for the Copa Libertadores.	[ "Arsenal de Sarandí", "C.A. Vélez Sarsfield", "Calcio Catania" ]
Who was the head coach of the team Toulouse FC in Mar, 2018?	March 24, 2018	{ "text": [ "Mickaël Debève" ] }	L2_Q19518_P286_0	Alain Casanova is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2019. Denis Zanko is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2020 to Jun, 2020. Antoine Kombouaré is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Oct, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Patrice Garande is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2020 to Jun, 2021. Philippe Montanier is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Mickaël Debève is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.	Toulouse FCToulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city."Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.Toulouse is presided over by the French businessman Olivier Sadran, who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and international striker André-Pierre Gignac.The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and win the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC.Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.	[ "Patrice Garande", "Alain Casanova", "Antoine Kombouaré", "Denis Zanko", "Philippe Montanier" ]
Who was the head coach of the team Toulouse FC in Mar, 2019?	March 08, 2019	{ "text": [ "Alain Casanova" ] }	L2_Q19518_P286_1	Antoine Kombouaré is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Oct, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Alain Casanova is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2019. Mickaël Debève is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018. Patrice Garande is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2020 to Jun, 2021. Denis Zanko is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2020 to Jun, 2020. Philippe Montanier is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2021 to Dec, 2022.	Toulouse FCToulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city."Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.Toulouse is presided over by the French businessman Olivier Sadran, who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and international striker André-Pierre Gignac.The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and win the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC.Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.	[ "Patrice Garande", "Antoine Kombouaré", "Mickaël Debève", "Denis Zanko", "Philippe Montanier" ]
Who was the head coach of the team Toulouse FC in Dec, 2019?	December 28, 2019	{ "text": [ "Antoine Kombouaré" ] }	L2_Q19518_P286_2	Mickaël Debève is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018. Patrice Garande is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2020 to Jun, 2021. Alain Casanova is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2019. Antoine Kombouaré is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Oct, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Denis Zanko is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2020 to Jun, 2020. Philippe Montanier is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2021 to Dec, 2022.	Toulouse FCToulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city."Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.Toulouse is presided over by the French businessman Olivier Sadran, who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and international striker André-Pierre Gignac.The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and win the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC.Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.	[ "Patrice Garande", "Alain Casanova", "Mickaël Debève", "Denis Zanko", "Philippe Montanier" ]
Who was the head coach of the team Toulouse FC in Mar, 2020?	March 06, 2020	{ "text": [ "Denis Zanko" ] }	L2_Q19518_P286_3	Patrice Garande is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2020 to Jun, 2021. Alain Casanova is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2019. Philippe Montanier is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Mickaël Debève is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018. Antoine Kombouaré is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Oct, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Denis Zanko is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2020 to Jun, 2020.	Toulouse FCToulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city."Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.Toulouse is presided over by the French businessman Olivier Sadran, who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and international striker André-Pierre Gignac.The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and win the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC.Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.	[ "Patrice Garande", "Alain Casanova", "Antoine Kombouaré", "Mickaël Debève", "Philippe Montanier" ]
Who was the head coach of the team Toulouse FC in Jul, 2020?	July 24, 2020	{ "text": [ "Patrice Garande" ] }	L2_Q19518_P286_4	Alain Casanova is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2019. Antoine Kombouaré is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Oct, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Denis Zanko is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2020 to Jun, 2020. Mickaël Debève is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018. Philippe Montanier is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Patrice Garande is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2020 to Jun, 2021.	Toulouse FCToulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city."Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.Toulouse is presided over by the French businessman Olivier Sadran, who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and international striker André-Pierre Gignac.The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and win the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC.Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.	[ "Alain Casanova", "Antoine Kombouaré", "Mickaël Debève", "Denis Zanko", "Philippe Montanier" ]
Who was the head coach of the team Toulouse FC in Jun, 2022?	June 20, 2022	{ "text": [ "Philippe Montanier" ] }	L2_Q19518_P286_5	Antoine Kombouaré is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Oct, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Mickaël Debève is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018. Philippe Montanier is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Patrice Garande is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2020 to Jun, 2021. Denis Zanko is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jan, 2020 to Jun, 2020. Alain Casanova is the head coach of Toulouse FC from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2019.	Toulouse FCToulouse Football Club is French professional football club based in Toulouse. The club was founded in 1937 and currently plays in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. Toulouse plays its home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse located within the city."Les Pitchouns" have won Ligue 2 on three occasions. Toulouse have participated in European competition five times, including in 2007 when they qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time.Toulouse is presided over by the French businessman Olivier Sadran, who took over the club following its bankruptcy in 2001 which resulted in it being relegated to the Championnat National. The club has served as a springboard for several players, most notably the World Cup-winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and international striker André-Pierre Gignac.The city was left without a big side in 1967 when Toulouse FC sold its players and place in the French top flight to Paris outfit Red Star, but three years later a new club, Union Sportive Toulouse, rose from the ashes. Adopting red and yellow jerseys, the club started out in Ligue 2 and in 1979 reclaimed the name Toulouse FC. Now wearing purple and white, "Les Pitchouns" gained top-flight promotion in 1982. A side containing Jacques Santini and Swiss forward Daniel Jeandupeux earned a penalty shoot-out victory against Diego Maradona's Napoli in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup, Toulouse's maiden European campaign.After goalkeeper Fabien Barthez made his breakthrough and moved on, Toulouse were relegated in 1994. They subsequently bounced back and forth between Ligues 1 and 2 before slipping to the third flight in 2001 after financial problems. Toulouse were back in the top flight two seasons later, and in 2007 they finished third to earn a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. There, Liverpool overpowered them 5–0 on aggregate.In 2008–09, Toulouse finished fourth in the Ligue 1 table with 64 points, and secured a spot in the new Europa League, while André-Pierre Gignac led all scorers in Ligue 1 with 24 goals and was awarded a call-up to the French national team.In the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season, Toulouse avoided relegation to Ligue 2 in the last game of the season. With 12 minutes to go, Toulouse were behind to Angers 2–1 and needed a win to survive, and scored two late goals and win the match 3–2. Two years later, they finished 18th and won the promotion/relegation playoff 4–0 on aggregate against Ligue 2's AC Ajaccio.On 6 January 2020, Toulouse dismissed manager Antoine Kombouaré following the club's 1–0 loss to Championnat National 2 side Saint-Pryvé Saint-Hilaire FC in the Coupe de France. Under Kombouaré the club had lost ten matches in a row, leading him to be dismissed and replaced by Denis Zanko. On 30 April that year, Toulouse were relegated to Ligue 2 after the LFP elected to end the season early due to the coronavirus pandemic.On 21 July 2020, RedBird Capital Partners acquired an 85% stake in Toulouse FC.Toulouse play their home matches at the Stadium de Toulouse. Built in 1937, the stadium presently has a capacity of 33,150. The stadium was used as a venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby Union World Cup and UEFA Euro 2016.The violet is a reference to one of two Toulouse nicknames: "la Cité des violettes" (the City of Violets), the second one being "la Ville rose" (the Pink City), which explains the colour of former alternate jerseys. The team's logo displays the gold and blood-red Occitan cross, the symbol of Occitania, of which Toulouse is a historical capital.The Derby de la Garonne is a derby match between Girondins de Bordeaux and Toulouse. The derby derives from the fact that Bordeaux and Toulouse are the two major clubs that play in cities that situate themselves along the Garonne River. The consistency and competitiveness of the rivalry developed following Toulouse's return to Ligue 1 after being administratively relegated to the Championnat National in 2001.	[ "Patrice Garande", "Alain Casanova", "Antoine Kombouaré", "Mickaël Debève", "Denis Zanko" ]
Where was Rocc educated in May, 2001?	May 28, 2001	{ "text": [ "Faculty of Music of the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno" ] }	L2_Q23020858_P69_0	Rocc attended Faculty of Music of the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 2003. Rocc attended Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006. Rocc attended Zurich University of the Arts from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2005.	Rocc (opera stage director)Rocc (born Rok Rappl; 14 December 1979) is a Slovenian-born opera stage director, scenographer, dramaturge, performance artist, opera manager and pedagogue. His professional mononymous pseudonym is a tribute to , Rocc's professor of stage acting and his mentor.Born in Ljubljana, Rocc studied opera stage directing at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno (1998–2003, Master of Arts), followed up by postgraduate studies of stage design at the Hochschule für Gestaltung und Kunst in Zurich (2003–2005, Executive Master), and with at the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Offenbach am Main (2005–2006, Certificate). He was granted a scholarship by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia, as well as receiving support from the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts.Rocc has staged and designed opera productions in the National Operas in Prague, Brno, Ostrava, Ljubljana, Riga, Wrocław Opera, Opera Bergen and elsewhere. His projects have been presented within several international festivals, e.g. Ljubljana Festival, Festival Janáček Brno, Moravian Autumn Music Festival in Brno, Festival of Music Theatre in Prague, Prague Quadrennial, Warsaw Autumn Festival of Contemporary Music, Festival of Sacred Music in Pordenone, ISCM World Music Days and Bergen International Festival. Rocc has a special affinity for contemporary opera combining alternative sound, performing and installation arts, new media and site-specific projects. Since 2013 he has been the initiator and Artistic Director of Concept operapovera, an ensemble focused on contemporary and experimental music-theatre aesthetics.In the 2007/2008 season Rocc held the post of Dramaturge of the Slovenian National Opera in Maribor. The 2008/2009 season saw him as Deputy Artistic Director and Dramaturge of the Janáček Opera of the National Theatre Brno, in 2009–2011 he was Artistic Director of the Janáček Opera and a member of the Programme Board of the International Festival Janáček Brno. In 2011–2013 he was Artistic Director of the Prague State Opera, which is from 2012 affiliated with the National Opera in Prague. In 2013–2019 he was Artistic Director of the Slovenian National Opera in his hometown Ljubljana.Rocc works as Docent of opera acting at the Academy of Music in Ljubljana and he has been a member of professional juries at international singing competitions.	[ "Zurich University of the Arts", "Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach" ]
Where was Rocc educated in Oct, 2003?	October 29, 2003	{ "text": [ "Zurich University of the Arts" ] }	L2_Q23020858_P69_1	Rocc attended Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006. Rocc attended Faculty of Music of the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 2003. Rocc attended Zurich University of the Arts from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2005.	Rocc (opera stage director)Rocc (born Rok Rappl; 14 December 1979) is a Slovenian-born opera stage director, scenographer, dramaturge, performance artist, opera manager and pedagogue. His professional mononymous pseudonym is a tribute to , Rocc's professor of stage acting and his mentor.Born in Ljubljana, Rocc studied opera stage directing at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno (1998–2003, Master of Arts), followed up by postgraduate studies of stage design at the Hochschule für Gestaltung und Kunst in Zurich (2003–2005, Executive Master), and with at the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Offenbach am Main (2005–2006, Certificate). He was granted a scholarship by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia, as well as receiving support from the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts.Rocc has staged and designed opera productions in the National Operas in Prague, Brno, Ostrava, Ljubljana, Riga, Wrocław Opera, Opera Bergen and elsewhere. His projects have been presented within several international festivals, e.g. Ljubljana Festival, Festival Janáček Brno, Moravian Autumn Music Festival in Brno, Festival of Music Theatre in Prague, Prague Quadrennial, Warsaw Autumn Festival of Contemporary Music, Festival of Sacred Music in Pordenone, ISCM World Music Days and Bergen International Festival. Rocc has a special affinity for contemporary opera combining alternative sound, performing and installation arts, new media and site-specific projects. Since 2013 he has been the initiator and Artistic Director of Concept operapovera, an ensemble focused on contemporary and experimental music-theatre aesthetics.In the 2007/2008 season Rocc held the post of Dramaturge of the Slovenian National Opera in Maribor. The 2008/2009 season saw him as Deputy Artistic Director and Dramaturge of the Janáček Opera of the National Theatre Brno, in 2009–2011 he was Artistic Director of the Janáček Opera and a member of the Programme Board of the International Festival Janáček Brno. In 2011–2013 he was Artistic Director of the Prague State Opera, which is from 2012 affiliated with the National Opera in Prague. In 2013–2019 he was Artistic Director of the Slovenian National Opera in his hometown Ljubljana.Rocc works as Docent of opera acting at the Academy of Music in Ljubljana and he has been a member of professional juries at international singing competitions.	[ "Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach", "Faculty of Music of the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno" ]
Where was Rocc educated in Nov, 2005?	November 08, 2005	{ "text": [ "Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach" ] }	L2_Q23020858_P69_2	Rocc attended Faculty of Music of the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 2003. Rocc attended Zurich University of the Arts from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2005. Rocc attended Hochschule für Gestaltung Offenbach from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.	Rocc (opera stage director)Rocc (born Rok Rappl; 14 December 1979) is a Slovenian-born opera stage director, scenographer, dramaturge, performance artist, opera manager and pedagogue. His professional mononymous pseudonym is a tribute to , Rocc's professor of stage acting and his mentor.Born in Ljubljana, Rocc studied opera stage directing at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno (1998–2003, Master of Arts), followed up by postgraduate studies of stage design at the Hochschule für Gestaltung und Kunst in Zurich (2003–2005, Executive Master), and with at the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Offenbach am Main (2005–2006, Certificate). He was granted a scholarship by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia, as well as receiving support from the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts.Rocc has staged and designed opera productions in the National Operas in Prague, Brno, Ostrava, Ljubljana, Riga, Wrocław Opera, Opera Bergen and elsewhere. His projects have been presented within several international festivals, e.g. Ljubljana Festival, Festival Janáček Brno, Moravian Autumn Music Festival in Brno, Festival of Music Theatre in Prague, Prague Quadrennial, Warsaw Autumn Festival of Contemporary Music, Festival of Sacred Music in Pordenone, ISCM World Music Days and Bergen International Festival. Rocc has a special affinity for contemporary opera combining alternative sound, performing and installation arts, new media and site-specific projects. Since 2013 he has been the initiator and Artistic Director of Concept operapovera, an ensemble focused on contemporary and experimental music-theatre aesthetics.In the 2007/2008 season Rocc held the post of Dramaturge of the Slovenian National Opera in Maribor. The 2008/2009 season saw him as Deputy Artistic Director and Dramaturge of the Janáček Opera of the National Theatre Brno, in 2009–2011 he was Artistic Director of the Janáček Opera and a member of the Programme Board of the International Festival Janáček Brno. In 2011–2013 he was Artistic Director of the Prague State Opera, which is from 2012 affiliated with the National Opera in Prague. In 2013–2019 he was Artistic Director of the Slovenian National Opera in his hometown Ljubljana.Rocc works as Docent of opera acting at the Academy of Music in Ljubljana and he has been a member of professional juries at international singing competitions.	[ "Zurich University of the Arts", "Faculty of Music of the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno" ]
Which position did Gordon Wilson hold in Jul, 1974?	July 04, 1974	{ "text": [ "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q5586002_P39_0	Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983.	Gordon Wilson (Scottish politician)Robert Gordon Wilson (16 April 1938 – 25 June 2017) was a Scottish politician and solicitor. He was the leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP) from 1979 to 1990, and was SNP Member of Parliament (MP) for Dundee East from 1974 to 1987. He was Rector of the University of Dundee from 1983 to 1986.Wilson was born in Govan, Glasgow, the son of Elizabeth Murray and Robert George Wilson, a butcher's van driver. He was educated at Douglas High School for Boys on the Isle of Man, and the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree. Following graduation, Wilson qualified as a solicitor, and worked for T.F. Reid Solicitors in Paisley from 1963 until his election as an MP in 1974.Wilson joined the Scottish National Party in 1959, on his graduation from university. He was "controller" of the political pirate radio station Radio Free Scotland, which broadcast on a frequency used by BBC between 1956 and 1965, moving the location of the transmitter to avoid being caught. Wilson served as Assistant National Secretary of the SNP from 1963 to 1964, as National Secretary from 1964 to 1971, and was vice-chairman of the SNP Oil Campaign Committee, which was responsible for the party's iconic It's Scotland's oil campaign. It was Wilson who coined the slogan.Wilson was Executive Vice-Chairman in 1972–1973, and while Executive Vice-Chairman he had a responsibility for oil. Wilson stood as the SNP parliamentary candidate at the Dundee East by-election in March 1973, where he was narrowly defeated by Labour's George Machin. He did however clearly out-poll Lord Provost of Dundee, William Fitzgerald, standing as Conservative who was thought to have had a good chance of winning the seat. Machin was a native of Sheffield and some thought Labour made a mistake by selecting an Englishman for a Scottish seat. Anti-English feeling was reported to be shown during Machin's victory speech which was reportedly disrupted by 'angry shouts of Scottish Nationalist supporters', with 'chants of "Go back to Yorkshire" and "Go home, Englishman"'. Wilson was reported to be disappointed by losing narrowly, but was pleased by the considerable increase in the SNP vote since the last general election.Gordon Wilson was elected as Member of Parliament for the Dundee East constituency at the February 1974 general election, and increased his majority to 6,983 at the October 1974 general election. He was the deputy leader of the SNP parliamentary group at Westminster from 1974 to 1979, and served as parliamentary spokesperson on oil and energy (1974–1983) and joint spokesperson on devolution (1976–1979).He was one of only two SNP MPs in the aftermath of the 1979 UK general election. Anthony Finlay, writing in "The Glasgow Hearld" opined that Wilson held his seat "only because the Labour Party was foolish enough to pick Jimmy Reid" as his opponent. On 15 September 1979, at the SNP Annual National Conference in Dundee, Wilson was elected as National Convener (leader) of the SNP, succeeding Billy Wolfe. He had with 530 votes, defeating Stephen Maxwell (117 votes) and Willie McRae (52 votes).In the early 1980s when the party was in internal turmoil, and he was a key mover in condemning both Siol nan Gaidheal and the 79 Group. At the SNP's conference in Ayr in June 1982 he announced in the middle of his keynote speech that there would not be "parties within the party". Using his executive position he was able to force an emergency motion and a vote on his proposal. He received the backing he needed.Wilson led the party through two poor general election performances in 1983 and 1987. In 1987, Wilson lost his seat to Labour's John McAllion. After his defeat at the 1987 general election he returned to legal practice.He remained as party leader, and Jim Sillars won at the Govan by-election victory in 1988. Wilson attempted to involve the SNP in the Scottish Constitutional Convention but due to the convention's unwillingness to contemplate discussions about Scottish independence as a constitutional option the SNP did not get involved. He announced his resignation as leader of the SNP in May 1990, with Alex Salmond succeeding him.In September 1998 he was selected by delegates at the SNP's conference as a candidate for Scotland in the 1999 European Parliament elections. He was placed fourth on the SNP's list and with the SNP only winning two of the eight seats, he was unsuccessful.He wrote three books that were published between 2009 and 2014 which detailed aspects of his political life.Wilson continued to have a modest presence in Scottish politics after his retirement. He was active in the Scottish independence referendum campaign. In November 2012, he and Sillars suggested that Scotland should consider joining the European Free Trade Association as an alternative to remaining in the EU, and voted Leave in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. Together with Sillars he then established think-tank Options for Scotland, publishing articles and papers.Wilson married Edith (née Hassall) in 1965 and they had two daughters; Margaret and Katie, and five grandchildren.Wilson was a devout Christian. Later in life, he was a member of Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee. In 2010, Wilson and David Robertson co-founded Solas (Centre for Public Christianity) - an evangelical Christian body dedicated to the revival of the faith in Scotland and abroad.He had retired to Broughty Ferry, Dundee and sailed his boat "Saorsa" on the Firth of Tay.Wilson died in the Roxburghe House hospice in Dundee on the morning of 25 June 2017, after a short illness. His funeral was held at Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee on 5 July 2017. His party colleague John Swinney and Rev Robertson gave eulogies.He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D) degree by the University of Dundee in 1986.Wilson's papers are held variously by the National Library of Scotland, Archive Services at the University of Dundee and the Scottish Political Archive at the University of Stirling. His collection of historical nationalist pamphlets is held by the Macartney Library at SNP headquarters in Edinburgh.	[ "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Gordon Wilson hold in Jul, 1975?	July 19, 1975	{ "text": [ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q5586002_P39_1	Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979.	Gordon Wilson (Scottish politician)Robert Gordon Wilson (16 April 1938 – 25 June 2017) was a Scottish politician and solicitor. He was the leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP) from 1979 to 1990, and was SNP Member of Parliament (MP) for Dundee East from 1974 to 1987. He was Rector of the University of Dundee from 1983 to 1986.Wilson was born in Govan, Glasgow, the son of Elizabeth Murray and Robert George Wilson, a butcher's van driver. He was educated at Douglas High School for Boys on the Isle of Man, and the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree. Following graduation, Wilson qualified as a solicitor, and worked for T.F. Reid Solicitors in Paisley from 1963 until his election as an MP in 1974.Wilson joined the Scottish National Party in 1959, on his graduation from university. He was "controller" of the political pirate radio station Radio Free Scotland, which broadcast on a frequency used by BBC between 1956 and 1965, moving the location of the transmitter to avoid being caught. Wilson served as Assistant National Secretary of the SNP from 1963 to 1964, as National Secretary from 1964 to 1971, and was vice-chairman of the SNP Oil Campaign Committee, which was responsible for the party's iconic It's Scotland's oil campaign. It was Wilson who coined the slogan.Wilson was Executive Vice-Chairman in 1972–1973, and while Executive Vice-Chairman he had a responsibility for oil. Wilson stood as the SNP parliamentary candidate at the Dundee East by-election in March 1973, where he was narrowly defeated by Labour's George Machin. He did however clearly out-poll Lord Provost of Dundee, William Fitzgerald, standing as Conservative who was thought to have had a good chance of winning the seat. Machin was a native of Sheffield and some thought Labour made a mistake by selecting an Englishman for a Scottish seat. Anti-English feeling was reported to be shown during Machin's victory speech which was reportedly disrupted by 'angry shouts of Scottish Nationalist supporters', with 'chants of "Go back to Yorkshire" and "Go home, Englishman"'. Wilson was reported to be disappointed by losing narrowly, but was pleased by the considerable increase in the SNP vote since the last general election.Gordon Wilson was elected as Member of Parliament for the Dundee East constituency at the February 1974 general election, and increased his majority to 6,983 at the October 1974 general election. He was the deputy leader of the SNP parliamentary group at Westminster from 1974 to 1979, and served as parliamentary spokesperson on oil and energy (1974–1983) and joint spokesperson on devolution (1976–1979).He was one of only two SNP MPs in the aftermath of the 1979 UK general election. Anthony Finlay, writing in "The Glasgow Hearld" opined that Wilson held his seat "only because the Labour Party was foolish enough to pick Jimmy Reid" as his opponent. On 15 September 1979, at the SNP Annual National Conference in Dundee, Wilson was elected as National Convener (leader) of the SNP, succeeding Billy Wolfe. He had with 530 votes, defeating Stephen Maxwell (117 votes) and Willie McRae (52 votes).In the early 1980s when the party was in internal turmoil, and he was a key mover in condemning both Siol nan Gaidheal and the 79 Group. At the SNP's conference in Ayr in June 1982 he announced in the middle of his keynote speech that there would not be "parties within the party". Using his executive position he was able to force an emergency motion and a vote on his proposal. He received the backing he needed.Wilson led the party through two poor general election performances in 1983 and 1987. In 1987, Wilson lost his seat to Labour's John McAllion. After his defeat at the 1987 general election he returned to legal practice.He remained as party leader, and Jim Sillars won at the Govan by-election victory in 1988. Wilson attempted to involve the SNP in the Scottish Constitutional Convention but due to the convention's unwillingness to contemplate discussions about Scottish independence as a constitutional option the SNP did not get involved. He announced his resignation as leader of the SNP in May 1990, with Alex Salmond succeeding him.In September 1998 he was selected by delegates at the SNP's conference as a candidate for Scotland in the 1999 European Parliament elections. He was placed fourth on the SNP's list and with the SNP only winning two of the eight seats, he was unsuccessful.He wrote three books that were published between 2009 and 2014 which detailed aspects of his political life.Wilson continued to have a modest presence in Scottish politics after his retirement. He was active in the Scottish independence referendum campaign. In November 2012, he and Sillars suggested that Scotland should consider joining the European Free Trade Association as an alternative to remaining in the EU, and voted Leave in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. Together with Sillars he then established think-tank Options for Scotland, publishing articles and papers.Wilson married Edith (née Hassall) in 1965 and they had two daughters; Margaret and Katie, and five grandchildren.Wilson was a devout Christian. Later in life, he was a member of Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee. In 2010, Wilson and David Robertson co-founded Solas (Centre for Public Christianity) - an evangelical Christian body dedicated to the revival of the faith in Scotland and abroad.He had retired to Broughty Ferry, Dundee and sailed his boat "Saorsa" on the Firth of Tay.Wilson died in the Roxburghe House hospice in Dundee on the morning of 25 June 2017, after a short illness. His funeral was held at Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee on 5 July 2017. His party colleague John Swinney and Rev Robertson gave eulogies.He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D) degree by the University of Dundee in 1986.Wilson's papers are held variously by the National Library of Scotland, Archive Services at the University of Dundee and the Scottish Political Archive at the University of Stirling. His collection of historical nationalist pamphlets is held by the Macartney Library at SNP headquarters in Edinburgh.	[ "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Gordon Wilson hold in May, 1980?	May 01, 1980	{ "text": [ "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q5586002_P39_2	Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974.	Gordon Wilson (Scottish politician)Robert Gordon Wilson (16 April 1938 – 25 June 2017) was a Scottish politician and solicitor. He was the leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP) from 1979 to 1990, and was SNP Member of Parliament (MP) for Dundee East from 1974 to 1987. He was Rector of the University of Dundee from 1983 to 1986.Wilson was born in Govan, Glasgow, the son of Elizabeth Murray and Robert George Wilson, a butcher's van driver. He was educated at Douglas High School for Boys on the Isle of Man, and the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree. Following graduation, Wilson qualified as a solicitor, and worked for T.F. Reid Solicitors in Paisley from 1963 until his election as an MP in 1974.Wilson joined the Scottish National Party in 1959, on his graduation from university. He was "controller" of the political pirate radio station Radio Free Scotland, which broadcast on a frequency used by BBC between 1956 and 1965, moving the location of the transmitter to avoid being caught. Wilson served as Assistant National Secretary of the SNP from 1963 to 1964, as National Secretary from 1964 to 1971, and was vice-chairman of the SNP Oil Campaign Committee, which was responsible for the party's iconic It's Scotland's oil campaign. It was Wilson who coined the slogan.Wilson was Executive Vice-Chairman in 1972–1973, and while Executive Vice-Chairman he had a responsibility for oil. Wilson stood as the SNP parliamentary candidate at the Dundee East by-election in March 1973, where he was narrowly defeated by Labour's George Machin. He did however clearly out-poll Lord Provost of Dundee, William Fitzgerald, standing as Conservative who was thought to have had a good chance of winning the seat. Machin was a native of Sheffield and some thought Labour made a mistake by selecting an Englishman for a Scottish seat. Anti-English feeling was reported to be shown during Machin's victory speech which was reportedly disrupted by 'angry shouts of Scottish Nationalist supporters', with 'chants of "Go back to Yorkshire" and "Go home, Englishman"'. Wilson was reported to be disappointed by losing narrowly, but was pleased by the considerable increase in the SNP vote since the last general election.Gordon Wilson was elected as Member of Parliament for the Dundee East constituency at the February 1974 general election, and increased his majority to 6,983 at the October 1974 general election. He was the deputy leader of the SNP parliamentary group at Westminster from 1974 to 1979, and served as parliamentary spokesperson on oil and energy (1974–1983) and joint spokesperson on devolution (1976–1979).He was one of only two SNP MPs in the aftermath of the 1979 UK general election. Anthony Finlay, writing in "The Glasgow Hearld" opined that Wilson held his seat "only because the Labour Party was foolish enough to pick Jimmy Reid" as his opponent. On 15 September 1979, at the SNP Annual National Conference in Dundee, Wilson was elected as National Convener (leader) of the SNP, succeeding Billy Wolfe. He had with 530 votes, defeating Stephen Maxwell (117 votes) and Willie McRae (52 votes).In the early 1980s when the party was in internal turmoil, and he was a key mover in condemning both Siol nan Gaidheal and the 79 Group. At the SNP's conference in Ayr in June 1982 he announced in the middle of his keynote speech that there would not be "parties within the party". Using his executive position he was able to force an emergency motion and a vote on his proposal. He received the backing he needed.Wilson led the party through two poor general election performances in 1983 and 1987. In 1987, Wilson lost his seat to Labour's John McAllion. After his defeat at the 1987 general election he returned to legal practice.He remained as party leader, and Jim Sillars won at the Govan by-election victory in 1988. Wilson attempted to involve the SNP in the Scottish Constitutional Convention but due to the convention's unwillingness to contemplate discussions about Scottish independence as a constitutional option the SNP did not get involved. He announced his resignation as leader of the SNP in May 1990, with Alex Salmond succeeding him.In September 1998 he was selected by delegates at the SNP's conference as a candidate for Scotland in the 1999 European Parliament elections. He was placed fourth on the SNP's list and with the SNP only winning two of the eight seats, he was unsuccessful.He wrote three books that were published between 2009 and 2014 which detailed aspects of his political life.Wilson continued to have a modest presence in Scottish politics after his retirement. He was active in the Scottish independence referendum campaign. In November 2012, he and Sillars suggested that Scotland should consider joining the European Free Trade Association as an alternative to remaining in the EU, and voted Leave in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. Together with Sillars he then established think-tank Options for Scotland, publishing articles and papers.Wilson married Edith (née Hassall) in 1965 and they had two daughters; Margaret and Katie, and five grandchildren.Wilson was a devout Christian. Later in life, he was a member of Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee. In 2010, Wilson and David Robertson co-founded Solas (Centre for Public Christianity) - an evangelical Christian body dedicated to the revival of the faith in Scotland and abroad.He had retired to Broughty Ferry, Dundee and sailed his boat "Saorsa" on the Firth of Tay.Wilson died in the Roxburghe House hospice in Dundee on the morning of 25 June 2017, after a short illness. His funeral was held at Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee on 5 July 2017. His party colleague John Swinney and Rev Robertson gave eulogies.He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D) degree by the University of Dundee in 1986.Wilson's papers are held variously by the National Library of Scotland, Archive Services at the University of Dundee and the Scottish Political Archive at the University of Stirling. His collection of historical nationalist pamphlets is held by the Macartney Library at SNP headquarters in Edinburgh.	[ "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Gordon Wilson hold in Dec, 1983?	December 04, 1983	{ "text": [ "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q5586002_P39_3	Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Gordon Wilson holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974.	Gordon Wilson (Scottish politician)Robert Gordon Wilson (16 April 1938 – 25 June 2017) was a Scottish politician and solicitor. He was the leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP) from 1979 to 1990, and was SNP Member of Parliament (MP) for Dundee East from 1974 to 1987. He was Rector of the University of Dundee from 1983 to 1986.Wilson was born in Govan, Glasgow, the son of Elizabeth Murray and Robert George Wilson, a butcher's van driver. He was educated at Douglas High School for Boys on the Isle of Man, and the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree. Following graduation, Wilson qualified as a solicitor, and worked for T.F. Reid Solicitors in Paisley from 1963 until his election as an MP in 1974.Wilson joined the Scottish National Party in 1959, on his graduation from university. He was "controller" of the political pirate radio station Radio Free Scotland, which broadcast on a frequency used by BBC between 1956 and 1965, moving the location of the transmitter to avoid being caught. Wilson served as Assistant National Secretary of the SNP from 1963 to 1964, as National Secretary from 1964 to 1971, and was vice-chairman of the SNP Oil Campaign Committee, which was responsible for the party's iconic It's Scotland's oil campaign. It was Wilson who coined the slogan.Wilson was Executive Vice-Chairman in 1972–1973, and while Executive Vice-Chairman he had a responsibility for oil. Wilson stood as the SNP parliamentary candidate at the Dundee East by-election in March 1973, where he was narrowly defeated by Labour's George Machin. He did however clearly out-poll Lord Provost of Dundee, William Fitzgerald, standing as Conservative who was thought to have had a good chance of winning the seat. Machin was a native of Sheffield and some thought Labour made a mistake by selecting an Englishman for a Scottish seat. Anti-English feeling was reported to be shown during Machin's victory speech which was reportedly disrupted by 'angry shouts of Scottish Nationalist supporters', with 'chants of "Go back to Yorkshire" and "Go home, Englishman"'. Wilson was reported to be disappointed by losing narrowly, but was pleased by the considerable increase in the SNP vote since the last general election.Gordon Wilson was elected as Member of Parliament for the Dundee East constituency at the February 1974 general election, and increased his majority to 6,983 at the October 1974 general election. He was the deputy leader of the SNP parliamentary group at Westminster from 1974 to 1979, and served as parliamentary spokesperson on oil and energy (1974–1983) and joint spokesperson on devolution (1976–1979).He was one of only two SNP MPs in the aftermath of the 1979 UK general election. Anthony Finlay, writing in "The Glasgow Hearld" opined that Wilson held his seat "only because the Labour Party was foolish enough to pick Jimmy Reid" as his opponent. On 15 September 1979, at the SNP Annual National Conference in Dundee, Wilson was elected as National Convener (leader) of the SNP, succeeding Billy Wolfe. He had with 530 votes, defeating Stephen Maxwell (117 votes) and Willie McRae (52 votes).In the early 1980s when the party was in internal turmoil, and he was a key mover in condemning both Siol nan Gaidheal and the 79 Group. At the SNP's conference in Ayr in June 1982 he announced in the middle of his keynote speech that there would not be "parties within the party". Using his executive position he was able to force an emergency motion and a vote on his proposal. He received the backing he needed.Wilson led the party through two poor general election performances in 1983 and 1987. In 1987, Wilson lost his seat to Labour's John McAllion. After his defeat at the 1987 general election he returned to legal practice.He remained as party leader, and Jim Sillars won at the Govan by-election victory in 1988. Wilson attempted to involve the SNP in the Scottish Constitutional Convention but due to the convention's unwillingness to contemplate discussions about Scottish independence as a constitutional option the SNP did not get involved. He announced his resignation as leader of the SNP in May 1990, with Alex Salmond succeeding him.In September 1998 he was selected by delegates at the SNP's conference as a candidate for Scotland in the 1999 European Parliament elections. He was placed fourth on the SNP's list and with the SNP only winning two of the eight seats, he was unsuccessful.He wrote three books that were published between 2009 and 2014 which detailed aspects of his political life.Wilson continued to have a modest presence in Scottish politics after his retirement. He was active in the Scottish independence referendum campaign. In November 2012, he and Sillars suggested that Scotland should consider joining the European Free Trade Association as an alternative to remaining in the EU, and voted Leave in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. Together with Sillars he then established think-tank Options for Scotland, publishing articles and papers.Wilson married Edith (née Hassall) in 1965 and they had two daughters; Margaret and Katie, and five grandchildren.Wilson was a devout Christian. Later in life, he was a member of Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee. In 2010, Wilson and David Robertson co-founded Solas (Centre for Public Christianity) - an evangelical Christian body dedicated to the revival of the faith in Scotland and abroad.He had retired to Broughty Ferry, Dundee and sailed his boat "Saorsa" on the Firth of Tay.Wilson died in the Roxburghe House hospice in Dundee on the morning of 25 June 2017, after a short illness. His funeral was held at Saint Peter's Free Church in Dundee on 5 July 2017. His party colleague John Swinney and Rev Robertson gave eulogies.He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D) degree by the University of Dundee in 1986.Wilson's papers are held variously by the National Library of Scotland, Archive Services at the University of Dundee and the Scottish Political Archive at the University of Stirling. His collection of historical nationalist pamphlets is held by the Macartney Library at SNP headquarters in Edinburgh.	[ "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Walter Clegg hold in Apr, 1969?	April 16, 1969	{ "text": [ "Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q7964569_P39_0	Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1970 to Feb, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1966 to May, 1970. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979.	Walter CleggSir Walter Clegg (18 April 1920 – 15 April 1994) was a British Conservative politician.Clegg contested Ince in 1959 and was elected Member of Parliament for North Fylde in 1966. He became a Lord of the Treasury in 1970 and was successively Vice-Chamberlain of the Household in 1972 and Comptroller of the Household from 1973 to 1974. He was MP for Wyre from 1983 until his retirement in 1987.Clegg was born on 18 April 1920 in Bury, Lancashire, the son of a weaver.He was educated at Bury Grammar School, Blackpool's Arnold School and Manchester University Law School. He became a solicitor in 1947, having qualified by a correspondence course conducted from a German prisoner-of-war camp during World War II while serving in the Royal Artillery. He later became a partner in the firm of Ingham, Clegg and Crowther, on North Albert Street in Fleetwood, Lancashire.In 1951, Clegg began 42 years of marriage to Elise Hargreaves, who was working as a reporter at Blackpool's "Evening Gazette". She was assigned to cover the proceedings at the local Magistrate's Court, where her future husband was defending a client.In 1955 he was elected as a Lancashire County Councillor, serving until 1961.Clegg was knighted in 1980.In 1984, the Irish Republican Army bombed Brighton's Grand Hotel. Along with several other people, Clegg, whose bedroom was directly above the explosion, was badly hurt, and spent the majority of his later life in a wheelchair.Until his wife's death in 1993, they lived together at Beech House on Raikes Road in Thornton, Lancashire.Clegg died on 15 April 1994 in Fleetwood, three days before his 74th birthday.	[ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Walter Clegg hold in Apr, 1973?	April 14, 1973	{ "text": [ "Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q7964569_P39_1	Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1970 to Feb, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1966 to May, 1970. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974.	Walter CleggSir Walter Clegg (18 April 1920 – 15 April 1994) was a British Conservative politician.Clegg contested Ince in 1959 and was elected Member of Parliament for North Fylde in 1966. He became a Lord of the Treasury in 1970 and was successively Vice-Chamberlain of the Household in 1972 and Comptroller of the Household from 1973 to 1974. He was MP for Wyre from 1983 until his retirement in 1987.Clegg was born on 18 April 1920 in Bury, Lancashire, the son of a weaver.He was educated at Bury Grammar School, Blackpool's Arnold School and Manchester University Law School. He became a solicitor in 1947, having qualified by a correspondence course conducted from a German prisoner-of-war camp during World War II while serving in the Royal Artillery. He later became a partner in the firm of Ingham, Clegg and Crowther, on North Albert Street in Fleetwood, Lancashire.In 1951, Clegg began 42 years of marriage to Elise Hargreaves, who was working as a reporter at Blackpool's "Evening Gazette". She was assigned to cover the proceedings at the local Magistrate's Court, where her future husband was defending a client.In 1955 he was elected as a Lancashire County Councillor, serving until 1961.Clegg was knighted in 1980.In 1984, the Irish Republican Army bombed Brighton's Grand Hotel. Along with several other people, Clegg, whose bedroom was directly above the explosion, was badly hurt, and spent the majority of his later life in a wheelchair.Until his wife's death in 1993, they lived together at Beech House on Raikes Road in Thornton, Lancashire.Clegg died on 15 April 1994 in Fleetwood, three days before his 74th birthday.	[ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Walter Clegg hold in Jul, 1974?	July 30, 1974	{ "text": [ "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q7964569_P39_2	Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1970 to Feb, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1966 to May, 1970. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987.	Walter CleggSir Walter Clegg (18 April 1920 – 15 April 1994) was a British Conservative politician.Clegg contested Ince in 1959 and was elected Member of Parliament for North Fylde in 1966. He became a Lord of the Treasury in 1970 and was successively Vice-Chamberlain of the Household in 1972 and Comptroller of the Household from 1973 to 1974. He was MP for Wyre from 1983 until his retirement in 1987.Clegg was born on 18 April 1920 in Bury, Lancashire, the son of a weaver.He was educated at Bury Grammar School, Blackpool's Arnold School and Manchester University Law School. He became a solicitor in 1947, having qualified by a correspondence course conducted from a German prisoner-of-war camp during World War II while serving in the Royal Artillery. He later became a partner in the firm of Ingham, Clegg and Crowther, on North Albert Street in Fleetwood, Lancashire.In 1951, Clegg began 42 years of marriage to Elise Hargreaves, who was working as a reporter at Blackpool's "Evening Gazette". She was assigned to cover the proceedings at the local Magistrate's Court, where her future husband was defending a client.In 1955 he was elected as a Lancashire County Councillor, serving until 1961.Clegg was knighted in 1980.In 1984, the Irish Republican Army bombed Brighton's Grand Hotel. Along with several other people, Clegg, whose bedroom was directly above the explosion, was badly hurt, and spent the majority of his later life in a wheelchair.Until his wife's death in 1993, they lived together at Beech House on Raikes Road in Thornton, Lancashire.Clegg died on 15 April 1994 in Fleetwood, three days before his 74th birthday.	[ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Walter Clegg hold in Sep, 1976?	September 14, 1976	{ "text": [ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q7964569_P39_3	Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1966 to May, 1970. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1970 to Feb, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983.	Walter CleggSir Walter Clegg (18 April 1920 – 15 April 1994) was a British Conservative politician.Clegg contested Ince in 1959 and was elected Member of Parliament for North Fylde in 1966. He became a Lord of the Treasury in 1970 and was successively Vice-Chamberlain of the Household in 1972 and Comptroller of the Household from 1973 to 1974. He was MP for Wyre from 1983 until his retirement in 1987.Clegg was born on 18 April 1920 in Bury, Lancashire, the son of a weaver.He was educated at Bury Grammar School, Blackpool's Arnold School and Manchester University Law School. He became a solicitor in 1947, having qualified by a correspondence course conducted from a German prisoner-of-war camp during World War II while serving in the Royal Artillery. He later became a partner in the firm of Ingham, Clegg and Crowther, on North Albert Street in Fleetwood, Lancashire.In 1951, Clegg began 42 years of marriage to Elise Hargreaves, who was working as a reporter at Blackpool's "Evening Gazette". She was assigned to cover the proceedings at the local Magistrate's Court, where her future husband was defending a client.In 1955 he was elected as a Lancashire County Councillor, serving until 1961.Clegg was knighted in 1980.In 1984, the Irish Republican Army bombed Brighton's Grand Hotel. Along with several other people, Clegg, whose bedroom was directly above the explosion, was badly hurt, and spent the majority of his later life in a wheelchair.Until his wife's death in 1993, they lived together at Beech House on Raikes Road in Thornton, Lancashire.Clegg died on 15 April 1994 in Fleetwood, three days before his 74th birthday.	[ "Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Walter Clegg hold in Mar, 1982?	March 09, 1982	{ "text": [ "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q7964569_P39_4	Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1966 to May, 1970. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1970 to Feb, 1974.	Walter CleggSir Walter Clegg (18 April 1920 – 15 April 1994) was a British Conservative politician.Clegg contested Ince in 1959 and was elected Member of Parliament for North Fylde in 1966. He became a Lord of the Treasury in 1970 and was successively Vice-Chamberlain of the Household in 1972 and Comptroller of the Household from 1973 to 1974. He was MP for Wyre from 1983 until his retirement in 1987.Clegg was born on 18 April 1920 in Bury, Lancashire, the son of a weaver.He was educated at Bury Grammar School, Blackpool's Arnold School and Manchester University Law School. He became a solicitor in 1947, having qualified by a correspondence course conducted from a German prisoner-of-war camp during World War II while serving in the Royal Artillery. He later became a partner in the firm of Ingham, Clegg and Crowther, on North Albert Street in Fleetwood, Lancashire.In 1951, Clegg began 42 years of marriage to Elise Hargreaves, who was working as a reporter at Blackpool's "Evening Gazette". She was assigned to cover the proceedings at the local Magistrate's Court, where her future husband was defending a client.In 1955 he was elected as a Lancashire County Councillor, serving until 1961.Clegg was knighted in 1980.In 1984, the Irish Republican Army bombed Brighton's Grand Hotel. Along with several other people, Clegg, whose bedroom was directly above the explosion, was badly hurt, and spent the majority of his later life in a wheelchair.Until his wife's death in 1993, they lived together at Beech House on Raikes Road in Thornton, Lancashire.Clegg died on 15 April 1994 in Fleetwood, three days before his 74th birthday.	[ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Walter Clegg hold in Jan, 1985?	January 12, 1985	{ "text": [ "Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q7964569_P39_5	Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1974 to Apr, 1979. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1979 to May, 1983. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 49th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1983 to May, 1987. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1966 to May, 1970. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1970 to Feb, 1974. Walter Clegg holds the position of Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1974 to Sep, 1974.	Walter CleggSir Walter Clegg (18 April 1920 – 15 April 1994) was a British Conservative politician.Clegg contested Ince in 1959 and was elected Member of Parliament for North Fylde in 1966. He became a Lord of the Treasury in 1970 and was successively Vice-Chamberlain of the Household in 1972 and Comptroller of the Household from 1973 to 1974. He was MP for Wyre from 1983 until his retirement in 1987.Clegg was born on 18 April 1920 in Bury, Lancashire, the son of a weaver.He was educated at Bury Grammar School, Blackpool's Arnold School and Manchester University Law School. He became a solicitor in 1947, having qualified by a correspondence course conducted from a German prisoner-of-war camp during World War II while serving in the Royal Artillery. He later became a partner in the firm of Ingham, Clegg and Crowther, on North Albert Street in Fleetwood, Lancashire.In 1951, Clegg began 42 years of marriage to Elise Hargreaves, who was working as a reporter at Blackpool's "Evening Gazette". She was assigned to cover the proceedings at the local Magistrate's Court, where her future husband was defending a client.In 1955 he was elected as a Lancashire County Councillor, serving until 1961.Clegg was knighted in 1980.In 1984, the Irish Republican Army bombed Brighton's Grand Hotel. Along with several other people, Clegg, whose bedroom was directly above the explosion, was badly hurt, and spent the majority of his later life in a wheelchair.Until his wife's death in 1993, they lived together at Beech House on Raikes Road in Thornton, Lancashire.Clegg died on 15 April 1994 in Fleetwood, three days before his 74th birthday.	[ "Member of the 47th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 44th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 46th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 48th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 45th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Who was the head coach of the team F.C. Ashdod in Nov, 2018?	November 29, 2018	{ "text": [ "Yuval Naim" ] }	L2_Q1138191_P286_0	Ran Ben Shimon is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022. Ronny Awat is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from May, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Yuval Naim is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from Nov, 2018 to Jan, 2019.	F.C. AshdodF.C. Ironi Ashdod (, "Moadon Sport Ashdod", lit. " Ashdod Sport Club" or in short , "Mem Samekh Ashdod", lit. F.C. Ashdod) is an Israeli football club, playing in the port city of Ashdod. The unorthodox name of the team (unlike most Israeli soccer teams, the name indicates only the club's home city but no association, e.g. Hapoel, Maccabi, Beitar etc.) is the result of the union of two city rivals, Hapoel Ashdod and Maccabi Ironi Ashdod.During the club's first years, its kit colors were completely blue. However, when Haim Revivo took a more prominent role in the club, the colors were changed to red and yellow. The decision was made that the kit should incorporate the previous two clubs' colors, Hapoel having been red and Maccabi yellow.The club was not immediately successful after the merger, and fan support was lacking. During the 2004–05 season, they reached their greatest achievement, a third-place finish in the Israeli Premier League and a berth in the UEFA Cup. The club also reached the final of the Toto Cup, only to go out on penalty kicks. Their first time in a continental competition was not a memorable one, as they went out to the Slovenian PrvaLiga runners-up, NK Domžale.Prior to the 2014–15 season, the club added Ironi to its name. However, following a dispute with fans of the previous club, Maccabi Ironi Ashdod, during the 2–3 defeat against Maccabi Netanya in the last match of the regular season, the club's chairman, Jacky Ben-Zaken, decided to rename the club to Hapoel Ashdod and to play in red shirts. Despite warnings from the Israel Football Association, which informed the club that such changes during season are illegal, Ashdod did show up for their next match, which opened the Bottom playoff, against Hapoel Ra'anana in red shirts, with the caption "F.C. Hapoel Ashdod", and was eventually disciplined. Furthermore, the club was punished by FIFA with six points deduction for failing to pay an arbitration award to Nigerian club, Kaduna United, for the transfer of Efe Ambrose in 2010. As a result, the club has been dropped to the bottom place in the Israeli Premier League. However, in an exceptional decision, FIFA reversed its decision after it was found out that the club did pay the arbitration award. At the end of the season, the club finished at the bottom of the league, after failing to register a win during their last 15 matches, and for the first time in their history, were relegated to the second tier, Liga Leumit, following a defeat of 0–1 against Hapoel Tel Aviv.In the 2015–16 season, the club won Liga Leumit and made an immediate return to the Israeli Premier League."Updated 12 February 2021."Only up six non-Israeli nationals can be in an Israeli club squad (only five can play at the same time). Those with Jewish ancestry, married to an Israeli or have played in Israel for an extended period of time, can claim a passport or permanent residency which would allow them to play with Israeli status.	[ "Ronny Awat", "Ran Ben Shimon" ]
Who was the head coach of the team F.C. Ashdod in Nov, 2019?	November 25, 2019	{ "text": [ "Ronny Awat" ] }	L2_Q1138191_P286_1	Yuval Naim is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from Nov, 2018 to Jan, 2019. Ronny Awat is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from May, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Ran Ben Shimon is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.	F.C. AshdodF.C. Ironi Ashdod (, "Moadon Sport Ashdod", lit. " Ashdod Sport Club" or in short , "Mem Samekh Ashdod", lit. F.C. Ashdod) is an Israeli football club, playing in the port city of Ashdod. The unorthodox name of the team (unlike most Israeli soccer teams, the name indicates only the club's home city but no association, e.g. Hapoel, Maccabi, Beitar etc.) is the result of the union of two city rivals, Hapoel Ashdod and Maccabi Ironi Ashdod.During the club's first years, its kit colors were completely blue. However, when Haim Revivo took a more prominent role in the club, the colors were changed to red and yellow. The decision was made that the kit should incorporate the previous two clubs' colors, Hapoel having been red and Maccabi yellow.The club was not immediately successful after the merger, and fan support was lacking. During the 2004–05 season, they reached their greatest achievement, a third-place finish in the Israeli Premier League and a berth in the UEFA Cup. The club also reached the final of the Toto Cup, only to go out on penalty kicks. Their first time in a continental competition was not a memorable one, as they went out to the Slovenian PrvaLiga runners-up, NK Domžale.Prior to the 2014–15 season, the club added Ironi to its name. However, following a dispute with fans of the previous club, Maccabi Ironi Ashdod, during the 2–3 defeat against Maccabi Netanya in the last match of the regular season, the club's chairman, Jacky Ben-Zaken, decided to rename the club to Hapoel Ashdod and to play in red shirts. Despite warnings from the Israel Football Association, which informed the club that such changes during season are illegal, Ashdod did show up for their next match, which opened the Bottom playoff, against Hapoel Ra'anana in red shirts, with the caption "F.C. Hapoel Ashdod", and was eventually disciplined. Furthermore, the club was punished by FIFA with six points deduction for failing to pay an arbitration award to Nigerian club, Kaduna United, for the transfer of Efe Ambrose in 2010. As a result, the club has been dropped to the bottom place in the Israeli Premier League. However, in an exceptional decision, FIFA reversed its decision after it was found out that the club did pay the arbitration award. At the end of the season, the club finished at the bottom of the league, after failing to register a win during their last 15 matches, and for the first time in their history, were relegated to the second tier, Liga Leumit, following a defeat of 0–1 against Hapoel Tel Aviv.In the 2015–16 season, the club won Liga Leumit and made an immediate return to the Israeli Premier League."Updated 12 February 2021."Only up six non-Israeli nationals can be in an Israeli club squad (only five can play at the same time). Those with Jewish ancestry, married to an Israeli or have played in Israel for an extended period of time, can claim a passport or permanent residency which would allow them to play with Israeli status.	[ "Yuval Naim", "Ran Ben Shimon" ]
Who was the head coach of the team F.C. Ashdod in Apr, 2022?	April 17, 2022	{ "text": [ "Ran Ben Shimon" ] }	L2_Q1138191_P286_2	Ronny Awat is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from May, 2019 to Jan, 2020. Yuval Naim is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from Nov, 2018 to Jan, 2019. Ran Ben Shimon is the head coach of F.C. Ashdod from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.	F.C. AshdodF.C. Ironi Ashdod (, "Moadon Sport Ashdod", lit. " Ashdod Sport Club" or in short , "Mem Samekh Ashdod", lit. F.C. Ashdod) is an Israeli football club, playing in the port city of Ashdod. The unorthodox name of the team (unlike most Israeli soccer teams, the name indicates only the club's home city but no association, e.g. Hapoel, Maccabi, Beitar etc.) is the result of the union of two city rivals, Hapoel Ashdod and Maccabi Ironi Ashdod.During the club's first years, its kit colors were completely blue. However, when Haim Revivo took a more prominent role in the club, the colors were changed to red and yellow. The decision was made that the kit should incorporate the previous two clubs' colors, Hapoel having been red and Maccabi yellow.The club was not immediately successful after the merger, and fan support was lacking. During the 2004–05 season, they reached their greatest achievement, a third-place finish in the Israeli Premier League and a berth in the UEFA Cup. The club also reached the final of the Toto Cup, only to go out on penalty kicks. Their first time in a continental competition was not a memorable one, as they went out to the Slovenian PrvaLiga runners-up, NK Domžale.Prior to the 2014–15 season, the club added Ironi to its name. However, following a dispute with fans of the previous club, Maccabi Ironi Ashdod, during the 2–3 defeat against Maccabi Netanya in the last match of the regular season, the club's chairman, Jacky Ben-Zaken, decided to rename the club to Hapoel Ashdod and to play in red shirts. Despite warnings from the Israel Football Association, which informed the club that such changes during season are illegal, Ashdod did show up for their next match, which opened the Bottom playoff, against Hapoel Ra'anana in red shirts, with the caption "F.C. Hapoel Ashdod", and was eventually disciplined. Furthermore, the club was punished by FIFA with six points deduction for failing to pay an arbitration award to Nigerian club, Kaduna United, for the transfer of Efe Ambrose in 2010. As a result, the club has been dropped to the bottom place in the Israeli Premier League. However, in an exceptional decision, FIFA reversed its decision after it was found out that the club did pay the arbitration award. At the end of the season, the club finished at the bottom of the league, after failing to register a win during their last 15 matches, and for the first time in their history, were relegated to the second tier, Liga Leumit, following a defeat of 0–1 against Hapoel Tel Aviv.In the 2015–16 season, the club won Liga Leumit and made an immediate return to the Israeli Premier League."Updated 12 February 2021."Only up six non-Israeli nationals can be in an Israeli club squad (only five can play at the same time). Those with Jewish ancestry, married to an Israeli or have played in Israel for an extended period of time, can claim a passport or permanent residency which would allow them to play with Israeli status.	[ "Yuval Naim", "Ronny Awat" ]
Which employer did Peter Corke work for in Apr, 1982?	April 29, 1982	{ "text": [ "University of Melbourne" ] }	L2_Q15995002_P108_0	Peter Corke works for Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 2009. Peter Corke works for University of Melbourne from Jan, 1981 to Jan, 1983. Peter Corke works for Queensland University of Technology from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2022.	Peter CorkePeter Corke (born 24 August 1959) is an Australian roboticist known for his work on Visual Servoing, field robotics, online education, the online Robot Academy and the Robotics Toolbox and Machine Vision Toolbox for MATLAB (matrix laboratory). He is currently director of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Robotic Vision, and a Distinguished Professor of Robotic Vision at Queensland University of Technology. His research is concerned with robotic vision, flying robots and farming robots.Corke is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He is a founding editor of the Journal of Field Robotics, and a former member of the executive editorial board of The International Journal of Robotics Research.Corke received Bachelor of Engineering, Masters of Engineering and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Melbourne in Australia.In 1984 he worked at CSIRO, formerly the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, on robotics. He developed an open-source robot control system and vision applications in food processing and for real-time traffic monitoring.In 1995 he moved to Brisbane and established a program of research into mining automation focused on Dragline excavators, rope shovels and load-haul-dump (load-haul-dump) units. In 1996, Corke co-authored an early tutorial paper and later proposed the partitioned approach to visual control. He served as Research Director of the Autonomous Systems Laboratory of CSIRO's Information and Communications Technology Centre (ICTC), from 2004 to 2007.From 2005 to 2009 he worked on wireless sensor network technology, was a co-developer of the Fleck wireless sensor node, and investigated applications to environmental monitoring and agriculture, and virtual fencing. He was a senior principal research scientist when he left to take up a chair at the Queensland University of Technology in 2010.From 2009 to 2013, he served as editor-in-chief of the IEEE's "Robotics & Automation" magazine.	[ "Queensland University of Technology", "Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation" ]
Which employer did Peter Corke work for in May, 2002?	May 17, 2002	{ "text": [ "Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation" ] }	L2_Q15995002_P108_1	Peter Corke works for University of Melbourne from Jan, 1981 to Jan, 1983. Peter Corke works for Queensland University of Technology from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2022. Peter Corke works for Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 2009.	Peter CorkePeter Corke (born 24 August 1959) is an Australian roboticist known for his work on Visual Servoing, field robotics, online education, the online Robot Academy and the Robotics Toolbox and Machine Vision Toolbox for MATLAB (matrix laboratory). He is currently director of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Robotic Vision, and a Distinguished Professor of Robotic Vision at Queensland University of Technology. His research is concerned with robotic vision, flying robots and farming robots.Corke is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He is a founding editor of the Journal of Field Robotics, and a former member of the executive editorial board of The International Journal of Robotics Research.Corke received Bachelor of Engineering, Masters of Engineering and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Melbourne in Australia.In 1984 he worked at CSIRO, formerly the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, on robotics. He developed an open-source robot control system and vision applications in food processing and for real-time traffic monitoring.In 1995 he moved to Brisbane and established a program of research into mining automation focused on Dragline excavators, rope shovels and load-haul-dump (load-haul-dump) units. In 1996, Corke co-authored an early tutorial paper and later proposed the partitioned approach to visual control. He served as Research Director of the Autonomous Systems Laboratory of CSIRO's Information and Communications Technology Centre (ICTC), from 2004 to 2007.From 2005 to 2009 he worked on wireless sensor network technology, was a co-developer of the Fleck wireless sensor node, and investigated applications to environmental monitoring and agriculture, and virtual fencing. He was a senior principal research scientist when he left to take up a chair at the Queensland University of Technology in 2010.From 2009 to 2013, he served as editor-in-chief of the IEEE's "Robotics & Automation" magazine.	[ "Queensland University of Technology", "University of Melbourne" ]
Which employer did Peter Corke work for in Oct, 2014?	October 24, 2014	{ "text": [ "Queensland University of Technology" ] }	L2_Q15995002_P108_2	Peter Corke works for Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 2009. Peter Corke works for Queensland University of Technology from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2022. Peter Corke works for University of Melbourne from Jan, 1981 to Jan, 1983.	Peter CorkePeter Corke (born 24 August 1959) is an Australian roboticist known for his work on Visual Servoing, field robotics, online education, the online Robot Academy and the Robotics Toolbox and Machine Vision Toolbox for MATLAB (matrix laboratory). He is currently director of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Robotic Vision, and a Distinguished Professor of Robotic Vision at Queensland University of Technology. His research is concerned with robotic vision, flying robots and farming robots.Corke is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He is a founding editor of the Journal of Field Robotics, and a former member of the executive editorial board of The International Journal of Robotics Research.Corke received Bachelor of Engineering, Masters of Engineering and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Melbourne in Australia.In 1984 he worked at CSIRO, formerly the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, on robotics. He developed an open-source robot control system and vision applications in food processing and for real-time traffic monitoring.In 1995 he moved to Brisbane and established a program of research into mining automation focused on Dragline excavators, rope shovels and load-haul-dump (load-haul-dump) units. In 1996, Corke co-authored an early tutorial paper and later proposed the partitioned approach to visual control. He served as Research Director of the Autonomous Systems Laboratory of CSIRO's Information and Communications Technology Centre (ICTC), from 2004 to 2007.From 2005 to 2009 he worked on wireless sensor network technology, was a co-developer of the Fleck wireless sensor node, and investigated applications to environmental monitoring and agriculture, and virtual fencing. He was a senior principal research scientist when he left to take up a chair at the Queensland University of Technology in 2010.From 2009 to 2013, he served as editor-in-chief of the IEEE's "Robotics & Automation" magazine.	[ "Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation", "University of Melbourne" ]
Where was Bill Clinton educated in Sep, 1967?	September 18, 1967	{ "text": [ "Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service" ] }	L2_Q1124_P69_0	Bill Clinton attended Yale Law School from Sep, 1970 to May, 1973. Bill Clinton attended University College, Oxford from Jan, 1968 to Jan, 1970. Bill Clinton attended Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1968.	Bill ClintonWilliam Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician and attorney who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to his presidency, he served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 and as attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was known as a New Democrat, and many of his policies reflected a centrist "Third Way" political philosophy. He is the husband of Hillary Clinton, who was the Secretary of State (2009–2013) and ran for president in 2008 and 2016.Clinton was born and raised in Arkansas and attended Georgetown University, University College, Oxford, and Yale Law School. He met Hillary Rodham at Yale and they were married in 1975. After graduating from law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas and won election as state attorney general, followed by two non-consecutive terms as Arkansas governor. As governor, he overhauled the state's education system and served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Clinton was elected president in 1992, defeating incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he became the third-youngest president in history.Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. He signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, but failed to pass his plan for national health care reform. In the 1994 elections, the Republican Party won unified control of Congress for the first time in 40 years. In 1996, however, he was reelected in a landslide. He passed welfare reform and the State Children's Health Insurance Program, as well as financial deregulation measures. He also appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court. During the last three years of Clinton's presidency, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus—the first such surplus since 1969. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnian and Kosovo wars, signed the Dayton Peace agreement, signed the Iraq Liberation Act in opposition to Saddam Hussein, participated in the Oslo I Accord and Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, and assisted the Northern Ireland peace process. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives, becoming the second U.S. president to be impeached. The impeachment was based on accusations that Clinton committed perjury and obstruction of justice for the purpose of concealing his affair with Monica Lewinsky, a 22-year-old White House intern. He was acquitted by the Senate and completed his second term in office.Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U.S. president since 1945. His presidency has been ranked among the upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. However, he has also been subject to substantial criticism for his sex scandals, especially in the wake of the Me Too movement. Since leaving office, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the Clinton Foundation to address international causes such as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2009, he was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, he teamed up with George W. Bush to form the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund. He has remained active in Democratic Party politics, campaigning in his wife's presidential campaigns in the 2008 and 2016 presidential elections.Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. He is the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr., a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy (later Virginia Kelley). His parents had married on September 4, 1943, but this union later proved to be bigamous, as Blythe was still married to his third wife. Virginia traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after Bill was born, leaving him in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the southern United States was racially segregated, Clinton's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races. In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr., who co-owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950.Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Clinton turned 15 that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward him. Clinton has described his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and half-brother, Roger Clinton Jr. He threatened his stepfather with violence multiple times to protect them.In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School, where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician. Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but as he noted in his autobiography "My Life":Clinton began an interest in law at Hot Springs High, when he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman senator Catiline in a mock trial in his Latin class. After a vigorous defense that made use of his "budding rhetorical and political skills", he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck it "made him realize that someday he would study law".Clinton has identified two influential moments in his life, both occurring in 1963, that contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy. The other was watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech on TV, which impressed him so much that he later memorized it.With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degree in 1968. Georgetown was the only school where Clinton applied.In 1964 and 1965, Clinton won elections for class president. From 1964 to 1967, he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright. While in college, he became a brother of service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Clinton was also a member of the Order of DeMolay, a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry, but he never became a Freemason. He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity.Upon graduating from Georgetown in 1968, Clinton won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford, where he initially read for a B.Phil. in philosophy, politics, and economics but transferred to a B.Litt. in politics and, ultimately, a B.Phil. in politics. Clinton did not expect to return for the second year because of the draft and so he switched programs; this type of activity was common among other Rhodes Scholars from his cohort. He had received an offer to study at Yale Law School, Yale University, and so he left early to return to the United States and did not receive a degree from Oxford.During his time at Oxford, Clinton befriended fellow American Rhodes Scholar Frank Aller. In 1969, Aller received a draft letter that mandated deployment to the Vietnam War. Aller's 1971 suicide had an influential impact on Clinton. British writer and feminist Sara Maitland said of Clinton, "I remember Bill and Frank Aller taking me to a pub in Walton Street in the summer term of 1969 and talking to me about the Vietnam War. I knew nothing about it, and when Frank began to describe the napalming of civilians I began to cry. Bill said that feeling bad wasn't good enough. That was the first time I encountered the idea that liberal sensitivities weren't enough and you had to do something about such things". Clinton was a member of the Oxford University Basketball Club and also played for Oxford University's rugby union team.While Clinton was president in 1994, he received an honorary degree and a fellowship from the University of Oxford, specifically for being "a doughty and tireless champion of the cause of world peace", having "a powerful collaborator in his wife," and for winning "general applause for his achievement of resolving the gridlock that prevented an agreed budget".During the Vietnam War, Clinton received educational draft deferments while he was in England in 1968 and 1969. While at Oxford, he participated in Vietnam War protests and organized a Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event in October 1969. He was planning to attend law school in the U.S. and knew he might lose his deferment. Clinton tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard and the Air Force officer candidate school, and he then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program at the University of Arkansas.He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC, saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program that he opposed the war, but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC, National Guard, or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam. He further stated that because he opposed the war, he would not volunteer to serve in uniform, but would subject himself to the draft, and would serve if selected only as a way "to maintain my political viability within the system". Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number (311), meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers1 to 310 would be drafted before him, making it unlikely he would be called up. (In fact, the highest number drafted was 195.)Colonel Eugene Holmes, the Army officer who had been involved with Clinton's ROTC application, suspected that Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft and avoid serving in uniform. He issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign:During the 1992 campaign, it was revealed that Clinton's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve, which would have prevented him from being deployed to Vietnam. This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then. Although legal, Clinton's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized during his first presidential campaign by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans, some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright's influence to avoid military service. Clinton's 1992 campaign manager, James Carville, successfully argued that Clinton's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public, insisting that voters, many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War, would understand and appreciate his position.After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973. In 1971, he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham, in the Yale Law Library; she was a class year ahead of him. They began dating and were soon inseparable. After only about a month, Clinton postponed his summer plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election in order to move in with her in California. The couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.Clinton eventually moved to Texas with Rodham in 1972 to take a job leading McGovern's effort there. He spent considerable time in Dallas, at the campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue, where he had an office. Clinton worked with future two-term mayor of Dallas Ron Kirk, future governor of Texas Ann Richards, and then unknown television director and filmmaker Steven Spielberg.After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for the House of Representatives. Running in the conservative 3rd district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt, Clinton's campaign was bolstered by the anti-Republican and anti-incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal. Hammerschmidt, who had received 77 percent of the vote in 1972, defeated Clinton by only a 52 percent to 48 percent margin. In 1976, Clinton ran for Arkansas attorney general. With only minor opposition in the primary and no opposition at all in the general election, Clinton was elected.In 1978, Clinton entered the Arkansas gubernatorial primary. At just 31 years old, he was one of the youngest gubernatorial candidates in the state's history. Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978, having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana. Clinton was only 32 years old when he took office, the youngest governor in the country at the time and the second youngest governor in the history of Arkansas. Due to his youthful appearance, Clinton was often called the "Boy Governor". He worked on educational reform and directed the maintenance of Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose, of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat by Republican challenger Frank D. White in the general election that year. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey's Little Rock law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings. In 1982, he was elected governor a second time and kept the office for ten years. Effective with the 1986 election, Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years. During his term, he helped transform Arkansas's economy and improved the state's educational system. For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property-tax exemption. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform, smaller government, and other policies not supported by liberals. Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in 1984, the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level. Clinton delivered the Democratic response to Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority of his gubernatorial administration. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee was chaired by Clinton's wife Hillary, who was also an attorney as well as the chair of the Legal Services Corporation. The committee transformed Arkansas's education system. Proposed reforms included more spending for schools (supported by a sales-tax increase), better opportunities for gifted children, vocational education, higher teachers' salaries, more course variety, and compulsory teacher competency exams. The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session—the longest in Arkansas history. Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. He defeated four Republican candidates for governor: Lowe (1978), White (1982 and 1986), Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman (1984), and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock (1990).Also in the 1980s, the Clintons' personal and business affairs included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation, which later dogged his presidential administration. After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.According to some sources, Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years, but he eventually switched positions. However he might have felt previously, by 1992, Clinton was insisting that Democrats "should no longer feel guilty about protecting the innocent". During Clinton's final term as governor, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty had been reinstated in 1976). As Governor, he oversaw the first four executions carried out by the state of Arkansas since the death penalty was reinstated there in 1976: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection. To draw attention to his stance on capital punishment, Clinton flew home to Arkansas mid-campaign in 1992, in order to affirm in person that the controversial execution of Ricky Ray Rector, would go forward as scheduled.In 1987, the media speculated that Clinton would enter the presidential race after incumbent New York governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front-runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of multiple marital infidelities. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary for governor, initially favored—but ultimately vetoed—by the First Lady). For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, but his speech, which was 33 minutes long and twice the length it was expected to be, was criticized for being too long and poorly delivered. Clinton presented himself both as a moderate and as a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, and he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.Clinton's "third way" of moderate liberalism built up the nation's fiscal health and put the nation on a firm footing abroad amid globalization and the development of anti-American terrorist organizations.During his presidency, Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs, most of which were enacted into law or implemented by the executive branch. His policies, particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance. His policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits on budgetary matters. Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history.The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of $69 billion in 1998, $126 billion in 1999, and $236 billion in 2000, during the last three years of Clinton's presidency. Over the years of the recorded surplus, the gross national debt rose each year. At the end of the fiscal year (September 30) for each of the years a surplus was recorded, The U.S. treasury reported a gross debt of $5.413 trillion in 1997, $5.526 trillion in 1998, $5.656 trillion in 1999, and $5.674 trillion in 2000. Over the same period, the Office of Management and Budget reported an end of year (December 31) gross debt of $5.369 trillion in 1997, $5.478 trillion in 1998, $5.606 in 1999, and $5.629 trillion in 2000. At the end of his presidency, the Clintons moved to 15 Old House Lane in Chappaqua, New York, in order to satisfy a residency requirement for his wife to win election as a U.S. Senator from New York.In the first primary contest, the Iowa Caucus, Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary, reports surfaced that Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls. Following Super Bowl XXVI, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on "60 Minutes" to rebuff the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk, but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. News outlets labeled him "The Comeback Kid" for earning a firm second-place finish.Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South. With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted New York, which had many delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City, shedding his image as a regional candidate. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California.During the campaign, questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary's firm pay. Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".Clinton was still the governor of Arkansas while campaigning for U.S. president, and he returned to his home state to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death. According to both Arkansas state law and Federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in an article for "The New York Times" as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.Bush's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War, and he was described as unbeatable. When Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower Federal deficits, he reneged on his , which hurt his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep. By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent. Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention—with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform—many moderates were alienated. Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious. Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton. Clinton and his running mate, Al Gore, toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign, shoring up support and pledging a "new beginning".On March 26, 1992, during a Democratic fund raiser of the presidential campaign, Robert Rafsky confronted then Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas and asked what he was going to do about AIDS, to which Clinton replied, "I feel your pain." The televised exchange led to AIDS becoming an issue in the 1992 presidential election. On April 4, then candidate Clinton met with members of ACT UP and other leading AIDS advocates to discuss his AIDS agenda and agreed to make a major AIDS policy speech, to have people with HIV speak to the Democratic Convention, and to sign onto the AIDS United Action five point plan.Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (370 electoral votes) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (168 electoral votes) and billionaire populist Ross Perot (zero electoral votes), who ran as an independent on a platform that focused on domestic issues. Bush's steep decline in public approval was a significant part of Clinton's success. Clinton's victory in the election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress, the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter.According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States on January 20, 1993. Clinton was physically exhausted of the time, and had an inexperienced staff. His high levels of public support dropped in the first few weeks, as he made a series of embarrassing mistakes. His first choice for attorney general had not paid her taxes on babysitters and was forced to withdraw. The second appointee also withdrew for the same reason. Clinton had repeatedly promised to encourage gays in the military service, despite what he knew to be the strong opposition of the military leadership. He tried anyway, and was publicly opposed by the top generals, and forced by Congress to a compromise position of "Don't ask, don't tell" whereby gays could serve if and only if they kept it secret. He devised a $16 billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals, but it was defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate. His popularity at the 100 day mark of his term was the lowest of any president at that point. Public opinion did support one liberal program, and Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. This action had bipartisan support, and was popular with the public.Two days after taking office, on January 22, 1993—the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Roe v. Wade"—Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Reagan and Bush. Clinton said abortion should be kept "safe, legal, and rare"—a slogan that had been suggested by political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991, while campaigning. During the eight years of the Clinton administration, the abortion rate declined by 18 percent.On February 15, 1993, Clinton made his first address to the nation, announcing his plan to raise taxes to close a budget deficit. Two days later, in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress, Clinton unveiled his economic plan. The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class, which had been high on his campaign agenda. Clinton's advisers pressured him to raise taxes, based on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates.President Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted.In August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.On September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House. Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.In November 1993, David Hale—the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy—alleged that while governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair.On November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.In December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in "The American Spectator." In the affair later known as "Troopergate", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named "Paula", a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated "bad journalism", and that "the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives".That month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual preferences a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation. The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that "the President should lift the ban ... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress". Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not "out of whack". The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.On January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law. Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent against). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.The Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994, made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons." It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.On October 21, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov. The site was followed with three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011—Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."After two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.A speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the Federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Justice Department to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS.The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states. Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA "was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to "head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a "very reactionary Congress". Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, "the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected." Clinton himself said DOMA was something "which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that". Others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims "historic revisionism". In a July 2, 2011, editorial "The New York Times" opined, "The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments." Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.Despite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions, and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights. During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce. Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled. Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996. Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign. Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013. He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Despite the evidence, the Chinese government denied all accusations.As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.Ken Gormley, author of "The Death of American Virtue: Clinton vs. Starr", reveals in his book that Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines in November 1996. During his visit to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum in Manila, while he was on his way to meet with a senior member of the Philippine government, Clinton was saved from danger minutes before his motorcade was scheduled to drive over a bridge charged with a timed improvised explosive device (IED). According to officials, the IED was large enough to "blow up the entire presidential motorcade". Details of the plot were revealed to Gormley by Lewis C. Merletti, former member of the presidential protection detail and Director of the Secret Service. Intelligence officers intercepted a radio transmission indicating there was a wedding cake under a bridge. This alerted Merletti and others as Clinton's motorcade was scheduled to drive over a major bridge in downtown Manila. Once more, the word "wedding" was the code name used by a terrorist group for a past assassination attempt. Merletti wanted to reroute the motorcade, but the alternate route would add forty-five minutes to the drive time. Clinton was very angry, as he was already late for the meeting, but following the advice of the secret service possibly saved his life. Two other bombs had been discovered in Manila earlier in the week so the threat level that day was high. Security personnel at the Manila International Airport uncovered several grenades and a timing device in a travel bag. Officials also discovered a bomb near a major U.S. naval base. The president was scheduled to visit both these locations later in the week. An intense investigation took place into the events in Manila and it was discovered that the group behind the bridge bomb was a Saudi terrorist group in Afghanistan known as al-Qaeda and the plot was masterminded by Osama bin Laden. Until recently, this thwarted assassination attempt was never made public and remained top secret. Only top members of the U.S. intelligence community were aware of these events.In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7 percent of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4 percent of the popular vote). Clinton received 379 of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. He became the first Democratic incumbent since Lyndon B. Johnson to be elected to a second term and the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected president more than once.In the January 1997, State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress. In October 1997, he announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth. In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.After a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228–206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury and voted 221–212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice. Clinton was only the second U.S. president (after Andrew Johnson) to be impeached. Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed "substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment", the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, the Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998.While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during "Jones v. Clinton," Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit. The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition.The Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges. The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge. Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.On January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court that he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the "Jones" case.Clinton controversially issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey, who found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Some of Clinton's pardons remain a point of controversy.The Battle of Mogadishu occurred in Somalia in 1993. During the operation, two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and one was taken prisoner. There were many more Somali casualties. Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets—a spectacle broadcast on television news programs. In response, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.In April 1994, genocide broke out in Rwanda. Intelligence reports indicate that Clinton was aware a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis" was underway, long before the administration publicly used the word "genocide". Fearing a reprisal of the events in Somalia the previous year, Clinton chose not to intervene. President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."In 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on U.N. safe zones and pressure them into a peace accord that would end the Bosnian war. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement.In 1992, before his presidency, Clinton proposed sending a peace envoy to Northern Ireland, but this was dropped to avoid tensions with the UK government. In 1994, Clinton angered London by granting a visa to Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Féin, the IRA's political arm. In November 1995, Clinton became the first U.S. president to visit Northern Ireland, seeing both the divided communities of Belfast and later famously shaking Adams' hand, 14 months into an IRA ceasefire during the Troubles. Despite unionist criticism, Clinton used this as a way to negotiate an end to the violent conflict with London, Dublin, the paramilitaries and the other groups. Clinton went on to play a key role in the peace talks, which eventually led to the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.In February 1996, the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US$131.8million (equivalent to $ million in ) in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser.Capturing Osama bin Laden had been an objective of the U.S. government during the presidency of Bill Clinton (and continued to be until bin Laden's death in 2011). Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden, and that U.S. authorities rejected each offer, the 9/11 Commission Report stated that "we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim".In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al-Qaeda (which killed 224 people, including 12 Americans), Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden, all of which were unsuccessful. In August 1998, Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan, targeting the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan, which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons, and bin Laden's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan.In the midst of a brutal crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force. The stated reasoning behind the intervention was to stop the ethnic cleansing (and what the Clinton administration labeled genocide) of Albanians by Yugoslav anti-guerilla military units. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region. NATO announced its soldiers all survived combat, though two died in an Apache helicopter crash. Journalists in the popular press criticized genocide statements by the Clinton administration as false and greatly exaggerated. Prior to the bombing campaign on March 24, 1999, common estimates showed that the number of civilians killed in the over year long conflict in Kosovo had approximately been 1,800, of which were primarily Albanians but also Serbs and that there was no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing. In a post-war inquiry, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe noted "the patterns of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24". In 2001, the U.N.-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide (the intent to destroy a people) did not take place, but recognized "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" with the intention being the forceful departure of the Albanian population. The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is little difference. Slobodan Milošević, the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities, was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges including crimes against humanity and war crimes for his role in the war. He died in 2006, before the completion of the trial.In Clinton's 1998 State of the Union Address, he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces. The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to 19, 1998. At the end of this operation Clinton announced that "So long as Saddam remains in power, he will remain a threat to his people, his region, and the world. With our allies, we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program, while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors." American and British aircraft in the Iraq no-fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000.On October 10, 2000, Clinton signed into law the U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000, which granted permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) trade status to China. The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.Relations were damaged briefly by the American bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Clinton apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental.The U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000 granted China permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status (previously called most favoured nation (MFN)) when China becomes a full member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), ending annual review and approval of NTR. The Act was signed into law on October 10, 2000 by Clinton. President Clinton in 2000 pushed Congress to approve the U.S.-China trade agreement and China's accession to the WTO, saying that more trade with China would advance America's economic interests: "Economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world's population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways," said Clinton.After initial successes such as the Oslo Accords of the early 1990s, which also led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998, Clinton attempted an effort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the Camp David Summit in July 2000, which lasted 14 days. Following the failures of the peace talks, Clinton said Arafat had "missed the opportunity" to facilitate a "just and lasting peace". In his autobiography, Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit. Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base, in which the president offered the Clinton Parameters, the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada.Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994.Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts. In his eight years in office, 11.6% of Clinton's court of appeals nominees and 17.4% of his district court nominees were black; 32.8% of his court of appeals nominees and 28.5% of his district court nominees were women.Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/"New York Times" poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61%, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.As he was leaving office, a CNN/"USA Today"/Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him; 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life"; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his "involvement in personal scandal" than for "his accomplishments"; and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" The same percentage said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president, while 22 percent said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor". ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics—and he's done a heck of a good job."In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.In 2014, 18 percent of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II, making him the third most popular among postwar presidents, behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan. The same poll showed that just 3% of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II.A 2015 poll by "The Washington Post" asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness. According to their findings, Clinton ranked eighth overall, with a rating of 70 percent.Clinton was the first baby boomer president. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward stated that Clinton's innovative use of sound bite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning were a major factor in his high public approval ratings. When Clinton played the saxophone on "The Arsenio Hall Show", he was described by some religious conservatives as "the MTV president". Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Slick Willie", a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by "Pine Bluff Commercial" journalist Paul Greenberg; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller, Dale Bumpers and David Pryor. The claim "Slick Willie" would last throughout his presidency. His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba, especially in the South. Since 2000, he has frequently been referred to as "The Big Dog" or "Big Dog". His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail, earned him the nickname "Explainer-in-Chief".Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and insisted that the improvement of race relations would be a major theme of his presidency. In 1998, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton "the first Black president", saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas". Morrison noted that Clinton's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments, and she compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that, she said, blacks typically endure. Many viewed this comparison as unfair and disparaging both to Clinton and to the African-American community at large. Clinton, a Baptist, has been open about his faith.Several women have publicly accused Bill Clinton of sexual misconduct, including rape, harassment, and sexual assault. Additionally, some commentators have characterized Clinton's sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky as predatory or non-consensual, despite the fact that Lewinsky called the relationship consensual at the time. These allegations have been revisited and lent more credence in 2018, in light of the #MeToo movement, with many commentators and Democratic leaders now saying Clinton should have been compelled to resign after the Lewinsky affair.In 1994, Paula Jones initiated a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton, claiming he had made unwanted advances towards her in 1991; Clinton denied the allegations. In April 1998, the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright on the grounds that it lacked legal merit. Jones appealed Webber Wright's ruling, and her suit gained traction following Clinton's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998. In 1998, lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents that alleged a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Robert S. Bennett, Clinton's main lawyer for the case, called the filing "a pack of lies" and "an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States" funded by Clinton's political enemies. Clinton later agreed to an out-of-court settlement and paid Jones $850,000. Bennett said the president made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life. During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit, which was held at the White House, Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky—a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury.In 1998, Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton had groped her in a hallway in 1993. An independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI, inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation. On March 19, 1998, Julie Hiatt Steele, a friend of Willey, released an affidavit, accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey's account of being sexually groped by Clinton in the Oval Office. An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former Independent Counsel for prosecutorial misconduct. Linda Tripp's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances.Also in 1998, Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978, although she said she did not remember the exact date. To support her charge, Broaddrick notes that she told multiple witnesses in 1978 she had been raped by Clinton, something these witnesses also state in interviews to the press. Broaddrick had earlier filed an affidavit denying any "unwelcome sexual advances" and later repeated the denial in a sworn deposition. In a 1998 NBC interview wherein she detailed the alleged rape, Broaddrick said she had denied (under oath) being raped only to avoid testifying about the ordeal publicly.The Lewinsky scandal has had an enduring impact on Clinton's legacy, beyond his impeachment in 1998. In the wake of the #MeToo movement (which shed light on the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace), various commentators and Democratic political leaders, as well as Lewinsky herself, have revisited their view that the Lewinsky affair was consensual, and instead characterized it as an abuse of power or harassment, in light of the power differential between a president and a 22-year old intern. In 2018, Clinton was asked in several interviews about whether he should have resigned, and he said he had made the right decision in not resigning. During the 2018 Congressional elections, "The New York Times" alleged that having no Democratic candidate for office asking Clinton to campaign with him or her was a change that attributed to the revised understanding of the Lewinsky scandal. However, former DNC interim chair Donna Brazile previously urged Clinton in November 2017 to campaign during the 2018 midterm elections, in spite of New York U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand's recent criticism of the Lewinsky scandal.Bill Clinton has continued to be active in public life since leaving office in 2001, giving speeches, fundraising, and founding charitable organizations, and has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention.In 2002, Clinton warned that pre-emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences, and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start (though some dispute this). In 2005, Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control, while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal.The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, was dedicated in 2004. Clinton released a best-selling autobiography, "My Life", in 2004. In 2007, he released "", which also became a "New York Times" Best Seller and garnered positive reviews.In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami, U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort. After Hurricane Katrina, Clinton joined with fellow former president George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005, and the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year. As part of the tsunami effort, these two ex-presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show, and traveled to the affected areas. They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in April 2007.Based on his philanthropic worldview, Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance. This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI), which strives to combat that disease, and has worked with the Australian government toward that end. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005, attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict. In 2005, Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugared drinks in schools. Clinton's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities, and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative. The foundation has received donations from many governments all over the world, including Asia and the Middle East. In 2008, Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti-malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations. Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down.In the early 2000s, Clinton took flights on Jeffrey Epstein's private jet in connection with Clinton Foundation work. Years later, Epstein was convicted on sex trafficking charges. Clinton's office released a statement in 2019 saying, "President Clinton knows nothing about the terrible crimes Jeffrey Epstein pleaded guilty to in Florida some years ago, or those with which he has been recently charged in New York. In 2002 and 2003, President Clinton took four trips on Jeffrey Epstein's airplane: one to Europe, one to Asia, and two to Africa, which included stops in connection with the work of the Clinton Foundation. Staff, supporters of the Foundation, and his Secret Service detail traveled on every leg of every trip. ... He's not spoken to Epstein in well over a decade."During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary. Through speaking engagements and fundraisers, he was able to raise $10 million toward her campaign. Some worried that as an ex-president, he was too active on the trail, too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama, and alienating his supporters at home and abroad. Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary, which Obama won. Later in the 2008 primaries, there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary's staffs, especially in Pennsylvania. Considering Bill's remarks, many thought he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary. Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008, when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead". After Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was over, Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt.In 2009, Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned there. Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China. Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994. After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, Kim issued a pardon.Since then, Clinton has been assigned many other diplomatic missions. He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 following a series of hurricanes which caused $1 billion in damages. Clinton organized a conference with the Inter-American Development Bank, where a new industrial park was discussed in an effort to "build back better". In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti's recovery. Funds began pouring into Haiti, which led to funding becoming available for Caracol Industrial Park in a part of the country unaffected by the earthquake. While Hillary Clinton was in South Korea, she and Cheryl Mills worked to convince SAE-A, a large apparel subcontractor, to invest in Haiti despite the company's deep concerns about plans to raise the minimum wage. In the summer of 2010, the South Korean company signed a contract at the U.S. State Department, ensuring that the new industrial park would have a key tenant. In 2010, Clinton announced support of, and delivered the keynote address for, the inauguration of NTR, Ireland's first environmental foundation. At the 2012 Democratic National Convention, Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama.During the 2016 presidential election, Clinton again encouraged voters to support Hillary, and made appearances speaking on the campaign trail. In a series of tweets, then-President-elect Donald Trump criticized his ability to get people out to vote. Clinton served as a member of the electoral college for the state of New York. He voted for the Democratic ticket consisting of his wife Hillary and her running-mate Tim Kaine.On September 7, 2017, Clinton partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.On September 1, 2018, Clinton, his wife, and the former U.S. Presidents Barack Obama, and George W. Bush and their spouses attended the funeral of Sen. John McCain of Arizona at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. Then-President Donald Trump did not attend the service. In 2019, he attended the funeral of his former political opponent George H. W. Bush with his wife Hillary Clinton, and former Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, and then-President Donald Trump and their spouses. In 2020, Clinton again served as a member of the United States Electoral College from New York, casting his vote for the successful Democratic ticket of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris. The Clintons attended Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, alongside George W. Bush, Laura Bush, Barack Obama and Michelle Obama.In September 2004, Clinton underwent quadruple bypass surgery. In March 2005, he again underwent surgery, this time for a partially collapsed lung. On February 11, 2010, he was rushed to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Hospital in Manhattan after complaining of chest pains, and he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart. After this procedure, Clinton adopted a plant-based whole foods (vegan) diet, which had been recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn. However, he has since incorporated fish and lean proteins at the suggestion of Dr. Mark Hyman, a proponent of the pseudoscientific ethos of functional medicine. As a result, he is no longer a strict vegan.The Clintons incurred several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency, which were paid off four years after he left office. Bill and Hillary Clinton have each earned millions of dollars from book publishing. In 2016, "Forbes" reported Bill and Hillary Clinton made about $240million in the 15years from January 2001, to December 2015, (mostly from paid speeches, business consulting and book-writing). Also in 2016, CNN reported the Clintons combined to receive more than $153million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015. In May 2015, "The Hill" reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $25million in speaking fees since the start of 2014, and that Hillary Clinton also made $5million or more from her book, "Hard Choices", during the same time period. In July 2014, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that at the end of 2012, the Clintons were worth between $5million and $25.5million, and that in 2012 (the last year they were required to disclose the information) the Clintons made between $16 and $17million, mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president. Clinton earned more than $104million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012. In June 2014, ABC News and "The Washington Post" reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $100million giving paid speeches since leaving public office, and in 2008, "The New York Times" reported that the Clintons' income tax returns show they made $109million in the eight years from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, including almost $92million from his speaking and book-writing.Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year since leaving office in 2001, mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe; he often earned $100,000 to $300,000 per speech. Russian investment bank with ties to the Kremlin paid Clinton $500,000 for a speech in Moscow. Hillary Clinton said she and Bill came out of the White House financially "broke" and in debt, especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House. "We had no money when we got there, and we struggled to, you know, piece together the resources for mortgages, for houses, for Chelsea's education." She added, "Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of, obviously, taxes; and then pay off the debts, and get us houses, and take care of family members."In 2007, with Jimmy Carter, he founded the New Baptist Covenant Baptist organization.At the age of 10, he was baptized at Park Place Baptist Church in Hot Springs, Arkansas and remained a member of a Baptist church.In 1975, he married Hillary Rodham, whom he met while studying at Yale University. They had Chelsea Clinton, their only daughter.Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees, including Doctorate of Law degrees and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees. He is an honorary fellow of University College, Oxford, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar, although he did not complete his studies there. Schools have been named for Clinton, and statues have been built to pay him homage. U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, and New York. He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001. The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock, Arkansas, in his honor on December 5, 2001.He has been honored in various other ways, in countries that include the Czech Republic, Papua New Guinea, Germany, and Kosovo. The Republic of Kosovo, in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War, renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue.Clinton was selected as "Time" "Man of the Year" in 1992, and again in 1998, along with Ken Starr. From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. He was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children, a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, a TED Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design), and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community. Bill Clinton accepted an honorary membership into the Golden Key International Honour Society, along with other notables such as Bill Ford, Desmond Tutu, and Elie Wiesel. Golden Key International Honour Society is the world's largest international collegiate honor society for graduate and undergraduate students, and has strong relationships with over 400 universities around the world.In 2011, President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross "for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12, 2010". Clinton declared at the ceremony that "in the United States of America, I really don't believe former American presidents need awards anymore, but I am very honored by this one, I love Haiti, and I believe in its promise".U.S. president Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20, 2013.Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on "Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf", a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev's "Peter and the Wolf" performed by the Russian National Orchestra, on Pentatone, together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren. This garnered Clinton the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.The audiobook edition of his autobiography, "My Life", read by Clinton himself, won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album as well as the Audie Award as the Audiobook of the Year.Clinton has two more Grammy nominations for his audiobooks: "" in 2007 and "Back to Work" in 2012.	[ "University College, Oxford", "Yale Law School" ]
Where was Bill Clinton educated in Oct, 1968?	October 30, 1968	{ "text": [ "University College, Oxford" ] }	L2_Q1124_P69_1	Bill Clinton attended Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1968. Bill Clinton attended Yale Law School from Sep, 1970 to May, 1973. Bill Clinton attended University College, Oxford from Jan, 1968 to Jan, 1970.	Bill ClintonWilliam Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician and attorney who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to his presidency, he served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 and as attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was known as a New Democrat, and many of his policies reflected a centrist "Third Way" political philosophy. He is the husband of Hillary Clinton, who was the Secretary of State (2009–2013) and ran for president in 2008 and 2016.Clinton was born and raised in Arkansas and attended Georgetown University, University College, Oxford, and Yale Law School. He met Hillary Rodham at Yale and they were married in 1975. After graduating from law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas and won election as state attorney general, followed by two non-consecutive terms as Arkansas governor. As governor, he overhauled the state's education system and served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Clinton was elected president in 1992, defeating incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he became the third-youngest president in history.Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. He signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, but failed to pass his plan for national health care reform. In the 1994 elections, the Republican Party won unified control of Congress for the first time in 40 years. In 1996, however, he was reelected in a landslide. He passed welfare reform and the State Children's Health Insurance Program, as well as financial deregulation measures. He also appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court. During the last three years of Clinton's presidency, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus—the first such surplus since 1969. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnian and Kosovo wars, signed the Dayton Peace agreement, signed the Iraq Liberation Act in opposition to Saddam Hussein, participated in the Oslo I Accord and Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, and assisted the Northern Ireland peace process. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives, becoming the second U.S. president to be impeached. The impeachment was based on accusations that Clinton committed perjury and obstruction of justice for the purpose of concealing his affair with Monica Lewinsky, a 22-year-old White House intern. He was acquitted by the Senate and completed his second term in office.Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U.S. president since 1945. His presidency has been ranked among the upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. However, he has also been subject to substantial criticism for his sex scandals, especially in the wake of the Me Too movement. Since leaving office, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the Clinton Foundation to address international causes such as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2009, he was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, he teamed up with George W. Bush to form the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund. He has remained active in Democratic Party politics, campaigning in his wife's presidential campaigns in the 2008 and 2016 presidential elections.Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. He is the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr., a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy (later Virginia Kelley). His parents had married on September 4, 1943, but this union later proved to be bigamous, as Blythe was still married to his third wife. Virginia traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after Bill was born, leaving him in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the southern United States was racially segregated, Clinton's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races. In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr., who co-owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950.Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Clinton turned 15 that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward him. Clinton has described his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and half-brother, Roger Clinton Jr. He threatened his stepfather with violence multiple times to protect them.In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School, where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician. Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but as he noted in his autobiography "My Life":Clinton began an interest in law at Hot Springs High, when he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman senator Catiline in a mock trial in his Latin class. After a vigorous defense that made use of his "budding rhetorical and political skills", he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck it "made him realize that someday he would study law".Clinton has identified two influential moments in his life, both occurring in 1963, that contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy. The other was watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech on TV, which impressed him so much that he later memorized it.With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degree in 1968. Georgetown was the only school where Clinton applied.In 1964 and 1965, Clinton won elections for class president. From 1964 to 1967, he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright. While in college, he became a brother of service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Clinton was also a member of the Order of DeMolay, a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry, but he never became a Freemason. He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity.Upon graduating from Georgetown in 1968, Clinton won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford, where he initially read for a B.Phil. in philosophy, politics, and economics but transferred to a B.Litt. in politics and, ultimately, a B.Phil. in politics. Clinton did not expect to return for the second year because of the draft and so he switched programs; this type of activity was common among other Rhodes Scholars from his cohort. He had received an offer to study at Yale Law School, Yale University, and so he left early to return to the United States and did not receive a degree from Oxford.During his time at Oxford, Clinton befriended fellow American Rhodes Scholar Frank Aller. In 1969, Aller received a draft letter that mandated deployment to the Vietnam War. Aller's 1971 suicide had an influential impact on Clinton. British writer and feminist Sara Maitland said of Clinton, "I remember Bill and Frank Aller taking me to a pub in Walton Street in the summer term of 1969 and talking to me about the Vietnam War. I knew nothing about it, and when Frank began to describe the napalming of civilians I began to cry. Bill said that feeling bad wasn't good enough. That was the first time I encountered the idea that liberal sensitivities weren't enough and you had to do something about such things". Clinton was a member of the Oxford University Basketball Club and also played for Oxford University's rugby union team.While Clinton was president in 1994, he received an honorary degree and a fellowship from the University of Oxford, specifically for being "a doughty and tireless champion of the cause of world peace", having "a powerful collaborator in his wife," and for winning "general applause for his achievement of resolving the gridlock that prevented an agreed budget".During the Vietnam War, Clinton received educational draft deferments while he was in England in 1968 and 1969. While at Oxford, he participated in Vietnam War protests and organized a Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event in October 1969. He was planning to attend law school in the U.S. and knew he might lose his deferment. Clinton tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard and the Air Force officer candidate school, and he then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program at the University of Arkansas.He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC, saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program that he opposed the war, but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC, National Guard, or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam. He further stated that because he opposed the war, he would not volunteer to serve in uniform, but would subject himself to the draft, and would serve if selected only as a way "to maintain my political viability within the system". Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number (311), meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers1 to 310 would be drafted before him, making it unlikely he would be called up. (In fact, the highest number drafted was 195.)Colonel Eugene Holmes, the Army officer who had been involved with Clinton's ROTC application, suspected that Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft and avoid serving in uniform. He issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign:During the 1992 campaign, it was revealed that Clinton's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve, which would have prevented him from being deployed to Vietnam. This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then. Although legal, Clinton's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized during his first presidential campaign by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans, some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright's influence to avoid military service. Clinton's 1992 campaign manager, James Carville, successfully argued that Clinton's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public, insisting that voters, many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War, would understand and appreciate his position.After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973. In 1971, he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham, in the Yale Law Library; she was a class year ahead of him. They began dating and were soon inseparable. After only about a month, Clinton postponed his summer plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election in order to move in with her in California. The couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.Clinton eventually moved to Texas with Rodham in 1972 to take a job leading McGovern's effort there. He spent considerable time in Dallas, at the campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue, where he had an office. Clinton worked with future two-term mayor of Dallas Ron Kirk, future governor of Texas Ann Richards, and then unknown television director and filmmaker Steven Spielberg.After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for the House of Representatives. Running in the conservative 3rd district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt, Clinton's campaign was bolstered by the anti-Republican and anti-incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal. Hammerschmidt, who had received 77 percent of the vote in 1972, defeated Clinton by only a 52 percent to 48 percent margin. In 1976, Clinton ran for Arkansas attorney general. With only minor opposition in the primary and no opposition at all in the general election, Clinton was elected.In 1978, Clinton entered the Arkansas gubernatorial primary. At just 31 years old, he was one of the youngest gubernatorial candidates in the state's history. Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978, having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana. Clinton was only 32 years old when he took office, the youngest governor in the country at the time and the second youngest governor in the history of Arkansas. Due to his youthful appearance, Clinton was often called the "Boy Governor". He worked on educational reform and directed the maintenance of Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose, of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat by Republican challenger Frank D. White in the general election that year. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey's Little Rock law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings. In 1982, he was elected governor a second time and kept the office for ten years. Effective with the 1986 election, Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years. During his term, he helped transform Arkansas's economy and improved the state's educational system. For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property-tax exemption. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform, smaller government, and other policies not supported by liberals. Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in 1984, the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level. Clinton delivered the Democratic response to Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority of his gubernatorial administration. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee was chaired by Clinton's wife Hillary, who was also an attorney as well as the chair of the Legal Services Corporation. The committee transformed Arkansas's education system. Proposed reforms included more spending for schools (supported by a sales-tax increase), better opportunities for gifted children, vocational education, higher teachers' salaries, more course variety, and compulsory teacher competency exams. The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session—the longest in Arkansas history. Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. He defeated four Republican candidates for governor: Lowe (1978), White (1982 and 1986), Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman (1984), and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock (1990).Also in the 1980s, the Clintons' personal and business affairs included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation, which later dogged his presidential administration. After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.According to some sources, Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years, but he eventually switched positions. However he might have felt previously, by 1992, Clinton was insisting that Democrats "should no longer feel guilty about protecting the innocent". During Clinton's final term as governor, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty had been reinstated in 1976). As Governor, he oversaw the first four executions carried out by the state of Arkansas since the death penalty was reinstated there in 1976: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection. To draw attention to his stance on capital punishment, Clinton flew home to Arkansas mid-campaign in 1992, in order to affirm in person that the controversial execution of Ricky Ray Rector, would go forward as scheduled.In 1987, the media speculated that Clinton would enter the presidential race after incumbent New York governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front-runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of multiple marital infidelities. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary for governor, initially favored—but ultimately vetoed—by the First Lady). For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, but his speech, which was 33 minutes long and twice the length it was expected to be, was criticized for being too long and poorly delivered. Clinton presented himself both as a moderate and as a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, and he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.Clinton's "third way" of moderate liberalism built up the nation's fiscal health and put the nation on a firm footing abroad amid globalization and the development of anti-American terrorist organizations.During his presidency, Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs, most of which were enacted into law or implemented by the executive branch. His policies, particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance. His policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits on budgetary matters. Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history.The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of $69 billion in 1998, $126 billion in 1999, and $236 billion in 2000, during the last three years of Clinton's presidency. Over the years of the recorded surplus, the gross national debt rose each year. At the end of the fiscal year (September 30) for each of the years a surplus was recorded, The U.S. treasury reported a gross debt of $5.413 trillion in 1997, $5.526 trillion in 1998, $5.656 trillion in 1999, and $5.674 trillion in 2000. Over the same period, the Office of Management and Budget reported an end of year (December 31) gross debt of $5.369 trillion in 1997, $5.478 trillion in 1998, $5.606 in 1999, and $5.629 trillion in 2000. At the end of his presidency, the Clintons moved to 15 Old House Lane in Chappaqua, New York, in order to satisfy a residency requirement for his wife to win election as a U.S. Senator from New York.In the first primary contest, the Iowa Caucus, Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary, reports surfaced that Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls. Following Super Bowl XXVI, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on "60 Minutes" to rebuff the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk, but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. News outlets labeled him "The Comeback Kid" for earning a firm second-place finish.Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South. With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted New York, which had many delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City, shedding his image as a regional candidate. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California.During the campaign, questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary's firm pay. Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".Clinton was still the governor of Arkansas while campaigning for U.S. president, and he returned to his home state to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death. According to both Arkansas state law and Federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in an article for "The New York Times" as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.Bush's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War, and he was described as unbeatable. When Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower Federal deficits, he reneged on his , which hurt his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep. By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent. Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention—with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform—many moderates were alienated. Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious. Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton. Clinton and his running mate, Al Gore, toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign, shoring up support and pledging a "new beginning".On March 26, 1992, during a Democratic fund raiser of the presidential campaign, Robert Rafsky confronted then Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas and asked what he was going to do about AIDS, to which Clinton replied, "I feel your pain." The televised exchange led to AIDS becoming an issue in the 1992 presidential election. On April 4, then candidate Clinton met with members of ACT UP and other leading AIDS advocates to discuss his AIDS agenda and agreed to make a major AIDS policy speech, to have people with HIV speak to the Democratic Convention, and to sign onto the AIDS United Action five point plan.Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (370 electoral votes) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (168 electoral votes) and billionaire populist Ross Perot (zero electoral votes), who ran as an independent on a platform that focused on domestic issues. Bush's steep decline in public approval was a significant part of Clinton's success. Clinton's victory in the election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress, the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter.According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States on January 20, 1993. Clinton was physically exhausted of the time, and had an inexperienced staff. His high levels of public support dropped in the first few weeks, as he made a series of embarrassing mistakes. His first choice for attorney general had not paid her taxes on babysitters and was forced to withdraw. The second appointee also withdrew for the same reason. Clinton had repeatedly promised to encourage gays in the military service, despite what he knew to be the strong opposition of the military leadership. He tried anyway, and was publicly opposed by the top generals, and forced by Congress to a compromise position of "Don't ask, don't tell" whereby gays could serve if and only if they kept it secret. He devised a $16 billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals, but it was defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate. His popularity at the 100 day mark of his term was the lowest of any president at that point. Public opinion did support one liberal program, and Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. This action had bipartisan support, and was popular with the public.Two days after taking office, on January 22, 1993—the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Roe v. Wade"—Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Reagan and Bush. Clinton said abortion should be kept "safe, legal, and rare"—a slogan that had been suggested by political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991, while campaigning. During the eight years of the Clinton administration, the abortion rate declined by 18 percent.On February 15, 1993, Clinton made his first address to the nation, announcing his plan to raise taxes to close a budget deficit. Two days later, in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress, Clinton unveiled his economic plan. The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class, which had been high on his campaign agenda. Clinton's advisers pressured him to raise taxes, based on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates.President Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted.In August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.On September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House. Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.In November 1993, David Hale—the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy—alleged that while governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair.On November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.In December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in "The American Spectator." In the affair later known as "Troopergate", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named "Paula", a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated "bad journalism", and that "the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives".That month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual preferences a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation. The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that "the President should lift the ban ... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress". Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not "out of whack". The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.On January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law. Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent against). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.The Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994, made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons." It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.On October 21, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov. The site was followed with three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011—Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."After two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.A speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the Federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Justice Department to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS.The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states. Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA "was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to "head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a "very reactionary Congress". Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, "the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected." Clinton himself said DOMA was something "which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that". Others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims "historic revisionism". In a July 2, 2011, editorial "The New York Times" opined, "The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments." Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.Despite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions, and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights. During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce. Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled. Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996. Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign. Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013. He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Despite the evidence, the Chinese government denied all accusations.As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.Ken Gormley, author of "The Death of American Virtue: Clinton vs. Starr", reveals in his book that Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines in November 1996. During his visit to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum in Manila, while he was on his way to meet with a senior member of the Philippine government, Clinton was saved from danger minutes before his motorcade was scheduled to drive over a bridge charged with a timed improvised explosive device (IED). According to officials, the IED was large enough to "blow up the entire presidential motorcade". Details of the plot were revealed to Gormley by Lewis C. Merletti, former member of the presidential protection detail and Director of the Secret Service. Intelligence officers intercepted a radio transmission indicating there was a wedding cake under a bridge. This alerted Merletti and others as Clinton's motorcade was scheduled to drive over a major bridge in downtown Manila. Once more, the word "wedding" was the code name used by a terrorist group for a past assassination attempt. Merletti wanted to reroute the motorcade, but the alternate route would add forty-five minutes to the drive time. Clinton was very angry, as he was already late for the meeting, but following the advice of the secret service possibly saved his life. Two other bombs had been discovered in Manila earlier in the week so the threat level that day was high. Security personnel at the Manila International Airport uncovered several grenades and a timing device in a travel bag. Officials also discovered a bomb near a major U.S. naval base. The president was scheduled to visit both these locations later in the week. An intense investigation took place into the events in Manila and it was discovered that the group behind the bridge bomb was a Saudi terrorist group in Afghanistan known as al-Qaeda and the plot was masterminded by Osama bin Laden. Until recently, this thwarted assassination attempt was never made public and remained top secret. Only top members of the U.S. intelligence community were aware of these events.In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7 percent of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4 percent of the popular vote). Clinton received 379 of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. He became the first Democratic incumbent since Lyndon B. Johnson to be elected to a second term and the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected president more than once.In the January 1997, State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress. In October 1997, he announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth. In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.After a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228–206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury and voted 221–212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice. Clinton was only the second U.S. president (after Andrew Johnson) to be impeached. Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed "substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment", the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, the Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998.While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during "Jones v. Clinton," Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit. The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition.The Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges. The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge. Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.On January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court that he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the "Jones" case.Clinton controversially issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey, who found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Some of Clinton's pardons remain a point of controversy.The Battle of Mogadishu occurred in Somalia in 1993. During the operation, two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and one was taken prisoner. There were many more Somali casualties. Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets—a spectacle broadcast on television news programs. In response, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.In April 1994, genocide broke out in Rwanda. Intelligence reports indicate that Clinton was aware a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis" was underway, long before the administration publicly used the word "genocide". Fearing a reprisal of the events in Somalia the previous year, Clinton chose not to intervene. President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."In 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on U.N. safe zones and pressure them into a peace accord that would end the Bosnian war. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement.In 1992, before his presidency, Clinton proposed sending a peace envoy to Northern Ireland, but this was dropped to avoid tensions with the UK government. In 1994, Clinton angered London by granting a visa to Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Féin, the IRA's political arm. In November 1995, Clinton became the first U.S. president to visit Northern Ireland, seeing both the divided communities of Belfast and later famously shaking Adams' hand, 14 months into an IRA ceasefire during the Troubles. Despite unionist criticism, Clinton used this as a way to negotiate an end to the violent conflict with London, Dublin, the paramilitaries and the other groups. Clinton went on to play a key role in the peace talks, which eventually led to the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.In February 1996, the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US$131.8million (equivalent to $ million in ) in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser.Capturing Osama bin Laden had been an objective of the U.S. government during the presidency of Bill Clinton (and continued to be until bin Laden's death in 2011). Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden, and that U.S. authorities rejected each offer, the 9/11 Commission Report stated that "we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim".In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al-Qaeda (which killed 224 people, including 12 Americans), Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden, all of which were unsuccessful. In August 1998, Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan, targeting the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan, which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons, and bin Laden's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan.In the midst of a brutal crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force. The stated reasoning behind the intervention was to stop the ethnic cleansing (and what the Clinton administration labeled genocide) of Albanians by Yugoslav anti-guerilla military units. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region. NATO announced its soldiers all survived combat, though two died in an Apache helicopter crash. Journalists in the popular press criticized genocide statements by the Clinton administration as false and greatly exaggerated. Prior to the bombing campaign on March 24, 1999, common estimates showed that the number of civilians killed in the over year long conflict in Kosovo had approximately been 1,800, of which were primarily Albanians but also Serbs and that there was no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing. In a post-war inquiry, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe noted "the patterns of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24". In 2001, the U.N.-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide (the intent to destroy a people) did not take place, but recognized "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" with the intention being the forceful departure of the Albanian population. The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is little difference. Slobodan Milošević, the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities, was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges including crimes against humanity and war crimes for his role in the war. He died in 2006, before the completion of the trial.In Clinton's 1998 State of the Union Address, he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces. The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to 19, 1998. At the end of this operation Clinton announced that "So long as Saddam remains in power, he will remain a threat to his people, his region, and the world. With our allies, we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program, while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors." American and British aircraft in the Iraq no-fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000.On October 10, 2000, Clinton signed into law the U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000, which granted permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) trade status to China. The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.Relations were damaged briefly by the American bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Clinton apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental.The U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000 granted China permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status (previously called most favoured nation (MFN)) when China becomes a full member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), ending annual review and approval of NTR. The Act was signed into law on October 10, 2000 by Clinton. President Clinton in 2000 pushed Congress to approve the U.S.-China trade agreement and China's accession to the WTO, saying that more trade with China would advance America's economic interests: "Economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world's population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways," said Clinton.After initial successes such as the Oslo Accords of the early 1990s, which also led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998, Clinton attempted an effort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the Camp David Summit in July 2000, which lasted 14 days. Following the failures of the peace talks, Clinton said Arafat had "missed the opportunity" to facilitate a "just and lasting peace". In his autobiography, Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit. Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base, in which the president offered the Clinton Parameters, the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada.Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994.Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts. In his eight years in office, 11.6% of Clinton's court of appeals nominees and 17.4% of his district court nominees were black; 32.8% of his court of appeals nominees and 28.5% of his district court nominees were women.Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/"New York Times" poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61%, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.As he was leaving office, a CNN/"USA Today"/Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him; 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life"; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his "involvement in personal scandal" than for "his accomplishments"; and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" The same percentage said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president, while 22 percent said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor". ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics—and he's done a heck of a good job."In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.In 2014, 18 percent of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II, making him the third most popular among postwar presidents, behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan. The same poll showed that just 3% of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II.A 2015 poll by "The Washington Post" asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness. According to their findings, Clinton ranked eighth overall, with a rating of 70 percent.Clinton was the first baby boomer president. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward stated that Clinton's innovative use of sound bite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning were a major factor in his high public approval ratings. When Clinton played the saxophone on "The Arsenio Hall Show", he was described by some religious conservatives as "the MTV president". Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Slick Willie", a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by "Pine Bluff Commercial" journalist Paul Greenberg; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller, Dale Bumpers and David Pryor. The claim "Slick Willie" would last throughout his presidency. His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba, especially in the South. Since 2000, he has frequently been referred to as "The Big Dog" or "Big Dog". His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail, earned him the nickname "Explainer-in-Chief".Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and insisted that the improvement of race relations would be a major theme of his presidency. In 1998, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton "the first Black president", saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas". Morrison noted that Clinton's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments, and she compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that, she said, blacks typically endure. Many viewed this comparison as unfair and disparaging both to Clinton and to the African-American community at large. Clinton, a Baptist, has been open about his faith.Several women have publicly accused Bill Clinton of sexual misconduct, including rape, harassment, and sexual assault. Additionally, some commentators have characterized Clinton's sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky as predatory or non-consensual, despite the fact that Lewinsky called the relationship consensual at the time. These allegations have been revisited and lent more credence in 2018, in light of the #MeToo movement, with many commentators and Democratic leaders now saying Clinton should have been compelled to resign after the Lewinsky affair.In 1994, Paula Jones initiated a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton, claiming he had made unwanted advances towards her in 1991; Clinton denied the allegations. In April 1998, the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright on the grounds that it lacked legal merit. Jones appealed Webber Wright's ruling, and her suit gained traction following Clinton's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998. In 1998, lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents that alleged a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Robert S. Bennett, Clinton's main lawyer for the case, called the filing "a pack of lies" and "an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States" funded by Clinton's political enemies. Clinton later agreed to an out-of-court settlement and paid Jones $850,000. Bennett said the president made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life. During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit, which was held at the White House, Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky—a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury.In 1998, Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton had groped her in a hallway in 1993. An independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI, inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation. On March 19, 1998, Julie Hiatt Steele, a friend of Willey, released an affidavit, accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey's account of being sexually groped by Clinton in the Oval Office. An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former Independent Counsel for prosecutorial misconduct. Linda Tripp's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances.Also in 1998, Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978, although she said she did not remember the exact date. To support her charge, Broaddrick notes that she told multiple witnesses in 1978 she had been raped by Clinton, something these witnesses also state in interviews to the press. Broaddrick had earlier filed an affidavit denying any "unwelcome sexual advances" and later repeated the denial in a sworn deposition. In a 1998 NBC interview wherein she detailed the alleged rape, Broaddrick said she had denied (under oath) being raped only to avoid testifying about the ordeal publicly.The Lewinsky scandal has had an enduring impact on Clinton's legacy, beyond his impeachment in 1998. In the wake of the #MeToo movement (which shed light on the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace), various commentators and Democratic political leaders, as well as Lewinsky herself, have revisited their view that the Lewinsky affair was consensual, and instead characterized it as an abuse of power or harassment, in light of the power differential between a president and a 22-year old intern. In 2018, Clinton was asked in several interviews about whether he should have resigned, and he said he had made the right decision in not resigning. During the 2018 Congressional elections, "The New York Times" alleged that having no Democratic candidate for office asking Clinton to campaign with him or her was a change that attributed to the revised understanding of the Lewinsky scandal. However, former DNC interim chair Donna Brazile previously urged Clinton in November 2017 to campaign during the 2018 midterm elections, in spite of New York U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand's recent criticism of the Lewinsky scandal.Bill Clinton has continued to be active in public life since leaving office in 2001, giving speeches, fundraising, and founding charitable organizations, and has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention.In 2002, Clinton warned that pre-emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences, and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start (though some dispute this). In 2005, Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control, while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal.The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, was dedicated in 2004. Clinton released a best-selling autobiography, "My Life", in 2004. In 2007, he released "", which also became a "New York Times" Best Seller and garnered positive reviews.In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami, U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort. After Hurricane Katrina, Clinton joined with fellow former president George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005, and the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year. As part of the tsunami effort, these two ex-presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show, and traveled to the affected areas. They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in April 2007.Based on his philanthropic worldview, Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance. This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI), which strives to combat that disease, and has worked with the Australian government toward that end. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005, attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict. In 2005, Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugared drinks in schools. Clinton's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities, and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative. The foundation has received donations from many governments all over the world, including Asia and the Middle East. In 2008, Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti-malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations. Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down.In the early 2000s, Clinton took flights on Jeffrey Epstein's private jet in connection with Clinton Foundation work. Years later, Epstein was convicted on sex trafficking charges. Clinton's office released a statement in 2019 saying, "President Clinton knows nothing about the terrible crimes Jeffrey Epstein pleaded guilty to in Florida some years ago, or those with which he has been recently charged in New York. In 2002 and 2003, President Clinton took four trips on Jeffrey Epstein's airplane: one to Europe, one to Asia, and two to Africa, which included stops in connection with the work of the Clinton Foundation. Staff, supporters of the Foundation, and his Secret Service detail traveled on every leg of every trip. ... He's not spoken to Epstein in well over a decade."During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary. Through speaking engagements and fundraisers, he was able to raise $10 million toward her campaign. Some worried that as an ex-president, he was too active on the trail, too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama, and alienating his supporters at home and abroad. Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary, which Obama won. Later in the 2008 primaries, there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary's staffs, especially in Pennsylvania. Considering Bill's remarks, many thought he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary. Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008, when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead". After Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was over, Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt.In 2009, Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned there. Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China. Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994. After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, Kim issued a pardon.Since then, Clinton has been assigned many other diplomatic missions. He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 following a series of hurricanes which caused $1 billion in damages. Clinton organized a conference with the Inter-American Development Bank, where a new industrial park was discussed in an effort to "build back better". In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti's recovery. Funds began pouring into Haiti, which led to funding becoming available for Caracol Industrial Park in a part of the country unaffected by the earthquake. While Hillary Clinton was in South Korea, she and Cheryl Mills worked to convince SAE-A, a large apparel subcontractor, to invest in Haiti despite the company's deep concerns about plans to raise the minimum wage. In the summer of 2010, the South Korean company signed a contract at the U.S. State Department, ensuring that the new industrial park would have a key tenant. In 2010, Clinton announced support of, and delivered the keynote address for, the inauguration of NTR, Ireland's first environmental foundation. At the 2012 Democratic National Convention, Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama.During the 2016 presidential election, Clinton again encouraged voters to support Hillary, and made appearances speaking on the campaign trail. In a series of tweets, then-President-elect Donald Trump criticized his ability to get people out to vote. Clinton served as a member of the electoral college for the state of New York. He voted for the Democratic ticket consisting of his wife Hillary and her running-mate Tim Kaine.On September 7, 2017, Clinton partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.On September 1, 2018, Clinton, his wife, and the former U.S. Presidents Barack Obama, and George W. Bush and their spouses attended the funeral of Sen. John McCain of Arizona at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. Then-President Donald Trump did not attend the service. In 2019, he attended the funeral of his former political opponent George H. W. Bush with his wife Hillary Clinton, and former Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, and then-President Donald Trump and their spouses. In 2020, Clinton again served as a member of the United States Electoral College from New York, casting his vote for the successful Democratic ticket of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris. The Clintons attended Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, alongside George W. Bush, Laura Bush, Barack Obama and Michelle Obama.In September 2004, Clinton underwent quadruple bypass surgery. In March 2005, he again underwent surgery, this time for a partially collapsed lung. On February 11, 2010, he was rushed to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Hospital in Manhattan after complaining of chest pains, and he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart. After this procedure, Clinton adopted a plant-based whole foods (vegan) diet, which had been recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn. However, he has since incorporated fish and lean proteins at the suggestion of Dr. Mark Hyman, a proponent of the pseudoscientific ethos of functional medicine. As a result, he is no longer a strict vegan.The Clintons incurred several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency, which were paid off four years after he left office. Bill and Hillary Clinton have each earned millions of dollars from book publishing. In 2016, "Forbes" reported Bill and Hillary Clinton made about $240million in the 15years from January 2001, to December 2015, (mostly from paid speeches, business consulting and book-writing). Also in 2016, CNN reported the Clintons combined to receive more than $153million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015. In May 2015, "The Hill" reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $25million in speaking fees since the start of 2014, and that Hillary Clinton also made $5million or more from her book, "Hard Choices", during the same time period. In July 2014, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that at the end of 2012, the Clintons were worth between $5million and $25.5million, and that in 2012 (the last year they were required to disclose the information) the Clintons made between $16 and $17million, mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president. Clinton earned more than $104million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012. In June 2014, ABC News and "The Washington Post" reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $100million giving paid speeches since leaving public office, and in 2008, "The New York Times" reported that the Clintons' income tax returns show they made $109million in the eight years from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, including almost $92million from his speaking and book-writing.Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year since leaving office in 2001, mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe; he often earned $100,000 to $300,000 per speech. Russian investment bank with ties to the Kremlin paid Clinton $500,000 for a speech in Moscow. Hillary Clinton said she and Bill came out of the White House financially "broke" and in debt, especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House. "We had no money when we got there, and we struggled to, you know, piece together the resources for mortgages, for houses, for Chelsea's education." She added, "Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of, obviously, taxes; and then pay off the debts, and get us houses, and take care of family members."In 2007, with Jimmy Carter, he founded the New Baptist Covenant Baptist organization.At the age of 10, he was baptized at Park Place Baptist Church in Hot Springs, Arkansas and remained a member of a Baptist church.In 1975, he married Hillary Rodham, whom he met while studying at Yale University. They had Chelsea Clinton, their only daughter.Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees, including Doctorate of Law degrees and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees. He is an honorary fellow of University College, Oxford, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar, although he did not complete his studies there. Schools have been named for Clinton, and statues have been built to pay him homage. U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, and New York. He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001. The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock, Arkansas, in his honor on December 5, 2001.He has been honored in various other ways, in countries that include the Czech Republic, Papua New Guinea, Germany, and Kosovo. The Republic of Kosovo, in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War, renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue.Clinton was selected as "Time" "Man of the Year" in 1992, and again in 1998, along with Ken Starr. From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. He was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children, a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, a TED Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design), and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community. Bill Clinton accepted an honorary membership into the Golden Key International Honour Society, along with other notables such as Bill Ford, Desmond Tutu, and Elie Wiesel. Golden Key International Honour Society is the world's largest international collegiate honor society for graduate and undergraduate students, and has strong relationships with over 400 universities around the world.In 2011, President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross "for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12, 2010". Clinton declared at the ceremony that "in the United States of America, I really don't believe former American presidents need awards anymore, but I am very honored by this one, I love Haiti, and I believe in its promise".U.S. president Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20, 2013.Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on "Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf", a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev's "Peter and the Wolf" performed by the Russian National Orchestra, on Pentatone, together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren. This garnered Clinton the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.The audiobook edition of his autobiography, "My Life", read by Clinton himself, won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album as well as the Audie Award as the Audiobook of the Year.Clinton has two more Grammy nominations for his audiobooks: "" in 2007 and "Back to Work" in 2012.	[ "Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service", "Yale Law School" ]
Where was Bill Clinton educated in Mar, 1972?	March 06, 1972	{ "text": [ "Yale Law School" ] }	L2_Q1124_P69_2	Bill Clinton attended Yale Law School from Sep, 1970 to May, 1973. Bill Clinton attended Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1968. Bill Clinton attended University College, Oxford from Jan, 1968 to Jan, 1970.	Bill ClintonWilliam Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician and attorney who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to his presidency, he served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992 and as attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was known as a New Democrat, and many of his policies reflected a centrist "Third Way" political philosophy. He is the husband of Hillary Clinton, who was the Secretary of State (2009–2013) and ran for president in 2008 and 2016.Clinton was born and raised in Arkansas and attended Georgetown University, University College, Oxford, and Yale Law School. He met Hillary Rodham at Yale and they were married in 1975. After graduating from law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas and won election as state attorney general, followed by two non-consecutive terms as Arkansas governor. As governor, he overhauled the state's education system and served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Clinton was elected president in 1992, defeating incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he became the third-youngest president in history.Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. He signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, but failed to pass his plan for national health care reform. In the 1994 elections, the Republican Party won unified control of Congress for the first time in 40 years. In 1996, however, he was reelected in a landslide. He passed welfare reform and the State Children's Health Insurance Program, as well as financial deregulation measures. He also appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court. During the last three years of Clinton's presidency, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus—the first such surplus since 1969. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnian and Kosovo wars, signed the Dayton Peace agreement, signed the Iraq Liberation Act in opposition to Saddam Hussein, participated in the Oslo I Accord and Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, and assisted the Northern Ireland peace process. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives, becoming the second U.S. president to be impeached. The impeachment was based on accusations that Clinton committed perjury and obstruction of justice for the purpose of concealing his affair with Monica Lewinsky, a 22-year-old White House intern. He was acquitted by the Senate and completed his second term in office.Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U.S. president since 1945. His presidency has been ranked among the upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. However, he has also been subject to substantial criticism for his sex scandals, especially in the wake of the Me Too movement. Since leaving office, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the Clinton Foundation to address international causes such as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2009, he was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, he teamed up with George W. Bush to form the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund. He has remained active in Democratic Party politics, campaigning in his wife's presidential campaigns in the 2008 and 2016 presidential elections.Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. He is the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr., a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy (later Virginia Kelley). His parents had married on September 4, 1943, but this union later proved to be bigamous, as Blythe was still married to his third wife. Virginia traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after Bill was born, leaving him in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the southern United States was racially segregated, Clinton's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races. In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr., who co-owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950.Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Clinton turned 15 that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward him. Clinton has described his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and half-brother, Roger Clinton Jr. He threatened his stepfather with violence multiple times to protect them.In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School, where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician. Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but as he noted in his autobiography "My Life":Clinton began an interest in law at Hot Springs High, when he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman senator Catiline in a mock trial in his Latin class. After a vigorous defense that made use of his "budding rhetorical and political skills", he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck it "made him realize that someday he would study law".Clinton has identified two influential moments in his life, both occurring in 1963, that contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy. The other was watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech on TV, which impressed him so much that he later memorized it.With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degree in 1968. Georgetown was the only school where Clinton applied.In 1964 and 1965, Clinton won elections for class president. From 1964 to 1967, he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright. While in college, he became a brother of service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Clinton was also a member of the Order of DeMolay, a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry, but he never became a Freemason. He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity.Upon graduating from Georgetown in 1968, Clinton won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford, where he initially read for a B.Phil. in philosophy, politics, and economics but transferred to a B.Litt. in politics and, ultimately, a B.Phil. in politics. Clinton did not expect to return for the second year because of the draft and so he switched programs; this type of activity was common among other Rhodes Scholars from his cohort. He had received an offer to study at Yale Law School, Yale University, and so he left early to return to the United States and did not receive a degree from Oxford.During his time at Oxford, Clinton befriended fellow American Rhodes Scholar Frank Aller. In 1969, Aller received a draft letter that mandated deployment to the Vietnam War. Aller's 1971 suicide had an influential impact on Clinton. British writer and feminist Sara Maitland said of Clinton, "I remember Bill and Frank Aller taking me to a pub in Walton Street in the summer term of 1969 and talking to me about the Vietnam War. I knew nothing about it, and when Frank began to describe the napalming of civilians I began to cry. Bill said that feeling bad wasn't good enough. That was the first time I encountered the idea that liberal sensitivities weren't enough and you had to do something about such things". Clinton was a member of the Oxford University Basketball Club and also played for Oxford University's rugby union team.While Clinton was president in 1994, he received an honorary degree and a fellowship from the University of Oxford, specifically for being "a doughty and tireless champion of the cause of world peace", having "a powerful collaborator in his wife," and for winning "general applause for his achievement of resolving the gridlock that prevented an agreed budget".During the Vietnam War, Clinton received educational draft deferments while he was in England in 1968 and 1969. While at Oxford, he participated in Vietnam War protests and organized a Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event in October 1969. He was planning to attend law school in the U.S. and knew he might lose his deferment. Clinton tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard and the Air Force officer candidate school, and he then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program at the University of Arkansas.He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC, saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program that he opposed the war, but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC, National Guard, or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam. He further stated that because he opposed the war, he would not volunteer to serve in uniform, but would subject himself to the draft, and would serve if selected only as a way "to maintain my political viability within the system". Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number (311), meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers1 to 310 would be drafted before him, making it unlikely he would be called up. (In fact, the highest number drafted was 195.)Colonel Eugene Holmes, the Army officer who had been involved with Clinton's ROTC application, suspected that Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft and avoid serving in uniform. He issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign:During the 1992 campaign, it was revealed that Clinton's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve, which would have prevented him from being deployed to Vietnam. This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then. Although legal, Clinton's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized during his first presidential campaign by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans, some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright's influence to avoid military service. Clinton's 1992 campaign manager, James Carville, successfully argued that Clinton's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public, insisting that voters, many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War, would understand and appreciate his position.After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973. In 1971, he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham, in the Yale Law Library; she was a class year ahead of him. They began dating and were soon inseparable. After only about a month, Clinton postponed his summer plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election in order to move in with her in California. The couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.Clinton eventually moved to Texas with Rodham in 1972 to take a job leading McGovern's effort there. He spent considerable time in Dallas, at the campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue, where he had an office. Clinton worked with future two-term mayor of Dallas Ron Kirk, future governor of Texas Ann Richards, and then unknown television director and filmmaker Steven Spielberg.After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for the House of Representatives. Running in the conservative 3rd district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt, Clinton's campaign was bolstered by the anti-Republican and anti-incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal. Hammerschmidt, who had received 77 percent of the vote in 1972, defeated Clinton by only a 52 percent to 48 percent margin. In 1976, Clinton ran for Arkansas attorney general. With only minor opposition in the primary and no opposition at all in the general election, Clinton was elected.In 1978, Clinton entered the Arkansas gubernatorial primary. At just 31 years old, he was one of the youngest gubernatorial candidates in the state's history. Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978, having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana. Clinton was only 32 years old when he took office, the youngest governor in the country at the time and the second youngest governor in the history of Arkansas. Due to his youthful appearance, Clinton was often called the "Boy Governor". He worked on educational reform and directed the maintenance of Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose, of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat by Republican challenger Frank D. White in the general election that year. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey's Little Rock law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings. In 1982, he was elected governor a second time and kept the office for ten years. Effective with the 1986 election, Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years. During his term, he helped transform Arkansas's economy and improved the state's educational system. For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property-tax exemption. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform, smaller government, and other policies not supported by liberals. Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in 1984, the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level. Clinton delivered the Democratic response to Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority of his gubernatorial administration. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee was chaired by Clinton's wife Hillary, who was also an attorney as well as the chair of the Legal Services Corporation. The committee transformed Arkansas's education system. Proposed reforms included more spending for schools (supported by a sales-tax increase), better opportunities for gifted children, vocational education, higher teachers' salaries, more course variety, and compulsory teacher competency exams. The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session—the longest in Arkansas history. Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. He defeated four Republican candidates for governor: Lowe (1978), White (1982 and 1986), Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman (1984), and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock (1990).Also in the 1980s, the Clintons' personal and business affairs included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation, which later dogged his presidential administration. After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.According to some sources, Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years, but he eventually switched positions. However he might have felt previously, by 1992, Clinton was insisting that Democrats "should no longer feel guilty about protecting the innocent". During Clinton's final term as governor, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty had been reinstated in 1976). As Governor, he oversaw the first four executions carried out by the state of Arkansas since the death penalty was reinstated there in 1976: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection. To draw attention to his stance on capital punishment, Clinton flew home to Arkansas mid-campaign in 1992, in order to affirm in person that the controversial execution of Ricky Ray Rector, would go forward as scheduled.In 1987, the media speculated that Clinton would enter the presidential race after incumbent New York governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front-runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of multiple marital infidelities. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary for governor, initially favored—but ultimately vetoed—by the First Lady). For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, but his speech, which was 33 minutes long and twice the length it was expected to be, was criticized for being too long and poorly delivered. Clinton presented himself both as a moderate and as a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, and he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.Clinton's "third way" of moderate liberalism built up the nation's fiscal health and put the nation on a firm footing abroad amid globalization and the development of anti-American terrorist organizations.During his presidency, Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs, most of which were enacted into law or implemented by the executive branch. His policies, particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance. His policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits on budgetary matters. Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history.The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of $69 billion in 1998, $126 billion in 1999, and $236 billion in 2000, during the last three years of Clinton's presidency. Over the years of the recorded surplus, the gross national debt rose each year. At the end of the fiscal year (September 30) for each of the years a surplus was recorded, The U.S. treasury reported a gross debt of $5.413 trillion in 1997, $5.526 trillion in 1998, $5.656 trillion in 1999, and $5.674 trillion in 2000. Over the same period, the Office of Management and Budget reported an end of year (December 31) gross debt of $5.369 trillion in 1997, $5.478 trillion in 1998, $5.606 in 1999, and $5.629 trillion in 2000. At the end of his presidency, the Clintons moved to 15 Old House Lane in Chappaqua, New York, in order to satisfy a residency requirement for his wife to win election as a U.S. Senator from New York.In the first primary contest, the Iowa Caucus, Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary, reports surfaced that Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls. Following Super Bowl XXVI, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on "60 Minutes" to rebuff the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk, but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. News outlets labeled him "The Comeback Kid" for earning a firm second-place finish.Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South. With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted New York, which had many delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City, shedding his image as a regional candidate. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California.During the campaign, questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary's firm pay. Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".Clinton was still the governor of Arkansas while campaigning for U.S. president, and he returned to his home state to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death. According to both Arkansas state law and Federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in an article for "The New York Times" as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.Bush's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War, and he was described as unbeatable. When Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower Federal deficits, he reneged on his , which hurt his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep. By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent. Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention—with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform—many moderates were alienated. Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious. Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton. Clinton and his running mate, Al Gore, toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign, shoring up support and pledging a "new beginning".On March 26, 1992, during a Democratic fund raiser of the presidential campaign, Robert Rafsky confronted then Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas and asked what he was going to do about AIDS, to which Clinton replied, "I feel your pain." The televised exchange led to AIDS becoming an issue in the 1992 presidential election. On April 4, then candidate Clinton met with members of ACT UP and other leading AIDS advocates to discuss his AIDS agenda and agreed to make a major AIDS policy speech, to have people with HIV speak to the Democratic Convention, and to sign onto the AIDS United Action five point plan.Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (370 electoral votes) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (168 electoral votes) and billionaire populist Ross Perot (zero electoral votes), who ran as an independent on a platform that focused on domestic issues. Bush's steep decline in public approval was a significant part of Clinton's success. Clinton's victory in the election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress, the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter.According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States on January 20, 1993. Clinton was physically exhausted of the time, and had an inexperienced staff. His high levels of public support dropped in the first few weeks, as he made a series of embarrassing mistakes. His first choice for attorney general had not paid her taxes on babysitters and was forced to withdraw. The second appointee also withdrew for the same reason. Clinton had repeatedly promised to encourage gays in the military service, despite what he knew to be the strong opposition of the military leadership. He tried anyway, and was publicly opposed by the top generals, and forced by Congress to a compromise position of "Don't ask, don't tell" whereby gays could serve if and only if they kept it secret. He devised a $16 billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals, but it was defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate. His popularity at the 100 day mark of his term was the lowest of any president at that point. Public opinion did support one liberal program, and Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. This action had bipartisan support, and was popular with the public.Two days after taking office, on January 22, 1993—the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in "Roe v. Wade"—Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Reagan and Bush. Clinton said abortion should be kept "safe, legal, and rare"—a slogan that had been suggested by political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991, while campaigning. During the eight years of the Clinton administration, the abortion rate declined by 18 percent.On February 15, 1993, Clinton made his first address to the nation, announcing his plan to raise taxes to close a budget deficit. Two days later, in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress, Clinton unveiled his economic plan. The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class, which had been high on his campaign agenda. Clinton's advisers pressured him to raise taxes, based on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates.President Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted.In August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.On September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House. Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.In November 1993, David Hale—the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy—alleged that while governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair.On November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.In December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in "The American Spectator." In the affair later known as "Troopergate", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton back when he was governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named "Paula", a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated "bad journalism", and that "the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives".That month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual preferences a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation. The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent Congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that "the President should lift the ban ... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress". Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not "out of whack". The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.On January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law. Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent against). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.The Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994, made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons." It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.On October 21, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov. The site was followed with three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011—Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."After two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.A speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the Federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Justice Department to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS.The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states. Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA "was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to "head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a "very reactionary Congress". Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, "the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected." Clinton himself said DOMA was something "which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that". Others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims "historic revisionism". In a July 2, 2011, editorial "The New York Times" opined, "The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments." Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.Despite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions, and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights. During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce. Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled. Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996. Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign. Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013. He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Despite the evidence, the Chinese government denied all accusations.As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.Ken Gormley, author of "The Death of American Virtue: Clinton vs. Starr", reveals in his book that Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines in November 1996. During his visit to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum in Manila, while he was on his way to meet with a senior member of the Philippine government, Clinton was saved from danger minutes before his motorcade was scheduled to drive over a bridge charged with a timed improvised explosive device (IED). According to officials, the IED was large enough to "blow up the entire presidential motorcade". Details of the plot were revealed to Gormley by Lewis C. Merletti, former member of the presidential protection detail and Director of the Secret Service. Intelligence officers intercepted a radio transmission indicating there was a wedding cake under a bridge. This alerted Merletti and others as Clinton's motorcade was scheduled to drive over a major bridge in downtown Manila. Once more, the word "wedding" was the code name used by a terrorist group for a past assassination attempt. Merletti wanted to reroute the motorcade, but the alternate route would add forty-five minutes to the drive time. Clinton was very angry, as he was already late for the meeting, but following the advice of the secret service possibly saved his life. Two other bombs had been discovered in Manila earlier in the week so the threat level that day was high. Security personnel at the Manila International Airport uncovered several grenades and a timing device in a travel bag. Officials also discovered a bomb near a major U.S. naval base. The president was scheduled to visit both these locations later in the week. An intense investigation took place into the events in Manila and it was discovered that the group behind the bridge bomb was a Saudi terrorist group in Afghanistan known as al-Qaeda and the plot was masterminded by Osama bin Laden. Until recently, this thwarted assassination attempt was never made public and remained top secret. Only top members of the U.S. intelligence community were aware of these events.In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7 percent of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4 percent of the popular vote). Clinton received 379 of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. He became the first Democratic incumbent since Lyndon B. Johnson to be elected to a second term and the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected president more than once.In the January 1997, State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress. In October 1997, he announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth. In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.After a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228–206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury and voted 221–212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice. Clinton was only the second U.S. president (after Andrew Johnson) to be impeached. Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed "substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment", the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, the Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998.While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during "Jones v. Clinton," Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit. The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition.The Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges. The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge. Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.On January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court that he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the "Jones" case.Clinton controversially issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey, who found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Some of Clinton's pardons remain a point of controversy.The Battle of Mogadishu occurred in Somalia in 1993. During the operation, two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and one was taken prisoner. There were many more Somali casualties. Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets—a spectacle broadcast on television news programs. In response, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.In April 1994, genocide broke out in Rwanda. Intelligence reports indicate that Clinton was aware a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis" was underway, long before the administration publicly used the word "genocide". Fearing a reprisal of the events in Somalia the previous year, Clinton chose not to intervene. President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."In 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on U.N. safe zones and pressure them into a peace accord that would end the Bosnian war. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement.In 1992, before his presidency, Clinton proposed sending a peace envoy to Northern Ireland, but this was dropped to avoid tensions with the UK government. In 1994, Clinton angered London by granting a visa to Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Féin, the IRA's political arm. In November 1995, Clinton became the first U.S. president to visit Northern Ireland, seeing both the divided communities of Belfast and later famously shaking Adams' hand, 14 months into an IRA ceasefire during the Troubles. Despite unionist criticism, Clinton used this as a way to negotiate an end to the violent conflict with London, Dublin, the paramilitaries and the other groups. Clinton went on to play a key role in the peace talks, which eventually led to the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.In February 1996, the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US$131.8million (equivalent to $ million in ) in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser.Capturing Osama bin Laden had been an objective of the U.S. government during the presidency of Bill Clinton (and continued to be until bin Laden's death in 2011). Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden, and that U.S. authorities rejected each offer, the 9/11 Commission Report stated that "we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim".In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al-Qaeda (which killed 224 people, including 12 Americans), Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden, all of which were unsuccessful. In August 1998, Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan, targeting the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan, which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons, and bin Laden's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan.In the midst of a brutal crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force. The stated reasoning behind the intervention was to stop the ethnic cleansing (and what the Clinton administration labeled genocide) of Albanians by Yugoslav anti-guerilla military units. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region. NATO announced its soldiers all survived combat, though two died in an Apache helicopter crash. Journalists in the popular press criticized genocide statements by the Clinton administration as false and greatly exaggerated. Prior to the bombing campaign on March 24, 1999, common estimates showed that the number of civilians killed in the over year long conflict in Kosovo had approximately been 1,800, of which were primarily Albanians but also Serbs and that there was no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing. In a post-war inquiry, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe noted "the patterns of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24". In 2001, the U.N.-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide (the intent to destroy a people) did not take place, but recognized "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" with the intention being the forceful departure of the Albanian population. The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is little difference. Slobodan Milošević, the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities, was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges including crimes against humanity and war crimes for his role in the war. He died in 2006, before the completion of the trial.In Clinton's 1998 State of the Union Address, he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces. The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to 19, 1998. At the end of this operation Clinton announced that "So long as Saddam remains in power, he will remain a threat to his people, his region, and the world. With our allies, we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program, while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors." American and British aircraft in the Iraq no-fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000.On October 10, 2000, Clinton signed into law the U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000, which granted permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) trade status to China. The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.Relations were damaged briefly by the American bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Clinton apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental.The U.S.–China Relations Act of 2000 granted China permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status (previously called most favoured nation (MFN)) when China becomes a full member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), ending annual review and approval of NTR. The Act was signed into law on October 10, 2000 by Clinton. President Clinton in 2000 pushed Congress to approve the U.S.-China trade agreement and China's accession to the WTO, saying that more trade with China would advance America's economic interests: "Economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world's population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways," said Clinton.After initial successes such as the Oslo Accords of the early 1990s, which also led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998, Clinton attempted an effort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the Camp David Summit in July 2000, which lasted 14 days. Following the failures of the peace talks, Clinton said Arafat had "missed the opportunity" to facilitate a "just and lasting peace". In his autobiography, Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit. Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base, in which the president offered the Clinton Parameters, the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada.Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994.Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts. In his eight years in office, 11.6% of Clinton's court of appeals nominees and 17.4% of his district court nominees were black; 32.8% of his court of appeals nominees and 28.5% of his district court nominees were women.Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/"New York Times" poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61%, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.As he was leaving office, a CNN/"USA Today"/Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him; 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life"; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his "involvement in personal scandal" than for "his accomplishments"; and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" The same percentage said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president, while 22 percent said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor". ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics—and he's done a heck of a good job."In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.In 2014, 18 percent of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II, making him the third most popular among postwar presidents, behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan. The same poll showed that just 3% of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II.A 2015 poll by "The Washington Post" asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness. According to their findings, Clinton ranked eighth overall, with a rating of 70 percent.Clinton was the first baby boomer president. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward stated that Clinton's innovative use of sound bite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning were a major factor in his high public approval ratings. When Clinton played the saxophone on "The Arsenio Hall Show", he was described by some religious conservatives as "the MTV president". Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Slick Willie", a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by "Pine Bluff Commercial" journalist Paul Greenberg; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller, Dale Bumpers and David Pryor. The claim "Slick Willie" would last throughout his presidency. His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba, especially in the South. Since 2000, he has frequently been referred to as "The Big Dog" or "Big Dog". His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail, earned him the nickname "Explainer-in-Chief".Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and insisted that the improvement of race relations would be a major theme of his presidency. In 1998, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton "the first Black president", saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas". Morrison noted that Clinton's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments, and she compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that, she said, blacks typically endure. Many viewed this comparison as unfair and disparaging both to Clinton and to the African-American community at large. Clinton, a Baptist, has been open about his faith.Several women have publicly accused Bill Clinton of sexual misconduct, including rape, harassment, and sexual assault. Additionally, some commentators have characterized Clinton's sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky as predatory or non-consensual, despite the fact that Lewinsky called the relationship consensual at the time. These allegations have been revisited and lent more credence in 2018, in light of the #MeToo movement, with many commentators and Democratic leaders now saying Clinton should have been compelled to resign after the Lewinsky affair.In 1994, Paula Jones initiated a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton, claiming he had made unwanted advances towards her in 1991; Clinton denied the allegations. In April 1998, the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright on the grounds that it lacked legal merit. Jones appealed Webber Wright's ruling, and her suit gained traction following Clinton's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998. In 1998, lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents that alleged a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Robert S. Bennett, Clinton's main lawyer for the case, called the filing "a pack of lies" and "an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States" funded by Clinton's political enemies. Clinton later agreed to an out-of-court settlement and paid Jones $850,000. Bennett said the president made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life. During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit, which was held at the White House, Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky—a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury.In 1998, Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton had groped her in a hallway in 1993. An independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI, inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation. On March 19, 1998, Julie Hiatt Steele, a friend of Willey, released an affidavit, accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey's account of being sexually groped by Clinton in the Oval Office. An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former Independent Counsel for prosecutorial misconduct. Linda Tripp's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances.Also in 1998, Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978, although she said she did not remember the exact date. To support her charge, Broaddrick notes that she told multiple witnesses in 1978 she had been raped by Clinton, something these witnesses also state in interviews to the press. Broaddrick had earlier filed an affidavit denying any "unwelcome sexual advances" and later repeated the denial in a sworn deposition. In a 1998 NBC interview wherein she detailed the alleged rape, Broaddrick said she had denied (under oath) being raped only to avoid testifying about the ordeal publicly.The Lewinsky scandal has had an enduring impact on Clinton's legacy, beyond his impeachment in 1998. In the wake of the #MeToo movement (which shed light on the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace), various commentators and Democratic political leaders, as well as Lewinsky herself, have revisited their view that the Lewinsky affair was consensual, and instead characterized it as an abuse of power or harassment, in light of the power differential between a president and a 22-year old intern. In 2018, Clinton was asked in several interviews about whether he should have resigned, and he said he had made the right decision in not resigning. During the 2018 Congressional elections, "The New York Times" alleged that having no Democratic candidate for office asking Clinton to campaign with him or her was a change that attributed to the revised understanding of the Lewinsky scandal. However, former DNC interim chair Donna Brazile previously urged Clinton in November 2017 to campaign during the 2018 midterm elections, in spite of New York U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand's recent criticism of the Lewinsky scandal.Bill Clinton has continued to be active in public life since leaving office in 2001, giving speeches, fundraising, and founding charitable organizations, and has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention.In 2002, Clinton warned that pre-emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences, and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start (though some dispute this). In 2005, Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control, while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal.The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, was dedicated in 2004. Clinton released a best-selling autobiography, "My Life", in 2004. In 2007, he released "", which also became a "New York Times" Best Seller and garnered positive reviews.In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami, U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort. After Hurricane Katrina, Clinton joined with fellow former president George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005, and the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year. As part of the tsunami effort, these two ex-presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show, and traveled to the affected areas. They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in April 2007.Based on his philanthropic worldview, Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance. This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI), which strives to combat that disease, and has worked with the Australian government toward that end. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005, attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict. In 2005, Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugared drinks in schools. Clinton's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities, and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative. The foundation has received donations from many governments all over the world, including Asia and the Middle East. In 2008, Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti-malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations. Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down.In the early 2000s, Clinton took flights on Jeffrey Epstein's private jet in connection with Clinton Foundation work. Years later, Epstein was convicted on sex trafficking charges. Clinton's office released a statement in 2019 saying, "President Clinton knows nothing about the terrible crimes Jeffrey Epstein pleaded guilty to in Florida some years ago, or those with which he has been recently charged in New York. In 2002 and 2003, President Clinton took four trips on Jeffrey Epstein's airplane: one to Europe, one to Asia, and two to Africa, which included stops in connection with the work of the Clinton Foundation. Staff, supporters of the Foundation, and his Secret Service detail traveled on every leg of every trip. ... He's not spoken to Epstein in well over a decade."During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary. Through speaking engagements and fundraisers, he was able to raise $10 million toward her campaign. Some worried that as an ex-president, he was too active on the trail, too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama, and alienating his supporters at home and abroad. Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary, which Obama won. Later in the 2008 primaries, there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary's staffs, especially in Pennsylvania. Considering Bill's remarks, many thought he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary. Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008, when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead". After Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was over, Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt.In 2009, Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned there. Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China. Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994. After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, Kim issued a pardon.Since then, Clinton has been assigned many other diplomatic missions. He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 following a series of hurricanes which caused $1 billion in damages. Clinton organized a conference with the Inter-American Development Bank, where a new industrial park was discussed in an effort to "build back better". In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti's recovery. Funds began pouring into Haiti, which led to funding becoming available for Caracol Industrial Park in a part of the country unaffected by the earthquake. While Hillary Clinton was in South Korea, she and Cheryl Mills worked to convince SAE-A, a large apparel subcontractor, to invest in Haiti despite the company's deep concerns about plans to raise the minimum wage. In the summer of 2010, the South Korean company signed a contract at the U.S. State Department, ensuring that the new industrial park would have a key tenant. In 2010, Clinton announced support of, and delivered the keynote address for, the inauguration of NTR, Ireland's first environmental foundation. At the 2012 Democratic National Convention, Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama.During the 2016 presidential election, Clinton again encouraged voters to support Hillary, and made appearances speaking on the campaign trail. In a series of tweets, then-President-elect Donald Trump criticized his ability to get people out to vote. Clinton served as a member of the electoral college for the state of New York. He voted for the Democratic ticket consisting of his wife Hillary and her running-mate Tim Kaine.On September 7, 2017, Clinton partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.On September 1, 2018, Clinton, his wife, and the former U.S. Presidents Barack Obama, and George W. Bush and their spouses attended the funeral of Sen. John McCain of Arizona at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. Then-President Donald Trump did not attend the service. In 2019, he attended the funeral of his former political opponent George H. W. Bush with his wife Hillary Clinton, and former Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, and then-President Donald Trump and their spouses. In 2020, Clinton again served as a member of the United States Electoral College from New York, casting his vote for the successful Democratic ticket of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris. The Clintons attended Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, alongside George W. Bush, Laura Bush, Barack Obama and Michelle Obama.In September 2004, Clinton underwent quadruple bypass surgery. In March 2005, he again underwent surgery, this time for a partially collapsed lung. On February 11, 2010, he was rushed to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Hospital in Manhattan after complaining of chest pains, and he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart. After this procedure, Clinton adopted a plant-based whole foods (vegan) diet, which had been recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn. However, he has since incorporated fish and lean proteins at the suggestion of Dr. Mark Hyman, a proponent of the pseudoscientific ethos of functional medicine. As a result, he is no longer a strict vegan.The Clintons incurred several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency, which were paid off four years after he left office. Bill and Hillary Clinton have each earned millions of dollars from book publishing. In 2016, "Forbes" reported Bill and Hillary Clinton made about $240million in the 15years from January 2001, to December 2015, (mostly from paid speeches, business consulting and book-writing). Also in 2016, CNN reported the Clintons combined to receive more than $153million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015. In May 2015, "The Hill" reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $25million in speaking fees since the start of 2014, and that Hillary Clinton also made $5million or more from her book, "Hard Choices", during the same time period. In July 2014, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that at the end of 2012, the Clintons were worth between $5million and $25.5million, and that in 2012 (the last year they were required to disclose the information) the Clintons made between $16 and $17million, mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president. Clinton earned more than $104million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012. In June 2014, ABC News and "The Washington Post" reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $100million giving paid speeches since leaving public office, and in 2008, "The New York Times" reported that the Clintons' income tax returns show they made $109million in the eight years from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, including almost $92million from his speaking and book-writing.Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year since leaving office in 2001, mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe; he often earned $100,000 to $300,000 per speech. Russian investment bank with ties to the Kremlin paid Clinton $500,000 for a speech in Moscow. Hillary Clinton said she and Bill came out of the White House financially "broke" and in debt, especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House. "We had no money when we got there, and we struggled to, you know, piece together the resources for mortgages, for houses, for Chelsea's education." She added, "Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of, obviously, taxes; and then pay off the debts, and get us houses, and take care of family members."In 2007, with Jimmy Carter, he founded the New Baptist Covenant Baptist organization.At the age of 10, he was baptized at Park Place Baptist Church in Hot Springs, Arkansas and remained a member of a Baptist church.In 1975, he married Hillary Rodham, whom he met while studying at Yale University. They had Chelsea Clinton, their only daughter.Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees, including Doctorate of Law degrees and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees. He is an honorary fellow of University College, Oxford, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar, although he did not complete his studies there. Schools have been named for Clinton, and statues have been built to pay him homage. U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, and New York. He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001. The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock, Arkansas, in his honor on December 5, 2001.He has been honored in various other ways, in countries that include the Czech Republic, Papua New Guinea, Germany, and Kosovo. The Republic of Kosovo, in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War, renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue.Clinton was selected as "Time" "Man of the Year" in 1992, and again in 1998, along with Ken Starr. From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. He was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children, a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, a TED Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design), and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community. Bill Clinton accepted an honorary membership into the Golden Key International Honour Society, along with other notables such as Bill Ford, Desmond Tutu, and Elie Wiesel. Golden Key International Honour Society is the world's largest international collegiate honor society for graduate and undergraduate students, and has strong relationships with over 400 universities around the world.In 2011, President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross "for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12, 2010". Clinton declared at the ceremony that "in the United States of America, I really don't believe former American presidents need awards anymore, but I am very honored by this one, I love Haiti, and I believe in its promise".U.S. president Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20, 2013.Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on "Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf", a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev's "Peter and the Wolf" performed by the Russian National Orchestra, on Pentatone, together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren. This garnered Clinton the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.The audiobook edition of his autobiography, "My Life", read by Clinton himself, won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album as well as the Audie Award as the Audiobook of the Year.Clinton has two more Grammy nominations for his audiobooks: "" in 2007 and "Back to Work" in 2012.	[ "Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service", "University College, Oxford" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Feb, 1792?	February 09, 1792	{ "text": [ "Thomas Jefferson" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_0	George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Feb, 1968?	February 08, 1968	{ "text": [ "Dean Rusk" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_1	Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in May, 1970?	May 13, 1970	{ "text": [ "William P. Rogers" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_2	Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Feb, 1974?	February 12, 1974	{ "text": [ "Henry Kissinger" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_3	Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Jun, 1979?	June 08, 1979	{ "text": [ "Cyrus Vance" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_4	Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in May, 1980?	May 17, 1980	{ "text": [ "Edmund Muskie" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_5	John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Mar, 1982?	March 03, 1982	{ "text": [ "Alexander Haig" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_6	Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Jan, 1986?	January 09, 1986	{ "text": [ "George P. Shultz" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_7	Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Aug, 1991?	August 22, 1991	{ "text": [ "James Baker" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_8	Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Jan, 1993?	January 12, 1993	{ "text": [ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Warren Christopher" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_9	William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Apr, 1993?	April 23, 1993	{ "text": [ "Warren Christopher" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_10	Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Oct, 1999?	October 15, 1999	{ "text": [ "Madeleine Albright" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_11	John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Jun, 2004?	June 29, 2004	{ "text": [ "Colin Powell" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_12	Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Jun, 2006?	June 21, 2006	{ "text": [ "Condoleezza Rice" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_13	Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Nov, 2011?	November 20, 2011	{ "text": [ "Hillary Clinton" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_14	Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Sep, 2013?	September 10, 2013	{ "text": [ "John Kerry" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_15	Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Feb, 2018?	February 26, 2018	{ "text": [ "Rex Tillerson" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_16	Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Apr, 2019?	April 12, 2019	{ "text": [ "Mike Pompeo" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_17	Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Antony Blinken", "Hillary Clinton", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Who was the chair of United States Department of State in Aug, 2021?	August 17, 2021	{ "text": [ "Antony Blinken" ] }	L2_Q789915_P488_18	Lawrence Eagleburger is the chair of United States Department of State from Dec, 1992 to Jan, 1993. George P. Shultz is the chair of United States Department of State from Jul, 1982 to Jan, 1989. Cyrus Vance is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1977 to Apr, 1980. Warren Christopher is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1997. Colin Powell is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2005. James Baker is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1989 to Aug, 1992. Henry Kissinger is the chair of United States Department of State from Sep, 1973 to Jan, 1977. Thomas Jefferson is the chair of United States Department of State from Mar, 1790 to Dec, 1793. William P. Rogers is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1969 to Sep, 1973. Rex Tillerson is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2017 to Mar, 2018. John Kerry is the chair of United States Department of State from Feb, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Antony Blinken is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Mike Pompeo is the chair of United States Department of State from Apr, 2018 to Jan, 2021. Edmund Muskie is the chair of United States Department of State from May, 1980 to Jan, 1981. Condoleezza Rice is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2009. Hillary Clinton is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 2009 to Feb, 2013. Dean Rusk is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1969. Madeleine Albright is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2001. Alexander Haig is the chair of United States Department of State from Jan, 1981 to Jul, 1982.	United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the nation's foreign policy and international relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president, administering diplomatic missions, negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations. The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building, a few blocks from the White House, in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C.; "Foggy Bottom" is thus sometimes used as a metonym.Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch, the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is led by the secretary of state, a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Analogous to a foreign minister, the secretary of state serves as the federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession. The position is currently held by Antony Blinken who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on January 26, 2021 by a vote of 78–22.As of 2019, the State Department maintains 273 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also manages the US Foreign Service, provides diplomatic training to US officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration, and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas, posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers the oldest US civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, and maintains a law enforcement arm, the Diplomatic Security Service.The U.S. Constitution, drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the President responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states.To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to establish a Department of Foreign Affairs, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making the Department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State.In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint, keeping the Great Seal of the United States, and administering the census. President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the Secretary of State still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a President or Vice President wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring the decision.On September 29, 1789, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, as the first U.S. Secretary of State. John Jay had been serving as Secretary of Foreign Affairs as a holdover from the Confederation since before Washington took office; he would continue in that capacity until Jefferson returned from Europe many months later. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, Jefferson's department comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts.For much of its history, the State Department was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the Department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge.The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924, which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service, a professionalized personnel system under which the Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with a merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process.The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with the Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960.In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet.The 21st century saw the Department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and the global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote, as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki, Diplopedia; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year, the Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to "BusinessWeek".From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched "21st Century Statecraft," with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government.Colin Powell, who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice, was the second female Secretary of State and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female Secretary of State when she was appointed in 2009.In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning the renovation of the buildings on the Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency.The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the Secretary of State, is the President's principal foreign policy advisor. The Department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the President's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to the United States.All foreign affairs activities — US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more — are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget.The Department's core activities and purpose include:The Department of State conducts these activities with a civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad.The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to over 250 posts around the world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings, and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including the departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The Department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies.The Secretary of State is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the President of the United States. The secretary organizes and supervises the entire department and its staff.Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees.Since the 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the Secretary of State, as does the US Ambassador to the United Nations.As of November 2018, people nominated to ambassadorships to 41 countries had not yet been confirmed by the Senate, and no one had yet been nominated to ambassadorships to 18 additional countries (including Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, Jordan, South Africa, and Singapore). In November 2019, a quarter of US embassies around the world—including Japan, Russia and Canada—still had no ambassador.From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia, the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue.The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875.Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building, which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building""," in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman, who was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy.As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom".The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills.The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In the 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium.The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education. It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes.The Jefferson Science Fellows Program was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy.The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of the Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting a curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application.The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the Department and to work on projects.Fellows may also work with other government entities, including the Congress, White House, and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and Department of Homeland Security. The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to the country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests.The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia. The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within the age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste.YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States, virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia, and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement, sustainable development, economic development, governance, and the environment.Notable alumni of YSEALI include Vico Sotto, Syed Saddiq, Carrie Tan, and Lee Chean Chung."See also Young African Leaders Initiative"The Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) is a program of the DoS for emerging young leaders in Africa. It was begun in 2010 by President Barack Obama to promote education and networking among emerging African leaders through the Mandela Washington Fellowship which brings them to study in the United States for six weeks, with follow-up resources, and student exchange programs. In 2014, the program was expanded to include four regional "leadership centers" in Ghana, Kenya, Senegal and South Africa.Diplomats in Residence are career Foreign Service Officers and Specialists located throughout the US who provide guidance and advice on careers, internships, and fellowships to students and professionals in communities they serve. Diplomats in Residence are located in 16 population-based regions throughout the United States.In 1978, the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) formed an office to use excess military and government aircraft to support counter-narcotics operations of foreign states. The first aircraft used was a crop duster used to eradicate illicit crops in Mexico in cooperation with local authorities. The separate Air Wing was established in 1986 as use of aviation assets grew in the war on drugs.The aircraft fleet grew from crop spraying planes to larger transports and helicopters to support ground troops and move personnel. As these operations became more involved in direct combat, the need for search and rescue and armed escort helicopters became evident. Operations in the 1980s and 1990s were primarily carried out in Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia and Belize. Many aircraft have since been passed on to the governments involved, as they become able to take over the operations themselves.After the September 11 attacks and the subsequent War on Terror, the Air Wing went on to expand its operations from mainly anti-narcotics operations to providing security support for United States nationals and interests, primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Safe transports for various diplomatic missions were undertaken, requiring acquisition of larger aircraft, such as Sikorsky S-61, Boeing Vertol CH-46, Beechcraft King Air and De Haviland DHC-8-300. In 2011, the Air Wing was operating over 230 aircraft around the world, the main missions still being counter narcotics and transportation of state officials.In 1964, at the height of the Cold War, Seabees were assigned to the State Department after listening devices were found in the Embassy of the United States in Moscow; this initial unit was called the "Naval Mobile Construction Battalion FOUR, Detachment November". The U.S. had just constructed a new embassy in Warsaw, and the Seabees were dispatched to locate "bugs". This led to the creation of the Naval Support Unit in 1966, which was made permanent two years later. That year William Darrah, a Seabee of the support unit, is credited with saving the U.S. Embassy in Prague, Czechoslovakia from a potentially disastrous fire. In 1986, "as a result of reciprocal expulsions ordered by Washington and Moscow" Seabees were sent to "Moscow and Leningrad to help keep the embassy and the consulate functioning".The Support Unit has a limited number of special billets for select NCOs, E-5 and above. These Seabees are assigned to the Department of State and attached to Diplomatic Security. Those chosen can be assigned to the Regional Security Officer of a specific embassy or be part of a team traveling from one embassy to the next. Duties include the installation of alarm systems, CCTV cameras, electromagnetic locks, safes, vehicle barriers, and securing compounds. They can also assist with the security engineering in sweeping embassies (electronic counter-intelligence). They are tasked with new construction or renovations in security sensitive areas and supervise private contractors in non-sensitive areas. Due to Diplomatic protocol the Support Unit is required to wear civilian clothes most of the time they are on duty and receive a supplemental clothing allowance for this. The information regarding this assignment is very scant, but State Department records in 1985 indicate Department security had 800 employees, plus 1,200 Marines and 115 Seabees. That Seabee number is roughly the same today.In FY 2010 the Department of State, together with "Other International Programs" (such as USAID), had a combined projected discretionary budget of $51.7 billion. The United States Federal Budget for Fiscal Year 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', specifically 'Imposes Transparency on the Budget' for the Department of State.The end-of-year FY 2010 DoS Agency Financial Report, approved by Secretary Clinton on November 15, 2010, showed actual total costs for the year of $27.4 billion. Revenues of $6.0 billion, $2.8 billion of which were earned through the provision of consular and management services, reduced total net cost to $21.4 billion.Total program costs for 'Achieving Peace and Security' were $7.0 billion; 'Governing Justly and Democratically', $0.9 billion; 'Investing in People', $4.6 billion; 'Promoting Economic Growth and Prosperity', $1.5 billion; 'Providing Humanitarian Assistance', $1.8 billion; 'Promoting International Understanding', $2.7 billion; 'Strengthening Consular and Management Capabilities', $4.0 billion; 'Executive Direction and Other Costs Not Assigned', $4.2 billion.The Department of State's independent auditors are Kearney & Company. Since in FY 2009 Kearney & Company qualified its audit opinion, noting material financial reporting weaknesses, the DoS restated its 2009 financial statements in 2010. In its FY 2010 audit report, Kearney & Company provided an unqualified audit opinion while noting significant deficiencies, of controls in relation to financial reporting and budgetary accounting, and of compliance with a number of laws and provisions relating to financial management and accounting requirements. In response the DoS Chief Financial Officer observed that "The Department operates in over 270 locations in 172 countries, while conducting business in 150 currencies and an even larger number of languages ... Despite these complexities, the Department pursues a commitment to financial integrity, transparency, and accountability that is the equal of any large multi-national corporation."Since 1973 the primary record keeping system of the Department of State is the Central Foreign Policy File. It consists of copies of official telegrams, airgrams, reports, memorandums, correspondence, diplomatic notes, and other documents related to foreign relations. Over 1,000,000 records spanning the time period from 1973 to 1979 can be accessed online from the National Archives and Records Administration.In the 2015 Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) (using 2012 and 2013 data), the State Department was the lowest performer, earning an "F" by scoring only 37 out of a possible 100 points, unchanged from 2013. The State Department's score was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance.	[ "Lawrence Eagleburger", "Thomas Jefferson", "William P. Rogers", "Cyrus Vance", "Alexander Haig", "George P. Shultz", "Warren Christopher", "Hillary Clinton", "Mike Pompeo", "Condoleezza Rice", "Rex Tillerson", "Colin Powell", "Edmund Muskie", "Madeleine Albright", "James Baker", "Dean Rusk", "Henry Kissinger", "John Kerry" ]
Which employer did Leroy Cronin work for in Dec, 1997?	December 07, 1997	{ "text": [ "University of Edinburgh" ] }	L2_Q6528921_P108_0	Leroy Cronin works for University of Glasgow from Jan, 2002 to Dec, 2022. Leroy Cronin works for University of Edinburgh from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999. Leroy Cronin works for Bielefeld University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. Leroy Cronin works for University of Birmingham from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2002.	Leroy CroninLeroy "Lee" Cronin (born 1 June 1973) is the Regius Chair of Chemistry in the School of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, UK. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Society of Chemistry, and appointed to the Regius Chair of Chemistry in 2013 (He was previously the Gardiner Chair, appointed April 2009).Lee Cronin received his B.Sc. (1994) and Ph.D. (1997) degrees from the University of York. From 1997 to 1999, he was a Leverhulme fellow at the University of Edinburgh working with Neil Robertson, and after that he moved to the University of Bielefeld (1999–2000) as an Alexander von Humboldt research fellow in the laboratory of Achim Mueller. In 2000 he joined the academic staff at the University of Birmingham, UK, as a Lecturer in Chemistry, and in 2002 he moved to a similar position at the University of Glasgow, UK.He became Reader at the University of Glasgow in 2005, EPSRC Advanced Fellow and Professor of Chemistry in 2006, and in 2009 became the Gardiner Professor. In 2013 he became the Regius Professor of Chemistry (Glasgow).Cronin gave the opening lecture at TEDGlobal conference in 2011 in Edinburgh. He outlined initial steps his team at University of Glasgow is taking to create inorganic biology, life composed of non-carbon-based material.He was awarded a Philip Leverhulme Prize by the Leverhulme Trust in 2007. He was awarded the Corday-Morgan medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2012.Lee Cronin was the subject of a film entitled "Inorganica", which documents the progress of his research in inorganic biology and origins of life.In 2014 Lee Cronin was recognised as one of the UK’s top 10 Inspiring Sciences and Engineers (RISE) as well as being recognised as one of the top 100 UK practising Sciences by the UK Science CouncilIn 2015 Lee Cronin gave the Royal Society of Edinburgh BP / Hutton Prize for Energy innovation and also was named winner of the Tilden Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2015.Cronin has published over 380 papers, given 350 lectures. He runs a large research group and holds EPSRC Programme, Platform Grants and was awarded a European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant.	[ "University of Birmingham", "University of Glasgow", "Bielefeld University" ]
Which employer did Leroy Cronin work for in Jan, 1999?	January 22, 1999	{ "text": [ "Bielefeld University", "University of Edinburgh" ] }	L2_Q6528921_P108_1	Leroy Cronin works for Bielefeld University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. Leroy Cronin works for University of Birmingham from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2002. Leroy Cronin works for University of Edinburgh from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999. Leroy Cronin works for University of Glasgow from Jan, 2002 to Dec, 2022.	Leroy CroninLeroy "Lee" Cronin (born 1 June 1973) is the Regius Chair of Chemistry in the School of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, UK. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Society of Chemistry, and appointed to the Regius Chair of Chemistry in 2013 (He was previously the Gardiner Chair, appointed April 2009).Lee Cronin received his B.Sc. (1994) and Ph.D. (1997) degrees from the University of York. From 1997 to 1999, he was a Leverhulme fellow at the University of Edinburgh working with Neil Robertson, and after that he moved to the University of Bielefeld (1999–2000) as an Alexander von Humboldt research fellow in the laboratory of Achim Mueller. In 2000 he joined the academic staff at the University of Birmingham, UK, as a Lecturer in Chemistry, and in 2002 he moved to a similar position at the University of Glasgow, UK.He became Reader at the University of Glasgow in 2005, EPSRC Advanced Fellow and Professor of Chemistry in 2006, and in 2009 became the Gardiner Professor. In 2013 he became the Regius Professor of Chemistry (Glasgow).Cronin gave the opening lecture at TEDGlobal conference in 2011 in Edinburgh. He outlined initial steps his team at University of Glasgow is taking to create inorganic biology, life composed of non-carbon-based material.He was awarded a Philip Leverhulme Prize by the Leverhulme Trust in 2007. He was awarded the Corday-Morgan medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2012.Lee Cronin was the subject of a film entitled "Inorganica", which documents the progress of his research in inorganic biology and origins of life.In 2014 Lee Cronin was recognised as one of the UK’s top 10 Inspiring Sciences and Engineers (RISE) as well as being recognised as one of the top 100 UK practising Sciences by the UK Science CouncilIn 2015 Lee Cronin gave the Royal Society of Edinburgh BP / Hutton Prize for Energy innovation and also was named winner of the Tilden Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2015.Cronin has published over 380 papers, given 350 lectures. He runs a large research group and holds EPSRC Programme, Platform Grants and was awarded a European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant.	[ "University of Birmingham", "University of Glasgow", "University of Edinburgh", "University of Birmingham", "University of Glasgow" ]
Which employer did Leroy Cronin work for in Feb, 2000?	February 12, 2000	{ "text": [ "University of Birmingham" ] }	L2_Q6528921_P108_2	Leroy Cronin works for Bielefeld University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. Leroy Cronin works for University of Birmingham from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2002. Leroy Cronin works for University of Edinburgh from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999. Leroy Cronin works for University of Glasgow from Jan, 2002 to Dec, 2022.	Leroy CroninLeroy "Lee" Cronin (born 1 June 1973) is the Regius Chair of Chemistry in the School of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, UK. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Society of Chemistry, and appointed to the Regius Chair of Chemistry in 2013 (He was previously the Gardiner Chair, appointed April 2009).Lee Cronin received his B.Sc. (1994) and Ph.D. (1997) degrees from the University of York. From 1997 to 1999, he was a Leverhulme fellow at the University of Edinburgh working with Neil Robertson, and after that he moved to the University of Bielefeld (1999–2000) as an Alexander von Humboldt research fellow in the laboratory of Achim Mueller. In 2000 he joined the academic staff at the University of Birmingham, UK, as a Lecturer in Chemistry, and in 2002 he moved to a similar position at the University of Glasgow, UK.He became Reader at the University of Glasgow in 2005, EPSRC Advanced Fellow and Professor of Chemistry in 2006, and in 2009 became the Gardiner Professor. In 2013 he became the Regius Professor of Chemistry (Glasgow).Cronin gave the opening lecture at TEDGlobal conference in 2011 in Edinburgh. He outlined initial steps his team at University of Glasgow is taking to create inorganic biology, life composed of non-carbon-based material.He was awarded a Philip Leverhulme Prize by the Leverhulme Trust in 2007. He was awarded the Corday-Morgan medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2012.Lee Cronin was the subject of a film entitled "Inorganica", which documents the progress of his research in inorganic biology and origins of life.In 2014 Lee Cronin was recognised as one of the UK’s top 10 Inspiring Sciences and Engineers (RISE) as well as being recognised as one of the top 100 UK practising Sciences by the UK Science CouncilIn 2015 Lee Cronin gave the Royal Society of Edinburgh BP / Hutton Prize for Energy innovation and also was named winner of the Tilden Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2015.Cronin has published over 380 papers, given 350 lectures. He runs a large research group and holds EPSRC Programme, Platform Grants and was awarded a European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant.	[ "University of Glasgow", "University of Edinburgh", "Bielefeld University" ]
Which employer did Leroy Cronin work for in May, 2015?	May 15, 2015	{ "text": [ "University of Glasgow" ] }	L2_Q6528921_P108_3	Leroy Cronin works for University of Edinburgh from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999. Leroy Cronin works for University of Glasgow from Jan, 2002 to Dec, 2022. Leroy Cronin works for Bielefeld University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. Leroy Cronin works for University of Birmingham from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2002.	Leroy CroninLeroy "Lee" Cronin (born 1 June 1973) is the Regius Chair of Chemistry in the School of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, UK. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Society of Chemistry, and appointed to the Regius Chair of Chemistry in 2013 (He was previously the Gardiner Chair, appointed April 2009).Lee Cronin received his B.Sc. (1994) and Ph.D. (1997) degrees from the University of York. From 1997 to 1999, he was a Leverhulme fellow at the University of Edinburgh working with Neil Robertson, and after that he moved to the University of Bielefeld (1999–2000) as an Alexander von Humboldt research fellow in the laboratory of Achim Mueller. In 2000 he joined the academic staff at the University of Birmingham, UK, as a Lecturer in Chemistry, and in 2002 he moved to a similar position at the University of Glasgow, UK.He became Reader at the University of Glasgow in 2005, EPSRC Advanced Fellow and Professor of Chemistry in 2006, and in 2009 became the Gardiner Professor. In 2013 he became the Regius Professor of Chemistry (Glasgow).Cronin gave the opening lecture at TEDGlobal conference in 2011 in Edinburgh. He outlined initial steps his team at University of Glasgow is taking to create inorganic biology, life composed of non-carbon-based material.He was awarded a Philip Leverhulme Prize by the Leverhulme Trust in 2007. He was awarded the Corday-Morgan medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2012.Lee Cronin was the subject of a film entitled "Inorganica", which documents the progress of his research in inorganic biology and origins of life.In 2014 Lee Cronin was recognised as one of the UK’s top 10 Inspiring Sciences and Engineers (RISE) as well as being recognised as one of the top 100 UK practising Sciences by the UK Science CouncilIn 2015 Lee Cronin gave the Royal Society of Edinburgh BP / Hutton Prize for Energy innovation and also was named winner of the Tilden Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2015.Cronin has published over 380 papers, given 350 lectures. He runs a large research group and holds EPSRC Programme, Platform Grants and was awarded a European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant.	[ "University of Birmingham", "University of Edinburgh", "Bielefeld University" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Feb, 1764?	February 04, 1764	{ "text": [ "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_0	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Jun, 1768?	June 03, 1768	{ "text": [ "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_1	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Feb, 1780?	February 08, 1780	{ "text": [ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_2	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Feb, 1784?	February 08, 1784	{ "text": [ "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_3	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Apr, 1785?	April 02, 1785	{ "text": [ "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_4	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Oct, 1791?	October 02, 1791	{ "text": [ "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_5	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Jun, 1797?	June 04, 1797	{ "text": [ "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_6	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Dec, 1801?	December 18, 1801	{ "text": [ "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_7	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Jul, 1802?	July 25, 1802	{ "text": [ "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_8	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Dec, 1806?	December 01, 1806	{ "text": [ "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_9	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Sep, 1814?	September 10, 1814	{ "text": [ "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_10	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Aug, 1819?	August 17, 1819	{ "text": [ "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_11	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which position did William Plumer hold in Jan, 1821?	January 18, 1821	{ "text": [ "Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q26256303_P39_12	William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain from Jun, 1790 to May, 1796. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain from May, 1796 to Jan, 1801. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1784 to Jun, 1790. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jan, 1822. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain from Sep, 1780 to Mar, 1784. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain from Mar, 1768 to Sep, 1774. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain from Feb, 1763 to Mar, 1768. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1801 to Jun, 1802. William Plumer holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain from Oct, 1774 to Sep, 1780.	William Plumer (1736–1822)William Plumer (1736–1822), was a British politician who served 54 years in the House of Commons between 1763 and 1822.Plumer was the son of William Plumer and his wife Elizabeth Byde, daughter of Thomas Byde of Ware Park, and was born on 24 May 1736. He was admitted at Pembroke College, Cambridge in 1752.Plumer was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lewes at a by-election in February 1763. The Duke of Newcastle had supported his stand at Lewes because he was considered a strong candidate, and wished him to stand there at the following election. However Plumer wanted to stand at his home seat at Hertfordshire. He succeeded his father to Blakesware and Gilston Park, Hertfordshire on 12 December 1767 and the Duke eventually agreed to release him from a commitment to stand at Lewes.Plumer was popular in Hertfordshire; his position there was strong and he was returned for Hertfordshire without opposition at the 1768 general election. There were contested elections in 1774 and 1784, and each time he headed the poll by a large majority. In 1780 he was again returned unopposed.The "English Chronicle" wrote in 1781 as follows:William Plumer is one of the most opulent country gentlemen in the kingdom. Beside possessing the most extensive property of any gentleman in this county, his additional estates in Essex, Middlesex, and Suffolk, make up a clear income of fifteen thousand pounds per annum ... In his parliamentary character he has been uniform in his opposition to all the measures of the present Administration; and though no speaker, is one of the most constant attendants upon his legislative duty, and suffers no question to pass without that substantial indication of his political talents, a direct negative to the minister. His activity out of the House is not less conspicuous than his honest zeal within it ... His character, as a private individual, is of that kind that totally exempts him from the smallest imputation of being under the direction of any improper motive in the enthusiasm of his public exertions. His fortune raises him above the influence of pecuniary temptation, and the pitiful ambition of titular importance constitutes no part of his foibles. Having little to wish, therefore, and nothing to fear, he is governed by no consideration but his own conviction, and without any pretensions to the estimation of one of the first politicians in the kingdom is, beyond, all doubt, one of the sincerest.Plumer headed the poll again in the 1790 general election. He topped the poll again in the 1796 and 1802 general elections and was returned unopposed in 1806. However he was in poor health and retired at the 1807 general election on a plea of ‘advancing age’. Then he missed his participation in Parliament and at the age of 76, he accepted the seat of Higham Ferrers from his friend Earl Fitzwilliam and was returned in the 1812 general election. By 1815 he was deaf and suffering from rheumatism and gout, and it was said he never stayed in the House after six o'clock. He was too ill to attend early in 1816 and considered retiring but went to Higham Ferrers for his re-election in the 1818 general election.Plumer died on 15 January 1822, without issue.Plumer married as his first wife Frances Dorothy Carey daughter of Lucius Cary, 7th Viscount Falkland on 12 July 1760. She died in December 1761.He remarried to Jane Hamilton, daughter of Hon. and Rev. George Hamilton on 9 August 1791. After his death, she married, as her third husband, Robert Ward, MP, who adopted the name Plumer and moved into Gilston Park.	[ "Member of the 14th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 15th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 18th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 1st Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of Great Britain", "Member of the 16th Parliament of Great Britain" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Sep, 2011?	September 28, 2011	{ "text": [ "Lansing Lugnuts", "Toronto Blue Jays" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_0	Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Aug, 2010?	August 08, 2010	{ "text": [ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Toronto Blue Jays" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_1	Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Lansing Lugnuts", "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Jul, 2011?	July 23, 2011	{ "text": [ "Bluefield Blue Jays", "Toronto Blue Jays" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_2	Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts", "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Aug, 2011?	August 17, 2011	{ "text": [ "Vancouver Canadians", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_3	Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays", "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts", "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Jun, 2012?	June 11, 2012	{ "text": [ "Lansing Lugnuts", "Toronto Blue Jays" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_4	Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Oct, 2019?	October 14, 2019	{ "text": [ "New York Mets" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_5	Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010. Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts", "St. Lucie Mets", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in May, 2013?	May 02, 2013	{ "text": [ "St. Lucie Mets", "New York Mets" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_6	Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Aug, 2013?	August 21, 2013	{ "text": [ "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "New York Mets" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_7	Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts", "St. Lucie Mets", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Las Vegas Aviators", "Vancouver Canadians", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Which team did Noah Syndergaard play for in Apr, 2014?	April 11, 2014	{ "text": [ "New York Mets", "Las Vegas Aviators" ] }	L2_Q15831560_P54_8	Noah Syndergaard plays for Las Vegas Aviators from Apr, 2014 to Sep, 2014. Noah Syndergaard plays for Binghamton Rumble Ponies from Jun, 2013 to Aug, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for St. Lucie Mets from Apr, 2013 to Jun, 2013. Noah Syndergaard plays for Toronto Blue Jays from Jan, 2010 to Dec, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for New York Mets from Dec, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Noah Syndergaard plays for Vancouver Canadians from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Bluefield Blue Jays from Jun, 2011 to Jul, 2011. Noah Syndergaard plays for Lansing Lugnuts from Aug, 2011 to Aug, 2012. Noah Syndergaard plays for Gulf Coast League Blue Jays from Jul, 2010 to Aug, 2010.	Noah SyndergaardNoah Seth Syndergaard (born August 29, 1992), nicknamed Thor, is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Toronto Blue Jays selected him in the first round of the 2010 MLB draft and traded him to the Mets in 2012. Syndergaard made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 12, 2015, and served as their Opening Day starting pitcher in 2017 and 2018. He was named to the National League All-Star team in 2016, and has won the National League Player of the Week Award four times.Noah Syndergaard was born to Heidi, an Abbott Laboratories employee, and Brad Syndergaard, an "Iowa farmboy," in Mansfield, Texas. He has two paternal half-sisters, who are 14 and 17 years older than him respectively. Syndergaard has said he's had limited contact with his sisters. Brad gave Noah valuable input at every level of his career and Noah has described his father as the best coach that he has ever had. The Syndergaards, like many families in Texas, were "a football family" but Noah did not seriously play any sports other than baseball. Syndergaard's mother encouraged her son to pursue baseball when he was a child. He hit his first over-the-fence home run when he was seven years old. Syndergaard grew up watching the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB) and strongly disliked his family's favorite team, the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.Syndergaard attended Mansfield Legacy High School in Mansfield, Texas where he was a teammate of future Major League pitcher Tejay Antone. During his junior year of high school, Syndergaard experienced a growth spurt of to reach . Syndergaard also began weight training, and his velocity improved greatly in his senior year at Mansfield, reaching . However, his late development still caused him to be somewhat overlooked by talent evaluators. Syndergaard also played basketball for the Broncos at Legacy High School.After talking to coaches at the University of Oklahoma, the University of Nebraska, and Baylor University, he committed to attend Dallas Baptist University to play college baseball for the Dallas Baptist Patriots. Dallas Baptist was the only school that offered him a college baseball scholarship.The Toronto Blue Jays selected Syndergaard in the first round, with the 38th overall selection, of the 2010 MLB draft. He signed with the Blue Jays, receiving a $600,000 signing bonus to forgo his commitment to Dallas Baptist.In 2011, Syndergaard pitched for the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, the Vancouver Canadians of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League, and the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class A Midwest League. Pitching for the three teams, he was 5–2 with a 1.83 ERA, and 68 strikeouts in 59 innings, as runners stole 19 bases against him in 23 attempts.Before the 2012 season, MLB.com rated him as the 95th-best prospect in baseball. He pitched alongside highly touted Blue Jays prospects Justin Nicolino and Aaron Sanchez in the minor leagues. The pitchers were together known as the "Vancouver Trio" and the "Lansing Trio" when they played for the Canadians and Lugnuts respectively. He pitched for Lansing in 2012, and appeared in the Midwest League All-Star Game. Pitching for Lansing, he was 8–5 with a 2.60 ERA, and 122 strikeouts in 103.2 innings.On December 17, 2012, the Blue Jays traded Syndergaard, Travis d'Arnaud, John Buck and Wuilmer Becerra to the New York Mets for R.A. Dickey, Josh Thole and Mike Nickeas. At the time of the trade, Syndergaard and d'Arnaud were two of the Blue Jays' top three prospects, and Dickey was the reigning winner of the Cy Young Award for the National League. Entering his first season in the Mets organization, Syndergaard was rated as the team's third-best prospect, behind Zack Wheeler and d'Arnaud. He began the 2013 season with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League (FSL), and was named an FSL All-Star. He was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in late June. He was selected for the 2013 All-Star Futures Game. Pitching for the two teams, he was 9–4 with a 3.06, and 133 strikeouts in 117.2 innings.In 2014, Syndergaard pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League, where he had a 9–7 win–loss record, a 4.60 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts, which led the league in 133 innings. The Mets decided not to promote Syndergaard to the major leagues as part of its September call-ups. Syndergaard began the 2015 season with Las Vegas, pitching to a 3–0 record with a 1.82 ERA, and 34 strikeouts in 29.2 innings.Syndergaard made his major league debut for the Mets against the Chicago Cubs on May 12 at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Syndergaard earned the loss as the Mets lost 6–1. He threw 103 pitches in five and one-thirds innings pitched while giving up 3 runs on six hits with six strikeouts and four walks. In the first inning Syndergaard earned his first strikeout against Cubs' leadoff hitter Dexter Fowler to begin his debut.On May 27, Syndergaard hit his first major league home run, a solo home run, off of Sean O'Sullivan of the Philadelphia Phillies. He had three hits in the game, tying a franchise record for pitchers with three hits in a game. On July 10, he recorded a career-high 13 strikeouts in eight innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks, giving up one run, four hits and two walks and earning the win. On August 3, he and Mets teammate Lucas Duda were named National League Co-Players of the Week for the week of July 27 to August 2. In his first start during that week, on July 28, he pitched eight scoreless innings against the San Diego Padres, striking out nine and only issuing three hits and no walks on the way to a 4–0 Mets victory. On August 2, Syndergaard again struck out nine over eight innings, surrendering two runs on seven hits and no walks in a victory over the Washington Nationals.On August 8, according to the Elias Sports Bureau, Syndergaard became the first rookie since 1900 to win two consecutive starts with nine strikeouts and no walks in each start. He finished his rookie season with a 9–7 record and a 3.24 ERA in 24 starts, with the ability to throw his fastball at 100 miles per hour at times, he struck out 166 batters and gave up 31 walks (2 intentional), 126 hits, 60 runs (54 of them earned), and 19 home runs in only 150 innings with a WHIP of 1.047.Syndergaard started in Game 2 of the 2015 National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He picked up the loss in that game as the Dodgers won 5–2, but he only allowed three runs in innings pitched with nine strikeouts and four walks. On October 15, he made his first Major League relief appearance in Game 5 . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning in that game, helping the Mets secure the victory and advance to the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He started Game 2 of the NLCS and picked up the victory, giving up three hits, one run, and one walk while striking out nine in innings pitched. The Mets swept the Cubs in four games and won the National League pennant, their first since 2000.Syndergaard started Game 3 of the 2015 World Series against the Kansas City Royals with the Mets already trailing 2 games to none in the series. He got the victory in that game, allowing three runs, seven hits, two walks and striking out six in six innings as the Mets cruised to a 9–3 win. It was the only game in the series that the Mets won, as the Royals went on to win in five games.Syndergaard made his season debut in the second game of the season, defeating the Royals at Kauffman Stadium on April 5. On April 12, Syndergaard struck out 12 batters, obtaining 26 swings and misses, which was the most by a Mets pitcher in 15 years. His 21 strikeouts in his first two starts of the season tied a club record along with Pedro Martínez and Dwight Gooden.On April 18, Syndergaard made his third start of the season against the Phillies at Citizens Bank Park pitching for his second win of the year going seven innings allowing one run, five hits, two walks and struck out eight. Through his first three starts, Syndergaard was 2–0 with a 0.90 ERA, 29 strikeouts and four walks in 20 innings. In concert with that he also threw at least eight strikeouts while allowing no more than one run in fall of his first three starts for the first such start of a season by a pitcher since Randy Johnson went four games with those stats in 1995. With those numbers, he now ranks second in Mets history with the most strikeouts in first three starts of the season with twenty-nine surpassing Tom Seaver (1971 with 28), Nolan Ryan (1970 with 28) and behind Pedro Martínez with thirty in 2005.On May 11, Syndergaard hit two home runs for his second and third career home runs off opposing Los Angeles Dodgers starter Kenta Maeda at Dodger Stadium. He became the first Mets pitcher to hit two home runs in a game since Walt Terrell did it on August 6, 1983 against Ferguson Jenkins of the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field in a 4–1 win. Both Terrell and Syndergaard are the only Mets pitchers to homer twice in the same game and drive in all four runs. Noah became the first pitcher to hit two home runs in one game since Micah Owings did it for the Arizona Diamondbacks on August 18, 2007. Syndergaard's four RBI tied a Dodger Stadium single-game record for a pitcher since Lew Burdette of Milwaukee on July 10, 1958. Syndergaard pitched eight innings, allowed six hits, two runs and walked one while striking out six to win his first game since April 18.For the second time in his career, Syndergaard was named the National League Player of the Week for the week of May 16 – 22. Syndergaard during the week went 2–0 with a 0.00 ERA with 21 strikeouts in 14 innings pitched. On May 28, Syndergaard had his first career ejection when the umpire felt he intentionally threw a pitch behind the back of Chase Utley, which was considered retaliation for Utley injuring Ruben Tejada on a dirty slide in Game 2 of the 2015 NLDS.Syndergaard came back and continued to dominate in June, including coming two outs shy of what would have been his first career complete game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 15. However, in his last start of the month, Syndergaard pitched badly against his divisional rival Washington Nationals, as he went just three innings, allowing 5 runs on 7 hits and 3 walks. He also allowed 5 stolen bases, which led to the 5 runs. The next day, on June 28, it was revealed that Syndergaard and teammate Steven Matz had been pitching most of the season with bone spurs in the back of their pitching elbows. It was indicated that Syndergaard's spur was less significant and it will be treated with anti-inflammatory medication. Mets GM Sandy Alderson said that Syndergaard would not need to have the spur removed during the offseason.Syndergaard rebounded after his rough start in Washington with a brilliant outing on July 3 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 7 innings, allowing just one run, and struck out 8 batters. On July 5, he was named to the National League roster for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Petco Park with fellow first time All-Star Jeurys Familia and Mets manager Terry Collins, but was later injured along with teammate Yoenis Céspedes on July 8, forcing both to miss the game. For the 2016 season, he was 14-9 and led the majors in lowest home runs per nine innings (0.54). He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 98.0 miles per hour. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 48 (18 ahead of Jimmy Nelson; as only nine runners were caught stealing). He started the 2016 NL Wild Card Game and pitched seven shutout innings, but the Mets lost to the San Francisco Giants.Syndergaard finished eighth in Cy Young Award voting. He also placed in a three-way tie with Christian Yelich and Addison Russell for 19th in voting for the 2016 National League Most Valuable Player Award.Syndergaard started on Opening Day for the Mets in 2017. Against the Atlanta Braves, Syndergaard struck out seven over six innings and got a base hit in a 6–0 Mets victory. He left the game early due to a blister on his middle finger which caused him to get a no decision. On April 30, Syndergaard left the game after experiencing tightness in his right biceps. The next day, on May 1, he was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a torn lat muscle in his right arm. He was transferred to the 60-day disabled list on May 7.Syndergaard rejoined the Mets' active roster in late September. He returned to the mound on September 23, when he started against the Nationals and pitched the first inning. The short length of Syndergaard's outing was intentional and determined prior to the game, as the appearance was considered part of his rehab process. Syndergaard required only five pitches to complete the inning. After the game, he said of his decision to return before the end of the 2017 season, "I feel like I needed it just because I've put in so much work the past five months. I felt like I needed to get something out of it. Otherwise, what was I really doing?" He pitched in the team's final game of the season, pitching two scoreless innings against Philadelphia.For the second straight season, Syndergaard was chosen to start on Opening Day. He pitched 6 innings, striking out 10 batters, becoming the second Met, after Pedro Martinez in 2005, to register 10 or more strikeouts on Opening Day. He was placed on the disabled list at the end of May and was activated on July 12, after missing the whole month of June with a strained ligament in his right index finger. On July 22, he was again placed on the disabled list after contracting hand, foot and mouth disease, and returned on August 1. He threw the first complete game of his career on September 2, striking out 11 batters in a 4–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants at AT&T Park. He pitched on the last day of the season, throwing his first shutout in a complete game to defeat the Miami Marlins by a score of 1–0 at Citi Field. For the season, he was 13–4, with a 3.04 ERA. He led the major leagues in stolen bases given up, with 32 (as only three runners were caught stealing).On May 2, 2019, Syndergaard threw a complete game shutout against the Cincinnati Reds, allowing four hits and striking out ten batters, and hit a solo home run for the Mets' only run. He was the first pitcher since Bob Welch in 1983 to throw a shutout and hit a home run in a 1–0 win. For the performance, he was named National League Player of the Week for the week of April 29 to May 5. Syndergaard again won National League Player of the Week honors for the week of July 29 to August 4, after starts against the Chicago White Sox and Pittsburgh Pirates. Between September 2, 2018 and September 13, 2019, Syndergaard set a National League record by striking out in 32 consecutive games.Syndergaard finished the 2019 season with a 10–8 record and 4.30 ERA over 31 starts, striking out 193 and walking 48. He had a -7 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS) rating, the lowest in the major leagues among pitchers.On March 24, 2020, Syndergaard was diagnosed with a torn UCL in his right elbow and underwent Tommy John surgery on March 26, putting him out for the entire 2020 season.On May 27, 2021, Syndergaard was shut down from throwing for six weeks with inflammation in his right elbow after he had exited a rehab start the day before.The 6-foot-6 right-hander throws from an overhand delivery. PITCHf/x data shows him throwing two fastballs (four-seam, sinker) at , while topping out at 101 mph, along with a curveball between , a changeup, and a slider at . He added the slider to his repertoire during his first season in the majors. He initially began working with it to increase the spin on his curveball, saying in July 2015, "As of now, I’m just a fastball / curveball / changeup guy." However, by that year's postseason, he was using the pitch with regularity, throwing 17 in his first playoff appearance.On his mound presence, Syndergaard has said, "I feel like most people think I'm kind of this quiet guy, but when I'm on the mound ... I try to be as intimidating as possible. I try to use that as a weapon of mine. I feel like I'm on top of the world when I'm on the mound."Beginning in 2016, Syndergaard altered his windup to minimize movement, resembling his motion when in the stretch.Syndergaard is a weightlifting enthusiast and is capable of squatting and deadlifting . After he shared a photo of himself weight training while dressed as the superhero Thor, due to the similarity between his last name and the fictional location Asgard, he acquired the nickname "Thor". Syndergaard has embraced the nickname; his mother has an Australian Shepherd named Thor and Syndergaard has "Thor" stitched into one of his gloves. Syndergaard has taken to naming all of his gloves after fictional characters. He has previously used gloves named "Drago" (after the "Rocky IV" character), "Heisenberg" (after the alias of a "Breaking Bad" character) and "Rick Grimes" (after "The Walking Dead" character). Syndergaard auctions his gloves off in order to raise money for the Sjögren's Syndrome Foundation, which raises money to fight Sjögren's disease, an autoimmune disease from which his mother suffers. In 2017 the Mets collaborated with Marvel Comics to put out a Noah Syndergaard as Thor bobblehead and held fan giveaways of the souvenir at games at Citi Field during the 2017 and 2018 seasons.Syndergaard has made several appearances on television shows. In 2017, he made a cameo appearance in "The Spoils of War", a Season 7 episode of "Game of Thrones" on HBO, in which he played an unnamed Lannister spearman in the episode's climactic battle. Syndergaard appeared in a Season 1 episode of "Kevin Can Wait", a sitcom starring Mets fan Kevin James, in which he played a man wearing a Viking costume for Halloween. He voiced himself in a baseball-themed episode of the animated series "Uncle Grandpa" alongside fellow MLB players Chris Archer, Adam Jones, José Altuve, and David Price. He also appeared as himself in a segment of the prank reality program "Impractical Jokers" featuring Joe Gatto.	[ "Gulf Coast League Blue Jays", "Lansing Lugnuts", "St. Lucie Mets", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Vancouver Canadians", "Binghamton Rumble Ponies", "Bluefield Blue Jays" ]
Who was the head coach of the team NK Rudeš in Sep, 2018?	September 09, 2018	{ "text": [ "Ivan Matić" ] }	L2_Q6954589_P286_0	Marko Babić is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Oct, 2019 to Dec, 2022. Ivan Matić is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2018. Darko Jozinović is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2018.	NK RudešNogometni Klub Rudeš (), commonly referred to as NK Rudeš or simply Rudeš, is a Croatian football club founded in 1957 in Zagreb's neighbourhood of Rudeš. The club competes in Croatia's second division. Being a lower league club through most of its history, Rudeš achieved promotion to the Croatian Second Football League in 2009, where it quickly established itself as one of the most stable clubs and a regular top table finisher. In the 2016–17 season, Rudeš clinched the title, earning promotion to the Croatian First Football League for the 2017–18 season.In May 2017, Rudeš signed a ten-year partnership deal with Spanish club Deportivo Alavés, with Rudeš acting as a feeder club. However, the agreement was terminated after the first year.	[ "Marko Babić", "Darko Jozinović" ]
Who was the head coach of the team NK Rudeš in Dec, 2018?	December 21, 2018	{ "text": [ "Darko Jozinović" ] }	L2_Q6954589_P286_1	Marko Babić is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Oct, 2019 to Dec, 2022. Darko Jozinović is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2018. Ivan Matić is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2018.	NK RudešNogometni Klub Rudeš (), commonly referred to as NK Rudeš or simply Rudeš, is a Croatian football club founded in 1957 in Zagreb's neighbourhood of Rudeš. The club competes in Croatia's second division. Being a lower league club through most of its history, Rudeš achieved promotion to the Croatian Second Football League in 2009, where it quickly established itself as one of the most stable clubs and a regular top table finisher. In the 2016–17 season, Rudeš clinched the title, earning promotion to the Croatian First Football League for the 2017–18 season.In May 2017, Rudeš signed a ten-year partnership deal with Spanish club Deportivo Alavés, with Rudeš acting as a feeder club. However, the agreement was terminated after the first year.	[ "Marko Babić", "Ivan Matić" ]
Who was the head coach of the team NK Rudeš in Aug, 2020?	August 15, 2020	{ "text": [ "Marko Babić" ] }	L2_Q6954589_P286_2	Ivan Matić is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Jun, 2018 to Oct, 2018. Darko Jozinović is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2018. Marko Babić is the head coach of NK Rudeš from Oct, 2019 to Dec, 2022.	NK RudešNogometni Klub Rudeš (), commonly referred to as NK Rudeš or simply Rudeš, is a Croatian football club founded in 1957 in Zagreb's neighbourhood of Rudeš. The club competes in Croatia's second division. Being a lower league club through most of its history, Rudeš achieved promotion to the Croatian Second Football League in 2009, where it quickly established itself as one of the most stable clubs and a regular top table finisher. In the 2016–17 season, Rudeš clinched the title, earning promotion to the Croatian First Football League for the 2017–18 season.In May 2017, Rudeš signed a ten-year partnership deal with Spanish club Deportivo Alavés, with Rudeš acting as a feeder club. However, the agreement was terminated after the first year.	[ "Ivan Matić", "Darko Jozinović" ]
Which employer did Vilhelm Bjerknes work for in Aug, 1904?	August 05, 1904	{ "text": [ "Stockholm University" ] }	L2_Q164389_P108_0	Vilhelm Bjerknes works for Leipzig University from Jan, 1912 to Jan, 1916. Vilhelm Bjerknes works for Stockholm University from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1907. Vilhelm Bjerknes works for University of Oslo from Jan, 1907 to Jan, 1912.	Vilhelm BjerknesVilhelm Friman Koren Bjerknes (; 14 March 1862 – 9 April 1951) was a Norwegian physicist and meteorologist who did much to found the modern practice of weather forecasting. He formulated the primitive equations that are still in use in numerical weather prediction and climate modeling, and he developed the so-called Bergen School of Meteorology, which was successful in advancing weather prediction and meteorology in the early 20th century.Born in Christiania (later renamed Oslo), Bjerknes enjoyed an early exposure to fluid dynamics, as assistant to his father, Carl Anton Bjerknes, who had discovered by mathematical analysis the apparent actions at a distance between pulsating and oscillating bodies in a fluid, and their analogy with the electric and magnetic actions at a distance. Apparently no attempt had been made to demonstrate experimentally the theories arrived at by the older professor until Vilhelm Bjerknes, then about 17 or 18 years of age, turned his mathematical knowledge and mechanical abilities to the devising of a series of instruments by which all the well-known phenomena of electricity and magnetism were illustrated and reproduced by spheres and discs and membranes set into rhythmic vibration in a bath containing a viscous fluid such as syrup. These demonstrations formed the most important exhibit in the department of physics at the Exposition Internationale d'Électricité held in Paris in 1881, and aroused greatest interest in the scientific world.Vilhelm Bjerknes became assistant to Heinrich Hertz in Bonn 1890–1891 and made substantial contributions to Hertz' work on electromagnetic resonance. He succeeded in giving the explanation of the phenomenon called "multiple resonance," discovered by Sarasin and De la Rive. Continuing his experiments at the University of Christiania (1891–1892), he proved experimentally the influence which the conductivity and the magnetic properties of the metallic conductors exert upon the electric oscillations, and measured the depth to which the electric oscillations penetrate in metals of different conductivity and magnetic permeability (the "skin effect"). Finally, in 1895 he furnished a complete theory of the phenomenon of electric resonance, involving a method of utilizing resonance experiments for the determination of the wavelengths, and especially of the damping (the logarithmic decrement) of the oscillations in the transmitter and the receiver of the electric oscillations. These methods contributed much to the development of wireless telegraphy. His papers on electric oscillations were published in "Annalen der Physik" (1891–1895).In 1895, he became professor of applied mechanics and mathematical physics at the University of Stockholm where he had been lecturer since 1893. There he elucidated the fundamental interaction between fluid dynamics and thermodynamics. His major contribution was the primitive equations which are used in climate models.It was this work that inspired both V. Walfrid Ekman and Carl-Gustav Arvid Rossby to apply it to large-scale motions in the oceans and atmosphere and to make modern weather forecasting feasible. Bjerknes himself had foreseen the possible applications as early as 1904. This attack upon the meteorological problems from a hydrodynamical point of view was after 1906 supported by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., of which he became a research associate. Two introductory volumes, "Statics and Kinematics", of a greater work, "Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography", were published in 1913 under the auspices of the Institution.In his 1906 work "Fields of force", Bjerknes was the first to describe and mathematically derive translational forces on bubbles in an acoustic field, now known as Bjerknes forces.In his "Vorlesungen über Hydrodynamische Fernkräfte nach C. A. Bjerknes Theorie" (1900–1902) he gave the first complete mathematical and experimental exposition of the discoveries of his father, whose age and excessive self-criticism had prevented him from finishing his work himself. In a later book, "Die Kraftfelder" (1909), he stated the same theory in a very much generalized form according to methods of his own.In 1907, Bjerknes returned to the Royal Frederick University in Oslo before becoming professor of geophysics at the University of Leipzig in 1912. In 1916, he started the publication "Synoptische Darstellung atmosphärischer Zustände über Europa". In 1917, he founded the Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen where he wrote his book "On the Dynamics of the Circular Vortex with Applications to the Atmosphere and to Atmospheric Vortex and Wave Motion" (1921), and laid the foundation for the Bergen School of Meteorology, which was not a literal school but a school of thought on how the practice of weather forecasting and meteorology should be undertaken. He was the originator of an improved and more scientific weather service, afterwards controlled by his son and collaborator, the meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes (1897–1975).From 1926 to his retirement in 1932 he held a position at the University of Oslo. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905 and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936 and a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was awarded the 1932 Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society.He died of heart problems in Oslo. In 1893 Bjerknes had married Honoria Bonnevie, who in earlier years assisted him much in his scientific work. Their son Jacob Aall Bonnevie Bjerknes also became a meteorologist.The craters Bjerknes on the Moon and Bjerknes on Mars are named in his honor.	[ "Leipzig University", "University of Oslo" ]
Which employer did Vilhelm Bjerknes work for in Nov, 1908?	November 26, 1908	{ "text": [ "University of Oslo" ] }	L2_Q164389_P108_1	Vilhelm Bjerknes works for Leipzig University from Jan, 1912 to Jan, 1916. Vilhelm Bjerknes works for Stockholm University from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1907. Vilhelm Bjerknes works for University of Oslo from Jan, 1907 to Jan, 1912.	Vilhelm BjerknesVilhelm Friman Koren Bjerknes (; 14 March 1862 – 9 April 1951) was a Norwegian physicist and meteorologist who did much to found the modern practice of weather forecasting. He formulated the primitive equations that are still in use in numerical weather prediction and climate modeling, and he developed the so-called Bergen School of Meteorology, which was successful in advancing weather prediction and meteorology in the early 20th century.Born in Christiania (later renamed Oslo), Bjerknes enjoyed an early exposure to fluid dynamics, as assistant to his father, Carl Anton Bjerknes, who had discovered by mathematical analysis the apparent actions at a distance between pulsating and oscillating bodies in a fluid, and their analogy with the electric and magnetic actions at a distance. Apparently no attempt had been made to demonstrate experimentally the theories arrived at by the older professor until Vilhelm Bjerknes, then about 17 or 18 years of age, turned his mathematical knowledge and mechanical abilities to the devising of a series of instruments by which all the well-known phenomena of electricity and magnetism were illustrated and reproduced by spheres and discs and membranes set into rhythmic vibration in a bath containing a viscous fluid such as syrup. These demonstrations formed the most important exhibit in the department of physics at the Exposition Internationale d'Électricité held in Paris in 1881, and aroused greatest interest in the scientific world.Vilhelm Bjerknes became assistant to Heinrich Hertz in Bonn 1890–1891 and made substantial contributions to Hertz' work on electromagnetic resonance. He succeeded in giving the explanation of the phenomenon called "multiple resonance," discovered by Sarasin and De la Rive. Continuing his experiments at the University of Christiania (1891–1892), he proved experimentally the influence which the conductivity and the magnetic properties of the metallic conductors exert upon the electric oscillations, and measured the depth to which the electric oscillations penetrate in metals of different conductivity and magnetic permeability (the "skin effect"). Finally, in 1895 he furnished a complete theory of the phenomenon of electric resonance, involving a method of utilizing resonance experiments for the determination of the wavelengths, and especially of the damping (the logarithmic decrement) of the oscillations in the transmitter and the receiver of the electric oscillations. These methods contributed much to the development of wireless telegraphy. His papers on electric oscillations were published in "Annalen der Physik" (1891–1895).In 1895, he became professor of applied mechanics and mathematical physics at the University of Stockholm where he had been lecturer since 1893. There he elucidated the fundamental interaction between fluid dynamics and thermodynamics. His major contribution was the primitive equations which are used in climate models.It was this work that inspired both V. Walfrid Ekman and Carl-Gustav Arvid Rossby to apply it to large-scale motions in the oceans and atmosphere and to make modern weather forecasting feasible. Bjerknes himself had foreseen the possible applications as early as 1904. This attack upon the meteorological problems from a hydrodynamical point of view was after 1906 supported by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., of which he became a research associate. Two introductory volumes, "Statics and Kinematics", of a greater work, "Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography", were published in 1913 under the auspices of the Institution.In his 1906 work "Fields of force", Bjerknes was the first to describe and mathematically derive translational forces on bubbles in an acoustic field, now known as Bjerknes forces.In his "Vorlesungen über Hydrodynamische Fernkräfte nach C. A. Bjerknes Theorie" (1900–1902) he gave the first complete mathematical and experimental exposition of the discoveries of his father, whose age and excessive self-criticism had prevented him from finishing his work himself. In a later book, "Die Kraftfelder" (1909), he stated the same theory in a very much generalized form according to methods of his own.In 1907, Bjerknes returned to the Royal Frederick University in Oslo before becoming professor of geophysics at the University of Leipzig in 1912. In 1916, he started the publication "Synoptische Darstellung atmosphärischer Zustände über Europa". In 1917, he founded the Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen where he wrote his book "On the Dynamics of the Circular Vortex with Applications to the Atmosphere and to Atmospheric Vortex and Wave Motion" (1921), and laid the foundation for the Bergen School of Meteorology, which was not a literal school but a school of thought on how the practice of weather forecasting and meteorology should be undertaken. He was the originator of an improved and more scientific weather service, afterwards controlled by his son and collaborator, the meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes (1897–1975).From 1926 to his retirement in 1932 he held a position at the University of Oslo. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905 and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936 and a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was awarded the 1932 Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society.He died of heart problems in Oslo. In 1893 Bjerknes had married Honoria Bonnevie, who in earlier years assisted him much in his scientific work. Their son Jacob Aall Bonnevie Bjerknes also became a meteorologist.The craters Bjerknes on the Moon and Bjerknes on Mars are named in his honor.	[ "Leipzig University", "Stockholm University" ]
Which employer did Vilhelm Bjerknes work for in Mar, 1913?	March 29, 1913	{ "text": [ "Leipzig University" ] }	L2_Q164389_P108_2	Vilhelm Bjerknes works for Stockholm University from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1907. Vilhelm Bjerknes works for Leipzig University from Jan, 1912 to Jan, 1916. Vilhelm Bjerknes works for University of Oslo from Jan, 1907 to Jan, 1912.	Vilhelm BjerknesVilhelm Friman Koren Bjerknes (; 14 March 1862 – 9 April 1951) was a Norwegian physicist and meteorologist who did much to found the modern practice of weather forecasting. He formulated the primitive equations that are still in use in numerical weather prediction and climate modeling, and he developed the so-called Bergen School of Meteorology, which was successful in advancing weather prediction and meteorology in the early 20th century.Born in Christiania (later renamed Oslo), Bjerknes enjoyed an early exposure to fluid dynamics, as assistant to his father, Carl Anton Bjerknes, who had discovered by mathematical analysis the apparent actions at a distance between pulsating and oscillating bodies in a fluid, and their analogy with the electric and magnetic actions at a distance. Apparently no attempt had been made to demonstrate experimentally the theories arrived at by the older professor until Vilhelm Bjerknes, then about 17 or 18 years of age, turned his mathematical knowledge and mechanical abilities to the devising of a series of instruments by which all the well-known phenomena of electricity and magnetism were illustrated and reproduced by spheres and discs and membranes set into rhythmic vibration in a bath containing a viscous fluid such as syrup. These demonstrations formed the most important exhibit in the department of physics at the Exposition Internationale d'Électricité held in Paris in 1881, and aroused greatest interest in the scientific world.Vilhelm Bjerknes became assistant to Heinrich Hertz in Bonn 1890–1891 and made substantial contributions to Hertz' work on electromagnetic resonance. He succeeded in giving the explanation of the phenomenon called "multiple resonance," discovered by Sarasin and De la Rive. Continuing his experiments at the University of Christiania (1891–1892), he proved experimentally the influence which the conductivity and the magnetic properties of the metallic conductors exert upon the electric oscillations, and measured the depth to which the electric oscillations penetrate in metals of different conductivity and magnetic permeability (the "skin effect"). Finally, in 1895 he furnished a complete theory of the phenomenon of electric resonance, involving a method of utilizing resonance experiments for the determination of the wavelengths, and especially of the damping (the logarithmic decrement) of the oscillations in the transmitter and the receiver of the electric oscillations. These methods contributed much to the development of wireless telegraphy. His papers on electric oscillations were published in "Annalen der Physik" (1891–1895).In 1895, he became professor of applied mechanics and mathematical physics at the University of Stockholm where he had been lecturer since 1893. There he elucidated the fundamental interaction between fluid dynamics and thermodynamics. His major contribution was the primitive equations which are used in climate models.It was this work that inspired both V. Walfrid Ekman and Carl-Gustav Arvid Rossby to apply it to large-scale motions in the oceans and atmosphere and to make modern weather forecasting feasible. Bjerknes himself had foreseen the possible applications as early as 1904. This attack upon the meteorological problems from a hydrodynamical point of view was after 1906 supported by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., of which he became a research associate. Two introductory volumes, "Statics and Kinematics", of a greater work, "Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography", were published in 1913 under the auspices of the Institution.In his 1906 work "Fields of force", Bjerknes was the first to describe and mathematically derive translational forces on bubbles in an acoustic field, now known as Bjerknes forces.In his "Vorlesungen über Hydrodynamische Fernkräfte nach C. A. Bjerknes Theorie" (1900–1902) he gave the first complete mathematical and experimental exposition of the discoveries of his father, whose age and excessive self-criticism had prevented him from finishing his work himself. In a later book, "Die Kraftfelder" (1909), he stated the same theory in a very much generalized form according to methods of his own.In 1907, Bjerknes returned to the Royal Frederick University in Oslo before becoming professor of geophysics at the University of Leipzig in 1912. In 1916, he started the publication "Synoptische Darstellung atmosphärischer Zustände über Europa". In 1917, he founded the Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen where he wrote his book "On the Dynamics of the Circular Vortex with Applications to the Atmosphere and to Atmospheric Vortex and Wave Motion" (1921), and laid the foundation for the Bergen School of Meteorology, which was not a literal school but a school of thought on how the practice of weather forecasting and meteorology should be undertaken. He was the originator of an improved and more scientific weather service, afterwards controlled by his son and collaborator, the meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes (1897–1975).From 1926 to his retirement in 1932 he held a position at the University of Oslo. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905 and of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936 and a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was awarded the 1932 Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society.He died of heart problems in Oslo. In 1893 Bjerknes had married Honoria Bonnevie, who in earlier years assisted him much in his scientific work. Their son Jacob Aall Bonnevie Bjerknes also became a meteorologist.The craters Bjerknes on the Moon and Bjerknes on Mars are named in his honor.	[ "University of Oslo", "Stockholm University" ]
Which position did Denis McDonough hold in Jul, 2011?	July 29, 2011	{ "text": [ "Deputy National Security Advisor" ] }	L2_Q3702047_P39_0	Denis McDonough holds the position of White House Chief of Staff from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Denis McDonough holds the position of United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs from Feb, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Denis McDonough holds the position of Deputy National Security Advisor from Oct, 2010 to Jan, 2013.	Denis McDonoughDenis Richard McDonough (born December 2, 1969) is an American government official serving as the 11th and current United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs under President Joe Biden since 2021.From 2013 to 2017, McDonough served as White House Chief of Staff to President Barack Obama, the only chief of staff to date to serve a full four-year term exactly. He served in the Obama Administration as Deputy National Security Advisor from 2010 to 2013 and as chief of staff at the National Security Council from 2009 to 2010.McDonough was born on December 2, 1969, in Stillwater, Minnesota. He was one of 11 children in a devout Irish Catholic family, his grandparents having immigrated from Connemara in the Gaeltacht.McDonough graduated from Stillwater Area High School in 1988, then attended Saint John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota He played safety on the Johnnies football team for Hall of Fame coach John Gagliardi and was a member of teams that won two conference titles in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. McDonough graduated from Saint John's University with a Bachelor of Arts, "summa cum laude", in history and Spanish in 1992. After graduation, he traveled extensively throughout Latin America and taught high school in Belize.In 1996, McDonough earned an MSFS degree at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service.From 1996 to 1999, McDonough worked as an aide for the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, where he focused on Latin America. He then served as a senior foreign policy advisor to Senator Tom Daschle. After Daschle's reelection defeat in 2004, McDonough became legislative director for newly elected Senator Ken Salazar. McDonough was a senior fellow at the Center for American Progress in 2004.In 2007, Senator Barack Obama's chief foreign policy advisor Mark Lippert, a Navy reservist, was called into active duty. Lippert recruited McDonough to serve as his replacement during his deployment to Iraq. McDonough continued to serve as a senior foreign policy advisor to Obama during his 2008 presidential campaign.After Obama was elected president, McDonough joined the administration as the National Security Council's head of strategic communication. He also served as National Security Council chief of staff.On October 20, 2010, Obama announced that McDonough would replace Thomas E. Donilon as Deputy National Security Advisor, who had been promoted to succeed General James L. Jones as National Security Advisor. McDonough was seen in photos of the White House Situation Room taken during the monitoring of the May 2011 SEAL operation in Pakistan that resulted in the Osama bin Laden's death.On January 20, 2013, at the beginning of his second term in office, Obama appointed McDonough his chief of staff. In February 2013 McDonough urged lawmakers to quickly confirm Chuck Hagel and John O. Brennan to their posts in Obama's national security team, expressing "grave concern" about the delays.In 2017, McDonough joined the Markle Foundation, a nonprofit that aims to "transform America's outdated labor market to reflect the needs of the digital economy", boost employment opportunities, and expand job training for Americans. As a senior principal, he worked to grow the organization nationwide and broaden its work with governments such as the state of Colorado, public institutions such as Arizona State University, and private companies such as LinkedIn.McDonough is a professor of the practice at Notre Dame's Keough School of Global Affairs and a visiting senior fellow in Carnegie's Technology and International Affairs Program.President Joe Biden nominated McDonough to lead the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. He appeared before the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee on January 27, 2021. On February 8, the Senate confirmed McDonough as VA Secretary by a 87–7 vote, with six senators absent. McDonough is the second non-veteran to hold this position. Vice President Kamala Harris swore him in on February 9.McDonough is married to Karin Hillstrom. They have three children.	[ "White House Chief of Staff", "United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs" ]
Which position did Denis McDonough hold in Sep, 2013?	September 15, 2013	{ "text": [ "White House Chief of Staff" ] }	L2_Q3702047_P39_1	Denis McDonough holds the position of White House Chief of Staff from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2017. Denis McDonough holds the position of United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs from Feb, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Denis McDonough holds the position of Deputy National Security Advisor from Oct, 2010 to Jan, 2013.	Denis McDonoughDenis Richard McDonough (born December 2, 1969) is an American government official serving as the 11th and current United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs under President Joe Biden since 2021.From 2013 to 2017, McDonough served as White House Chief of Staff to President Barack Obama, the only chief of staff to date to serve a full four-year term exactly. He served in the Obama Administration as Deputy National Security Advisor from 2010 to 2013 and as chief of staff at the National Security Council from 2009 to 2010.McDonough was born on December 2, 1969, in Stillwater, Minnesota. He was one of 11 children in a devout Irish Catholic family, his grandparents having immigrated from Connemara in the Gaeltacht.McDonough graduated from Stillwater Area High School in 1988, then attended Saint John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota He played safety on the Johnnies football team for Hall of Fame coach John Gagliardi and was a member of teams that won two conference titles in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. McDonough graduated from Saint John's University with a Bachelor of Arts, "summa cum laude", in history and Spanish in 1992. After graduation, he traveled extensively throughout Latin America and taught high school in Belize.In 1996, McDonough earned an MSFS degree at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service.From 1996 to 1999, McDonough worked as an aide for the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, where he focused on Latin America. He then served as a senior foreign policy advisor to Senator Tom Daschle. After Daschle's reelection defeat in 2004, McDonough became legislative director for newly elected Senator Ken Salazar. McDonough was a senior fellow at the Center for American Progress in 2004.In 2007, Senator Barack Obama's chief foreign policy advisor Mark Lippert, a Navy reservist, was called into active duty. Lippert recruited McDonough to serve as his replacement during his deployment to Iraq. McDonough continued to serve as a senior foreign policy advisor to Obama during his 2008 presidential campaign.After Obama was elected president, McDonough joined the administration as the National Security Council's head of strategic communication. He also served as National Security Council chief of staff.On October 20, 2010, Obama announced that McDonough would replace Thomas E. Donilon as Deputy National Security Advisor, who had been promoted to succeed General James L. Jones as National Security Advisor. McDonough was seen in photos of the White House Situation Room taken during the monitoring of the May 2011 SEAL operation in Pakistan that resulted in the Osama bin Laden's death.On January 20, 2013, at the beginning of his second term in office, Obama appointed McDonough his chief of staff. In February 2013 McDonough urged lawmakers to quickly confirm Chuck Hagel and John O. Brennan to their posts in Obama's national security team, expressing "grave concern" about the delays.In 2017, McDonough joined the Markle Foundation, a nonprofit that aims to "transform America's outdated labor market to reflect the needs of the digital economy", boost employment opportunities, and expand job training for Americans. As a senior principal, he worked to grow the organization nationwide and broaden its work with governments such as the state of Colorado, public institutions such as Arizona State University, and private companies such as LinkedIn.McDonough is a professor of the practice at Notre Dame's Keough School of Global Affairs and a visiting senior fellow in Carnegie's Technology and International Affairs Program.President Joe Biden nominated McDonough to lead the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. He appeared before the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee on January 27, 2021. On February 8, the Senate confirmed McDonough as VA Secretary by a 87–7 vote, with six senators absent. McDonough is the second non-veteran to hold this position. Vice President Kamala Harris swore him in on February 9.McDonough is married to Karin Hillstrom. They have three children.	[ "Deputy National Security Advisor", "United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs" ]
Which position did Denis McDonough hold in May, 2021?	May 04, 2021	{ "text": [ "United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs" ] }	L2_Q3702047_P39_2	Denis McDonough holds the position of United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs from Feb, 2021 to Dec, 2022. Denis McDonough holds the position of Deputy National Security Advisor from Oct, 2010 to Jan, 2013. Denis McDonough holds the position of White House Chief of Staff from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2017.	Denis McDonoughDenis Richard McDonough (born December 2, 1969) is an American government official serving as the 11th and current United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs under President Joe Biden since 2021.From 2013 to 2017, McDonough served as White House Chief of Staff to President Barack Obama, the only chief of staff to date to serve a full four-year term exactly. He served in the Obama Administration as Deputy National Security Advisor from 2010 to 2013 and as chief of staff at the National Security Council from 2009 to 2010.McDonough was born on December 2, 1969, in Stillwater, Minnesota. He was one of 11 children in a devout Irish Catholic family, his grandparents having immigrated from Connemara in the Gaeltacht.McDonough graduated from Stillwater Area High School in 1988, then attended Saint John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota He played safety on the Johnnies football team for Hall of Fame coach John Gagliardi and was a member of teams that won two conference titles in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. McDonough graduated from Saint John's University with a Bachelor of Arts, "summa cum laude", in history and Spanish in 1992. After graduation, he traveled extensively throughout Latin America and taught high school in Belize.In 1996, McDonough earned an MSFS degree at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service.From 1996 to 1999, McDonough worked as an aide for the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, where he focused on Latin America. He then served as a senior foreign policy advisor to Senator Tom Daschle. After Daschle's reelection defeat in 2004, McDonough became legislative director for newly elected Senator Ken Salazar. McDonough was a senior fellow at the Center for American Progress in 2004.In 2007, Senator Barack Obama's chief foreign policy advisor Mark Lippert, a Navy reservist, was called into active duty. Lippert recruited McDonough to serve as his replacement during his deployment to Iraq. McDonough continued to serve as a senior foreign policy advisor to Obama during his 2008 presidential campaign.After Obama was elected president, McDonough joined the administration as the National Security Council's head of strategic communication. He also served as National Security Council chief of staff.On October 20, 2010, Obama announced that McDonough would replace Thomas E. Donilon as Deputy National Security Advisor, who had been promoted to succeed General James L. Jones as National Security Advisor. McDonough was seen in photos of the White House Situation Room taken during the monitoring of the May 2011 SEAL operation in Pakistan that resulted in the Osama bin Laden's death.On January 20, 2013, at the beginning of his second term in office, Obama appointed McDonough his chief of staff. In February 2013 McDonough urged lawmakers to quickly confirm Chuck Hagel and John O. Brennan to their posts in Obama's national security team, expressing "grave concern" about the delays.In 2017, McDonough joined the Markle Foundation, a nonprofit that aims to "transform America's outdated labor market to reflect the needs of the digital economy", boost employment opportunities, and expand job training for Americans. As a senior principal, he worked to grow the organization nationwide and broaden its work with governments such as the state of Colorado, public institutions such as Arizona State University, and private companies such as LinkedIn.McDonough is a professor of the practice at Notre Dame's Keough School of Global Affairs and a visiting senior fellow in Carnegie's Technology and International Affairs Program.President Joe Biden nominated McDonough to lead the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. He appeared before the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee on January 27, 2021. On February 8, the Senate confirmed McDonough as VA Secretary by a 87–7 vote, with six senators absent. McDonough is the second non-veteran to hold this position. Vice President Kamala Harris swore him in on February 9.McDonough is married to Karin Hillstrom. They have three children.	[ "Deputy National Security Advisor", "White House Chief of Staff" ]
Which position did Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet hold in Feb, 1917?	February 02, 1917	{ "text": [ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland" ] }	L2_Q831742_P39_0	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland from Jan, 1916 to Jan, 1919. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1933. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain from Jan, 1924 to Jan, 1928.	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th BaronetSir Horace George Montagu Rumbold, 9th Baronet, (5 February 1869 – 24 May 1941) was a British diplomat. A well-travelled diplomat who learned Arabic, Japanese and German, he is best remembered for his role as British Ambassador to Berlin from 1928 to 1933 in which he warned of the ambitions of Hitler and Nazi Germany.Rumbold was born on 5 February 1869 at St. Petersburg in the Russian Empire, the son of Sir Horace Rumbold, 8th Baronet and Caroline Barney (née Harrington). Horace was educated at Aldin House Prep School and at Eton.Rumbold was an honorary attaché at The Hague (1889–1890), where his father was ambassador. In 1891, he passed the first of the required examinations and entered the Diplomatic Service.After a year at the Foreign Office in London, he served in Cairo, Tehran, Vienna, Madrid and Munich between 1900 and 1913. He was then moved to Tokyo (1909–1913) and to Berlin (1913–1914).In Berlin, he took up the position of counsellor. Rumbold was in charge of the British Embassy when the ambassador, Sir Edward Goschen, went home on leave on 1 July. Rumbold conducted negotiations in the first four of the ten days that preceded the outbreak of the [[First World War.Rumbold left Berlin with the ambassador on 5 August 1914 with crowds attacking the embassy and their train.In 1916, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Switzerland\|ambassador to Berne]]. After the war, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland\|ambassador to Poland]] in 1919, The following year, he became the [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey\|High Commissioner to Constantinople]] during which he signed the [[Lausanne Treaty]] on behalf of the [[British Empire]]. He then became [[list of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain\|ambassador to Madrid]] from 1924 to 1928.Rumbold went on to his last position when he was appointed as [[list of diplomats of the United Kingdom to Germany\|ambassador to Berlin]] in 1928. Rumbold supported appeasing [[Heinrich Brüning]]'s government in the hope of staving off [[Germany\|German]] [[nationalism\|nationalist]] parties like [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Party]]. Once Hitler came to power in 1933, Rumbold was deeply unsettled by the Nazi regime and produced a succession of despatches critical of the Nazis. On 26 April 1933 Rumbold sent to the [[Foreign Office]] his valedictory despatch in which he gave an unvarnished view of Hitler, the Nazis and their ambitions:[Hitler] starts with the assumption that man is a fighting animal; therefore the nation is a fighting unit, being a community of fighters... A country or race which ceases to fight is doomed... Pacifism is the deadliest sin... Intelligence is of secondary importance... Will and determination are of the higher worth. Only brute force can ensure survival of the race. The new Reich must gather within its fold all the scattered [[German people\|German]] elements in Europe... What Germany needs is an increase in territory... [to Hitler] the idea that there is something reprehensible in chauvinism is entirely mistaken... the climax of education is military service [for youths] educated to the maximum of aggressiveness... It is the duty of the government to implant in the people feeling of manly courage and passionate hatred... Intellectualism is undesirable...It is objectionable to preach international understanding... [he] has spoken with derision of such delusive documents as peace-pacts and such delusive ideas as the spirit of Locarno.Rumbold concluded by giving stark warnings for the future of international relations:...it would be misleading to base any hopes on a return to sanity...[the German government is encouraging an attitude of mind]...which can only end in one way... I have the impression that the persons directing the policy of the Hitler government are not normal.Sir [[John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon\|John Simon]], the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs\|Foreign Secretary]], found Rumbold's descriptions to be "definitely disquieting". [[Ralph Wigram]], an official in the Foreign Office, gave [[Winston Churchill]] a copy of this despatch in the middle of March 1936. After Rumbold's death, [[Robert Vansittart, 1st Baron Vansittart\|Lord Vansittart]] said of him that "little escaped him, and his warnings [about Nazi Germany] were clearer than anything that we got later". [[Walter Laqueur]] concurred by claiming that Rumbold's "prophetic" insights explained the Third Reich better than the expert opinions that were later issued from the [[Office of Strategic Services\|OSS]].Rumbold was made a Member of the [[Royal Victorian Order]] (MVO) in 1907, a Knight Commander of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]] in 1917, sworn of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom\|Privy Council]] in 1920 and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1922.Rumbold married Etheldred Constantia Fane, younger daughter of the British diplomat [[Sir Edmund Douglas Veitch Fane]] (1837–1900) by his wife Constantia Wood, a niece of the [[Henry Lowther, 3rd Earl of Lonsdale\|3rd Earl of Lonsdale]], on 18 July 1905.On his father's death in November 1913, Horace succeeded him as 9th [[baronet]].They had one son and two daughters; the younger daughter died young in 1918. Lady Rumbold's only brother Henry Nevile Fane was married in 1910 (divorced 1935) to the elder daughter of the [[Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton\|21st Baron Clinton]], and the Rumbolds were thus indirectly related to the British Royal Family after 1923.Rumbold retired due to his age in June 1933. He died on 24 May 1941, aged 72, at his home in [[Tisbury, Wiltshire\|Tisbury]], [[Wiltshire]]. He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son, [[Sir Anthony Rumbold, 10th Baronet\|Anthony]], who also became a distinguished diplomat.[[Category:1869 births]][[Category:1941 deaths]][[Category:People educated at Eton College]][[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of Great Britain]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]][[Category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]][[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Germany]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland]]	[ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland" ]
Which position did Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet hold in Jan, 1919?	January 05, 1919	{ "text": [ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland" ] }	L2_Q831742_P39_1	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland from Jan, 1916 to Jan, 1919. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain from Jan, 1924 to Jan, 1928. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1933.	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th BaronetSir Horace George Montagu Rumbold, 9th Baronet, (5 February 1869 – 24 May 1941) was a British diplomat. A well-travelled diplomat who learned Arabic, Japanese and German, he is best remembered for his role as British Ambassador to Berlin from 1928 to 1933 in which he warned of the ambitions of Hitler and Nazi Germany.Rumbold was born on 5 February 1869 at St. Petersburg in the Russian Empire, the son of Sir Horace Rumbold, 8th Baronet and Caroline Barney (née Harrington). Horace was educated at Aldin House Prep School and at Eton.Rumbold was an honorary attaché at The Hague (1889–1890), where his father was ambassador. In 1891, he passed the first of the required examinations and entered the Diplomatic Service.After a year at the Foreign Office in London, he served in Cairo, Tehran, Vienna, Madrid and Munich between 1900 and 1913. He was then moved to Tokyo (1909–1913) and to Berlin (1913–1914).In Berlin, he took up the position of counsellor. Rumbold was in charge of the British Embassy when the ambassador, Sir Edward Goschen, went home on leave on 1 July. Rumbold conducted negotiations in the first four of the ten days that preceded the outbreak of the [[First World War.Rumbold left Berlin with the ambassador on 5 August 1914 with crowds attacking the embassy and their train.In 1916, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Switzerland\|ambassador to Berne]]. After the war, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland\|ambassador to Poland]] in 1919, The following year, he became the [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey\|High Commissioner to Constantinople]] during which he signed the [[Lausanne Treaty]] on behalf of the [[British Empire]]. He then became [[list of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain\|ambassador to Madrid]] from 1924 to 1928.Rumbold went on to his last position when he was appointed as [[list of diplomats of the United Kingdom to Germany\|ambassador to Berlin]] in 1928. Rumbold supported appeasing [[Heinrich Brüning]]'s government in the hope of staving off [[Germany\|German]] [[nationalism\|nationalist]] parties like [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Party]]. Once Hitler came to power in 1933, Rumbold was deeply unsettled by the Nazi regime and produced a succession of despatches critical of the Nazis. On 26 April 1933 Rumbold sent to the [[Foreign Office]] his valedictory despatch in which he gave an unvarnished view of Hitler, the Nazis and their ambitions:[Hitler] starts with the assumption that man is a fighting animal; therefore the nation is a fighting unit, being a community of fighters... A country or race which ceases to fight is doomed... Pacifism is the deadliest sin... Intelligence is of secondary importance... Will and determination are of the higher worth. Only brute force can ensure survival of the race. The new Reich must gather within its fold all the scattered [[German people\|German]] elements in Europe... What Germany needs is an increase in territory... [to Hitler] the idea that there is something reprehensible in chauvinism is entirely mistaken... the climax of education is military service [for youths] educated to the maximum of aggressiveness... It is the duty of the government to implant in the people feeling of manly courage and passionate hatred... Intellectualism is undesirable...It is objectionable to preach international understanding... [he] has spoken with derision of such delusive documents as peace-pacts and such delusive ideas as the spirit of Locarno.Rumbold concluded by giving stark warnings for the future of international relations:...it would be misleading to base any hopes on a return to sanity...[the German government is encouraging an attitude of mind]...which can only end in one way... I have the impression that the persons directing the policy of the Hitler government are not normal.Sir [[John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon\|John Simon]], the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs\|Foreign Secretary]], found Rumbold's descriptions to be "definitely disquieting". [[Ralph Wigram]], an official in the Foreign Office, gave [[Winston Churchill]] a copy of this despatch in the middle of March 1936. After Rumbold's death, [[Robert Vansittart, 1st Baron Vansittart\|Lord Vansittart]] said of him that "little escaped him, and his warnings [about Nazi Germany] were clearer than anything that we got later". [[Walter Laqueur]] concurred by claiming that Rumbold's "prophetic" insights explained the Third Reich better than the expert opinions that were later issued from the [[Office of Strategic Services\|OSS]].Rumbold was made a Member of the [[Royal Victorian Order]] (MVO) in 1907, a Knight Commander of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]] in 1917, sworn of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom\|Privy Council]] in 1920 and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1922.Rumbold married Etheldred Constantia Fane, younger daughter of the British diplomat [[Sir Edmund Douglas Veitch Fane]] (1837–1900) by his wife Constantia Wood, a niece of the [[Henry Lowther, 3rd Earl of Lonsdale\|3rd Earl of Lonsdale]], on 18 July 1905.On his father's death in November 1913, Horace succeeded him as 9th [[baronet]].They had one son and two daughters; the younger daughter died young in 1918. Lady Rumbold's only brother Henry Nevile Fane was married in 1910 (divorced 1935) to the elder daughter of the [[Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton\|21st Baron Clinton]], and the Rumbolds were thus indirectly related to the British Royal Family after 1923.Rumbold retired due to his age in June 1933. He died on 24 May 1941, aged 72, at his home in [[Tisbury, Wiltshire\|Tisbury]], [[Wiltshire]]. He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son, [[Sir Anthony Rumbold, 10th Baronet\|Anthony]], who also became a distinguished diplomat.[[Category:1869 births]][[Category:1941 deaths]][[Category:People educated at Eton College]][[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of Great Britain]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]][[Category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]][[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Germany]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland]]	[ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland" ]
Which position did Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet hold in Feb, 1926?	February 20, 1926	{ "text": [ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain" ] }	L2_Q831742_P39_2	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1933. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland from Jan, 1916 to Jan, 1919. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain from Jan, 1924 to Jan, 1928.	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th BaronetSir Horace George Montagu Rumbold, 9th Baronet, (5 February 1869 – 24 May 1941) was a British diplomat. A well-travelled diplomat who learned Arabic, Japanese and German, he is best remembered for his role as British Ambassador to Berlin from 1928 to 1933 in which he warned of the ambitions of Hitler and Nazi Germany.Rumbold was born on 5 February 1869 at St. Petersburg in the Russian Empire, the son of Sir Horace Rumbold, 8th Baronet and Caroline Barney (née Harrington). Horace was educated at Aldin House Prep School and at Eton.Rumbold was an honorary attaché at The Hague (1889–1890), where his father was ambassador. In 1891, he passed the first of the required examinations and entered the Diplomatic Service.After a year at the Foreign Office in London, he served in Cairo, Tehran, Vienna, Madrid and Munich between 1900 and 1913. He was then moved to Tokyo (1909–1913) and to Berlin (1913–1914).In Berlin, he took up the position of counsellor. Rumbold was in charge of the British Embassy when the ambassador, Sir Edward Goschen, went home on leave on 1 July. Rumbold conducted negotiations in the first four of the ten days that preceded the outbreak of the [[First World War.Rumbold left Berlin with the ambassador on 5 August 1914 with crowds attacking the embassy and their train.In 1916, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Switzerland\|ambassador to Berne]]. After the war, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland\|ambassador to Poland]] in 1919, The following year, he became the [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey\|High Commissioner to Constantinople]] during which he signed the [[Lausanne Treaty]] on behalf of the [[British Empire]]. He then became [[list of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain\|ambassador to Madrid]] from 1924 to 1928.Rumbold went on to his last position when he was appointed as [[list of diplomats of the United Kingdom to Germany\|ambassador to Berlin]] in 1928. Rumbold supported appeasing [[Heinrich Brüning]]'s government in the hope of staving off [[Germany\|German]] [[nationalism\|nationalist]] parties like [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Party]]. Once Hitler came to power in 1933, Rumbold was deeply unsettled by the Nazi regime and produced a succession of despatches critical of the Nazis. On 26 April 1933 Rumbold sent to the [[Foreign Office]] his valedictory despatch in which he gave an unvarnished view of Hitler, the Nazis and their ambitions:[Hitler] starts with the assumption that man is a fighting animal; therefore the nation is a fighting unit, being a community of fighters... A country or race which ceases to fight is doomed... Pacifism is the deadliest sin... Intelligence is of secondary importance... Will and determination are of the higher worth. Only brute force can ensure survival of the race. The new Reich must gather within its fold all the scattered [[German people\|German]] elements in Europe... What Germany needs is an increase in territory... [to Hitler] the idea that there is something reprehensible in chauvinism is entirely mistaken... the climax of education is military service [for youths] educated to the maximum of aggressiveness... It is the duty of the government to implant in the people feeling of manly courage and passionate hatred... Intellectualism is undesirable...It is objectionable to preach international understanding... [he] has spoken with derision of such delusive documents as peace-pacts and such delusive ideas as the spirit of Locarno.Rumbold concluded by giving stark warnings for the future of international relations:...it would be misleading to base any hopes on a return to sanity...[the German government is encouraging an attitude of mind]...which can only end in one way... I have the impression that the persons directing the policy of the Hitler government are not normal.Sir [[John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon\|John Simon]], the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs\|Foreign Secretary]], found Rumbold's descriptions to be "definitely disquieting". [[Ralph Wigram]], an official in the Foreign Office, gave [[Winston Churchill]] a copy of this despatch in the middle of March 1936. After Rumbold's death, [[Robert Vansittart, 1st Baron Vansittart\|Lord Vansittart]] said of him that "little escaped him, and his warnings [about Nazi Germany] were clearer than anything that we got later". [[Walter Laqueur]] concurred by claiming that Rumbold's "prophetic" insights explained the Third Reich better than the expert opinions that were later issued from the [[Office of Strategic Services\|OSS]].Rumbold was made a Member of the [[Royal Victorian Order]] (MVO) in 1907, a Knight Commander of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]] in 1917, sworn of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom\|Privy Council]] in 1920 and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1922.Rumbold married Etheldred Constantia Fane, younger daughter of the British diplomat [[Sir Edmund Douglas Veitch Fane]] (1837–1900) by his wife Constantia Wood, a niece of the [[Henry Lowther, 3rd Earl of Lonsdale\|3rd Earl of Lonsdale]], on 18 July 1905.On his father's death in November 1913, Horace succeeded him as 9th [[baronet]].They had one son and two daughters; the younger daughter died young in 1918. Lady Rumbold's only brother Henry Nevile Fane was married in 1910 (divorced 1935) to the elder daughter of the [[Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton\|21st Baron Clinton]], and the Rumbolds were thus indirectly related to the British Royal Family after 1923.Rumbold retired due to his age in June 1933. He died on 24 May 1941, aged 72, at his home in [[Tisbury, Wiltshire\|Tisbury]], [[Wiltshire]]. He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son, [[Sir Anthony Rumbold, 10th Baronet\|Anthony]], who also became a distinguished diplomat.[[Category:1869 births]][[Category:1941 deaths]][[Category:People educated at Eton College]][[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of Great Britain]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]][[Category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]][[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Germany]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland]]	[ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland" ]
Which position did Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet hold in Jan, 1928?	January 11, 1928	{ "text": [ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain" ] }	L2_Q831742_P39_3	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Germany from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1933. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain from Jan, 1924 to Jan, 1928. Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th Baronet holds the position of ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland from Jan, 1916 to Jan, 1919.	Sir Horace Rumbold, 9th BaronetSir Horace George Montagu Rumbold, 9th Baronet, (5 February 1869 – 24 May 1941) was a British diplomat. A well-travelled diplomat who learned Arabic, Japanese and German, he is best remembered for his role as British Ambassador to Berlin from 1928 to 1933 in which he warned of the ambitions of Hitler and Nazi Germany.Rumbold was born on 5 February 1869 at St. Petersburg in the Russian Empire, the son of Sir Horace Rumbold, 8th Baronet and Caroline Barney (née Harrington). Horace was educated at Aldin House Prep School and at Eton.Rumbold was an honorary attaché at The Hague (1889–1890), where his father was ambassador. In 1891, he passed the first of the required examinations and entered the Diplomatic Service.After a year at the Foreign Office in London, he served in Cairo, Tehran, Vienna, Madrid and Munich between 1900 and 1913. He was then moved to Tokyo (1909–1913) and to Berlin (1913–1914).In Berlin, he took up the position of counsellor. Rumbold was in charge of the British Embassy when the ambassador, Sir Edward Goschen, went home on leave on 1 July. Rumbold conducted negotiations in the first four of the ten days that preceded the outbreak of the [[First World War.Rumbold left Berlin with the ambassador on 5 August 1914 with crowds attacking the embassy and their train.In 1916, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Switzerland\|ambassador to Berne]]. After the war, he was appointed [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland\|ambassador to Poland]] in 1919, The following year, he became the [[list of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey\|High Commissioner to Constantinople]] during which he signed the [[Lausanne Treaty]] on behalf of the [[British Empire]]. He then became [[list of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain\|ambassador to Madrid]] from 1924 to 1928.Rumbold went on to his last position when he was appointed as [[list of diplomats of the United Kingdom to Germany\|ambassador to Berlin]] in 1928. Rumbold supported appeasing [[Heinrich Brüning]]'s government in the hope of staving off [[Germany\|German]] [[nationalism\|nationalist]] parties like [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Party]]. Once Hitler came to power in 1933, Rumbold was deeply unsettled by the Nazi regime and produced a succession of despatches critical of the Nazis. On 26 April 1933 Rumbold sent to the [[Foreign Office]] his valedictory despatch in which he gave an unvarnished view of Hitler, the Nazis and their ambitions:[Hitler] starts with the assumption that man is a fighting animal; therefore the nation is a fighting unit, being a community of fighters... A country or race which ceases to fight is doomed... Pacifism is the deadliest sin... Intelligence is of secondary importance... Will and determination are of the higher worth. Only brute force can ensure survival of the race. The new Reich must gather within its fold all the scattered [[German people\|German]] elements in Europe... What Germany needs is an increase in territory... [to Hitler] the idea that there is something reprehensible in chauvinism is entirely mistaken... the climax of education is military service [for youths] educated to the maximum of aggressiveness... It is the duty of the government to implant in the people feeling of manly courage and passionate hatred... Intellectualism is undesirable...It is objectionable to preach international understanding... [he] has spoken with derision of such delusive documents as peace-pacts and such delusive ideas as the spirit of Locarno.Rumbold concluded by giving stark warnings for the future of international relations:...it would be misleading to base any hopes on a return to sanity...[the German government is encouraging an attitude of mind]...which can only end in one way... I have the impression that the persons directing the policy of the Hitler government are not normal.Sir [[John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon\|John Simon]], the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs\|Foreign Secretary]], found Rumbold's descriptions to be "definitely disquieting". [[Ralph Wigram]], an official in the Foreign Office, gave [[Winston Churchill]] a copy of this despatch in the middle of March 1936. After Rumbold's death, [[Robert Vansittart, 1st Baron Vansittart\|Lord Vansittart]] said of him that "little escaped him, and his warnings [about Nazi Germany] were clearer than anything that we got later". [[Walter Laqueur]] concurred by claiming that Rumbold's "prophetic" insights explained the Third Reich better than the expert opinions that were later issued from the [[Office of Strategic Services\|OSS]].Rumbold was made a Member of the [[Royal Victorian Order]] (MVO) in 1907, a Knight Commander of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]] in 1917, sworn of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom\|Privy Council]] in 1920 and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1922.Rumbold married Etheldred Constantia Fane, younger daughter of the British diplomat [[Sir Edmund Douglas Veitch Fane]] (1837–1900) by his wife Constantia Wood, a niece of the [[Henry Lowther, 3rd Earl of Lonsdale\|3rd Earl of Lonsdale]], on 18 July 1905.On his father's death in November 1913, Horace succeeded him as 9th [[baronet]].They had one son and two daughters; the younger daughter died young in 1918. Lady Rumbold's only brother Henry Nevile Fane was married in 1910 (divorced 1935) to the elder daughter of the [[Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton\|21st Baron Clinton]], and the Rumbolds were thus indirectly related to the British Royal Family after 1923.Rumbold retired due to his age in June 1933. He died on 24 May 1941, aged 72, at his home in [[Tisbury, Wiltshire\|Tisbury]], [[Wiltshire]]. He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son, [[Sir Anthony Rumbold, 10th Baronet\|Anthony]], who also became a distinguished diplomat.[[Category:1869 births]][[Category:1941 deaths]][[Category:People educated at Eton College]][[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of Great Britain]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]][[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]][[Category:Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]][[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Turkey]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Spain]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Germany]][[Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Poland]]	[ "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Spain", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Switzerland", "ambassador of the United Kingdom to Poland" ]
Which team did Mohamed El Monir play for in Apr, 2020?	April 03, 2020	{ "text": [ "Los Angeles FC", "Libya national football team" ] }	L2_Q6891157_P54_0	Mohamed El Monir plays for Al-ittihad Tripoli from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Mohamed El Monir plays for Libya national football team from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Mohamed El Monir plays for FK Jagodina from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Mohamed El Monir plays for FC Dinamo Minsk from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016. Mohamed El Monir plays for FK Partizan from Jan, 2017 to Dec, 2017. Mohamed El Monir plays for Los Angeles FC from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022. Mohamed El Monir plays for Orlando City SC from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2018.	Mohamed El MonirMohammed el-Mounir Abdussalam (; born 8 April 1992), also known as Mohamed El Monir and Mohamed El-Munir is a Libyan footballer who plays for Libyan Premier League club Al-Ittihad Tripoli and the Libyan national team.El Monir came through the youth ranks of Al Itihad Tripoli and was promoted to the first team in the 2010–11 Libyan Premier League season. Al-Ittihad with El Monir were top of the league, undefeated after 15 rounds, with 13 victories and just two draws, when the league was abandoned half-way due to the Libyan Civil War.El Monir signed with Serbian side Jagodina in summer 2011 coming from Al-Ittihad Club (Tripoli). He made his debut for FK Jagodina on 26 October 2011 as a starter in a last 16-round match of Serbian Cup against FK Javor Ivanjica, a 3–5 penalty loss after a 1–1 draw after extra-time. His league debut happened on 17 March 2012, in a round 19 match against current league leaders and previous season champions, Partizan Belgrade.On 21 April 2012, he impressed the local media and specially the club supporters when he showed extreme will of playing and a die-hard attitude when he played 35 minutes of the 23rd round of the SuperLiga match against BSK Borča with a fractured foot. It all happened in the 10th minute, however El Monir willing to keep on playing only reported the injury at the half-time and got substituted. As this was only the second time that he got a chance to be a starter in the team he did not wanted to miss the chance to show his skills, and despite the pain, he did his best to contribute to keep on playing. Despite the questionable attitude from the point of view of his health, the national press and Jagodina officials and supporters couldn´t resist not to praise this display of enormous dedication.In early October 2012, prior to his departure to join the national team, El-Monir renewed his contract with Jagodina until 2015. On 8 May 2013, he played a key role in Jagodina's 1–0 victory against FK Vojvodina in the 2013 Serbian Cup Final.At the beginning of the 2013–14 season, El-Monir played against Rubin Kazan in the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League qualifying phase and play-off round. On 4 November 2013, it was announced that CA Osasuna sent scouts to watch El-Monir play for Jagodina.During the winter break, he left Jagodina and returned to Libya and played for his former club Al-Ittihad Tripoli.On 28 August 2014, he signed again with Jagodina. During the first part of 2014–15 season, he has not played a single game. In December 2014, El Monir went on trial at Genk in Belgium.On 30 April 2015, El Monir signed a contract with Dinamo Minsk. He made his debut for Dinamo in Vysheyshaya Liga on 31 May 2015, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 home win over Naftan. During his first season in Belarus, he has played 11 league games. On 1 October 2015, El Monir made his debut in UEFA Europa League group stage against Rapid Wien as a substitute in the 66th minute. On 5 November, El Monir was the first time in the starting lineup in Europa League, in a 1–2 home defeat against Villarreal. On 10 December, he entered in the game in 65th minute of the match against Rapid Wien and scored a goal one minute later in 2–1 away loss. On 24 April 2016, El Monir played full 90 minutes with providing two assists in a 3–3 away draw against BATE Borisov.After a year and a half playing in Belarus, when his contract with Dinamo Minsk, El Monir among several options decided to return to Serbia, only that this time, to join the power-house Partizan Belgrade. He had been on Partizan's agenda on several occasions in the past and the move finally materialised. On 16 January 2017, he signed with Partizan a three-year contract. He made his club debut on 13 April 2017 in a 3–1 away win against Novi Pazar.On 27 December 2017, El Monir signed with Orlando City SC in Major League Soccer. He made his debut on March 4 in Orlando's season opener at home to DC United, a 1–1 draw.On 11 December 2018, El Monir was traded by Orlando to Los Angeles FC in exchange for João Moutinho.On 6 April 2021, El Monir returned to Al Itihad Tripoli for a third spell.Mohamed El-Monir made the squad for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations, but was an unused substitute at all the matches at the tournament. Subsequently, he was part of the Libyan squad in the following call by Marcos Paquetá for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Togo and Cameroon, played on 3 and 10 June respectively. He finally made his debut appearance for Libya on 14 October 2012 in his country's 2–0 loss to Algeria.JagodinaPartizanLos Angeles FC	[ "FK Jagodina", "Orlando City SC", "Al-ittihad Tripoli", "FC Dinamo Minsk", "FK Partizan" ]
Which team did Mohamed El Monir play for in Mar, 2013?	March 06, 2013	{ "text": [ "Al-ittihad Tripoli", "Libya national football team" ] }	L2_Q6891157_P54_1	Mohamed El Monir plays for FK Jagodina from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Mohamed El Monir plays for Orlando City SC from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2018. Mohamed El Monir plays for Los Angeles FC from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022. Mohamed El Monir plays for Libya national football team from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022. Mohamed El Monir plays for Al-ittihad Tripoli from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Mohamed El Monir plays for FC Dinamo Minsk from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016. Mohamed El Monir plays for FK Partizan from Jan, 2017 to Dec, 2017.	Mohamed El MonirMohammed el-Mounir Abdussalam (; born 8 April 1992), also known as Mohamed El Monir and Mohamed El-Munir is a Libyan footballer who plays for Libyan Premier League club Al-Ittihad Tripoli and the Libyan national team.El Monir came through the youth ranks of Al Itihad Tripoli and was promoted to the first team in the 2010–11 Libyan Premier League season. Al-Ittihad with El Monir were top of the league, undefeated after 15 rounds, with 13 victories and just two draws, when the league was abandoned half-way due to the Libyan Civil War.El Monir signed with Serbian side Jagodina in summer 2011 coming from Al-Ittihad Club (Tripoli). He made his debut for FK Jagodina on 26 October 2011 as a starter in a last 16-round match of Serbian Cup against FK Javor Ivanjica, a 3–5 penalty loss after a 1–1 draw after extra-time. His league debut happened on 17 March 2012, in a round 19 match against current league leaders and previous season champions, Partizan Belgrade.On 21 April 2012, he impressed the local media and specially the club supporters when he showed extreme will of playing and a die-hard attitude when he played 35 minutes of the 23rd round of the SuperLiga match against BSK Borča with a fractured foot. It all happened in the 10th minute, however El Monir willing to keep on playing only reported the injury at the half-time and got substituted. As this was only the second time that he got a chance to be a starter in the team he did not wanted to miss the chance to show his skills, and despite the pain, he did his best to contribute to keep on playing. Despite the questionable attitude from the point of view of his health, the national press and Jagodina officials and supporters couldn´t resist not to praise this display of enormous dedication.In early October 2012, prior to his departure to join the national team, El-Monir renewed his contract with Jagodina until 2015. On 8 May 2013, he played a key role in Jagodina's 1–0 victory against FK Vojvodina in the 2013 Serbian Cup Final.At the beginning of the 2013–14 season, El-Monir played against Rubin Kazan in the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League qualifying phase and play-off round. On 4 November 2013, it was announced that CA Osasuna sent scouts to watch El-Monir play for Jagodina.During the winter break, he left Jagodina and returned to Libya and played for his former club Al-Ittihad Tripoli.On 28 August 2014, he signed again with Jagodina. During the first part of 2014–15 season, he has not played a single game. In December 2014, El Monir went on trial at Genk in Belgium.On 30 April 2015, El Monir signed a contract with Dinamo Minsk. He made his debut for Dinamo in Vysheyshaya Liga on 31 May 2015, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 home win over Naftan. During his first season in Belarus, he has played 11 league games. On 1 October 2015, El Monir made his debut in UEFA Europa League group stage against Rapid Wien as a substitute in the 66th minute. On 5 November, El Monir was the first time in the starting lineup in Europa League, in a 1–2 home defeat against Villarreal. On 10 December, he entered in the game in 65th minute of the match against Rapid Wien and scored a goal one minute later in 2–1 away loss. On 24 April 2016, El Monir played full 90 minutes with providing two assists in a 3–3 away draw against BATE Borisov.After a year and a half playing in Belarus, when his contract with Dinamo Minsk, El Monir among several options decided to return to Serbia, only that this time, to join the power-house Partizan Belgrade. He had been on Partizan's agenda on several occasions in the past and the move finally materialised. On 16 January 2017, he signed with Partizan a three-year contract. He made his club debut on 13 April 2017 in a 3–1 away win against Novi Pazar.On 27 December 2017, El Monir signed with Orlando City SC in Major League Soccer. He made his debut on March 4 in Orlando's season opener at home to DC United, a 1–1 draw.On 11 December 2018, El Monir was traded by Orlando to Los Angeles FC in exchange for João Moutinho.On 6 April 2021, El Monir returned to Al Itihad Tripoli for a third spell.Mohamed El-Monir made the squad for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations, but was an unused substitute at all the matches at the tournament. Subsequently, he was part of the Libyan squad in the following call by Marcos Paquetá for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Togo and Cameroon, played on 3 and 10 June respectively. He finally made his debut appearance for Libya on 14 October 2012 in his country's 2–0 loss to Algeria.JagodinaPartizanLos Angeles FC	[ "FK Jagodina", "Orlando City SC", "FC Dinamo Minsk", "Los Angeles FC", "FK Partizan" ]
Which team did Mohamed El Monir play for in Jan, 2014?	January 01, 2014	{ "text": [ "Al-ittihad Tripoli", "FK Jagodina", "Libya national football team" ] }	L2_Q6891157_P54_2	Mohamed El Monir plays for FK Jagodina from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Mohamed El Monir plays for Al-ittihad Tripoli from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Mohamed El Monir plays for FK Partizan from Jan, 2017 to Dec, 2017. Mohamed El Monir plays for FC Dinamo Minsk from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016. Mohamed El Monir plays for Los Angeles FC from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022. Mohamed El Monir plays for Orlando City SC from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2018. Mohamed El Monir plays for Libya national football team from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.	Mohamed El MonirMohammed el-Mounir Abdussalam (; born 8 April 1992), also known as Mohamed El Monir and Mohamed El-Munir is a Libyan footballer who plays for Libyan Premier League club Al-Ittihad Tripoli and the Libyan national team.El Monir came through the youth ranks of Al Itihad Tripoli and was promoted to the first team in the 2010–11 Libyan Premier League season. Al-Ittihad with El Monir were top of the league, undefeated after 15 rounds, with 13 victories and just two draws, when the league was abandoned half-way due to the Libyan Civil War.El Monir signed with Serbian side Jagodina in summer 2011 coming from Al-Ittihad Club (Tripoli). He made his debut for FK Jagodina on 26 October 2011 as a starter in a last 16-round match of Serbian Cup against FK Javor Ivanjica, a 3–5 penalty loss after a 1–1 draw after extra-time. His league debut happened on 17 March 2012, in a round 19 match against current league leaders and previous season champions, Partizan Belgrade.On 21 April 2012, he impressed the local media and specially the club supporters when he showed extreme will of playing and a die-hard attitude when he played 35 minutes of the 23rd round of the SuperLiga match against BSK Borča with a fractured foot. It all happened in the 10th minute, however El Monir willing to keep on playing only reported the injury at the half-time and got substituted. As this was only the second time that he got a chance to be a starter in the team he did not wanted to miss the chance to show his skills, and despite the pain, he did his best to contribute to keep on playing. Despite the questionable attitude from the point of view of his health, the national press and Jagodina officials and supporters couldn´t resist not to praise this display of enormous dedication.In early October 2012, prior to his departure to join the national team, El-Monir renewed his contract with Jagodina until 2015. On 8 May 2013, he played a key role in Jagodina's 1–0 victory against FK Vojvodina in the 2013 Serbian Cup Final.At the beginning of the 2013–14 season, El-Monir played against Rubin Kazan in the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League qualifying phase and play-off round. On 4 November 2013, it was announced that CA Osasuna sent scouts to watch El-Monir play for Jagodina.During the winter break, he left Jagodina and returned to Libya and played for his former club Al-Ittihad Tripoli.On 28 August 2014, he signed again with Jagodina. During the first part of 2014–15 season, he has not played a single game. In December 2014, El Monir went on trial at Genk in Belgium.On 30 April 2015, El Monir signed a contract with Dinamo Minsk. He made his debut for Dinamo in Vysheyshaya Liga on 31 May 2015, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 home win over Naftan. During his first season in Belarus, he has played 11 league games. On 1 October 2015, El Monir made his debut in UEFA Europa League group stage against Rapid Wien as a substitute in the 66th minute. On 5 November, El Monir was the first time in the starting lineup in Europa League, in a 1–2 home defeat against Villarreal. On 10 December, he entered in the game in 65th minute of the match against Rapid Wien and scored a goal one minute later in 2–1 away loss. On 24 April 2016, El Monir played full 90 minutes with providing two assists in a 3–3 away draw against BATE Borisov.After a year and a half playing in Belarus, when his contract with Dinamo Minsk, El Monir among several options decided to return to Serbia, only that this time, to join the power-house Partizan Belgrade. He had been on Partizan's agenda on several occasions in the past and the move finally materialised. On 16 January 2017, he signed with Partizan a three-year contract. He made his club debut on 13 April 2017 in a 3–1 away win against Novi Pazar.On 27 December 2017, El Monir signed with Orlando City SC in Major League Soccer. He made his debut on March 4 in Orlando's season opener at home to DC United, a 1–1 draw.On 11 December 2018, El Monir was traded by Orlando to Los Angeles FC in exchange for João Moutinho.On 6 April 2021, El Monir returned to Al Itihad Tripoli for a third spell.Mohamed El-Monir made the squad for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations, but was an unused substitute at all the matches at the tournament. Subsequently, he was part of the Libyan squad in the following call by Marcos Paquetá for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Togo and Cameroon, played on 3 and 10 June respectively. He finally made his debut appearance for Libya on 14 October 2012 in his country's 2–0 loss to Algeria.JagodinaPartizanLos Angeles FC	[ "Los Angeles FC", "FC Dinamo Minsk", "Orlando City SC", "FK Partizan", "Los Angeles FC", "FC Dinamo Minsk", "Orlando City SC", "FK Partizan" ]

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