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Which political party did Paweł Adamowicz belong to in Oct, 2013?
|
October 18, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Civic Platform"
]
}
|
L2_Q2065090_P102_1
|
Paweł Adamowicz is a member of the independent politician from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Paweł Adamowicz is a member of the Civic Platform from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2015.
Paweł Adamowicz is a member of the Liberal Democratic Congress from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
|
Paweł AdamowiczPaweł Bogdan Adamowicz (; 2 November 1965 – 14 January 2019) was a Polish politician and lawyer who served as the city mayor of Gdańsk from 1998 until his assassination in 2019.Adamowicz was one of the organizers of the 1988 Polish strikes before becoming the head of the strike committee. In 1990, he was elected to the Gdańsk City Council, chairing the body from 1994 during his second term and holding this post until 1998. He was elected Mayor of Gdańsk in 1998 and reelected in 2002 with 72% of the vote. In 2018, he was reelected as an Independent. He was known as a liberal, progressive figure, speaking in support of LGBT rights, immigration, and minority groups such as Kashubians.On 13 January 2019, Adamowicz was stabbed during a live charity event in Gdansk, the Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity's 27th Grand Finale by 27-year-old Stefan Wilmont, a former inmate diagnosed with schizophrenia. Adamowicz died the following day from his injuries, at the age of 53.Adamowicz was born in Gdańsk. His parents Ryszard and Teresa were Polish economists, who were moved to Poland from Vilnius, LSSR, in 1946. Paweł later recalled that his parents were suspicious of communism and party propaganda. "Like many Poles of our generation, [my] brother and I have thus been shaped against the obligatory official history; since childhood we have known not only the sinister wording of the Gestapo abbreviation, but also the NKVD; we perfectly understood what is behind the names of distant places: Kazakhstan, Siberia, Katyn. We hardly saw a place for ourselves in this double world."He studied law at the University of Gdańsk, where he also rose to prominence as a student movement member. He was one of the organizers of the 1988 strike, becoming the head of the strike committee. Between 1990 and 1993, he served as a vice-rector for student affairs at his alma mater.In 1990, Adamowicz was elected a member of the city council in Gdańsk, chairing the council from 1994 in his second term, and holding this post until 1998, when he was elected the Mayor of Gdańsk. On 10 November 2002, he was re-elected with 72% of the vote.He was awarded the "Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice" Golden Cross by Pope John Paul II, and the Cross of Merit in 2003 by President Aleksander Kwaśniewski. In 2014, he received the Cross of Freedom and Solidarity in honour of his contributions on behalf of Polish democracy.In 2018, he was an honorary patron of the 4th Gdańsk Gay Pride Parade, in which he also participated.In November 2018, Adamowicz ran as an independent for the office of Mayor of Gdańsk and was re-elected for a sixth term, being endorsed by the Civic Platform and remaining a vocal critic of the current ruling party in Poland, Law and Justice. He was due to serve until 2023.In 1999, Adamowicz married Magdalena Abramska, a law student at Gdańsk University whom he met during his studies. She later became a professor of law there. They have two daughters, Antonina (born 2003) and Teresa (born 2010).On 13 January 2019, Adamowicz was stabbed in the heart and through the diaphragm with a knife on stage at the Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity event in Gdańsk and was taken to University Clinical Centre in Gdańsk in critical condition, where he underwent five hours of surgery. He succumbed to his injuries the following day.The assassin was apprehended at the scene of the crime. A Gdańsk police spokesman said the detained man was a 27-year-old Stefan W. who lived in the city; the spokesman also stated that the man had a "long criminal history", including four bank robberies. After stabbing the mayor, he seized the microphone and claimed false imprisonment and torture at the hands of the previous centrist Civic Platform (PO) government. Adamowicz's murder was inadvertently captured on video by the many attendees of the charity event.On 14 January, thousands attended vigils across Poland to pay their respects to Adamowicz. His widow, Magdalena, who was in London at the time of the assassination, was flown back to Poland by the Polish government.President Andrzej Duda described the attack as a "hard-to-imagine evil" and stated that the day of Adamowicz's funeral will be observed as a national day of mourning. Interior Minister Joachim Brudziński described the attack as "an act of inexplicable barbarism" and, on Twitter, EU Council President Donald Tusk said, "Paweł Adamowicz, Mayor of Gdańsk, a man of Solidarity and freedom, a European, my good friend, has been murdered. May he rest in peace."Jean-Claude Juncker, the President of the European Commission, expressed "great sadness" and offered his "deepest condolences" on behalf of the European Commission. The European Parliament held a minute of silence to honour Adamowicz, with President Antonio Tajani speaking of the mayor's "closeness to the people" and "ability to listen". Sadiq Khan, the Mayor of London, described the attack as "Devastating violence ... for all of us who value public service and open, accessible democracy". Anton Alikhanov, the governor of the neighbouring Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia, expressed his condolences, calling Adamowicz "our great friend" and proclaiming a minute of silence in memory of his death. On the day of his funeral, Pope Francis offered his condolences as well as gifts for the family of Adamowicz. The mayor of Bremen Carsten Sieling, which Gdańsk is a twin city with, said "we are shocked by the terrifying and cruel death of Paweł Adamowicz". In the city hall a book of condolence was displayed from 14 January through to the 17th.On 17 January 2019, Zdeněk Hřib, the Mayor of Prague, appealed to the city council to name a street in Prague in honor of Paweł Adamowicz. On 5 June 2019, a promenade in the Riegrovy Sady park in Prague named after Adamowicz was officially inaugurated. On 10 October 2019, the city of Athens Award for Democracy, "Honoring those building bridges when others build walls" was presented to the family of the victim by the mayor of Athens K. Bakogiannis.On 18 January 2019, Adamowicz's coffin was decorated with white flowers and draped with the flag of Gdańsk, before being driven in a hearse from the European Solidarity Centre in the city, past schools, monuments and other places significant to the dead mayor's life. It was watched by thousands of people on screen. When the hearse reached the Church of St Mary, the city's main basilica, the coffin was brought into the church. After a mass, Adamowicz was cremated.On 19 January, the main funeral service was held at St Mary's Church, Gdańsk. Notable people who attended included the President of the European Council Donald Tusk, President of Poland Andrzej Duda, Prime Minister of Poland Mateusz Morawiecki, former President of Poland, communist oppositionist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Lech Wałęsa, former Polish Presidents Aleksander Kwaśniewski and Bronisław Komorowski, and former German President Joachim Gauck. Thousands more Poles watched the service on screens. At the end of the service, Adamowicz's ashes were laid to rest in one of the chapels of St Mary's Church in Gdańsk.
|
[
"Liberal Democratic Congress",
"independent politician"
] |
|
Which political party did Paweł Adamowicz belong to in Apr, 2015?
|
April 26, 2015
|
{
"text": [
"independent politician"
]
}
|
L2_Q2065090_P102_2
|
Paweł Adamowicz is a member of the independent politician from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Paweł Adamowicz is a member of the Civic Platform from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2015.
Paweł Adamowicz is a member of the Liberal Democratic Congress from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
|
Paweł AdamowiczPaweł Bogdan Adamowicz (; 2 November 1965 – 14 January 2019) was a Polish politician and lawyer who served as the city mayor of Gdańsk from 1998 until his assassination in 2019.Adamowicz was one of the organizers of the 1988 Polish strikes before becoming the head of the strike committee. In 1990, he was elected to the Gdańsk City Council, chairing the body from 1994 during his second term and holding this post until 1998. He was elected Mayor of Gdańsk in 1998 and reelected in 2002 with 72% of the vote. In 2018, he was reelected as an Independent. He was known as a liberal, progressive figure, speaking in support of LGBT rights, immigration, and minority groups such as Kashubians.On 13 January 2019, Adamowicz was stabbed during a live charity event in Gdansk, the Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity's 27th Grand Finale by 27-year-old Stefan Wilmont, a former inmate diagnosed with schizophrenia. Adamowicz died the following day from his injuries, at the age of 53.Adamowicz was born in Gdańsk. His parents Ryszard and Teresa were Polish economists, who were moved to Poland from Vilnius, LSSR, in 1946. Paweł later recalled that his parents were suspicious of communism and party propaganda. "Like many Poles of our generation, [my] brother and I have thus been shaped against the obligatory official history; since childhood we have known not only the sinister wording of the Gestapo abbreviation, but also the NKVD; we perfectly understood what is behind the names of distant places: Kazakhstan, Siberia, Katyn. We hardly saw a place for ourselves in this double world."He studied law at the University of Gdańsk, where he also rose to prominence as a student movement member. He was one of the organizers of the 1988 strike, becoming the head of the strike committee. Between 1990 and 1993, he served as a vice-rector for student affairs at his alma mater.In 1990, Adamowicz was elected a member of the city council in Gdańsk, chairing the council from 1994 in his second term, and holding this post until 1998, when he was elected the Mayor of Gdańsk. On 10 November 2002, he was re-elected with 72% of the vote.He was awarded the "Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice" Golden Cross by Pope John Paul II, and the Cross of Merit in 2003 by President Aleksander Kwaśniewski. In 2014, he received the Cross of Freedom and Solidarity in honour of his contributions on behalf of Polish democracy.In 2018, he was an honorary patron of the 4th Gdańsk Gay Pride Parade, in which he also participated.In November 2018, Adamowicz ran as an independent for the office of Mayor of Gdańsk and was re-elected for a sixth term, being endorsed by the Civic Platform and remaining a vocal critic of the current ruling party in Poland, Law and Justice. He was due to serve until 2023.In 1999, Adamowicz married Magdalena Abramska, a law student at Gdańsk University whom he met during his studies. She later became a professor of law there. They have two daughters, Antonina (born 2003) and Teresa (born 2010).On 13 January 2019, Adamowicz was stabbed in the heart and through the diaphragm with a knife on stage at the Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity event in Gdańsk and was taken to University Clinical Centre in Gdańsk in critical condition, where he underwent five hours of surgery. He succumbed to his injuries the following day.The assassin was apprehended at the scene of the crime. A Gdańsk police spokesman said the detained man was a 27-year-old Stefan W. who lived in the city; the spokesman also stated that the man had a "long criminal history", including four bank robberies. After stabbing the mayor, he seized the microphone and claimed false imprisonment and torture at the hands of the previous centrist Civic Platform (PO) government. Adamowicz's murder was inadvertently captured on video by the many attendees of the charity event.On 14 January, thousands attended vigils across Poland to pay their respects to Adamowicz. His widow, Magdalena, who was in London at the time of the assassination, was flown back to Poland by the Polish government.President Andrzej Duda described the attack as a "hard-to-imagine evil" and stated that the day of Adamowicz's funeral will be observed as a national day of mourning. Interior Minister Joachim Brudziński described the attack as "an act of inexplicable barbarism" and, on Twitter, EU Council President Donald Tusk said, "Paweł Adamowicz, Mayor of Gdańsk, a man of Solidarity and freedom, a European, my good friend, has been murdered. May he rest in peace."Jean-Claude Juncker, the President of the European Commission, expressed "great sadness" and offered his "deepest condolences" on behalf of the European Commission. The European Parliament held a minute of silence to honour Adamowicz, with President Antonio Tajani speaking of the mayor's "closeness to the people" and "ability to listen". Sadiq Khan, the Mayor of London, described the attack as "Devastating violence ... for all of us who value public service and open, accessible democracy". Anton Alikhanov, the governor of the neighbouring Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia, expressed his condolences, calling Adamowicz "our great friend" and proclaiming a minute of silence in memory of his death. On the day of his funeral, Pope Francis offered his condolences as well as gifts for the family of Adamowicz. The mayor of Bremen Carsten Sieling, which Gdańsk is a twin city with, said "we are shocked by the terrifying and cruel death of Paweł Adamowicz". In the city hall a book of condolence was displayed from 14 January through to the 17th.On 17 January 2019, Zdeněk Hřib, the Mayor of Prague, appealed to the city council to name a street in Prague in honor of Paweł Adamowicz. On 5 June 2019, a promenade in the Riegrovy Sady park in Prague named after Adamowicz was officially inaugurated. On 10 October 2019, the city of Athens Award for Democracy, "Honoring those building bridges when others build walls" was presented to the family of the victim by the mayor of Athens K. Bakogiannis.On 18 January 2019, Adamowicz's coffin was decorated with white flowers and draped with the flag of Gdańsk, before being driven in a hearse from the European Solidarity Centre in the city, past schools, monuments and other places significant to the dead mayor's life. It was watched by thousands of people on screen. When the hearse reached the Church of St Mary, the city's main basilica, the coffin was brought into the church. After a mass, Adamowicz was cremated.On 19 January, the main funeral service was held at St Mary's Church, Gdańsk. Notable people who attended included the President of the European Council Donald Tusk, President of Poland Andrzej Duda, Prime Minister of Poland Mateusz Morawiecki, former President of Poland, communist oppositionist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Lech Wałęsa, former Polish Presidents Aleksander Kwaśniewski and Bronisław Komorowski, and former German President Joachim Gauck. Thousands more Poles watched the service on screens. At the end of the service, Adamowicz's ashes were laid to rest in one of the chapels of St Mary's Church in Gdańsk.
|
[
"Liberal Democratic Congress",
"Civic Platform"
] |
|
Which position did Anders Lysgaard hold in Apr, 1814?
|
April 10, 1814
|
{
"text": [
"member of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly"
]
}
|
L2_Q1799112_P39_0
|
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of member of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly from Apr, 1814 to May, 1814.
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of deputy member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1818 to Jan, 1820.
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1815 to Jan, 1817.
|
Anders LysgaardAnders Lysgaard (15 August 1756 – 24 May 1827) was a Norwegian farmer and sheriff. He was a representative at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll.Anders Eriksen Lysgaard was born in the parish of Tretten in Øyer in Oppland, Norway. He was the youngest of seven children born into a farming family in the traditional region of Gudbrandsdal. His family lived on the farm Jevne in Øyer. Anders Lysgaard was appointed sheriff under the magistrate of Ringsaker in Hedmark from 1782 to 1786. Anders Lysgaard was married in 1786 with Ingeborg Larsdatter Svennes (1771-1858) and took over Svennes, a sizable farm near the village of Biri.He represented "Christians amt" (now Oppland) at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll in 1814 where he favored the independence party ("Selvstendighetspartiet"). He was later a member of the Parliament of Norway.
|
[
"member of the Parliament of Norway",
"deputy member of the Parliament of Norway"
] |
|
Which position did Anders Lysgaard hold in Sep, 1816?
|
September 26, 1816
|
{
"text": [
"member of the Parliament of Norway"
]
}
|
L2_Q1799112_P39_1
|
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of deputy member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1818 to Jan, 1820.
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1815 to Jan, 1817.
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of member of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly from Apr, 1814 to May, 1814.
|
Anders LysgaardAnders Lysgaard (15 August 1756 – 24 May 1827) was a Norwegian farmer and sheriff. He was a representative at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll.Anders Eriksen Lysgaard was born in the parish of Tretten in Øyer in Oppland, Norway. He was the youngest of seven children born into a farming family in the traditional region of Gudbrandsdal. His family lived on the farm Jevne in Øyer. Anders Lysgaard was appointed sheriff under the magistrate of Ringsaker in Hedmark from 1782 to 1786. Anders Lysgaard was married in 1786 with Ingeborg Larsdatter Svennes (1771-1858) and took over Svennes, a sizable farm near the village of Biri.He represented "Christians amt" (now Oppland) at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll in 1814 where he favored the independence party ("Selvstendighetspartiet"). He was later a member of the Parliament of Norway.
|
[
"member of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly",
"deputy member of the Parliament of Norway"
] |
|
Which position did Anders Lysgaard hold in May, 1818?
|
May 02, 1818
|
{
"text": [
"deputy member of the Parliament of Norway"
]
}
|
L2_Q1799112_P39_2
|
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1815 to Jan, 1817.
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of deputy member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1818 to Jan, 1820.
Anders Lysgaard holds the position of member of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly from Apr, 1814 to May, 1814.
|
Anders LysgaardAnders Lysgaard (15 August 1756 – 24 May 1827) was a Norwegian farmer and sheriff. He was a representative at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll.Anders Eriksen Lysgaard was born in the parish of Tretten in Øyer in Oppland, Norway. He was the youngest of seven children born into a farming family in the traditional region of Gudbrandsdal. His family lived on the farm Jevne in Øyer. Anders Lysgaard was appointed sheriff under the magistrate of Ringsaker in Hedmark from 1782 to 1786. Anders Lysgaard was married in 1786 with Ingeborg Larsdatter Svennes (1771-1858) and took over Svennes, a sizable farm near the village of Biri.He represented "Christians amt" (now Oppland) at the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll in 1814 where he favored the independence party ("Selvstendighetspartiet"). He was later a member of the Parliament of Norway.
|
[
"member of the Parliament of Norway",
"member of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly"
] |
|
Where was T. J. McConnell educated in Apr, 2006?
|
April 15, 2006
|
{
"text": [
"Chartiers Valley High School"
]
}
|
L2_Q16228369_P69_0
|
T. J. McConnell attended Chartiers Valley High School from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
T. J. McConnell attended Duquesne University from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
T. J. McConnell attended University of Arizona from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2015.
|
T. J. McConnellTimothy John McConnell Jr. (born March 25, 1992) is an American professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Duquesne Dukes and the Arizona Wildcats.McConnell attended Chartiers Valley High School in the Pittsburgh-area borough of Bridgeville, Pennsylvania, where he played for his father, Tim. As the team captain his senior year, he averaged 34.2 points, 8.2 rebounds and 9.1 assists per game, earned first-team all-state honors, was named the Associated Press's Pennsylvania Class 3A Player of the Year, and also named the male athlete of the year for all sports by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. He led the Colts to a 29-2 record, the WPIAL championship, and a berth in the Class 3A state championship game as a senior in which he lost to Philadelphia's Neumann-Goretti.As a freshman for Duquesne in 2010–11, McConnell averaged 10.8 points, 3.8 rebounds, 4.4 assists, and 2.8 steals per game in 32 appearances (30 starts), earning 2011 Atlantic 10 Freshman of the Year honors.As a sophomore in 2011–12, he averaged 11.4 points, 4.4 rebounds, 5.5 assists, and 2.8 steals per game, helping the Dukes to a 16-15 record and earning third-team All-Atlantic 10 Conference honors and a spot on the A-10 All-Defensive Team.In April 2012, he transferred to Arizona where he was subsequently forced to sit out the 2012–13 season due to NCAA transfer rules. McConnell's transfer was motivated by a desire to compete for a national championship.In the 2013–14 season McConnell helped lead the Wildcats to a 21-0 record to start the season before teammate Brandon Ashley injured his foot and was sidelined for the rest of the season. The season culminated in an Elite 8 appearance for the Wildcats. As a senior, McConnell was voted first-team All-Pac-12 and named to the Pac-12 All-Defensive Team, and he helped lead Arizona to another appearance in the Elite Eight.After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, McConnell joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On September 27, 2015, he signed with the 76ers. He played well during preseason, averaging 6.2 points and 4.8 assists in five games, earning himself a spot on the 76ers' opening night roster. He went on to make his NBA debut in the team's season opener against the Boston Celtics on October 28. In 27 minutes of action, he recorded four points, four assists and three steals in a 112–95 loss. On February 6, 2016, while starting at point guard in place of the injured Ish Smith, McConnell tied his season high of 17 points in a 103–98 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On March 23, in a loss to the Denver Nuggets, he had a 17-point outing for a third time in 2015–16. At the season's end, he received two votes in the 2016 NBA All-Rookie Team voting.In July 2016, McConnell re-joined the 76ers for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On December 11, 2016, he had a near triple-double with 12 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 97–79 win over the Detroit Pistons. On January 6, 2017, he had a career-high 17 assists in a 110–106 loss to the Boston Celtics, becoming just the fourth player in franchise history to hit that mark in a single contest. His total was two off the Philadelphia's all-time record of 19 assists, initially set by Maurice Cheeks in 1987, and later matched by Dana Barros in 1995. McConnell hit a game-winning buzzer beater against the New York Knicks with a turnaround jump shot on the baseline on January 11, 2017.On November 25, 2017, McConnell had 15 points and 13 assists in a 130–111 win over the Orlando Magic. On January 15, 2018, he scored a career-high 18 points in a 117–111 win over the Toronto Raptors. On February 12, 2018, McConnell recorded his first career triple-double with 10 points, 10 rebounds and 11 assists in a 108–92 win over the Knicks. He also matched a career high with six steals and became the first player in franchise history to record a triple-double off the bench. In Game 4 of the 76ers' second-round playoff series against the Celtics, McConnell had a career-high 19 points, seven rebounds and five assists in a 103–92 win, helping Philadelphia cut the series deficit to 3–1. On June 13, 2018, the 76ers announced they had exercised the fourth-year option on their contract with McConnell.On July 3, 2019, McConnell signed a two-year deal worth $7 million with the Indiana Pacers. He was one of three players on the roster using T.J. as their professional first name, along with teammates T.J. Warren and T.J. Leaf. He joined the team as it entered the 2020 NBA Bubble and exited after a first round loss in the 2020 NBA Playoffs to eventual Eastern Conference Champions Miami Heat.On March 3, 2021, McConnell broke the NBA record for most steals in a half with 9. He also became the first player since Mookie Blaylock in 1998 to record a triple-double with points, steals, and assists, as well as the first one to do so off the bench.His father, Tim, is one of the most successful coaches in WPIAL history. He is often seen jogging at Collier Park, which is also the location of the T.J. McConnell Memorial Court. He played at Waynesburg College (now Waynesburg University) from 1984 to 1986. His aunt, Suzie McConnell-Serio, was an All-American at Penn State (1985–1988), Olympic gold medalist and WNBA standout prior to being inducted to the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2008. She started her college coaching career at Duquesne.He married his high school sweetheart, Valerie, at Holy Child Parish (now known as Corpus Christi Parish), in September 2017; teammate Nik Stauskas and his roommate at Duquesne University, Gino Palmosina, served as the groomsmen.
|
[
"University of Arizona",
"Duquesne University"
] |
|
Where was T. J. McConnell educated in Mar, 2010?
|
March 09, 2010
|
{
"text": [
"Duquesne University"
]
}
|
L2_Q16228369_P69_1
|
T. J. McConnell attended Duquesne University from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
T. J. McConnell attended University of Arizona from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2015.
T. J. McConnell attended Chartiers Valley High School from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
|
T. J. McConnellTimothy John McConnell Jr. (born March 25, 1992) is an American professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Duquesne Dukes and the Arizona Wildcats.McConnell attended Chartiers Valley High School in the Pittsburgh-area borough of Bridgeville, Pennsylvania, where he played for his father, Tim. As the team captain his senior year, he averaged 34.2 points, 8.2 rebounds and 9.1 assists per game, earned first-team all-state honors, was named the Associated Press's Pennsylvania Class 3A Player of the Year, and also named the male athlete of the year for all sports by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. He led the Colts to a 29-2 record, the WPIAL championship, and a berth in the Class 3A state championship game as a senior in which he lost to Philadelphia's Neumann-Goretti.As a freshman for Duquesne in 2010–11, McConnell averaged 10.8 points, 3.8 rebounds, 4.4 assists, and 2.8 steals per game in 32 appearances (30 starts), earning 2011 Atlantic 10 Freshman of the Year honors.As a sophomore in 2011–12, he averaged 11.4 points, 4.4 rebounds, 5.5 assists, and 2.8 steals per game, helping the Dukes to a 16-15 record and earning third-team All-Atlantic 10 Conference honors and a spot on the A-10 All-Defensive Team.In April 2012, he transferred to Arizona where he was subsequently forced to sit out the 2012–13 season due to NCAA transfer rules. McConnell's transfer was motivated by a desire to compete for a national championship.In the 2013–14 season McConnell helped lead the Wildcats to a 21-0 record to start the season before teammate Brandon Ashley injured his foot and was sidelined for the rest of the season. The season culminated in an Elite 8 appearance for the Wildcats. As a senior, McConnell was voted first-team All-Pac-12 and named to the Pac-12 All-Defensive Team, and he helped lead Arizona to another appearance in the Elite Eight.After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, McConnell joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On September 27, 2015, he signed with the 76ers. He played well during preseason, averaging 6.2 points and 4.8 assists in five games, earning himself a spot on the 76ers' opening night roster. He went on to make his NBA debut in the team's season opener against the Boston Celtics on October 28. In 27 minutes of action, he recorded four points, four assists and three steals in a 112–95 loss. On February 6, 2016, while starting at point guard in place of the injured Ish Smith, McConnell tied his season high of 17 points in a 103–98 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On March 23, in a loss to the Denver Nuggets, he had a 17-point outing for a third time in 2015–16. At the season's end, he received two votes in the 2016 NBA All-Rookie Team voting.In July 2016, McConnell re-joined the 76ers for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On December 11, 2016, he had a near triple-double with 12 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 97–79 win over the Detroit Pistons. On January 6, 2017, he had a career-high 17 assists in a 110–106 loss to the Boston Celtics, becoming just the fourth player in franchise history to hit that mark in a single contest. His total was two off the Philadelphia's all-time record of 19 assists, initially set by Maurice Cheeks in 1987, and later matched by Dana Barros in 1995. McConnell hit a game-winning buzzer beater against the New York Knicks with a turnaround jump shot on the baseline on January 11, 2017.On November 25, 2017, McConnell had 15 points and 13 assists in a 130–111 win over the Orlando Magic. On January 15, 2018, he scored a career-high 18 points in a 117–111 win over the Toronto Raptors. On February 12, 2018, McConnell recorded his first career triple-double with 10 points, 10 rebounds and 11 assists in a 108–92 win over the Knicks. He also matched a career high with six steals and became the first player in franchise history to record a triple-double off the bench. In Game 4 of the 76ers' second-round playoff series against the Celtics, McConnell had a career-high 19 points, seven rebounds and five assists in a 103–92 win, helping Philadelphia cut the series deficit to 3–1. On June 13, 2018, the 76ers announced they had exercised the fourth-year option on their contract with McConnell.On July 3, 2019, McConnell signed a two-year deal worth $7 million with the Indiana Pacers. He was one of three players on the roster using T.J. as their professional first name, along with teammates T.J. Warren and T.J. Leaf. He joined the team as it entered the 2020 NBA Bubble and exited after a first round loss in the 2020 NBA Playoffs to eventual Eastern Conference Champions Miami Heat.On March 3, 2021, McConnell broke the NBA record for most steals in a half with 9. He also became the first player since Mookie Blaylock in 1998 to record a triple-double with points, steals, and assists, as well as the first one to do so off the bench.His father, Tim, is one of the most successful coaches in WPIAL history. He is often seen jogging at Collier Park, which is also the location of the T.J. McConnell Memorial Court. He played at Waynesburg College (now Waynesburg University) from 1984 to 1986. His aunt, Suzie McConnell-Serio, was an All-American at Penn State (1985–1988), Olympic gold medalist and WNBA standout prior to being inducted to the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2008. She started her college coaching career at Duquesne.He married his high school sweetheart, Valerie, at Holy Child Parish (now known as Corpus Christi Parish), in September 2017; teammate Nik Stauskas and his roommate at Duquesne University, Gino Palmosina, served as the groomsmen.
|
[
"University of Arizona",
"Chartiers Valley High School"
] |
|
Where was T. J. McConnell educated in Apr, 2014?
|
April 17, 2014
|
{
"text": [
"University of Arizona"
]
}
|
L2_Q16228369_P69_2
|
T. J. McConnell attended Chartiers Valley High School from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
T. J. McConnell attended Duquesne University from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
T. J. McConnell attended University of Arizona from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2015.
|
T. J. McConnellTimothy John McConnell Jr. (born March 25, 1992) is an American professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Duquesne Dukes and the Arizona Wildcats.McConnell attended Chartiers Valley High School in the Pittsburgh-area borough of Bridgeville, Pennsylvania, where he played for his father, Tim. As the team captain his senior year, he averaged 34.2 points, 8.2 rebounds and 9.1 assists per game, earned first-team all-state honors, was named the Associated Press's Pennsylvania Class 3A Player of the Year, and also named the male athlete of the year for all sports by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. He led the Colts to a 29-2 record, the WPIAL championship, and a berth in the Class 3A state championship game as a senior in which he lost to Philadelphia's Neumann-Goretti.As a freshman for Duquesne in 2010–11, McConnell averaged 10.8 points, 3.8 rebounds, 4.4 assists, and 2.8 steals per game in 32 appearances (30 starts), earning 2011 Atlantic 10 Freshman of the Year honors.As a sophomore in 2011–12, he averaged 11.4 points, 4.4 rebounds, 5.5 assists, and 2.8 steals per game, helping the Dukes to a 16-15 record and earning third-team All-Atlantic 10 Conference honors and a spot on the A-10 All-Defensive Team.In April 2012, he transferred to Arizona where he was subsequently forced to sit out the 2012–13 season due to NCAA transfer rules. McConnell's transfer was motivated by a desire to compete for a national championship.In the 2013–14 season McConnell helped lead the Wildcats to a 21-0 record to start the season before teammate Brandon Ashley injured his foot and was sidelined for the rest of the season. The season culminated in an Elite 8 appearance for the Wildcats. As a senior, McConnell was voted first-team All-Pac-12 and named to the Pac-12 All-Defensive Team, and he helped lead Arizona to another appearance in the Elite Eight.After going undrafted in the 2015 NBA draft, McConnell joined the Philadelphia 76ers for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On September 27, 2015, he signed with the 76ers. He played well during preseason, averaging 6.2 points and 4.8 assists in five games, earning himself a spot on the 76ers' opening night roster. He went on to make his NBA debut in the team's season opener against the Boston Celtics on October 28. In 27 minutes of action, he recorded four points, four assists and three steals in a 112–95 loss. On February 6, 2016, while starting at point guard in place of the injured Ish Smith, McConnell tied his season high of 17 points in a 103–98 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On March 23, in a loss to the Denver Nuggets, he had a 17-point outing for a third time in 2015–16. At the season's end, he received two votes in the 2016 NBA All-Rookie Team voting.In July 2016, McConnell re-joined the 76ers for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On December 11, 2016, he had a near triple-double with 12 points, 10 rebounds and nine assists in a 97–79 win over the Detroit Pistons. On January 6, 2017, he had a career-high 17 assists in a 110–106 loss to the Boston Celtics, becoming just the fourth player in franchise history to hit that mark in a single contest. His total was two off the Philadelphia's all-time record of 19 assists, initially set by Maurice Cheeks in 1987, and later matched by Dana Barros in 1995. McConnell hit a game-winning buzzer beater against the New York Knicks with a turnaround jump shot on the baseline on January 11, 2017.On November 25, 2017, McConnell had 15 points and 13 assists in a 130–111 win over the Orlando Magic. On January 15, 2018, he scored a career-high 18 points in a 117–111 win over the Toronto Raptors. On February 12, 2018, McConnell recorded his first career triple-double with 10 points, 10 rebounds and 11 assists in a 108–92 win over the Knicks. He also matched a career high with six steals and became the first player in franchise history to record a triple-double off the bench. In Game 4 of the 76ers' second-round playoff series against the Celtics, McConnell had a career-high 19 points, seven rebounds and five assists in a 103–92 win, helping Philadelphia cut the series deficit to 3–1. On June 13, 2018, the 76ers announced they had exercised the fourth-year option on their contract with McConnell.On July 3, 2019, McConnell signed a two-year deal worth $7 million with the Indiana Pacers. He was one of three players on the roster using T.J. as their professional first name, along with teammates T.J. Warren and T.J. Leaf. He joined the team as it entered the 2020 NBA Bubble and exited after a first round loss in the 2020 NBA Playoffs to eventual Eastern Conference Champions Miami Heat.On March 3, 2021, McConnell broke the NBA record for most steals in a half with 9. He also became the first player since Mookie Blaylock in 1998 to record a triple-double with points, steals, and assists, as well as the first one to do so off the bench.His father, Tim, is one of the most successful coaches in WPIAL history. He is often seen jogging at Collier Park, which is also the location of the T.J. McConnell Memorial Court. He played at Waynesburg College (now Waynesburg University) from 1984 to 1986. His aunt, Suzie McConnell-Serio, was an All-American at Penn State (1985–1988), Olympic gold medalist and WNBA standout prior to being inducted to the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2008. She started her college coaching career at Duquesne.He married his high school sweetheart, Valerie, at Holy Child Parish (now known as Corpus Christi Parish), in September 2017; teammate Nik Stauskas and his roommate at Duquesne University, Gino Palmosina, served as the groomsmen.
|
[
"Chartiers Valley High School",
"Duquesne University"
] |
|
Which team did Kees Bregman play for in Feb, 1971?
|
February 12, 1971
|
{
"text": [
"HFC Haarlem"
]
}
|
L2_Q1737754_P54_0
|
Kees Bregman plays for SC Fortuna Köln from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
Kees Bregman plays for Arminia Bielefeld from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Kees Bregman plays for Roda JC Kerkrade from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 1980.
Kees Bregman plays for ADO Den Haag from Jan, 1972 to Jan, 1974.
Kees Bregman plays for HFC Haarlem from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1972.
Kees Bregman plays for MSV Duisburg from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
|
Kees BregmanKees Bregman (born 8 August 1947 in the Netherlands) is a Dutch retired footballer.
|
[
"Arminia Bielefeld",
"ADO Den Haag",
"MSV Duisburg",
"SC Fortuna Köln",
"Roda JC Kerkrade"
] |
|
Which team did Kees Bregman play for in Mar, 1972?
|
March 22, 1972
|
{
"text": [
"ADO Den Haag"
]
}
|
L2_Q1737754_P54_1
|
Kees Bregman plays for HFC Haarlem from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1972.
Kees Bregman plays for MSV Duisburg from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Kees Bregman plays for ADO Den Haag from Jan, 1972 to Jan, 1974.
Kees Bregman plays for SC Fortuna Köln from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
Kees Bregman plays for Roda JC Kerkrade from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 1980.
Kees Bregman plays for Arminia Bielefeld from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
|
Kees BregmanKees Bregman (born 8 August 1947 in the Netherlands) is a Dutch retired footballer.
|
[
"Arminia Bielefeld",
"MSV Duisburg",
"SC Fortuna Köln",
"HFC Haarlem",
"Roda JC Kerkrade"
] |
|
Which team did Kees Bregman play for in Nov, 1979?
|
November 06, 1979
|
{
"text": [
"Roda JC Kerkrade"
]
}
|
L2_Q1737754_P54_2
|
Kees Bregman plays for ADO Den Haag from Jan, 1972 to Jan, 1974.
Kees Bregman plays for Roda JC Kerkrade from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 1980.
Kees Bregman plays for Arminia Bielefeld from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Kees Bregman plays for MSV Duisburg from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Kees Bregman plays for SC Fortuna Köln from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
Kees Bregman plays for HFC Haarlem from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1972.
|
Kees BregmanKees Bregman (born 8 August 1947 in the Netherlands) is a Dutch retired footballer.
|
[
"Arminia Bielefeld",
"ADO Den Haag",
"MSV Duisburg",
"SC Fortuna Köln",
"HFC Haarlem"
] |
|
Which team did Kees Bregman play for in Feb, 1980?
|
February 13, 1980
|
{
"text": [
"Arminia Bielefeld"
]
}
|
L2_Q1737754_P54_3
|
Kees Bregman plays for SC Fortuna Köln from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
Kees Bregman plays for Roda JC Kerkrade from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 1980.
Kees Bregman plays for Arminia Bielefeld from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Kees Bregman plays for ADO Den Haag from Jan, 1972 to Jan, 1974.
Kees Bregman plays for HFC Haarlem from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1972.
Kees Bregman plays for MSV Duisburg from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
|
Kees BregmanKees Bregman (born 8 August 1947 in the Netherlands) is a Dutch retired footballer.
|
[
"ADO Den Haag",
"MSV Duisburg",
"SC Fortuna Köln",
"HFC Haarlem",
"Roda JC Kerkrade"
] |
|
Which team did Kees Bregman play for in Jul, 1982?
|
July 06, 1982
|
{
"text": [
"MSV Duisburg"
]
}
|
L2_Q1737754_P54_4
|
Kees Bregman plays for SC Fortuna Köln from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
Kees Bregman plays for MSV Duisburg from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Kees Bregman plays for Roda JC Kerkrade from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 1980.
Kees Bregman plays for Arminia Bielefeld from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Kees Bregman plays for HFC Haarlem from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1972.
Kees Bregman plays for ADO Den Haag from Jan, 1972 to Jan, 1974.
|
Kees BregmanKees Bregman (born 8 August 1947 in the Netherlands) is a Dutch retired footballer.
|
[
"Arminia Bielefeld",
"ADO Den Haag",
"SC Fortuna Köln",
"HFC Haarlem",
"Roda JC Kerkrade"
] |
|
Which team did Kees Bregman play for in Jun, 1984?
|
June 29, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"SC Fortuna Köln"
]
}
|
L2_Q1737754_P54_5
|
Kees Bregman plays for Roda JC Kerkrade from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 1980.
Kees Bregman plays for MSV Duisburg from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Kees Bregman plays for HFC Haarlem from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1972.
Kees Bregman plays for Arminia Bielefeld from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Kees Bregman plays for SC Fortuna Köln from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
Kees Bregman plays for ADO Den Haag from Jan, 1972 to Jan, 1974.
|
Kees BregmanKees Bregman (born 8 August 1947 in the Netherlands) is a Dutch retired footballer.
|
[
"Arminia Bielefeld",
"ADO Den Haag",
"MSV Duisburg",
"HFC Haarlem",
"Roda JC Kerkrade"
] |
|
Which employer did Allison Littlejohn work for in Apr, 2016?
|
April 10, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"The Open University"
]
}
|
L2_Q55238558_P108_0
|
Allison Littlejohn works for University of Glasgow from Apr, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Allison Littlejohn works for The Open University from Jan, 2015 to Mar, 2019.
Allison Littlejohn works for University College London from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Allison LittlejohnAllison Littlejohn, FHEA, is Professor of Learning Technology at University College London. She is a director of University College London's knowledge lab and an expert in learning sciences, specialising in professional and digital learning.Littlejohn received her PhD from the University of Strathclyde in Chemistry in 1988. Her thesis was titled "A Comparative Examination of the Mechanical Properties of Sodium Nitrate and Calcite and the Influence of Defects On Their Reactivity."Littlejohn was appointed as Professor within the School of Education and Dean of Learning and Teaching at the College of Social Sciences at the University of Glasgow in April 2019. In November 2019 she was appointed director of University College London's knowledge lab.She has published on open-access learning, digital resources, massive open online courses (MOOCs), and Wikipedia editing within education:
|
[
"University College London",
"University of Glasgow"
] |
|
Which employer did Allison Littlejohn work for in Sep, 2019?
|
September 21, 2019
|
{
"text": [
"University of Glasgow"
]
}
|
L2_Q55238558_P108_1
|
Allison Littlejohn works for University of Glasgow from Apr, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Allison Littlejohn works for The Open University from Jan, 2015 to Mar, 2019.
Allison Littlejohn works for University College London from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Allison LittlejohnAllison Littlejohn, FHEA, is Professor of Learning Technology at University College London. She is a director of University College London's knowledge lab and an expert in learning sciences, specialising in professional and digital learning.Littlejohn received her PhD from the University of Strathclyde in Chemistry in 1988. Her thesis was titled "A Comparative Examination of the Mechanical Properties of Sodium Nitrate and Calcite and the Influence of Defects On Their Reactivity."Littlejohn was appointed as Professor within the School of Education and Dean of Learning and Teaching at the College of Social Sciences at the University of Glasgow in April 2019. In November 2019 she was appointed director of University College London's knowledge lab.She has published on open-access learning, digital resources, massive open online courses (MOOCs), and Wikipedia editing within education:
|
[
"The Open University",
"University College London"
] |
|
Which employer did Allison Littlejohn work for in Oct, 2022?
|
October 31, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"University College London"
]
}
|
L2_Q55238558_P108_2
|
Allison Littlejohn works for University College London from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Allison Littlejohn works for University of Glasgow from Apr, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Allison Littlejohn works for The Open University from Jan, 2015 to Mar, 2019.
|
Allison LittlejohnAllison Littlejohn, FHEA, is Professor of Learning Technology at University College London. She is a director of University College London's knowledge lab and an expert in learning sciences, specialising in professional and digital learning.Littlejohn received her PhD from the University of Strathclyde in Chemistry in 1988. Her thesis was titled "A Comparative Examination of the Mechanical Properties of Sodium Nitrate and Calcite and the Influence of Defects On Their Reactivity."Littlejohn was appointed as Professor within the School of Education and Dean of Learning and Teaching at the College of Social Sciences at the University of Glasgow in April 2019. In November 2019 she was appointed director of University College London's knowledge lab.She has published on open-access learning, digital resources, massive open online courses (MOOCs), and Wikipedia editing within education:
|
[
"The Open University",
"University of Glasgow"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé in Oct, 1926?
|
October 21, 1926
|
{
"text": [
"François-Xavier Ross"
]
}
|
L2_Q869068_P488_0
|
Raymond Dumais is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1993 to Jul, 2001.
François-Xavier Ross is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1922 to Jul, 1945.
Bertrand Blanchet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1973 to Oct, 1992.
Albini LeBlanc is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1945 to May, 1957.
Jean-Marie Fortier is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Jan, 1965 to Apr, 1968.
Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1968 to Apr, 1973.
|
Roman Catholic Diocese of GaspéThe Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé () (erected 5 May 1922) is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Rimouski.
|
[
"Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet",
"Raymond Dumais",
"Bertrand Blanchet",
"Jean-Marie Fortier",
"Albini LeBlanc"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé in Jan, 1951?
|
January 01, 1951
|
{
"text": [
"Albini LeBlanc"
]
}
|
L2_Q869068_P488_1
|
François-Xavier Ross is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1922 to Jul, 1945.
Albini LeBlanc is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1945 to May, 1957.
Bertrand Blanchet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1973 to Oct, 1992.
Raymond Dumais is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1993 to Jul, 2001.
Jean-Marie Fortier is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Jan, 1965 to Apr, 1968.
Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1968 to Apr, 1973.
|
Roman Catholic Diocese of GaspéThe Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé () (erected 5 May 1922) is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Rimouski.
|
[
"Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet",
"Raymond Dumais",
"Bertrand Blanchet",
"François-Xavier Ross",
"Jean-Marie Fortier"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé in Nov, 1967?
|
November 14, 1967
|
{
"text": [
"Jean-Marie Fortier"
]
}
|
L2_Q869068_P488_2
|
Bertrand Blanchet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1973 to Oct, 1992.
Raymond Dumais is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1993 to Jul, 2001.
François-Xavier Ross is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1922 to Jul, 1945.
Albini LeBlanc is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1945 to May, 1957.
Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1968 to Apr, 1973.
Jean-Marie Fortier is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Jan, 1965 to Apr, 1968.
|
Roman Catholic Diocese of GaspéThe Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé () (erected 5 May 1922) is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Rimouski.
|
[
"Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet",
"Bertrand Blanchet",
"François-Xavier Ross",
"Raymond Dumais",
"Albini LeBlanc"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé in Jan, 1970?
|
January 11, 1970
|
{
"text": [
"Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet"
]
}
|
L2_Q869068_P488_3
|
Raymond Dumais is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1993 to Jul, 2001.
Albini LeBlanc is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1945 to May, 1957.
François-Xavier Ross is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1922 to Jul, 1945.
Bertrand Blanchet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1973 to Oct, 1992.
Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1968 to Apr, 1973.
Jean-Marie Fortier is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Jan, 1965 to Apr, 1968.
|
Roman Catholic Diocese of GaspéThe Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé () (erected 5 May 1922) is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Rimouski.
|
[
"Raymond Dumais",
"Bertrand Blanchet",
"François-Xavier Ross",
"Jean-Marie Fortier",
"Albini LeBlanc"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé in Oct, 1975?
|
October 28, 1975
|
{
"text": [
"Bertrand Blanchet"
]
}
|
L2_Q869068_P488_4
|
Bertrand Blanchet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1973 to Oct, 1992.
Raymond Dumais is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1993 to Jul, 2001.
Albini LeBlanc is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1945 to May, 1957.
Jean-Marie Fortier is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Jan, 1965 to Apr, 1968.
François-Xavier Ross is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1922 to Jul, 1945.
Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1968 to Apr, 1973.
|
Roman Catholic Diocese of GaspéThe Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé () (erected 5 May 1922) is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Rimouski.
|
[
"Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet",
"Raymond Dumais",
"François-Xavier Ross",
"Jean-Marie Fortier",
"Albini LeBlanc"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé in Mar, 2000?
|
March 09, 2000
|
{
"text": [
"Raymond Dumais"
]
}
|
L2_Q869068_P488_5
|
François-Xavier Ross is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1922 to Jul, 1945.
Jean-Marie Fortier is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Jan, 1965 to Apr, 1968.
Raymond Dumais is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1993 to Jul, 2001.
Albini LeBlanc is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Dec, 1945 to May, 1957.
Bertrand Blanchet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1973 to Oct, 1992.
Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet is the chair of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé from Oct, 1968 to Apr, 1973.
|
Roman Catholic Diocese of GaspéThe Roman Catholic Diocese of Gaspé () (erected 5 May 1922) is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Rimouski.
|
[
"Joseph Gilles Napoléon Ouellet",
"Bertrand Blanchet",
"François-Xavier Ross",
"Jean-Marie Fortier",
"Albini LeBlanc"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Jan, 2007?
|
January 06, 2007
|
{
"text": [
"FK Sloga Kraljevo"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_0
|
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"OFK Petrovac",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Radnik Surdulica"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Jul, 2011?
|
July 06, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"FK Sloboda Užice"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_1
|
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"OFK Petrovac",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Radnik Surdulica"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Apr, 2013?
|
April 29, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_2
|
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"OFK Petrovac",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Radnik Surdulica"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Jan, 2014?
|
January 01, 2014
|
{
"text": [
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Mornar",
"OFK Petrovac"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_3
|
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Radnik Surdulica",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"FK Radnik Surdulica",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"FK Radnik Surdulica",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Mar, 2014?
|
March 06, 2014
|
{
"text": [
"OFK Petrovac"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_4
|
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Radnik Surdulica"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Sep, 2022?
|
September 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_5
|
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Mornar",
"OFK Petrovac",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Radnik Surdulica"
] |
|
Which team did Marko Memedović play for in Jan, 2015?
|
January 01, 2015
|
{
"text": [
"FK Radnik Surdulica",
"FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi",
"OFK Petrovac"
]
}
|
L2_Q6771186_P54_6
|
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloboda Užice from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Sloga Kraljevo from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2011.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Mornar from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Marko Memedović plays for FK Radnik Surdulica from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Marko Memedović plays for OFK Petrovac from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
|
Marko MemedovićMarko Memedović (; born 18 January 1991) is a Serbian footballer who currently plays for New Zealand club North Shore United.
|
[
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo",
"FK Sloboda Užice",
"FK Metalac Gornji Milanovac",
"FK Mornar",
"FK Sloga Kraljevo"
] |
|
Who was the head of Râșnov in Dec, 2006?
|
December 13, 2006
|
{
"text": [
"Adrian-Ioan Veștea"
]
}
|
L2_Q790338_P6_0
|
Liviu Butnaru is the head of the government of Râșnov from Jun, 2017 to Oct, 2020.
Adrian-Ioan Veștea is the head of the government of Râșnov from Jan, 2004 to Jun, 2016.
Liviu-Călin Butnariu is the head of the government of Râșnov from Oct, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
|
RâșnovRâșnov (; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect: "Ruusenåå"; Latin: "Rosnovia") is a town in Brașov County, Transylvania, Romania with a population of 15,022.It is located at about 15 km from the city of Brașov and about the same distance from Bran, on the road that links Wallachia and Transylvania.The Roman fort of Cumidava was discovered in 1856 near the town.The castle of Râșnov was built in the years 1211-1225 by Teutonic Knights. Râșnov was mentioned for the first time in 1331 as "Rosnou" and again in 1388 as "villa Rosarum". While the village was razed many times in its history by Tatars, Turks and Wallachians, the castle was conquered only once, in 1612 by Gabriel Báthory.In 2002, the Râșnov Fortress and surroundings were used during the shooting of several scenes from the American film "Cold Mountain".There is a myth attached to Râșnov Citadel. During a particularly long siege of the fortress, the citizens of Râșnov were concerned about the lack of available fresh drinking water. Two Turkish soldiers, having been captured earlier, were put to the task of digging a well in the centre of the fortress. These two men were assured that they would be given their freedom once the well was completed. According to local legend, it took them 17 years to finish the well, but they were still killed afterwards. This famous well still sits in the centre of Râșnov Fortress, and is 143 metres deep.Râșnov has a warm-summer humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Köppen climate classification).As of August 2013, Râșnov became the host of the first extreme metal festival in Romania, known as Rockstadt Extreme Fest which was held at the hill's base with the Râșnov Citadel. The festival featured bands such as Decapitated, Napalm Death, Gojira, Carach Angren, Septicflesh, Primordial among many others and it continues to this day.Râșnov Sports Complex was built just outside the town in Cărbunarii Valley, for 2013 European Youth Winter Olympic Festival which was hosted in the nearby city of Brașov.Two ski jumping events took place in Râșnov, as part of the Women's Ski Jumping World Cup 2013/2014 competition. The events were scheduled for March 2014, on the "Valea Cărbunării" slope. During the 2019–20 World Cup, both women and men have events in Râșnov.
|
[
"Liviu Butnaru",
"Liviu-Călin Butnariu"
] |
|
Who was the head of Râșnov in Oct, 2019?
|
October 07, 2019
|
{
"text": [
"Liviu Butnaru"
]
}
|
L2_Q790338_P6_1
|
Liviu-Călin Butnariu is the head of the government of Râșnov from Oct, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Liviu Butnaru is the head of the government of Râșnov from Jun, 2017 to Oct, 2020.
Adrian-Ioan Veștea is the head of the government of Râșnov from Jan, 2004 to Jun, 2016.
|
RâșnovRâșnov (; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect: "Ruusenåå"; Latin: "Rosnovia") is a town in Brașov County, Transylvania, Romania with a population of 15,022.It is located at about 15 km from the city of Brașov and about the same distance from Bran, on the road that links Wallachia and Transylvania.The Roman fort of Cumidava was discovered in 1856 near the town.The castle of Râșnov was built in the years 1211-1225 by Teutonic Knights. Râșnov was mentioned for the first time in 1331 as "Rosnou" and again in 1388 as "villa Rosarum". While the village was razed many times in its history by Tatars, Turks and Wallachians, the castle was conquered only once, in 1612 by Gabriel Báthory.In 2002, the Râșnov Fortress and surroundings were used during the shooting of several scenes from the American film "Cold Mountain".There is a myth attached to Râșnov Citadel. During a particularly long siege of the fortress, the citizens of Râșnov were concerned about the lack of available fresh drinking water. Two Turkish soldiers, having been captured earlier, were put to the task of digging a well in the centre of the fortress. These two men were assured that they would be given their freedom once the well was completed. According to local legend, it took them 17 years to finish the well, but they were still killed afterwards. This famous well still sits in the centre of Râșnov Fortress, and is 143 metres deep.Râșnov has a warm-summer humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Köppen climate classification).As of August 2013, Râșnov became the host of the first extreme metal festival in Romania, known as Rockstadt Extreme Fest which was held at the hill's base with the Râșnov Citadel. The festival featured bands such as Decapitated, Napalm Death, Gojira, Carach Angren, Septicflesh, Primordial among many others and it continues to this day.Râșnov Sports Complex was built just outside the town in Cărbunarii Valley, for 2013 European Youth Winter Olympic Festival which was hosted in the nearby city of Brașov.Two ski jumping events took place in Râșnov, as part of the Women's Ski Jumping World Cup 2013/2014 competition. The events were scheduled for March 2014, on the "Valea Cărbunării" slope. During the 2019–20 World Cup, both women and men have events in Râșnov.
|
[
"Adrian-Ioan Veștea",
"Liviu-Călin Butnariu"
] |
|
Who was the head of Râșnov in Dec, 2020?
|
December 17, 2020
|
{
"text": [
"Liviu-Călin Butnariu"
]
}
|
L2_Q790338_P6_2
|
Liviu-Călin Butnariu is the head of the government of Râșnov from Oct, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Adrian-Ioan Veștea is the head of the government of Râșnov from Jan, 2004 to Jun, 2016.
Liviu Butnaru is the head of the government of Râșnov from Jun, 2017 to Oct, 2020.
|
RâșnovRâșnov (; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect: "Ruusenåå"; Latin: "Rosnovia") is a town in Brașov County, Transylvania, Romania with a population of 15,022.It is located at about 15 km from the city of Brașov and about the same distance from Bran, on the road that links Wallachia and Transylvania.The Roman fort of Cumidava was discovered in 1856 near the town.The castle of Râșnov was built in the years 1211-1225 by Teutonic Knights. Râșnov was mentioned for the first time in 1331 as "Rosnou" and again in 1388 as "villa Rosarum". While the village was razed many times in its history by Tatars, Turks and Wallachians, the castle was conquered only once, in 1612 by Gabriel Báthory.In 2002, the Râșnov Fortress and surroundings were used during the shooting of several scenes from the American film "Cold Mountain".There is a myth attached to Râșnov Citadel. During a particularly long siege of the fortress, the citizens of Râșnov were concerned about the lack of available fresh drinking water. Two Turkish soldiers, having been captured earlier, were put to the task of digging a well in the centre of the fortress. These two men were assured that they would be given their freedom once the well was completed. According to local legend, it took them 17 years to finish the well, but they were still killed afterwards. This famous well still sits in the centre of Râșnov Fortress, and is 143 metres deep.Râșnov has a warm-summer humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Köppen climate classification).As of August 2013, Râșnov became the host of the first extreme metal festival in Romania, known as Rockstadt Extreme Fest which was held at the hill's base with the Râșnov Citadel. The festival featured bands such as Decapitated, Napalm Death, Gojira, Carach Angren, Septicflesh, Primordial among many others and it continues to this day.Râșnov Sports Complex was built just outside the town in Cărbunarii Valley, for 2013 European Youth Winter Olympic Festival which was hosted in the nearby city of Brașov.Two ski jumping events took place in Râșnov, as part of the Women's Ski Jumping World Cup 2013/2014 competition. The events were scheduled for March 2014, on the "Valea Cărbunării" slope. During the 2019–20 World Cup, both women and men have events in Râșnov.
|
[
"Liviu Butnaru",
"Adrian-Ioan Veștea"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Oct, 1852?
|
October 23, 1852
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_0
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Mar, 1859?
|
March 07, 1859
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_1
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Jul, 1859?
|
July 11, 1859
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_2
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Apr, 1866?
|
April 26, 1866
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_3
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Mar, 1873?
|
March 29, 1873
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_4
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Mar, 1879?
|
March 20, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_5
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Apr, 1882?
|
April 21, 1882
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_6
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Jan, 1886?
|
January 25, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_7
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Apr, 1888?
|
April 25, 1888
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_8
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Samuel Whitbread hold in Sep, 1892?
|
September 22, 1892
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q7412920_P39_9
|
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1859 to Jul, 1865.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1874 to Mar, 1880.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1880 to Nov, 1885.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1868 to Jan, 1874.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1865 to Nov, 1868.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.
Samuel Whitbread holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859.
|
Samuel Whitbread (1830–1915)Samuel Whitbread (5 May 1830 – 25 December 1915) was an English brewer and Liberal Party politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1852 to 1895.Whitbread was the eldest son of Samuel Charles Whitbread of Cardington, Bedfordshire and his wife Julia Brand, daughter of Lord Dacre. He was a member of the Whitbread brewing family. Whitbread was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was private secretary to Sir George Grey in 1850 and in 1852 was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Bedford. He was a frequent speaker during his time in the commons and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from June 1859 to March 1863. He held his seat until 1895.Whitbread lived at Southill Park, Biggleswade. He was J.P. and Deputy Lieutenant for Bedfordshire. He died at the age of 85.Whitbread married Lady Isabella Charlotte Pelham, youngest daughter of Henry Pelham, 3rd Earl of Chichester on 9 July 1855. They had four children together, Samuel, Maude, Henry, and Francis.His eldest son, Samuel Howard, followed his father into politics.Maud married her cousin Charles, son of Samuel's younger brother William.Henry married Mary Raymond and lived at Norton Bavant, Warminster.Francis married Ida, daughter of Charles Hanbury-Tracy, 4th Baron Sudeley, and lived at Burford House, Tenbury Wells.
|
[
"Member of the 21st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 19th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 18th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 20th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which employer did Tamsin Ford work for in Nov, 1992?
|
November 18, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Royal London Hospital"
]
}
|
L2_Q42614637_P108_0
|
Tamsin Ford works for Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience from Feb, 1999 to Aug, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust from Nov, 1995 to Feb, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for Royal London Hospital from May, 1992 to Oct, 1995.
Tamsin Ford works for University of Exeter Medical School from Sep, 2007 to Jan, 2013.
|
Tamsin FordTamsin Jane Ford (born 17 September 1966) is a British psychiatrist specialising in children's mental health. Since 2019 she has been based at the University of Cambridge where she is now Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Head of the Department of Psychiatry and Fellow of Hughes Hall. She has been heavily involved with the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme, created by Carolyn Webster-Stratton, which aims to raise and improve children's mental health in primary schools across Devon . Her work also ties in with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), created by UK psychiatrist, Robert Goodman.Ford received a MB BS from United Medical Schools of Guy's and St Thomas's, University of London in 1990. As a junior doctor in 1991-1992, she held posts at Guy's and Lewisham Hospital (surgery), Orpington Hospital (medicine), King's College Hospital (A&E) and Royal London Hospital (eldercare). She began her core professional training in psychiatry in 1992, passing her MRCPsych examination in 1995. She was then appointed Senior Registrar in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry with the Bethlem and Maudsley NHS Trust, obtaining a CCST in 1998.Between 1995-2005 Ford did her fellowship in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London while working in the Clinical Research Worker Department at King's, as well as holding clinical posts at Great Ormond Street Hospital (Tourette's Clinic and Epilepsy Surgery Clinic) and Maudsley Hospital (National and Specialist OCD Clinic). Ford received a MSc (distinction) in Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 2000, followed by a PhD in 2004 with the thesis "Services for Children with mental health disorders: rates and predictors of specialist service use".Towards the end of her fellowship, Ford worked briefly for the Croydon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service as a member of their Children Looked After Team. She was also one of the editors of the book "A Practical Psychiatric Epidemiology" published in 2003 and highly commended in the BMA book competition held the following year. In 2005 she was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2005 Ford was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2007 she moved to Exeter, Devon, where she was appointed Clinical Senior Lecturer at the Peninsula Medical School, University of Exeter, setting up the Child Mental Health Research Group in September. At the beginning of 2008 she was appointed to the Exeter and Mid Devon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (Devon Partnership NHS Trust) as an honorary consultant. Later that year, her publication "Five years on: public sector service use related to mental health in young people with ADHD or hyperkinetic disorder five years after diagnosis", of which she was a co-author, was selected as one of the top ten publications of the year by editors of the "Child and Adolescent Mental Health" journal.Another honorary consultant role followed in May 2011, when Ford was appointed to the Exeter Liaison team on the Devon NHS Partnership Trust. Two years later she was appointed as personal chair of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the University of Exeter Medical School, in 2014 she was awarded a FRCPsych - becoming a fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and became a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences in 2020. In 2012 Ford started setting up of the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme to promote awareness and understanding of mental health in children aged 6–11; by 2018 this programme was implemented in 80 Devon primary schools. In 2018 Ford was voted as one of the 100 most influential women in Exeter by Grow Exeter.In the summer of 2019, Ford was awarded a CBE for her work in transforming mental health services and schools in the United Kingdom, with her work regularly cited in government, NHS and education policy.She moved to the University of Cambridge Department of Psychiatry in 2019.Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences CBE
|
[
"South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust",
"University of Exeter Medical School",
"Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience"
] |
|
Which employer did Tamsin Ford work for in Nov, 1997?
|
November 27, 1997
|
{
"text": [
"South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust"
]
}
|
L2_Q42614637_P108_1
|
Tamsin Ford works for Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience from Feb, 1999 to Aug, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust from Nov, 1995 to Feb, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for Royal London Hospital from May, 1992 to Oct, 1995.
Tamsin Ford works for University of Exeter Medical School from Sep, 2007 to Jan, 2013.
|
Tamsin FordTamsin Jane Ford (born 17 September 1966) is a British psychiatrist specialising in children's mental health. Since 2019 she has been based at the University of Cambridge where she is now Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Head of the Department of Psychiatry and Fellow of Hughes Hall. She has been heavily involved with the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme, created by Carolyn Webster-Stratton, which aims to raise and improve children's mental health in primary schools across Devon . Her work also ties in with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), created by UK psychiatrist, Robert Goodman.Ford received a MB BS from United Medical Schools of Guy's and St Thomas's, University of London in 1990. As a junior doctor in 1991-1992, she held posts at Guy's and Lewisham Hospital (surgery), Orpington Hospital (medicine), King's College Hospital (A&E) and Royal London Hospital (eldercare). She began her core professional training in psychiatry in 1992, passing her MRCPsych examination in 1995. She was then appointed Senior Registrar in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry with the Bethlem and Maudsley NHS Trust, obtaining a CCST in 1998.Between 1995-2005 Ford did her fellowship in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London while working in the Clinical Research Worker Department at King's, as well as holding clinical posts at Great Ormond Street Hospital (Tourette's Clinic and Epilepsy Surgery Clinic) and Maudsley Hospital (National and Specialist OCD Clinic). Ford received a MSc (distinction) in Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 2000, followed by a PhD in 2004 with the thesis "Services for Children with mental health disorders: rates and predictors of specialist service use".Towards the end of her fellowship, Ford worked briefly for the Croydon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service as a member of their Children Looked After Team. She was also one of the editors of the book "A Practical Psychiatric Epidemiology" published in 2003 and highly commended in the BMA book competition held the following year. In 2005 she was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2005 Ford was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2007 she moved to Exeter, Devon, where she was appointed Clinical Senior Lecturer at the Peninsula Medical School, University of Exeter, setting up the Child Mental Health Research Group in September. At the beginning of 2008 she was appointed to the Exeter and Mid Devon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (Devon Partnership NHS Trust) as an honorary consultant. Later that year, her publication "Five years on: public sector service use related to mental health in young people with ADHD or hyperkinetic disorder five years after diagnosis", of which she was a co-author, was selected as one of the top ten publications of the year by editors of the "Child and Adolescent Mental Health" journal.Another honorary consultant role followed in May 2011, when Ford was appointed to the Exeter Liaison team on the Devon NHS Partnership Trust. Two years later she was appointed as personal chair of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the University of Exeter Medical School, in 2014 she was awarded a FRCPsych - becoming a fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and became a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences in 2020. In 2012 Ford started setting up of the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme to promote awareness and understanding of mental health in children aged 6–11; by 2018 this programme was implemented in 80 Devon primary schools. In 2018 Ford was voted as one of the 100 most influential women in Exeter by Grow Exeter.In the summer of 2019, Ford was awarded a CBE for her work in transforming mental health services and schools in the United Kingdom, with her work regularly cited in government, NHS and education policy.She moved to the University of Cambridge Department of Psychiatry in 2019.Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences CBE
|
[
"University of Exeter Medical School",
"Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience",
"Royal London Hospital"
] |
|
Which employer did Tamsin Ford work for in Jun, 1999?
|
June 06, 1999
|
{
"text": [
"Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience"
]
}
|
L2_Q42614637_P108_2
|
Tamsin Ford works for University of Exeter Medical School from Sep, 2007 to Jan, 2013.
Tamsin Ford works for South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust from Nov, 1995 to Feb, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for Royal London Hospital from May, 1992 to Oct, 1995.
Tamsin Ford works for Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience from Feb, 1999 to Aug, 1999.
|
Tamsin FordTamsin Jane Ford (born 17 September 1966) is a British psychiatrist specialising in children's mental health. Since 2019 she has been based at the University of Cambridge where she is now Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Head of the Department of Psychiatry and Fellow of Hughes Hall. She has been heavily involved with the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme, created by Carolyn Webster-Stratton, which aims to raise and improve children's mental health in primary schools across Devon . Her work also ties in with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), created by UK psychiatrist, Robert Goodman.Ford received a MB BS from United Medical Schools of Guy's and St Thomas's, University of London in 1990. As a junior doctor in 1991-1992, she held posts at Guy's and Lewisham Hospital (surgery), Orpington Hospital (medicine), King's College Hospital (A&E) and Royal London Hospital (eldercare). She began her core professional training in psychiatry in 1992, passing her MRCPsych examination in 1995. She was then appointed Senior Registrar in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry with the Bethlem and Maudsley NHS Trust, obtaining a CCST in 1998.Between 1995-2005 Ford did her fellowship in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London while working in the Clinical Research Worker Department at King's, as well as holding clinical posts at Great Ormond Street Hospital (Tourette's Clinic and Epilepsy Surgery Clinic) and Maudsley Hospital (National and Specialist OCD Clinic). Ford received a MSc (distinction) in Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 2000, followed by a PhD in 2004 with the thesis "Services for Children with mental health disorders: rates and predictors of specialist service use".Towards the end of her fellowship, Ford worked briefly for the Croydon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service as a member of their Children Looked After Team. She was also one of the editors of the book "A Practical Psychiatric Epidemiology" published in 2003 and highly commended in the BMA book competition held the following year. In 2005 she was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2005 Ford was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2007 she moved to Exeter, Devon, where she was appointed Clinical Senior Lecturer at the Peninsula Medical School, University of Exeter, setting up the Child Mental Health Research Group in September. At the beginning of 2008 she was appointed to the Exeter and Mid Devon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (Devon Partnership NHS Trust) as an honorary consultant. Later that year, her publication "Five years on: public sector service use related to mental health in young people with ADHD or hyperkinetic disorder five years after diagnosis", of which she was a co-author, was selected as one of the top ten publications of the year by editors of the "Child and Adolescent Mental Health" journal.Another honorary consultant role followed in May 2011, when Ford was appointed to the Exeter Liaison team on the Devon NHS Partnership Trust. Two years later she was appointed as personal chair of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the University of Exeter Medical School, in 2014 she was awarded a FRCPsych - becoming a fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and became a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences in 2020. In 2012 Ford started setting up of the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme to promote awareness and understanding of mental health in children aged 6–11; by 2018 this programme was implemented in 80 Devon primary schools. In 2018 Ford was voted as one of the 100 most influential women in Exeter by Grow Exeter.In the summer of 2019, Ford was awarded a CBE for her work in transforming mental health services and schools in the United Kingdom, with her work regularly cited in government, NHS and education policy.She moved to the University of Cambridge Department of Psychiatry in 2019.Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences CBE
|
[
"South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust",
"University of Exeter Medical School",
"Royal London Hospital"
] |
|
Which employer did Tamsin Ford work for in Nov, 2011?
|
November 21, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"University of Exeter Medical School"
]
}
|
L2_Q42614637_P108_3
|
Tamsin Ford works for South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust from Nov, 1995 to Feb, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for Royal London Hospital from May, 1992 to Oct, 1995.
Tamsin Ford works for Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience from Feb, 1999 to Aug, 1999.
Tamsin Ford works for University of Exeter Medical School from Sep, 2007 to Jan, 2013.
|
Tamsin FordTamsin Jane Ford (born 17 September 1966) is a British psychiatrist specialising in children's mental health. Since 2019 she has been based at the University of Cambridge where she is now Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Head of the Department of Psychiatry and Fellow of Hughes Hall. She has been heavily involved with the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme, created by Carolyn Webster-Stratton, which aims to raise and improve children's mental health in primary schools across Devon . Her work also ties in with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), created by UK psychiatrist, Robert Goodman.Ford received a MB BS from United Medical Schools of Guy's and St Thomas's, University of London in 1990. As a junior doctor in 1991-1992, she held posts at Guy's and Lewisham Hospital (surgery), Orpington Hospital (medicine), King's College Hospital (A&E) and Royal London Hospital (eldercare). She began her core professional training in psychiatry in 1992, passing her MRCPsych examination in 1995. She was then appointed Senior Registrar in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry with the Bethlem and Maudsley NHS Trust, obtaining a CCST in 1998.Between 1995-2005 Ford did her fellowship in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London while working in the Clinical Research Worker Department at King's, as well as holding clinical posts at Great Ormond Street Hospital (Tourette's Clinic and Epilepsy Surgery Clinic) and Maudsley Hospital (National and Specialist OCD Clinic). Ford received a MSc (distinction) in Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 2000, followed by a PhD in 2004 with the thesis "Services for Children with mental health disorders: rates and predictors of specialist service use".Towards the end of her fellowship, Ford worked briefly for the Croydon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service as a member of their Children Looked After Team. She was also one of the editors of the book "A Practical Psychiatric Epidemiology" published in 2003 and highly commended in the BMA book competition held the following year. In 2005 she was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2005 Ford was appointed MRC Clinician Scientist for the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London.In 2007 she moved to Exeter, Devon, where she was appointed Clinical Senior Lecturer at the Peninsula Medical School, University of Exeter, setting up the Child Mental Health Research Group in September. At the beginning of 2008 she was appointed to the Exeter and Mid Devon Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (Devon Partnership NHS Trust) as an honorary consultant. Later that year, her publication "Five years on: public sector service use related to mental health in young people with ADHD or hyperkinetic disorder five years after diagnosis", of which she was a co-author, was selected as one of the top ten publications of the year by editors of the "Child and Adolescent Mental Health" journal.Another honorary consultant role followed in May 2011, when Ford was appointed to the Exeter Liaison team on the Devon NHS Partnership Trust. Two years later she was appointed as personal chair of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the University of Exeter Medical School, in 2014 she was awarded a FRCPsych - becoming a fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and became a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences in 2020. In 2012 Ford started setting up of the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme to promote awareness and understanding of mental health in children aged 6–11; by 2018 this programme was implemented in 80 Devon primary schools. In 2018 Ford was voted as one of the 100 most influential women in Exeter by Grow Exeter.In the summer of 2019, Ford was awarded a CBE for her work in transforming mental health services and schools in the United Kingdom, with her work regularly cited in government, NHS and education policy.She moved to the University of Cambridge Department of Psychiatry in 2019.Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences CBE
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[
"South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust",
"Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience",
"Royal London Hospital"
] |
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Who was the head of Lannemezan in Mar, 1965?
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March 01, 1965
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{
"text": [
"Paul Baratgin"
]
}
|
L2_Q383402_P6_0
|
Pierre Bleuler is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Mar, 1977 to Mar, 2001.
Bernard Plano is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Paul Baratgin is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Jan, 1929 to Dec, 1966.
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LannemezanLannemezan (; Gascon Occitan "Lanamesa", "heath of the middle") is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department and the Occitanie region in south-western France. The inhabitants are called Lannemezanais.Lannemezan is the largest city in the .The Petite Baïse has its source in the commune.Lannemezan is around east of Tarbes, and around 100 km south-west of Toulouse.Over 50 million years, driven by movements of compression, low relief which constitutes the Pre-Pyrenees has risen. Glaciers and streams that cascade down its slopes subject to mountain erosion which flows off from the foot of it. While continuing to rise, the mountain has erected the cluster of its deposits and thus forms the Plateau de Lannemezan, head of a gigantic which puts its mark upon much of the southwest, up the Garonne at more than to the north. High up and submitted to the four winds, the site already assigns itself an identity that would assist in its history and reputation.The soil is composed of uncultivated and barren land, dotted with woodlands, coppicing, cut of marshes and heath. The terrain is of limestone origin with a topsoil up to deep. Peat moor is exploited near La Barthe-de-Neste. Analysis of the soil in the commune of Lannemezan shows the results presented in the following table.The plateau rises to over above sea level in the vicinity of Lannemezan. The top of the foothills face the Pyrenean part of the Neste Valley, the river which then turns east at the foot of the plateau. Other rivers (Gers, Baïse, etc.), flow radially from this point to the northwest, north and northeast, and the altitude of the plateau decreases gradually. On the south side, this plateau is still connected to the Pyrenean massif by a narrow tongue of land between Izaux and Avezac. Otherwise, it ends to the southwest and the southeast by a steep overhang and residual hills (Capvern, Mauvezin, etc.) facing the Pyrenees.The natural vegetation of Lannemezan and its small region is characterised by a heathland landscape, although moisture of soils is highly variable depending on their location (particularly in relation to their proximity to water courses).Thus, in wet areas near the rivers extend many bogs characterised by dwarf gorse ("Ulex minor"), St. John's wort ("Hypericum elodes L.") marshes or wet meadows which extend Medusa's trumpets ("Narcissus bulbocodium L."), of oatgrass ("Arrhenatherum longifolium") or alder ("Alnus").In drier areas grow more woody species such as Pyrenean oak, also known under the name of tauzin oak ("Quercus pyrenaica"), as well as pedunculated oak ("Quercus robur") or chestnut ("Castanea sativa Mill").In all cases, the soils are rather acidic type with adjustable humidity, which imposes certain constraints for the development of plant species. These development constraints are represented on the adjoining humidity/acidity chart.Eighteen rivers have their sources on the Plateau de Lannemezan or pass through the territory of the commune. The main are listed in the following table.The commune is placed under supervision in relation to some possible natural and technological hazards:Recent natural disasters on the commune are as follows, since 1980 (from most recent to oldest):General location:Lannemezan is a bastide situated in the centre of the Plateau de Lannemezan between Tarbes and Toulouse on the Petite Baïse. Between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, at the outlet of the valleys of the Pyrenees, Lannemezan imposes itself as a privileged strategic its geographical position city.Lannemezan is located at the east of the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées, from the border with Haute-Garonne to the east, from the border with Gers in the north and from the border with Spain to the south ().Spatially, Lannemezan is wedged between the following nine communes: Campistrous to the northwest, Clarens in the northeast, Capvern to the west, Uglas and Pinas to the east, Avezac-Prat-Lahitte in the southwest, La Barthe-de-Neste and Escala to the south, and Cantaous to the southeast.The orientation and location of Lannemezan, compared to some large French cities, is given in the following table (distances are given as the fastest route by road):The city of Lannemezan has an area of , which is ranked:Changes in altitude are important on the territory of the commune. The minimum altitude is , the maximum altitude is . The average elevation is , and the Town Hall lies Meanwhile, .Tarbes-Ossun weather station 'normals' reveal a rather cool climate, rainy in winter and hot and stormy in summer. The average annual temperature [] is relatively low for such latitude, with a fairly low seasonal amplitude, on average during the winter and during the summer. However, the winter temperature has reached a record low of in January 1985 and has also exceeded in midsummer. These high temperatures are typical of the foehn wind, due to the relief of the Pyrenees.In Tarbes, fog and strong winds are rare. These climate characteristics of Tarbes are found in the north of the department, but with more fog in winter, and warmer daytime temperatures and lower precipitation in the summer. Conversely on the closer terrain the average quantities of precipitation increase. This varies greatly depending on exposure and slopes, but become abundant near the border ridges. The area between plain and mountain has a more humid climate and less sunny than the rest of the department. In the mountains the sun shines frequently above a sea of clouds and the wind blows stronger and more often than on the plain (breezes and sometimes very strong winds from the south).The is characterised by a rainy and cool springtime, especially snowy at altitude; weather from the northwest is blocked by the relief and a phenomenon of precipitation at altitude has the consequence of strong accumulations of snow at altitude until mid-May. Summer is mild but stormy, autumn is generally sunny and pleasant, usually followed by a relatively mild winter on the plains and cold above .Records of temperatures and precipitation are collected in the following table:Sunshine and precipitation values are visible in the following table:Records of temperatures and precipitation amounts, between 1999 and 2011, are listed in the following table:According to the Köppen classification, the town of Lannemezan is located in the "Cfb" category:The C (1st letter) expresses the climate: A temperate climate:The f (2nd letter) expresses the rainfall:The b (3rd letter) expresses the temperature variations: been temperate:Lannemezan is a town in transition, served by many roads. The majority of these are in the north/south and east/west directions. Here are the details:Lannemezan is located on the Toulouse-Bayonne line. The SNCF Gare de Lannemezan is situated on "Avenue de la Gare", and is on the line from Toulouse to Bayonne, from the city centre. The previous station is that of Montréjeau-Gourdan-Polignan coming from Toulouse, the next station is that of Capvern. Another line ran from Lannemezan to Arreau-Cadéac station, but it is no longer in service. The different types of train currently serving Lannemezan station are:A proposed central crossing of the Pyrenees, linking Toulouse to Zaragoza, is currently under development. This line would use the current Toulouse/Bayonne route, as far as Lannemezan. Lannemezan station would be a railway junction, from which a new line would join Spain, through a tunnel dug in the Aure Valley (at Hèches). This new line would bring relief to the other two traditional routes (by Hendaye in the Basque country and Cerbère on the border with Catalonia), while reducing the isolation of the central Pyrenees and the Aran Valley in Spain.Three international airports are located within of Lannemezan:The town of Lannemezan has a general north/south orientation, and consists of the following main areas:The statistics for housing in the town are grouped in the following table:A shuttle was set up two days a week (Wednesday and Friday), with special access for seniors. Three services are available with stops on the following roads:Very many real estate projects have been launched in the city, to improve habitation in Lannemezan, as well as to increase the housing capacity, to limit the effect of the Lannemezan population decrease.Among these, the Clos des Moulins, delivered in 2007, presents 44 units spread across four-storey buildings, close to the college and the stadium. Always close to the college, the "cité des familles" consists of 16 moderate-rent housing. In 2008, two other residences were opened near the Des Bourtoulets Quarter, "Boulevard des Tilleuls" and the station: The "Villalodge du Parc", consisting of 16 villas and 54 apartments, and the residence of la Cheneraie, consisting of 62 apartments spread over four-storey buildings. Finally, north of the town, on the road to Galan, the Bastide de Piquegrue was created in 2009. It contains 34 semi-detached villas.At the level of the rehabilitation of the city centre, the majority of the streets and squares have been remade for nine to 15 years. A renovation project of the façades, in association with the mayor's office, has been organized. Lastly, the construction of buildings in the "Place du Château", scheduled for 2010, will be used to completely close the place to give it a more urban character.The town of Lannemezan bought the of military land from the Centre Mobilisateur No. 10 to the State in 2009, for the sum of €930,000. On this land, three areas will be delineated: The first zone of trade and crafts, the second will be used for the construction of a tertiary residence and finally the last area will be a space of inter-communal development.Located halfway between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, it is based on the Plateau de Lannemezan, the Gascon Occitan word "Lanamesa": The "heath of the middle". Lannemezan is also made up of the "lande de Boc" (lande du bouc), former den of witches and bandouliers (highwaymen) which gradually declined as a result of the hard work of men, both agricultural and industrial.Géraud of Aure-Larboust, the lord who ruled on the Plateau de Lannemezan, founded the fortified village of Lennemezan in the Lande de Boc in 1274, probably on the site of an earlier watchtower. To populate the place, he granted a charter franchise.In 1345, Gaston III of Foix-Béarn bought Lannemezan from Géraud II of Aure-Larboust for price of 1,700 livres tournois and attaches the village to the Viscount of Nébouzan. In 1388, the chronicler Jean Froissart passes by "the Châtel of Lamesen".In 1500, Catherine of Navarre, heir of the property of Foix-Béarn, granted Lannemezan the right to hold a market every Wednesday, as well as a fair four times a year. In 1569, his granddaughter Jeanne d'Albret charged Gabriel I of Montgomery to regain the land confiscated by the King of France. At the head of a Protestant army of 3,000 men, Montgomery set upon taking the Pyrenean country. At Lannemezan, the St. John the Baptist Church and the houses of the priests were burned.In 1607, Henri IV linked the Viscount of Nébouzan to the Kingdom of France and in 1630, the city had 130 feus.During the Revolution, Lannemezan was attached to the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. Its first mayor, Dominique Lagleize, was appointed in 1790. The last lord, Marc II Bertrand François de Lassus, was sentenced to death by the Revolutionary Court of Paris, and was sent to the guillotine in 1794.Throughout the 19th century, Lannemezan acquired various pieces of infrastructure.A fountain, since moved, was located opposite the town hall in 1848.The railway station was commissioned in 1867 by the Chemins de fer du Midi and the .The grain market, a disappeared work by the architect Isidore Bonnemaison, was built to mark the centenary of the Revolution in 1889.The development of Lannemezan was accentuated in the 20th century. It became a real city with businesses and industries. However, farming remains active.During World War I, a hydro electrochemical plant built by the "Poudrerie Nationale de Toulouse" settled in the Peyrehitte quarter. In 1921, it became the "Société des Produits Azotés" [nitrogen products company] (SPA). Within its development, the construction of another plant, a producer of aluminium (electro-chemistry), began in 1939. These two plants, although creating jobs, did not cause any significant increase in population (only 500 inhabitants more, between 1906 and 1936). Their workforce, in fact, consisted mainly of locals (who often kept their second job of farming) and foreigners. All the same, it required the construction of a workers' village that was equipped with a chapel, a dining room, a school and a swimming pool, etc. The quarter had a population of almost 600 people in 1943.A decree of 6 April 1940, even before the German invasion, prohibited the movement of nomads (Gypsies, fairground, etc.) throughout the metropolitan territory for the duration of the war and imposed house arrest. In 1940, following the German invasion, anti-nomadic racism increased under the Vichy regime and the first "Gypsies" were interned in camps both in the occupied area and the free zone. Both camps would be created in the "free zone" in order to intern nomads: The Saliers camp and the camp of Lannemezan.At Lannemezan, in April 1941, the prefect of the Hautes-Pyrénées brought together all of the "nomads" of the department on the Plateau de Lannemezan, then enclosed them in a ruined hospital which was guarded by the gendarmerie. The camp was located on a hillside and at the mercy of the elements, like the others it was ill-equipped and unsanitary. Approximately 700 people, which according to the definition of the vichy regime were called "Bohemians" (nomads, fairground people) were interned in the camps, they stayed there until 1946.The psychiatric hospital was built just before World War II (1938), a barracks, as well as an arsenal (in 1939) in place of the former racecourse in the town. In 1945, it was entrusted to Dr. . Modern psychiatry, including by rehabilitation through work, made Lannemezan hospital a renowned place throughout the country.Around it, the Demi-Lune quarter was organized and embellished with a leisure park which welcomed more than 100,000 visitors per year, as well as an 18-hole golf course.The arsenal, after a period of abandonment, served as a deposit and place of storage from 1948. It expanded greatly during the 1950s, especially with a Mobilising Centre (CM 10) opening in 1951.The mobile guards barracks became that of a Republican Company of Security (CRS 29) with an adjoining housing estate. The population of Lannemezan then rose to almost 9,000 inhabitants at the end of the 1960s.The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the burning of the town hall. The former town hall building was rebuilt in 1911 in a Neo-Renaissance style. The fountain which faced the old town hall, on the "Place de la République", was dismantled. it was eventually reused to decorate the vicinity of the hospital.The statue of the Druidess, installed in front of the grain market in 1911, moved on the "Place de Foirail" in 1926. It replaced the war memorial of Paul Ducuing which stands today on the "Esplanade de la Poste". In 1943, it was melted down by the occupying German authorities, in order to recover metals.During the war, many families from the north and east of the France took refuge in Lannemezan, allowing a doubling of the population. The factories had up to 1,200 employees. Many markets and fairs and thirty cafes made for a bustling city centre.In 1967, the grain market was demolished to build the functionalist post office and its tree-lined esplanade.From the 1970s, the oil crisis and the austerity measures forced a decline in industry activity and the decline of the number of their employees. In addition, the reform of the armed forces involved the closure of the arsenal. Only the psychiatric hospital managed to remain, and doubled as a general hospital, an emergency department and maternity (closed in 2009 during the reform of hospitals).The introduction of the new prison, in 1987, and the renovation of a very large part of the town centre did not prevent the decline of the population, which fell below 6,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 21st century.However, the redevelopment of the site of the Alcan plant, closed in 2007–2008, with the opening of the Carbone Savoie and Knauf Insulation factories, associated with many real estate projects (reconstruction of the "cité des familles", new subdivisions, etc.) could mean the end of the decline.The results with the latest elections, since 2001, are presented in the table below:Since 1939, Lannemezan has had only four mayors:The municipal election of 2008 took place in a single round. Four lists were present:Below is the sharing of the seats in the municipal council of Lannemezan, following the municipal elections in 2008:The city has a municipal police service, a police station and a courthouse which was closed as part of the Dati reform. The city depends on the Court of Appeal and the of Pau.The , was built in 1987.The town of Lannemezan is part of the , that consists of 57 communes.Lannemezan is twinned with:In 2017, the commune had 5,837 inhabitants, making it the most populous commune in the canton of La Vallée de la Barousse, the second most populous commune in the arrondissement of Bagnères-de-Bigorre and the fifth most populous commune in Hautes-Pyrénées.The population of Lannemezan counts more women than men: 50.7% women. The age structure of the commune of Lannemezan in 2017 is shown below.Lannemezan is part of the Academy of Toulouse. All of the establishments in the town are summarised in the table below.Since the closure of the Groupe Scolaire de la Demi-Lune at the beginning of the 21st century due to lack of staff, four school groups are present in the city.Website: ENTThe town of Lannemezan lacks institutions for higher education. However, academic centres are present near the town: Tarbes, Auch, Pau and Toulouse.The nearest centre, namely that of Tarbes, has significant specialised training, such as a nursing school, many IUT and BTS, an IUFM, a faculty of physics-chemistry belonging to the Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse, a school of ceramics, a and for CPGE (preparatory classes to the Grandes Ecoles), , and commerce sections for economy and social. There is also an important school of engineers, ENIT (National School of engineers of Tarbes which belongs to the INP in Toulouse: National Polytechnic Institute). This centre concentrates approximately 5,000 students.Lannemezan is the main location of numerous festivals and events throughout the year.The festival of Saint Jean, taking place in late June for five days (from Friday to Tuesday) annually attracts many people, and allows the animation of the entire town, thanks to the many events offered. Fireworks, concerts in all corners of the town, disco entertainment or musette following into the evening, many rides for children or excitement for those bigger, with activities offered by different associations, such as horse races or the demonstration by the firefighters of the plateau. This annual festival is launched with the famous fire of Saint Jean, which takes place in a different area each year.The weekly market takes place every Wednesday morning until early afternoon and attracts many merchants who sometimes come from very far away to Lannemezan. This market is located in the streets of the town centre, around the church and the "Place du Château", as well as in the covered market hall with vegetables of the Nébouzan.During the summer, night markets are organised by the town. These allow tourists and residents to discover local crafts and the many typical gastronomic specialties of the region.Created in 2003 by the town hall, the inter-Pyrénéan meetings of theatre are the highlight of the Lannemezan cultural year. Benefitting from the prestigious patronage of Marcel Maréchal, the founder of , they aim to both to enrich the offerings of theatre proposed year-round for the people of Lannemezan, to foster local and regional development and to participate in the summer activities of the commune. Initially scheduled in July, these meetings are, since 2006, held in September to better involve schools and the Lannemezan people returning from holiday.The establishment, then called the "Hôpital Psychiatrique de Lannemezan" [Lannemezan Psychiatric Hospital] (HPL), was built in 1937 on the site of Lannemezan. Meanwhile, in 1975, a local clinic of the plateau, located in Lannemezan, was integrated to the hospital. The medical, surgical and emergency services were installed on the hospital site of Lannemezan in very modern premises built in 1991, referred to as the Medico-Surgical Centre.Many sports can be practised in clubs in Lannemezan.Lannemezan has, up to now, hosted a stage of the Tour de France four times. The town is due to do so again in 2015:Lannemezan has also hosted the Tour des Pyrénées cycle race several times.Information bulletins, published by the commune, were created and sent to residents during the first term of office of the current PS mayor of the commune, Bernard Plano. These bulletins are also associated to newsletters published by the .Radio Festival Lannemezan, a Lannemezan radio station also made its appearance, on 95FM Radio Festival. Radio Festival Lannemezan is under the supervision of the association of "Festival D'Énergie du Plateau". The association which was aimed at the creation of a local radio station, was established in 2002. Radio Festival was initially a temporary radio. Since August 2006, it received the authority to operate a permanent radio. First installed on the premises of another radio (RDC) in the Comminges, after a few setbacks, it returned to Lannemezan and began broadcasting on 16 November 2007 with a brand new team of volunteers. The headquarters is still town hall of Lannemezan, with the studio on "Rue Alphonse Couget" and transmitter on the water tower of the CM 10. This enables coverage over all of the Plateau de Lannemezan with a radius. Since late 2007, Radio Festival only works with volunteers (a dozen) and is financed by advertising, a few community grants, benefit evenings and activities, and the membership fees and donations. The objective is the promotion of the territory and the people who live there (companies, traders, elected representatives, associations, population). It has an obligation to issue at least four hours of programming on Lannemezan and the Plateau every day, through information flashes, meetings, and direct. It operates 24 hours a day. The station can be listened to, from across the world, through the website: radiofestival-lannemezan.fr.A public computer space has been created in Lannemezan, first located at "Rue Alsace-Lorraine", it was transferred to the "Espace Paul Bert" to allow more computers to be available, all for free.DTT has been available at Lannemezan since its inception, thanks to the transmitter of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre. Internet ADSL broadband is available in the commune, and a fibre optic project is underway which is away from the autoroute.Catholic worship can be practiced in the commune, two places of worship are present: The Chapel of Bourtoulets and the Church of Saint John the Baptist.The unemployment rate in Lannemezan was 16.3% of the active population (between 15 and 64 years old) in 2017, which is higher than the national average (13.9%). The activity rate of people between 15 and 64 years old was lower in Lannemezan (63.4%) than the national average (74.0%). The employment by sector of activity is shown in the table below:The average income per household in Lannemezan amounts to €17,312 per year (statistics based on 2007 revenues). Departmental average: €18,506, national average: €21,930. Lannemezan ranks as 237th commune of the 465 communes classified in the department. By comparison, the following departmental statistics are available:The "Zone industrielle de Peyrehitte" and the "Zone Industrielle Sud" consist of various industries:Lannemezan presents an important rural area, on which is practiced mixed farming:Many events in connection with these agricultural activities are held throughout the year in the town:Lannemezan is located at a crossroads between sea and mountains, and thus represents a place of inescapable passage. The commune has four hotels, which have a capacity of 104 rooms (67 classified as 2-star, 37 classified as 1-star).A construction project in the Peyrehitte Industrial Zone should've led to the opening of a hotel in 2009. This project, launched by was to lead to the construction of a 3-star hotel of 69 rooms, but seems to have been abandoned as a result of the economic crisis.The Saint-Jean-Baptiste Church is a Gothic church with an extended Romanesque nave (19th century), apse (15th century), portal (13th century), recorded capitals, and an unfinished bell tower (19th century). This building was included in the inventory of historical monuments on 24 October 1945, the two candlesticks of Easter were classified in the inventory of historical monuments on 26 April 1976 and the altarpiece as well as the tabernacle of the high altar were classified on 7 July 1995.The chapel of the Bourtoulets.The wood of the Culassou houses a statue of the Virgin Mary.Lannemezan has numerous tree-lined squares. The "Place de l'hotel de ville" [Town Hall Square] is, with its fountain, more modest. A monumental post office overlooking the "Place de la République" and its war memorial. The tourist office runs along a pathway leading to a large bandstand on the "Place des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen" [Square of the rights of man and of the citizen]. The "Place du Château" has a large car parking area near the still active market. The market of the "Place de la Volaille" was transformed into a tea room.The town has the distinction of counting several war memorials one of which, work of the Russian Bernarovitch Feinberg, was the unfortunate gift from Rothschild in 1921. It struck the local pride and a new monument to relegate it was erected in 1925, shortly after the political defeat of the baron. It was the work of the sculptor of the Druidess, Paul Ducuing.
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[
"Bernard Plano",
"Pierre Bleuler"
] |
|
Who was the head of Lannemezan in Sep, 1983?
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September 20, 1983
|
{
"text": [
"Pierre Bleuler"
]
}
|
L2_Q383402_P6_1
|
Pierre Bleuler is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Mar, 1977 to Mar, 2001.
Bernard Plano is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Paul Baratgin is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Jan, 1929 to Dec, 1966.
|
LannemezanLannemezan (; Gascon Occitan "Lanamesa", "heath of the middle") is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department and the Occitanie region in south-western France. The inhabitants are called Lannemezanais.Lannemezan is the largest city in the .The Petite Baïse has its source in the commune.Lannemezan is around east of Tarbes, and around 100 km south-west of Toulouse.Over 50 million years, driven by movements of compression, low relief which constitutes the Pre-Pyrenees has risen. Glaciers and streams that cascade down its slopes subject to mountain erosion which flows off from the foot of it. While continuing to rise, the mountain has erected the cluster of its deposits and thus forms the Plateau de Lannemezan, head of a gigantic which puts its mark upon much of the southwest, up the Garonne at more than to the north. High up and submitted to the four winds, the site already assigns itself an identity that would assist in its history and reputation.The soil is composed of uncultivated and barren land, dotted with woodlands, coppicing, cut of marshes and heath. The terrain is of limestone origin with a topsoil up to deep. Peat moor is exploited near La Barthe-de-Neste. Analysis of the soil in the commune of Lannemezan shows the results presented in the following table.The plateau rises to over above sea level in the vicinity of Lannemezan. The top of the foothills face the Pyrenean part of the Neste Valley, the river which then turns east at the foot of the plateau. Other rivers (Gers, Baïse, etc.), flow radially from this point to the northwest, north and northeast, and the altitude of the plateau decreases gradually. On the south side, this plateau is still connected to the Pyrenean massif by a narrow tongue of land between Izaux and Avezac. Otherwise, it ends to the southwest and the southeast by a steep overhang and residual hills (Capvern, Mauvezin, etc.) facing the Pyrenees.The natural vegetation of Lannemezan and its small region is characterised by a heathland landscape, although moisture of soils is highly variable depending on their location (particularly in relation to their proximity to water courses).Thus, in wet areas near the rivers extend many bogs characterised by dwarf gorse ("Ulex minor"), St. John's wort ("Hypericum elodes L.") marshes or wet meadows which extend Medusa's trumpets ("Narcissus bulbocodium L."), of oatgrass ("Arrhenatherum longifolium") or alder ("Alnus").In drier areas grow more woody species such as Pyrenean oak, also known under the name of tauzin oak ("Quercus pyrenaica"), as well as pedunculated oak ("Quercus robur") or chestnut ("Castanea sativa Mill").In all cases, the soils are rather acidic type with adjustable humidity, which imposes certain constraints for the development of plant species. These development constraints are represented on the adjoining humidity/acidity chart.Eighteen rivers have their sources on the Plateau de Lannemezan or pass through the territory of the commune. The main are listed in the following table.The commune is placed under supervision in relation to some possible natural and technological hazards:Recent natural disasters on the commune are as follows, since 1980 (from most recent to oldest):General location:Lannemezan is a bastide situated in the centre of the Plateau de Lannemezan between Tarbes and Toulouse on the Petite Baïse. Between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, at the outlet of the valleys of the Pyrenees, Lannemezan imposes itself as a privileged strategic its geographical position city.Lannemezan is located at the east of the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées, from the border with Haute-Garonne to the east, from the border with Gers in the north and from the border with Spain to the south ().Spatially, Lannemezan is wedged between the following nine communes: Campistrous to the northwest, Clarens in the northeast, Capvern to the west, Uglas and Pinas to the east, Avezac-Prat-Lahitte in the southwest, La Barthe-de-Neste and Escala to the south, and Cantaous to the southeast.The orientation and location of Lannemezan, compared to some large French cities, is given in the following table (distances are given as the fastest route by road):The city of Lannemezan has an area of , which is ranked:Changes in altitude are important on the territory of the commune. The minimum altitude is , the maximum altitude is . The average elevation is , and the Town Hall lies Meanwhile, .Tarbes-Ossun weather station 'normals' reveal a rather cool climate, rainy in winter and hot and stormy in summer. The average annual temperature [] is relatively low for such latitude, with a fairly low seasonal amplitude, on average during the winter and during the summer. However, the winter temperature has reached a record low of in January 1985 and has also exceeded in midsummer. These high temperatures are typical of the foehn wind, due to the relief of the Pyrenees.In Tarbes, fog and strong winds are rare. These climate characteristics of Tarbes are found in the north of the department, but with more fog in winter, and warmer daytime temperatures and lower precipitation in the summer. Conversely on the closer terrain the average quantities of precipitation increase. This varies greatly depending on exposure and slopes, but become abundant near the border ridges. The area between plain and mountain has a more humid climate and less sunny than the rest of the department. In the mountains the sun shines frequently above a sea of clouds and the wind blows stronger and more often than on the plain (breezes and sometimes very strong winds from the south).The is characterised by a rainy and cool springtime, especially snowy at altitude; weather from the northwest is blocked by the relief and a phenomenon of precipitation at altitude has the consequence of strong accumulations of snow at altitude until mid-May. Summer is mild but stormy, autumn is generally sunny and pleasant, usually followed by a relatively mild winter on the plains and cold above .Records of temperatures and precipitation are collected in the following table:Sunshine and precipitation values are visible in the following table:Records of temperatures and precipitation amounts, between 1999 and 2011, are listed in the following table:According to the Köppen classification, the town of Lannemezan is located in the "Cfb" category:The C (1st letter) expresses the climate: A temperate climate:The f (2nd letter) expresses the rainfall:The b (3rd letter) expresses the temperature variations: been temperate:Lannemezan is a town in transition, served by many roads. The majority of these are in the north/south and east/west directions. Here are the details:Lannemezan is located on the Toulouse-Bayonne line. The SNCF Gare de Lannemezan is situated on "Avenue de la Gare", and is on the line from Toulouse to Bayonne, from the city centre. The previous station is that of Montréjeau-Gourdan-Polignan coming from Toulouse, the next station is that of Capvern. Another line ran from Lannemezan to Arreau-Cadéac station, but it is no longer in service. The different types of train currently serving Lannemezan station are:A proposed central crossing of the Pyrenees, linking Toulouse to Zaragoza, is currently under development. This line would use the current Toulouse/Bayonne route, as far as Lannemezan. Lannemezan station would be a railway junction, from which a new line would join Spain, through a tunnel dug in the Aure Valley (at Hèches). This new line would bring relief to the other two traditional routes (by Hendaye in the Basque country and Cerbère on the border with Catalonia), while reducing the isolation of the central Pyrenees and the Aran Valley in Spain.Three international airports are located within of Lannemezan:The town of Lannemezan has a general north/south orientation, and consists of the following main areas:The statistics for housing in the town are grouped in the following table:A shuttle was set up two days a week (Wednesday and Friday), with special access for seniors. Three services are available with stops on the following roads:Very many real estate projects have been launched in the city, to improve habitation in Lannemezan, as well as to increase the housing capacity, to limit the effect of the Lannemezan population decrease.Among these, the Clos des Moulins, delivered in 2007, presents 44 units spread across four-storey buildings, close to the college and the stadium. Always close to the college, the "cité des familles" consists of 16 moderate-rent housing. In 2008, two other residences were opened near the Des Bourtoulets Quarter, "Boulevard des Tilleuls" and the station: The "Villalodge du Parc", consisting of 16 villas and 54 apartments, and the residence of la Cheneraie, consisting of 62 apartments spread over four-storey buildings. Finally, north of the town, on the road to Galan, the Bastide de Piquegrue was created in 2009. It contains 34 semi-detached villas.At the level of the rehabilitation of the city centre, the majority of the streets and squares have been remade for nine to 15 years. A renovation project of the façades, in association with the mayor's office, has been organized. Lastly, the construction of buildings in the "Place du Château", scheduled for 2010, will be used to completely close the place to give it a more urban character.The town of Lannemezan bought the of military land from the Centre Mobilisateur No. 10 to the State in 2009, for the sum of €930,000. On this land, three areas will be delineated: The first zone of trade and crafts, the second will be used for the construction of a tertiary residence and finally the last area will be a space of inter-communal development.Located halfway between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, it is based on the Plateau de Lannemezan, the Gascon Occitan word "Lanamesa": The "heath of the middle". Lannemezan is also made up of the "lande de Boc" (lande du bouc), former den of witches and bandouliers (highwaymen) which gradually declined as a result of the hard work of men, both agricultural and industrial.Géraud of Aure-Larboust, the lord who ruled on the Plateau de Lannemezan, founded the fortified village of Lennemezan in the Lande de Boc in 1274, probably on the site of an earlier watchtower. To populate the place, he granted a charter franchise.In 1345, Gaston III of Foix-Béarn bought Lannemezan from Géraud II of Aure-Larboust for price of 1,700 livres tournois and attaches the village to the Viscount of Nébouzan. In 1388, the chronicler Jean Froissart passes by "the Châtel of Lamesen".In 1500, Catherine of Navarre, heir of the property of Foix-Béarn, granted Lannemezan the right to hold a market every Wednesday, as well as a fair four times a year. In 1569, his granddaughter Jeanne d'Albret charged Gabriel I of Montgomery to regain the land confiscated by the King of France. At the head of a Protestant army of 3,000 men, Montgomery set upon taking the Pyrenean country. At Lannemezan, the St. John the Baptist Church and the houses of the priests were burned.In 1607, Henri IV linked the Viscount of Nébouzan to the Kingdom of France and in 1630, the city had 130 feus.During the Revolution, Lannemezan was attached to the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. Its first mayor, Dominique Lagleize, was appointed in 1790. The last lord, Marc II Bertrand François de Lassus, was sentenced to death by the Revolutionary Court of Paris, and was sent to the guillotine in 1794.Throughout the 19th century, Lannemezan acquired various pieces of infrastructure.A fountain, since moved, was located opposite the town hall in 1848.The railway station was commissioned in 1867 by the Chemins de fer du Midi and the .The grain market, a disappeared work by the architect Isidore Bonnemaison, was built to mark the centenary of the Revolution in 1889.The development of Lannemezan was accentuated in the 20th century. It became a real city with businesses and industries. However, farming remains active.During World War I, a hydro electrochemical plant built by the "Poudrerie Nationale de Toulouse" settled in the Peyrehitte quarter. In 1921, it became the "Société des Produits Azotés" [nitrogen products company] (SPA). Within its development, the construction of another plant, a producer of aluminium (electro-chemistry), began in 1939. These two plants, although creating jobs, did not cause any significant increase in population (only 500 inhabitants more, between 1906 and 1936). Their workforce, in fact, consisted mainly of locals (who often kept their second job of farming) and foreigners. All the same, it required the construction of a workers' village that was equipped with a chapel, a dining room, a school and a swimming pool, etc. The quarter had a population of almost 600 people in 1943.A decree of 6 April 1940, even before the German invasion, prohibited the movement of nomads (Gypsies, fairground, etc.) throughout the metropolitan territory for the duration of the war and imposed house arrest. In 1940, following the German invasion, anti-nomadic racism increased under the Vichy regime and the first "Gypsies" were interned in camps both in the occupied area and the free zone. Both camps would be created in the "free zone" in order to intern nomads: The Saliers camp and the camp of Lannemezan.At Lannemezan, in April 1941, the prefect of the Hautes-Pyrénées brought together all of the "nomads" of the department on the Plateau de Lannemezan, then enclosed them in a ruined hospital which was guarded by the gendarmerie. The camp was located on a hillside and at the mercy of the elements, like the others it was ill-equipped and unsanitary. Approximately 700 people, which according to the definition of the vichy regime were called "Bohemians" (nomads, fairground people) were interned in the camps, they stayed there until 1946.The psychiatric hospital was built just before World War II (1938), a barracks, as well as an arsenal (in 1939) in place of the former racecourse in the town. In 1945, it was entrusted to Dr. . Modern psychiatry, including by rehabilitation through work, made Lannemezan hospital a renowned place throughout the country.Around it, the Demi-Lune quarter was organized and embellished with a leisure park which welcomed more than 100,000 visitors per year, as well as an 18-hole golf course.The arsenal, after a period of abandonment, served as a deposit and place of storage from 1948. It expanded greatly during the 1950s, especially with a Mobilising Centre (CM 10) opening in 1951.The mobile guards barracks became that of a Republican Company of Security (CRS 29) with an adjoining housing estate. The population of Lannemezan then rose to almost 9,000 inhabitants at the end of the 1960s.The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the burning of the town hall. The former town hall building was rebuilt in 1911 in a Neo-Renaissance style. The fountain which faced the old town hall, on the "Place de la République", was dismantled. it was eventually reused to decorate the vicinity of the hospital.The statue of the Druidess, installed in front of the grain market in 1911, moved on the "Place de Foirail" in 1926. It replaced the war memorial of Paul Ducuing which stands today on the "Esplanade de la Poste". In 1943, it was melted down by the occupying German authorities, in order to recover metals.During the war, many families from the north and east of the France took refuge in Lannemezan, allowing a doubling of the population. The factories had up to 1,200 employees. Many markets and fairs and thirty cafes made for a bustling city centre.In 1967, the grain market was demolished to build the functionalist post office and its tree-lined esplanade.From the 1970s, the oil crisis and the austerity measures forced a decline in industry activity and the decline of the number of their employees. In addition, the reform of the armed forces involved the closure of the arsenal. Only the psychiatric hospital managed to remain, and doubled as a general hospital, an emergency department and maternity (closed in 2009 during the reform of hospitals).The introduction of the new prison, in 1987, and the renovation of a very large part of the town centre did not prevent the decline of the population, which fell below 6,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 21st century.However, the redevelopment of the site of the Alcan plant, closed in 2007–2008, with the opening of the Carbone Savoie and Knauf Insulation factories, associated with many real estate projects (reconstruction of the "cité des familles", new subdivisions, etc.) could mean the end of the decline.The results with the latest elections, since 2001, are presented in the table below:Since 1939, Lannemezan has had only four mayors:The municipal election of 2008 took place in a single round. Four lists were present:Below is the sharing of the seats in the municipal council of Lannemezan, following the municipal elections in 2008:The city has a municipal police service, a police station and a courthouse which was closed as part of the Dati reform. The city depends on the Court of Appeal and the of Pau.The , was built in 1987.The town of Lannemezan is part of the , that consists of 57 communes.Lannemezan is twinned with:In 2017, the commune had 5,837 inhabitants, making it the most populous commune in the canton of La Vallée de la Barousse, the second most populous commune in the arrondissement of Bagnères-de-Bigorre and the fifth most populous commune in Hautes-Pyrénées.The population of Lannemezan counts more women than men: 50.7% women. The age structure of the commune of Lannemezan in 2017 is shown below.Lannemezan is part of the Academy of Toulouse. All of the establishments in the town are summarised in the table below.Since the closure of the Groupe Scolaire de la Demi-Lune at the beginning of the 21st century due to lack of staff, four school groups are present in the city.Website: ENTThe town of Lannemezan lacks institutions for higher education. However, academic centres are present near the town: Tarbes, Auch, Pau and Toulouse.The nearest centre, namely that of Tarbes, has significant specialised training, such as a nursing school, many IUT and BTS, an IUFM, a faculty of physics-chemistry belonging to the Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse, a school of ceramics, a and for CPGE (preparatory classes to the Grandes Ecoles), , and commerce sections for economy and social. There is also an important school of engineers, ENIT (National School of engineers of Tarbes which belongs to the INP in Toulouse: National Polytechnic Institute). This centre concentrates approximately 5,000 students.Lannemezan is the main location of numerous festivals and events throughout the year.The festival of Saint Jean, taking place in late June for five days (from Friday to Tuesday) annually attracts many people, and allows the animation of the entire town, thanks to the many events offered. Fireworks, concerts in all corners of the town, disco entertainment or musette following into the evening, many rides for children or excitement for those bigger, with activities offered by different associations, such as horse races or the demonstration by the firefighters of the plateau. This annual festival is launched with the famous fire of Saint Jean, which takes place in a different area each year.The weekly market takes place every Wednesday morning until early afternoon and attracts many merchants who sometimes come from very far away to Lannemezan. This market is located in the streets of the town centre, around the church and the "Place du Château", as well as in the covered market hall with vegetables of the Nébouzan.During the summer, night markets are organised by the town. These allow tourists and residents to discover local crafts and the many typical gastronomic specialties of the region.Created in 2003 by the town hall, the inter-Pyrénéan meetings of theatre are the highlight of the Lannemezan cultural year. Benefitting from the prestigious patronage of Marcel Maréchal, the founder of , they aim to both to enrich the offerings of theatre proposed year-round for the people of Lannemezan, to foster local and regional development and to participate in the summer activities of the commune. Initially scheduled in July, these meetings are, since 2006, held in September to better involve schools and the Lannemezan people returning from holiday.The establishment, then called the "Hôpital Psychiatrique de Lannemezan" [Lannemezan Psychiatric Hospital] (HPL), was built in 1937 on the site of Lannemezan. Meanwhile, in 1975, a local clinic of the plateau, located in Lannemezan, was integrated to the hospital. The medical, surgical and emergency services were installed on the hospital site of Lannemezan in very modern premises built in 1991, referred to as the Medico-Surgical Centre.Many sports can be practised in clubs in Lannemezan.Lannemezan has, up to now, hosted a stage of the Tour de France four times. The town is due to do so again in 2015:Lannemezan has also hosted the Tour des Pyrénées cycle race several times.Information bulletins, published by the commune, were created and sent to residents during the first term of office of the current PS mayor of the commune, Bernard Plano. These bulletins are also associated to newsletters published by the .Radio Festival Lannemezan, a Lannemezan radio station also made its appearance, on 95FM Radio Festival. Radio Festival Lannemezan is under the supervision of the association of "Festival D'Énergie du Plateau". The association which was aimed at the creation of a local radio station, was established in 2002. Radio Festival was initially a temporary radio. Since August 2006, it received the authority to operate a permanent radio. First installed on the premises of another radio (RDC) in the Comminges, after a few setbacks, it returned to Lannemezan and began broadcasting on 16 November 2007 with a brand new team of volunteers. The headquarters is still town hall of Lannemezan, with the studio on "Rue Alphonse Couget" and transmitter on the water tower of the CM 10. This enables coverage over all of the Plateau de Lannemezan with a radius. Since late 2007, Radio Festival only works with volunteers (a dozen) and is financed by advertising, a few community grants, benefit evenings and activities, and the membership fees and donations. The objective is the promotion of the territory and the people who live there (companies, traders, elected representatives, associations, population). It has an obligation to issue at least four hours of programming on Lannemezan and the Plateau every day, through information flashes, meetings, and direct. It operates 24 hours a day. The station can be listened to, from across the world, through the website: radiofestival-lannemezan.fr.A public computer space has been created in Lannemezan, first located at "Rue Alsace-Lorraine", it was transferred to the "Espace Paul Bert" to allow more computers to be available, all for free.DTT has been available at Lannemezan since its inception, thanks to the transmitter of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre. Internet ADSL broadband is available in the commune, and a fibre optic project is underway which is away from the autoroute.Catholic worship can be practiced in the commune, two places of worship are present: The Chapel of Bourtoulets and the Church of Saint John the Baptist.The unemployment rate in Lannemezan was 16.3% of the active population (between 15 and 64 years old) in 2017, which is higher than the national average (13.9%). The activity rate of people between 15 and 64 years old was lower in Lannemezan (63.4%) than the national average (74.0%). The employment by sector of activity is shown in the table below:The average income per household in Lannemezan amounts to €17,312 per year (statistics based on 2007 revenues). Departmental average: €18,506, national average: €21,930. Lannemezan ranks as 237th commune of the 465 communes classified in the department. By comparison, the following departmental statistics are available:The "Zone industrielle de Peyrehitte" and the "Zone Industrielle Sud" consist of various industries:Lannemezan presents an important rural area, on which is practiced mixed farming:Many events in connection with these agricultural activities are held throughout the year in the town:Lannemezan is located at a crossroads between sea and mountains, and thus represents a place of inescapable passage. The commune has four hotels, which have a capacity of 104 rooms (67 classified as 2-star, 37 classified as 1-star).A construction project in the Peyrehitte Industrial Zone should've led to the opening of a hotel in 2009. This project, launched by was to lead to the construction of a 3-star hotel of 69 rooms, but seems to have been abandoned as a result of the economic crisis.The Saint-Jean-Baptiste Church is a Gothic church with an extended Romanesque nave (19th century), apse (15th century), portal (13th century), recorded capitals, and an unfinished bell tower (19th century). This building was included in the inventory of historical monuments on 24 October 1945, the two candlesticks of Easter were classified in the inventory of historical monuments on 26 April 1976 and the altarpiece as well as the tabernacle of the high altar were classified on 7 July 1995.The chapel of the Bourtoulets.The wood of the Culassou houses a statue of the Virgin Mary.Lannemezan has numerous tree-lined squares. The "Place de l'hotel de ville" [Town Hall Square] is, with its fountain, more modest. A monumental post office overlooking the "Place de la République" and its war memorial. The tourist office runs along a pathway leading to a large bandstand on the "Place des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen" [Square of the rights of man and of the citizen]. The "Place du Château" has a large car parking area near the still active market. The market of the "Place de la Volaille" was transformed into a tea room.The town has the distinction of counting several war memorials one of which, work of the Russian Bernarovitch Feinberg, was the unfortunate gift from Rothschild in 1921. It struck the local pride and a new monument to relegate it was erected in 1925, shortly after the political defeat of the baron. It was the work of the sculptor of the Druidess, Paul Ducuing.
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[
"Paul Baratgin",
"Bernard Plano"
] |
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Who was the head of Lannemezan in Sep, 2021?
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September 14, 2021
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{
"text": [
"Bernard Plano"
]
}
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L2_Q383402_P6_2
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Paul Baratgin is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Jan, 1929 to Dec, 1966.
Bernard Plano is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Pierre Bleuler is the head of the government of Lannemezan from Mar, 1977 to Mar, 2001.
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LannemezanLannemezan (; Gascon Occitan "Lanamesa", "heath of the middle") is a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées department and the Occitanie region in south-western France. The inhabitants are called Lannemezanais.Lannemezan is the largest city in the .The Petite Baïse has its source in the commune.Lannemezan is around east of Tarbes, and around 100 km south-west of Toulouse.Over 50 million years, driven by movements of compression, low relief which constitutes the Pre-Pyrenees has risen. Glaciers and streams that cascade down its slopes subject to mountain erosion which flows off from the foot of it. While continuing to rise, the mountain has erected the cluster of its deposits and thus forms the Plateau de Lannemezan, head of a gigantic which puts its mark upon much of the southwest, up the Garonne at more than to the north. High up and submitted to the four winds, the site already assigns itself an identity that would assist in its history and reputation.The soil is composed of uncultivated and barren land, dotted with woodlands, coppicing, cut of marshes and heath. The terrain is of limestone origin with a topsoil up to deep. Peat moor is exploited near La Barthe-de-Neste. Analysis of the soil in the commune of Lannemezan shows the results presented in the following table.The plateau rises to over above sea level in the vicinity of Lannemezan. The top of the foothills face the Pyrenean part of the Neste Valley, the river which then turns east at the foot of the plateau. Other rivers (Gers, Baïse, etc.), flow radially from this point to the northwest, north and northeast, and the altitude of the plateau decreases gradually. On the south side, this plateau is still connected to the Pyrenean massif by a narrow tongue of land between Izaux and Avezac. Otherwise, it ends to the southwest and the southeast by a steep overhang and residual hills (Capvern, Mauvezin, etc.) facing the Pyrenees.The natural vegetation of Lannemezan and its small region is characterised by a heathland landscape, although moisture of soils is highly variable depending on their location (particularly in relation to their proximity to water courses).Thus, in wet areas near the rivers extend many bogs characterised by dwarf gorse ("Ulex minor"), St. John's wort ("Hypericum elodes L.") marshes or wet meadows which extend Medusa's trumpets ("Narcissus bulbocodium L."), of oatgrass ("Arrhenatherum longifolium") or alder ("Alnus").In drier areas grow more woody species such as Pyrenean oak, also known under the name of tauzin oak ("Quercus pyrenaica"), as well as pedunculated oak ("Quercus robur") or chestnut ("Castanea sativa Mill").In all cases, the soils are rather acidic type with adjustable humidity, which imposes certain constraints for the development of plant species. These development constraints are represented on the adjoining humidity/acidity chart.Eighteen rivers have their sources on the Plateau de Lannemezan or pass through the territory of the commune. The main are listed in the following table.The commune is placed under supervision in relation to some possible natural and technological hazards:Recent natural disasters on the commune are as follows, since 1980 (from most recent to oldest):General location:Lannemezan is a bastide situated in the centre of the Plateau de Lannemezan between Tarbes and Toulouse on the Petite Baïse. Between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, at the outlet of the valleys of the Pyrenees, Lannemezan imposes itself as a privileged strategic its geographical position city.Lannemezan is located at the east of the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées, from the border with Haute-Garonne to the east, from the border with Gers in the north and from the border with Spain to the south ().Spatially, Lannemezan is wedged between the following nine communes: Campistrous to the northwest, Clarens in the northeast, Capvern to the west, Uglas and Pinas to the east, Avezac-Prat-Lahitte in the southwest, La Barthe-de-Neste and Escala to the south, and Cantaous to the southeast.The orientation and location of Lannemezan, compared to some large French cities, is given in the following table (distances are given as the fastest route by road):The city of Lannemezan has an area of , which is ranked:Changes in altitude are important on the territory of the commune. The minimum altitude is , the maximum altitude is . The average elevation is , and the Town Hall lies Meanwhile, .Tarbes-Ossun weather station 'normals' reveal a rather cool climate, rainy in winter and hot and stormy in summer. The average annual temperature [] is relatively low for such latitude, with a fairly low seasonal amplitude, on average during the winter and during the summer. However, the winter temperature has reached a record low of in January 1985 and has also exceeded in midsummer. These high temperatures are typical of the foehn wind, due to the relief of the Pyrenees.In Tarbes, fog and strong winds are rare. These climate characteristics of Tarbes are found in the north of the department, but with more fog in winter, and warmer daytime temperatures and lower precipitation in the summer. Conversely on the closer terrain the average quantities of precipitation increase. This varies greatly depending on exposure and slopes, but become abundant near the border ridges. The area between plain and mountain has a more humid climate and less sunny than the rest of the department. In the mountains the sun shines frequently above a sea of clouds and the wind blows stronger and more often than on the plain (breezes and sometimes very strong winds from the south).The is characterised by a rainy and cool springtime, especially snowy at altitude; weather from the northwest is blocked by the relief and a phenomenon of precipitation at altitude has the consequence of strong accumulations of snow at altitude until mid-May. Summer is mild but stormy, autumn is generally sunny and pleasant, usually followed by a relatively mild winter on the plains and cold above .Records of temperatures and precipitation are collected in the following table:Sunshine and precipitation values are visible in the following table:Records of temperatures and precipitation amounts, between 1999 and 2011, are listed in the following table:According to the Köppen classification, the town of Lannemezan is located in the "Cfb" category:The C (1st letter) expresses the climate: A temperate climate:The f (2nd letter) expresses the rainfall:The b (3rd letter) expresses the temperature variations: been temperate:Lannemezan is a town in transition, served by many roads. The majority of these are in the north/south and east/west directions. Here are the details:Lannemezan is located on the Toulouse-Bayonne line. The SNCF Gare de Lannemezan is situated on "Avenue de la Gare", and is on the line from Toulouse to Bayonne, from the city centre. The previous station is that of Montréjeau-Gourdan-Polignan coming from Toulouse, the next station is that of Capvern. Another line ran from Lannemezan to Arreau-Cadéac station, but it is no longer in service. The different types of train currently serving Lannemezan station are:A proposed central crossing of the Pyrenees, linking Toulouse to Zaragoza, is currently under development. This line would use the current Toulouse/Bayonne route, as far as Lannemezan. Lannemezan station would be a railway junction, from which a new line would join Spain, through a tunnel dug in the Aure Valley (at Hèches). This new line would bring relief to the other two traditional routes (by Hendaye in the Basque country and Cerbère on the border with Catalonia), while reducing the isolation of the central Pyrenees and the Aran Valley in Spain.Three international airports are located within of Lannemezan:The town of Lannemezan has a general north/south orientation, and consists of the following main areas:The statistics for housing in the town are grouped in the following table:A shuttle was set up two days a week (Wednesday and Friday), with special access for seniors. Three services are available with stops on the following roads:Very many real estate projects have been launched in the city, to improve habitation in Lannemezan, as well as to increase the housing capacity, to limit the effect of the Lannemezan population decrease.Among these, the Clos des Moulins, delivered in 2007, presents 44 units spread across four-storey buildings, close to the college and the stadium. Always close to the college, the "cité des familles" consists of 16 moderate-rent housing. In 2008, two other residences were opened near the Des Bourtoulets Quarter, "Boulevard des Tilleuls" and the station: The "Villalodge du Parc", consisting of 16 villas and 54 apartments, and the residence of la Cheneraie, consisting of 62 apartments spread over four-storey buildings. Finally, north of the town, on the road to Galan, the Bastide de Piquegrue was created in 2009. It contains 34 semi-detached villas.At the level of the rehabilitation of the city centre, the majority of the streets and squares have been remade for nine to 15 years. A renovation project of the façades, in association with the mayor's office, has been organized. Lastly, the construction of buildings in the "Place du Château", scheduled for 2010, will be used to completely close the place to give it a more urban character.The town of Lannemezan bought the of military land from the Centre Mobilisateur No. 10 to the State in 2009, for the sum of €930,000. On this land, three areas will be delineated: The first zone of trade and crafts, the second will be used for the construction of a tertiary residence and finally the last area will be a space of inter-communal development.Located halfway between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, it is based on the Plateau de Lannemezan, the Gascon Occitan word "Lanamesa": The "heath of the middle". Lannemezan is also made up of the "lande de Boc" (lande du bouc), former den of witches and bandouliers (highwaymen) which gradually declined as a result of the hard work of men, both agricultural and industrial.Géraud of Aure-Larboust, the lord who ruled on the Plateau de Lannemezan, founded the fortified village of Lennemezan in the Lande de Boc in 1274, probably on the site of an earlier watchtower. To populate the place, he granted a charter franchise.In 1345, Gaston III of Foix-Béarn bought Lannemezan from Géraud II of Aure-Larboust for price of 1,700 livres tournois and attaches the village to the Viscount of Nébouzan. In 1388, the chronicler Jean Froissart passes by "the Châtel of Lamesen".In 1500, Catherine of Navarre, heir of the property of Foix-Béarn, granted Lannemezan the right to hold a market every Wednesday, as well as a fair four times a year. In 1569, his granddaughter Jeanne d'Albret charged Gabriel I of Montgomery to regain the land confiscated by the King of France. At the head of a Protestant army of 3,000 men, Montgomery set upon taking the Pyrenean country. At Lannemezan, the St. John the Baptist Church and the houses of the priests were burned.In 1607, Henri IV linked the Viscount of Nébouzan to the Kingdom of France and in 1630, the city had 130 feus.During the Revolution, Lannemezan was attached to the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. Its first mayor, Dominique Lagleize, was appointed in 1790. The last lord, Marc II Bertrand François de Lassus, was sentenced to death by the Revolutionary Court of Paris, and was sent to the guillotine in 1794.Throughout the 19th century, Lannemezan acquired various pieces of infrastructure.A fountain, since moved, was located opposite the town hall in 1848.The railway station was commissioned in 1867 by the Chemins de fer du Midi and the .The grain market, a disappeared work by the architect Isidore Bonnemaison, was built to mark the centenary of the Revolution in 1889.The development of Lannemezan was accentuated in the 20th century. It became a real city with businesses and industries. However, farming remains active.During World War I, a hydro electrochemical plant built by the "Poudrerie Nationale de Toulouse" settled in the Peyrehitte quarter. In 1921, it became the "Société des Produits Azotés" [nitrogen products company] (SPA). Within its development, the construction of another plant, a producer of aluminium (electro-chemistry), began in 1939. These two plants, although creating jobs, did not cause any significant increase in population (only 500 inhabitants more, between 1906 and 1936). Their workforce, in fact, consisted mainly of locals (who often kept their second job of farming) and foreigners. All the same, it required the construction of a workers' village that was equipped with a chapel, a dining room, a school and a swimming pool, etc. The quarter had a population of almost 600 people in 1943.A decree of 6 April 1940, even before the German invasion, prohibited the movement of nomads (Gypsies, fairground, etc.) throughout the metropolitan territory for the duration of the war and imposed house arrest. In 1940, following the German invasion, anti-nomadic racism increased under the Vichy regime and the first "Gypsies" were interned in camps both in the occupied area and the free zone. Both camps would be created in the "free zone" in order to intern nomads: The Saliers camp and the camp of Lannemezan.At Lannemezan, in April 1941, the prefect of the Hautes-Pyrénées brought together all of the "nomads" of the department on the Plateau de Lannemezan, then enclosed them in a ruined hospital which was guarded by the gendarmerie. The camp was located on a hillside and at the mercy of the elements, like the others it was ill-equipped and unsanitary. Approximately 700 people, which according to the definition of the vichy regime were called "Bohemians" (nomads, fairground people) were interned in the camps, they stayed there until 1946.The psychiatric hospital was built just before World War II (1938), a barracks, as well as an arsenal (in 1939) in place of the former racecourse in the town. In 1945, it was entrusted to Dr. . Modern psychiatry, including by rehabilitation through work, made Lannemezan hospital a renowned place throughout the country.Around it, the Demi-Lune quarter was organized and embellished with a leisure park which welcomed more than 100,000 visitors per year, as well as an 18-hole golf course.The arsenal, after a period of abandonment, served as a deposit and place of storage from 1948. It expanded greatly during the 1950s, especially with a Mobilising Centre (CM 10) opening in 1951.The mobile guards barracks became that of a Republican Company of Security (CRS 29) with an adjoining housing estate. The population of Lannemezan then rose to almost 9,000 inhabitants at the end of the 1960s.The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the burning of the town hall. The former town hall building was rebuilt in 1911 in a Neo-Renaissance style. The fountain which faced the old town hall, on the "Place de la République", was dismantled. it was eventually reused to decorate the vicinity of the hospital.The statue of the Druidess, installed in front of the grain market in 1911, moved on the "Place de Foirail" in 1926. It replaced the war memorial of Paul Ducuing which stands today on the "Esplanade de la Poste". In 1943, it was melted down by the occupying German authorities, in order to recover metals.During the war, many families from the north and east of the France took refuge in Lannemezan, allowing a doubling of the population. The factories had up to 1,200 employees. Many markets and fairs and thirty cafes made for a bustling city centre.In 1967, the grain market was demolished to build the functionalist post office and its tree-lined esplanade.From the 1970s, the oil crisis and the austerity measures forced a decline in industry activity and the decline of the number of their employees. In addition, the reform of the armed forces involved the closure of the arsenal. Only the psychiatric hospital managed to remain, and doubled as a general hospital, an emergency department and maternity (closed in 2009 during the reform of hospitals).The introduction of the new prison, in 1987, and the renovation of a very large part of the town centre did not prevent the decline of the population, which fell below 6,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 21st century.However, the redevelopment of the site of the Alcan plant, closed in 2007–2008, with the opening of the Carbone Savoie and Knauf Insulation factories, associated with many real estate projects (reconstruction of the "cité des familles", new subdivisions, etc.) could mean the end of the decline.The results with the latest elections, since 2001, are presented in the table below:Since 1939, Lannemezan has had only four mayors:The municipal election of 2008 took place in a single round. Four lists were present:Below is the sharing of the seats in the municipal council of Lannemezan, following the municipal elections in 2008:The city has a municipal police service, a police station and a courthouse which was closed as part of the Dati reform. The city depends on the Court of Appeal and the of Pau.The , was built in 1987.The town of Lannemezan is part of the , that consists of 57 communes.Lannemezan is twinned with:In 2017, the commune had 5,837 inhabitants, making it the most populous commune in the canton of La Vallée de la Barousse, the second most populous commune in the arrondissement of Bagnères-de-Bigorre and the fifth most populous commune in Hautes-Pyrénées.The population of Lannemezan counts more women than men: 50.7% women. The age structure of the commune of Lannemezan in 2017 is shown below.Lannemezan is part of the Academy of Toulouse. All of the establishments in the town are summarised in the table below.Since the closure of the Groupe Scolaire de la Demi-Lune at the beginning of the 21st century due to lack of staff, four school groups are present in the city.Website: ENTThe town of Lannemezan lacks institutions for higher education. However, academic centres are present near the town: Tarbes, Auch, Pau and Toulouse.The nearest centre, namely that of Tarbes, has significant specialised training, such as a nursing school, many IUT and BTS, an IUFM, a faculty of physics-chemistry belonging to the Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse, a school of ceramics, a and for CPGE (preparatory classes to the Grandes Ecoles), , and commerce sections for economy and social. There is also an important school of engineers, ENIT (National School of engineers of Tarbes which belongs to the INP in Toulouse: National Polytechnic Institute). This centre concentrates approximately 5,000 students.Lannemezan is the main location of numerous festivals and events throughout the year.The festival of Saint Jean, taking place in late June for five days (from Friday to Tuesday) annually attracts many people, and allows the animation of the entire town, thanks to the many events offered. Fireworks, concerts in all corners of the town, disco entertainment or musette following into the evening, many rides for children or excitement for those bigger, with activities offered by different associations, such as horse races or the demonstration by the firefighters of the plateau. This annual festival is launched with the famous fire of Saint Jean, which takes place in a different area each year.The weekly market takes place every Wednesday morning until early afternoon and attracts many merchants who sometimes come from very far away to Lannemezan. This market is located in the streets of the town centre, around the church and the "Place du Château", as well as in the covered market hall with vegetables of the Nébouzan.During the summer, night markets are organised by the town. These allow tourists and residents to discover local crafts and the many typical gastronomic specialties of the region.Created in 2003 by the town hall, the inter-Pyrénéan meetings of theatre are the highlight of the Lannemezan cultural year. Benefitting from the prestigious patronage of Marcel Maréchal, the founder of , they aim to both to enrich the offerings of theatre proposed year-round for the people of Lannemezan, to foster local and regional development and to participate in the summer activities of the commune. Initially scheduled in July, these meetings are, since 2006, held in September to better involve schools and the Lannemezan people returning from holiday.The establishment, then called the "Hôpital Psychiatrique de Lannemezan" [Lannemezan Psychiatric Hospital] (HPL), was built in 1937 on the site of Lannemezan. Meanwhile, in 1975, a local clinic of the plateau, located in Lannemezan, was integrated to the hospital. The medical, surgical and emergency services were installed on the hospital site of Lannemezan in very modern premises built in 1991, referred to as the Medico-Surgical Centre.Many sports can be practised in clubs in Lannemezan.Lannemezan has, up to now, hosted a stage of the Tour de France four times. The town is due to do so again in 2015:Lannemezan has also hosted the Tour des Pyrénées cycle race several times.Information bulletins, published by the commune, were created and sent to residents during the first term of office of the current PS mayor of the commune, Bernard Plano. These bulletins are also associated to newsletters published by the .Radio Festival Lannemezan, a Lannemezan radio station also made its appearance, on 95FM Radio Festival. Radio Festival Lannemezan is under the supervision of the association of "Festival D'Énergie du Plateau". The association which was aimed at the creation of a local radio station, was established in 2002. Radio Festival was initially a temporary radio. Since August 2006, it received the authority to operate a permanent radio. First installed on the premises of another radio (RDC) in the Comminges, after a few setbacks, it returned to Lannemezan and began broadcasting on 16 November 2007 with a brand new team of volunteers. The headquarters is still town hall of Lannemezan, with the studio on "Rue Alphonse Couget" and transmitter on the water tower of the CM 10. This enables coverage over all of the Plateau de Lannemezan with a radius. Since late 2007, Radio Festival only works with volunteers (a dozen) and is financed by advertising, a few community grants, benefit evenings and activities, and the membership fees and donations. The objective is the promotion of the territory and the people who live there (companies, traders, elected representatives, associations, population). It has an obligation to issue at least four hours of programming on Lannemezan and the Plateau every day, through information flashes, meetings, and direct. It operates 24 hours a day. The station can be listened to, from across the world, through the website: radiofestival-lannemezan.fr.A public computer space has been created in Lannemezan, first located at "Rue Alsace-Lorraine", it was transferred to the "Espace Paul Bert" to allow more computers to be available, all for free.DTT has been available at Lannemezan since its inception, thanks to the transmitter of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre. Internet ADSL broadband is available in the commune, and a fibre optic project is underway which is away from the autoroute.Catholic worship can be practiced in the commune, two places of worship are present: The Chapel of Bourtoulets and the Church of Saint John the Baptist.The unemployment rate in Lannemezan was 16.3% of the active population (between 15 and 64 years old) in 2017, which is higher than the national average (13.9%). The activity rate of people between 15 and 64 years old was lower in Lannemezan (63.4%) than the national average (74.0%). The employment by sector of activity is shown in the table below:The average income per household in Lannemezan amounts to €17,312 per year (statistics based on 2007 revenues). Departmental average: €18,506, national average: €21,930. Lannemezan ranks as 237th commune of the 465 communes classified in the department. By comparison, the following departmental statistics are available:The "Zone industrielle de Peyrehitte" and the "Zone Industrielle Sud" consist of various industries:Lannemezan presents an important rural area, on which is practiced mixed farming:Many events in connection with these agricultural activities are held throughout the year in the town:Lannemezan is located at a crossroads between sea and mountains, and thus represents a place of inescapable passage. The commune has four hotels, which have a capacity of 104 rooms (67 classified as 2-star, 37 classified as 1-star).A construction project in the Peyrehitte Industrial Zone should've led to the opening of a hotel in 2009. This project, launched by was to lead to the construction of a 3-star hotel of 69 rooms, but seems to have been abandoned as a result of the economic crisis.The Saint-Jean-Baptiste Church is a Gothic church with an extended Romanesque nave (19th century), apse (15th century), portal (13th century), recorded capitals, and an unfinished bell tower (19th century). This building was included in the inventory of historical monuments on 24 October 1945, the two candlesticks of Easter were classified in the inventory of historical monuments on 26 April 1976 and the altarpiece as well as the tabernacle of the high altar were classified on 7 July 1995.The chapel of the Bourtoulets.The wood of the Culassou houses a statue of the Virgin Mary.Lannemezan has numerous tree-lined squares. The "Place de l'hotel de ville" [Town Hall Square] is, with its fountain, more modest. A monumental post office overlooking the "Place de la République" and its war memorial. The tourist office runs along a pathway leading to a large bandstand on the "Place des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen" [Square of the rights of man and of the citizen]. The "Place du Château" has a large car parking area near the still active market. The market of the "Place de la Volaille" was transformed into a tea room.The town has the distinction of counting several war memorials one of which, work of the Russian Bernarovitch Feinberg, was the unfortunate gift from Rothschild in 1921. It struck the local pride and a new monument to relegate it was erected in 1925, shortly after the political defeat of the baron. It was the work of the sculptor of the Druidess, Paul Ducuing.
|
[
"Paul Baratgin",
"Pierre Bleuler"
] |
|
Which position did J. D. White hold in Dec, 1908?
|
December 21, 1908
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q6105323_P39_0
|
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
J. D. WhiteJames Dundas White (10 July 1866 – 30 April 1951), known as J. D. White, was a Scottish Liberal Party politician. He was Member of Parliament (MP) from 1906 to 1918, with a short break in 1911.White was the nephew of Lord Overtoun. Born in Rutherglen, his family operated the J&J White Chemicals factory in the town.He was elected at the 1906 general election as Liberal MP for Dunbartonshire. He was re-elected in January 1910. In 1910 he was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary to Lord Pentland the Secretary of State for Scotland. He did not stand at the December 1910 general election.He returned to the House of Commons seven months later, when he was elected at the 1911 Glasgow Tradeston by-election. He was one of a group of radical Liberal MPs called the Single Taxers, who favoured land reform. They had some success in persuading Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George who integrated some of their views into his 1913-14 land campaign. White favoured the introduction of Land value taxation and wrote extensively on the subject. In 1912 when McKinnon Wood took over as Secretary of State for Scotland, White continued as his PPS. He remained as PPS to McKinnon Wood in his other roles until he left office in 1916. He was Chairman of one and member of several other Departmental Committees during the European War.At the general election in 1918, White did not receive the Coalition Coupon and was defeated by a Unionist supporter of Lloyd George's coalition government.In 1919 along with a number of other Single Taxers, he left the Liberal party and joined the Independent Labour Party. He did not contest the 1922 General election. At the 1923 General Election he contested Middlesbrough West.At the 1924 General Election he contested Glasgow Central.In 1926 he became disillusioned with the failure of the Labour party to commit to land reform and resigned from the Labour party. He did not contested any further parliamentary elections.
|
[
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did J. D. White hold in Aug, 1910?
|
August 10, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q6105323_P39_1
|
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
|
J. D. WhiteJames Dundas White (10 July 1866 – 30 April 1951), known as J. D. White, was a Scottish Liberal Party politician. He was Member of Parliament (MP) from 1906 to 1918, with a short break in 1911.White was the nephew of Lord Overtoun. Born in Rutherglen, his family operated the J&J White Chemicals factory in the town.He was elected at the 1906 general election as Liberal MP for Dunbartonshire. He was re-elected in January 1910. In 1910 he was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary to Lord Pentland the Secretary of State for Scotland. He did not stand at the December 1910 general election.He returned to the House of Commons seven months later, when he was elected at the 1911 Glasgow Tradeston by-election. He was one of a group of radical Liberal MPs called the Single Taxers, who favoured land reform. They had some success in persuading Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George who integrated some of their views into his 1913-14 land campaign. White favoured the introduction of Land value taxation and wrote extensively on the subject. In 1912 when McKinnon Wood took over as Secretary of State for Scotland, White continued as his PPS. He remained as PPS to McKinnon Wood in his other roles until he left office in 1916. He was Chairman of one and member of several other Departmental Committees during the European War.At the general election in 1918, White did not receive the Coalition Coupon and was defeated by a Unionist supporter of Lloyd George's coalition government.In 1919 along with a number of other Single Taxers, he left the Liberal party and joined the Independent Labour Party. He did not contest the 1922 General election. At the 1923 General Election he contested Middlesbrough West.At the 1924 General Election he contested Glasgow Central.In 1926 he became disillusioned with the failure of the Labour party to commit to land reform and resigned from the Labour party. He did not contested any further parliamentary elections.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did J. D. White hold in May, 1912?
|
May 17, 1912
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q6105323_P39_2
|
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
J. D. White holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
|
J. D. WhiteJames Dundas White (10 July 1866 – 30 April 1951), known as J. D. White, was a Scottish Liberal Party politician. He was Member of Parliament (MP) from 1906 to 1918, with a short break in 1911.White was the nephew of Lord Overtoun. Born in Rutherglen, his family operated the J&J White Chemicals factory in the town.He was elected at the 1906 general election as Liberal MP for Dunbartonshire. He was re-elected in January 1910. In 1910 he was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary to Lord Pentland the Secretary of State for Scotland. He did not stand at the December 1910 general election.He returned to the House of Commons seven months later, when he was elected at the 1911 Glasgow Tradeston by-election. He was one of a group of radical Liberal MPs called the Single Taxers, who favoured land reform. They had some success in persuading Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George who integrated some of their views into his 1913-14 land campaign. White favoured the introduction of Land value taxation and wrote extensively on the subject. In 1912 when McKinnon Wood took over as Secretary of State for Scotland, White continued as his PPS. He remained as PPS to McKinnon Wood in his other roles until he left office in 1916. He was Chairman of one and member of several other Departmental Committees during the European War.At the general election in 1918, White did not receive the Coalition Coupon and was defeated by a Unionist supporter of Lloyd George's coalition government.In 1919 along with a number of other Single Taxers, he left the Liberal party and joined the Independent Labour Party. He did not contest the 1922 General election. At the 1923 General Election he contested Middlesbrough West.At the 1924 General Election he contested Glasgow Central.In 1926 he became disillusioned with the failure of the Labour party to commit to land reform and resigned from the Labour party. He did not contested any further parliamentary elections.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which employer did Roger D. Launius work for in Apr, 1983?
|
April 27, 1983
|
{
"text": [
"United States Air Force"
]
}
|
L2_Q21094891_P108_0
|
Roger D. Launius works for Smithsonian Institution from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2017.
Roger D. Launius works for United States Air Force from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Roger D. Launius works for NASA from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2002.
|
Roger D. LauniusRoger D. Launius (born May 15, 1954) is an American historian and author of Lithuanian descent, a former chief historian of NASA. He retired in 2016 as Associate Director for Collections and Curatorial Affairs for the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.. Launius is a consulting historian in air and space history. He has written many books on space flight, and also published on the history of the Latter Day Saint movement.Launius was born in Galesburg, Illinois, and was raised in Greenville, South Carolina. He graduated from Graceland College in 1976 and received a PhD in history in 1982 from Louisiana State University.From 1982 to 1990, Launius held several positions as a civilian historian with the United States Air Force. Between 1990 and 2002, he was the chief historian for NASA. In 2001, he held the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History at the Smithsonian. From 2002-2006 he was Chair of the Division of Space History at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. From 2006-2013 he was Senior Curator, and from 2013-2016 Launius was Associate Director for Collections and Curatorial Affairs at the same institution.Launius contributed space policy analysis in the wake of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board 2003 report. He has been a regular commentator on space-related issues for the news media.Launius is a member of the Community of Christ. He was president of the Mormon History Association in 1993–94 and was president of the John Whitmer Historical Association in 1991–92.Launius has written more than twenty books and 100 articles on the history of aerospace. Some titles include "Historical analogs for the stimulation of space commerce" (2014), "Space shuttle legacy : how we did it and what we learned" (2013), and "Exploring the Solar System: The History and Science of Planetary Probes" (2012). He has twice won the AIAA History Manuscript Award, for"Coming Home: Reentry and Recovery from Space" in 2011, and for "Space Stations: Base Camps to the Stars" in 2003.Launius has published on the history of the Latter Day Saint movement. He won both the David Woolley Evans and Beatrice Evans Biography Award (1989) and the John Whitmer Historical Association Best Book Award for his work on Mormon history, "Joseph Smith III: Pragmatic Prophet".Launius studies the history of baseball in the United States, and published "Charlie Finley: The Outrageous Story of Baseball's Super Showman" with G. Michael Green".Launius other awards include:Launius is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2007), the American Astronomical Society (2001), and the International Academy of Astronautics (2007). He is an Associate Fellow of the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (2008).
|
[
"Smithsonian Institution",
"NASA"
] |
|
Which employer did Roger D. Launius work for in Oct, 1994?
|
October 17, 1994
|
{
"text": [
"NASA"
]
}
|
L2_Q21094891_P108_1
|
Roger D. Launius works for United States Air Force from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Roger D. Launius works for Smithsonian Institution from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2017.
Roger D. Launius works for NASA from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2002.
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Roger D. LauniusRoger D. Launius (born May 15, 1954) is an American historian and author of Lithuanian descent, a former chief historian of NASA. He retired in 2016 as Associate Director for Collections and Curatorial Affairs for the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.. Launius is a consulting historian in air and space history. He has written many books on space flight, and also published on the history of the Latter Day Saint movement.Launius was born in Galesburg, Illinois, and was raised in Greenville, South Carolina. He graduated from Graceland College in 1976 and received a PhD in history in 1982 from Louisiana State University.From 1982 to 1990, Launius held several positions as a civilian historian with the United States Air Force. Between 1990 and 2002, he was the chief historian for NASA. In 2001, he held the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History at the Smithsonian. From 2002-2006 he was Chair of the Division of Space History at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. From 2006-2013 he was Senior Curator, and from 2013-2016 Launius was Associate Director for Collections and Curatorial Affairs at the same institution.Launius contributed space policy analysis in the wake of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board 2003 report. He has been a regular commentator on space-related issues for the news media.Launius is a member of the Community of Christ. He was president of the Mormon History Association in 1993–94 and was president of the John Whitmer Historical Association in 1991–92.Launius has written more than twenty books and 100 articles on the history of aerospace. Some titles include "Historical analogs for the stimulation of space commerce" (2014), "Space shuttle legacy : how we did it and what we learned" (2013), and "Exploring the Solar System: The History and Science of Planetary Probes" (2012). He has twice won the AIAA History Manuscript Award, for"Coming Home: Reentry and Recovery from Space" in 2011, and for "Space Stations: Base Camps to the Stars" in 2003.Launius has published on the history of the Latter Day Saint movement. He won both the David Woolley Evans and Beatrice Evans Biography Award (1989) and the John Whitmer Historical Association Best Book Award for his work on Mormon history, "Joseph Smith III: Pragmatic Prophet".Launius studies the history of baseball in the United States, and published "Charlie Finley: The Outrageous Story of Baseball's Super Showman" with G. Michael Green".Launius other awards include:Launius is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2007), the American Astronomical Society (2001), and the International Academy of Astronautics (2007). He is an Associate Fellow of the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (2008).
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[
"Smithsonian Institution",
"United States Air Force"
] |
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Which employer did Roger D. Launius work for in Jun, 2015?
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June 02, 2015
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{
"text": [
"Smithsonian Institution"
]
}
|
L2_Q21094891_P108_2
|
Roger D. Launius works for United States Air Force from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Roger D. Launius works for Smithsonian Institution from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2017.
Roger D. Launius works for NASA from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2002.
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Roger D. LauniusRoger D. Launius (born May 15, 1954) is an American historian and author of Lithuanian descent, a former chief historian of NASA. He retired in 2016 as Associate Director for Collections and Curatorial Affairs for the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.. Launius is a consulting historian in air and space history. He has written many books on space flight, and also published on the history of the Latter Day Saint movement.Launius was born in Galesburg, Illinois, and was raised in Greenville, South Carolina. He graduated from Graceland College in 1976 and received a PhD in history in 1982 from Louisiana State University.From 1982 to 1990, Launius held several positions as a civilian historian with the United States Air Force. Between 1990 and 2002, he was the chief historian for NASA. In 2001, he held the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History at the Smithsonian. From 2002-2006 he was Chair of the Division of Space History at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. From 2006-2013 he was Senior Curator, and from 2013-2016 Launius was Associate Director for Collections and Curatorial Affairs at the same institution.Launius contributed space policy analysis in the wake of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board 2003 report. He has been a regular commentator on space-related issues for the news media.Launius is a member of the Community of Christ. He was president of the Mormon History Association in 1993–94 and was president of the John Whitmer Historical Association in 1991–92.Launius has written more than twenty books and 100 articles on the history of aerospace. Some titles include "Historical analogs for the stimulation of space commerce" (2014), "Space shuttle legacy : how we did it and what we learned" (2013), and "Exploring the Solar System: The History and Science of Planetary Probes" (2012). He has twice won the AIAA History Manuscript Award, for"Coming Home: Reentry and Recovery from Space" in 2011, and for "Space Stations: Base Camps to the Stars" in 2003.Launius has published on the history of the Latter Day Saint movement. He won both the David Woolley Evans and Beatrice Evans Biography Award (1989) and the John Whitmer Historical Association Best Book Award for his work on Mormon history, "Joseph Smith III: Pragmatic Prophet".Launius studies the history of baseball in the United States, and published "Charlie Finley: The Outrageous Story of Baseball's Super Showman" with G. Michael Green".Launius other awards include:Launius is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2007), the American Astronomical Society (2001), and the International Academy of Astronautics (2007). He is an Associate Fellow of the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (2008).
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[
"United States Air Force",
"NASA"
] |
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Who was the head of state of Slovakia in Mar, 1996?
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March 08, 1996
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{
"text": [
"Michal Kováč"
]
}
|
L2_Q214_P35_0
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Andrej Kiska is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2014 to Jun, 2019.
Rudolf Schuster is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 1999 to Jun, 2004.
Ivan Gašparovič is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2014.
Michal Kováč is the head of the state of Slovakia from Mar, 1993 to Mar, 1998.
Zuzana Čaputová is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
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SlovakiaSlovakia (; ), officially the Slovak Republic (, ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the southwest, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about , with a population of over 5.4 million. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, while the second largest city is Košice.The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samo's Empire. In the 9th century, they established the Principality of Nitra, which was later conquered by the Principality of Moravia to establish Great Moravia. In the 10th century, after the dissolution of Great Moravia, the territory was integrated into the Principality of Hungary, which would then become the Kingdom of Hungary in 1000. In 1241 and 1242, after the Mongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed. The area was recovered largely thanks to Béla IV of Hungary, who also settled Germans, leading them to become an important ethnic group in the area, especially in what are today parts of central and eastern Slovakia.After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the state of Czechoslovakia was established. The first Slovak Republic existed during World War II as a partially-recognized client state of Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakia was re-established as an independent country. After a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia came under communist administration, and became a part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Attempts to liberalize communism in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Prague Spring, which was crushed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce.Slovakia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, ranking very high in the Human Development Index. It also performs favourably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, and peacefulness. The country maintains a combination of a market economy with a comprehensive social security system, providing citizens with a universal health care, free education, and one of the longest paid parental leaves in the OECD. Slovakia is a member of NATO, CERN, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Group, and the OSCE. It is the world's largest per-capita car producer; it manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" ("Slovensko" in Slovak stemming from the older form "Sloven/Slovienin"). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; the Czech word "Slovák" (in medieval sources from 1291 onward). This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name ("Slovenka"), reference to the lands inhabited ("Slovensko") and the name of the language ("slovenčina") all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tends to stem from this newer form ("Slovakia" in English, "Slowakei" in German, "Slovaquie" in French, etc.).In medieval Latin sources, terms Slavus, Slavonia, or Slavorum (and more variants, from as early as 1029) have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands were Windenland or Windishen landen (early 15th century), with the forms "Slovakia" and "Schlowakei" starting to appear in the 16th century. The present Slovak form "Slovensko" is first attested in the year 1675.The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites. The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful "oppida" on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and ahead on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Devín Castle (present-day downtown Bratislava), the suburbs of Dúbravka and Stupava, and Bratislava Castle Hill.Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hun tribe. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant. After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline but its reign lasted to 804.The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the 7th century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the 8th century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them. When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne. The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., "Dowina", sometimes identified with Devín Castle) are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king ("rex"). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors. Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896. Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary.Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the 10th century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the Lech River they abandoned their nomadic ways; they settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, adopted Christianity and began to build a new state—the Hungarian kingdom.From the 11th century, when the territory inhabited by the Slavic-speaking population of Danubian Basin was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of modern Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state. The ethnic composition became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of the present-day Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts. In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava, Pozsony), but it was closed in 1490 after his death. Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before. Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism. For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans. They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg Monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas. In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia. Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarization), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities, at least on paper.During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialize. Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Secession had created the first Slovak state in history. The government of the First Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso and Vojtech Tuka, was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects.Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War.As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps. Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labor camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky. Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered. The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched a fierce armed insurrection, known as the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians and 32,000 Germans were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference. Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained. The NKVD arrested and deported over 20,000 people to SiberiaAs a result of the Yalta Conference, Czechoslovakia came under the influence and later under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact, after a coup in 1948. Eight thousand two hundred and forty people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree.Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989.The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. The word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics, with the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic. On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways after 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce. Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic. Both countries co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. Slovakia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2009, Slovakia adopted the Euro as its national currency. In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became Slovakia's first female president.Slovakia lies between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains extending across most of the northern half of the country. Among these mountain ranges are the high peaks of the Fatra-Tatra Area (including Tatra Mountains, Greater Fatra and Lesser Fatra), Slovak Ore Mountains, Slovak Central Mountains or Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, followed by the Eastern Slovak Lowland in the southeast. Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of , of which the greater part lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts.To the north, close to the Polish border, are the High Tatras which are a popular hiking and skiing destination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, the Gerlachovský štít at and the country's highly symbolic mountain Kriváň. To the west are the Western Tatras with their highest peak of Bystrá at and to the east are the Belianske Tatras, smallest by area.Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of the Váh river are the Low Tatras, with their highest peak of Ďumbier at .The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on the coat of arms of Slovakia.There are 9 national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface.Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public. Most of the caves have stalagmites rising from the ground and stalactites hanging from above. There are currently five Slovak caves under UNESCO's World Heritage Site status. They are Dobšiná Ice Cave, Domica, Gombasek Cave, Jasovská Cave and Ochtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public include Belianska Cave, Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave or Bystrianska Cave.Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than ). For example, the Dunajec () to the north, the Danube () to the south or the Morava () to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is .The longest river in Slovakia is the Váh (), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are the Myjava, the Nitra (), the Orava, the Hron (), the Hornád (), the Slaná (), the Ipeľ (, forming the border with Hungary), the Bodrog, the Laborec, the Latorica and the Ondava.The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is during spring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in the Alps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.The Slovak climate lies between the temperate and continental climate zones with relatively warm summers and cold, cloudy and humid winters. Temperature extremes are between although temperatures below are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south.The warmest region is Bratislava and Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach in summer, occasionally to in Hurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to . The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of to . During night it may be freezing, but usually not below .In Slovakia, there are four seasons, each season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter.Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of in the first weeks and about in May and in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable.Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding . July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about , especially in regions of southern Slovakia—in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop—40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around (less in the mountains).Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around , in November to . Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-called Indian summer).Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around . In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to and colder.Slovakia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.The biodiversity of Slovakia comprises animals (such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates), fungi (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota), micro-organisms (including Mycetozoa), and plants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa. Endemic biodiversity is also common.Slovakia is located in the biome of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and terrestrial ecoregions of Pannonian mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak, beech, spruce, scrub pine, alpine meadows and subsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries. In terms of forest stands, 60% are broadleaf trees and 40% are coniferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia. Of these, nearly 1,500 are lichen-forming species. Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The last parliamentary elections were held on 29 February 2020 and two rounds of presidential elections took place on 16 and 30 March 2019.The Slovak head of state and the formal head of the executive is the president (currently Zuzana Čaputová, the first female president), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under the two-round system for a five-year term. Most executive power lies with the head of government, the prime minister (currently Eduard Heger), who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.Slovakia's highest legislative body is the 150-seat unicameral National Council of the Slovak Republic ("Národná rada Slovenskej republiky"). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation.Slovakia's highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court of Slovakia ("Ústavný súd"), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament.The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allow direct election of the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. The civil law system is based on Austro-Hungarian codes. The legal code was modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge the Marxist–Leninist legal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with reservations.The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs () is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The ministry's director is Ivan Korčok. The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations.Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2009.Slovakia is a member of the United Nations (since 1993) and participates in its specialized agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council from 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and part of the Visegrád Group (V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland).In 2020, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world.Slovakia maintains diplomatic relations with 134 countries, primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of December 2013, Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes. There are 44 embassies and 35 honorary consulates in Bratislava.Slovakia and the United States retain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in the military and law enforcement areas. The U.S. Department of Defense programs has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. Hundreds of thousands of Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of the original Czechoslovak state on 28 October 1918.The Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic number 14,000 uniformed personnel. Slovakia joined NATO in March 2004. The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions. There is a joint Czech-Slovak peacekeeping force in Kosovo. From 2006 the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished.Slovak Ground Forces are made up of two active mechanised infantry brigades. The Air and Air Defence Forces comprise one wing of fighters, one wing of utility helicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics and communication and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of the General Staff include the 5th Special Forces Regiment.The US State Department in 2017 reported:The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. The most significant human rights issues included incidents of interference with privacy; corruption; widespread discrimination against Roma minority; and security force violence against ethnic and racial minorities government actions and rhetoric did little to discourage. The government investigated reports of abuses by members of the security forces and other government institutions, although some observers questioned the thoroughness of these investigations. Some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Two former ministers were convicted of corruption during the year.Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by the Constitution of Slovakia from the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.According to the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), Romani people in Slovakia "endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."Slovakia is divided into 8 "kraje" (singular—"kraj", usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Their self-governing bodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg. "samosprávny kraj", pl. "samosprávne kraje") or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg. "vyšší územný celok", pl. "vyššie územné celky", abbr. VÚC).The "kraje" are subdivided into many "okresy" (sg. "okres", usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts.The "okresy" are further divided into "obce" (sg. "obec", usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities.In terms of economics and unemployment rate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the third-richest region of the European Union by GDP (PPP) per capita (after Hamburg and Luxembourg City); GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.The Slovak economy is a developed, high-income economy, with the GDP per capita equalling 78% of the average of the European Union in 2018. The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes.The OECD in 2017 reported:The Slovak Republic continues exhibiting robust economic performance, with strong growth backed by a sound financial sector, low public debt and high international competitiveness drawing on large inward investment.In 2020, Slovakia was ranked by the International Monetary Fund as the 38th richest country in the world (out of 187 countries), with purchasing power parity per capita GDP of $38,321. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger". Slovakia successfully transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven economy. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.The Slovak economy is one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and 3rd-fastest in eurozone (2017). In 2007, 2008 and 2010 (with GDP growth of 10.5%, 6% and 4%, retrospectively). In 2016, more than 86% of Slovak exports went to European Union, and more than 50% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 49.4% by the end of 2018, far below the OECD average.Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.Slovakia adopted the Euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved by the European commission on 7 May 2008. The Slovak koruna was revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro, which was also the exchange rate for the euro.The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas. Foreign direct investment inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of $17.3 billion in 2006, or around $22,000 per capita by the end of 2008.Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the 2020 World Bank Doing Business Report and 57th out of the 63 countries in terms of competitive economy, according to the 2020 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report.Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita, with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone. 275,000 people are employed directly and indirectlyby the automotive industry. There are currently four automobile assembly plants: Volkswagen's in Bratislava (models: Volkswagen Up, Volkswagen Touareg, Audi Q7, Audi Q8, Porsche Cayenne, Lamborghini Urus), PSA Peugeot Citroën's in Trnava (models: Peugeot 208, Citroën C3 Picasso), Kia Motors' Žilina Plant (models: Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage, Kia Venga) and Jaguar Land Rover's in Nitra (model: Land Rover Discovery). Hyundai Mobis in Žilina is the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.From electrical engineering companies, Foxconn has a factory at Nitra for LCD TV manufacturing, Samsung at Galanta for computer monitors and television sets manufacturing. Slovnaft based in Bratislava with 4,000 employees, is an oil refinery with a processing capacity of 5.5 - 6 million tonnes of crude oil, annually. Steel producer U. S. Steel in Košice is the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees.ESET is an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000 employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, the Czech Republic, Singapore and Poland. In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres here. Reasons for the influx of multi-national corporations include proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities. Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Amazon, Slovak Telekom, Orange Slovensko, Slovenská sporiteľňa, Tatra banka, Doprastav, Hewlett-Packard Slovakia, Henkel Slovensko, Slovenský plynárenský priemysel, Microsoft Slovakia, Mondelez Slovakia, Whirlpool Slovakia and Zurich Insurance Group Slovakia.Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads for international trade traffic. Various ancient trade routes, such as the Amber Road and the Danube waterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is the road, railway, waterway and airway hub.In 2012, Slovakia produced a total of 28,393 GWh of electricity while at the same time consumed 28 786 GWh. The slightly higher level of consumption than the capacity of production (- 393 GWh) meant the country was not self-sufficient in energy sourcing. Slovakia imported electricity mainly from the Czech Republic (9,961 GWh—73.6% of total import) and exported mainly to Hungary (10,231 GWh—78.2% of total export).Nuclear energy accounts for 53.8% of total electricity production in Slovakia, followed by 18.1% of thermal power energy, 15.1% by hydro power energy, 2% by solar energy, 9.6% by other sources and the rest 1.4% is imported.The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are in Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce, each of them containing two operating reactors. Before the accession of Slovakia to the EU in 2004, the government agreed to turn-off the V1 block of Jaslovské Bohunice power-plant, built-in 1978. After deactivating the last of the two reactors of the V1 block in 2008, Slovakia stopped being self-dependent in energy production. Currently there is another block (V2) with two active reactors in Jaslovské Bohunice. It is scheduled for decommissioning in 2025. Two new reactors are under construction in Mochovce plant. The nuclear power production in Slovakia occasionally draws the attention of Austrian green-energy activists who organise protests and block the borders between the two countries.There are four main highways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction.The D1 motorway connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond, while the D2 motorway connects it to Prague, Brno and Budapest in the north–south direction. A large part of D4 motorway (an outer bypass), which should ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, is scheduled to open in 2020. The A6 motorway to Vienna connects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.Slovakia has four international airports. Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport is the main and largest international airport. It is located northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018. Košice International Airport is an airport serving Košice. It is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Poprad–Tatry Airport is the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest of ski resort town Poprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher than Innsbruck Airport in Austria. The Sliač Airport is the smallest international airport and currently operates only summer charter flights to popular sea resort destinations.Railways of Slovak Republic provides railway transport services on national and international lines.The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere. The Port of Komárno is the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers - the Danube and Váh.Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Most visitors come from the Czech Republic (about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle (often used as a filming location), Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list), Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle. Čachtice Castle was once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady', Elizabeth Báthory.Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and Czechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in the Czech Republic (such as Prague), Austria (such as Salzburg) or Hungary (such as Budapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centers can be found in Bratislava, Trenčín, Košice, Banská Štiavnica, Levoča, and Trnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years.Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in the Baroque style, but there are also many examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, for example Banská Bystrica, Bardejov and Spišská Kapitula. The Basilica of St. James in Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit in Žehra with medieval frescos are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The St. Martin's Concathedral in Bratislava served as the coronation church for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from the Great Moravian period in the 9th century.Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards by Catholics, Lutherans and members of eastern-rite churches.Tourism in Slovak Republic is one of the main sectors of the economy, but not using its whole capacity. It is based on internal tourism, where Slovaks spend holidays within the country. Major areas are: Bratislava and Vysoké Tatry. To other regions belong: Pieniny National Park, Malá Fatra NP, and Nízke Tatry NP.There are many castles located throughout the country. To the biggest and the most beautiful ones belong: Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle, Krásna Hôrka Castle, Orava Castle, Trenčín Castle and Bratislava Castle. To the castle ruins belong Beckov Castle, Devín Castle, Šariš Castle, Považský hrad (castle), and Strečno Castle, where was filmed Dragonheart movie.Caves opened for public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia. In the south-west of the country only Jaskyňa Driny is opened to the public. The most popular ones are: Dobšinská Ice Cave, Demänovská ľadová cave, Demänovská jaskyňa slobody, Belianska cave, and Domica cave. To the other caves which are opened belong Ochtinská aragonitová cave, Gombasecká cave, and Jasovská cave.There are many spas throughout the whole country. The biggest and the most favorite center is Piešťany spa, where a big portion of visitors come from The Gulf countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. To the other famous spas belong: Bardejovské kúpele, Trenčianske Teplice spa, Turčianske Teplice spa, and Spa Rajecké Teplice. There are many smaller ones: Kúpele Štós, Kúpele Číž, Kúpele Dudince, Kováčová, Kúpele Nimnica, Kúpele Smrdáky, Kúpele Lúčky, and Kúpele Vyšné Ružbachy with treatments against schizophrenia.Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV ("Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby"—Centre of Folk Art Production). "Dielo" shop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities.Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower.The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. Slovakia is currently in the negotiation process of becoming a member of the European Space Agency. Observer status was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA. In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organizations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Full membership of Slovakia in the ESA is expected in 2020 after signing the ESA Convention. Slovakia will be obliged to set state budget inclusive ESA funding.The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly of Slovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km. According to the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are Slovaks (80.7%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (8.5%). Other ethnic groups include Roma (2%), Czechs (0.6%), Rusyns (0.6%) and others or unspecified (7.6%).In 2018 the median age of the Slovak population was 41 years.The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family. Hungarian is widely spoken in the southern regions, and Rusyn is used in some parts of the Northeast. Minority languages hold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing 2nd highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia is Czech. Eurostat report also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union. According to a Eurobarometer survey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).The deaf community uses the Slovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close to Czech Sign Language.The Slovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion. In 2011, 62.0% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 5.9% as Lutherans, 1.8% as Calvinists, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 13.4% identified themselves as atheists or non-religious, and 10.6% did not answer the question about their belief. In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services. The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern rite sui iuris Catholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during the Holocaust. After further reductions due to postwar emigration and assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is the Baháʼí Faith. In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that will obstruct Islam and other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovak president Andrej Kiska vetoed the bill. In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000 Muslims in Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population. Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union without a mosque.The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Slovak secondary education the 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, in Slovak and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school.After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school.After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university is Comenius University, established in 1919. Although it's not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it's the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools.Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities.Folk tradition has rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is a Slovak national anthem, ""Nad Tatrou sa blýska"", which is based on a melody from ""Kopala studienku"" folk song.The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the ""Východná"" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation, which takes place in Východná annually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK ("Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective"). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition.An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec which has been the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993. The Prešov Region preserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law as cultural heritage, but some of them are on the UNESCO list too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá.The best known Slovak hero, found in many folk mythologies, is Juraj Jánošík (1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a film "Jánošík" directed by Martin Frič in 1935.Visual art in Slovakia is represented through painting, drawing, printmaking, illustration, arts and crafts, sculpture, photography or conceptual art. The Slovak National Gallery founded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated in Esterházy Palace ("Esterházyho palác") and the Water Barracks ("Vodné kasárne"), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.The Bratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays in Pálffy Palace and Mirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated near Čunovo waterworks (part of Gabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include: Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art (Warhol's parents were from Miková), East Slovak Gallery, Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery, Zvolen Castle.Christian topics include poem Proglas as a foreword to the four Gospels, partial translations of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic, "Zakon sudnyj ljudem".Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written in Latin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period include Johannes de Thurocz, author of the Chronica Hungarorum and Maurus, both of them Hungarians. The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period.Two leading persons codified Slovak. The first was Anton Bernolák, whose concept was based on the western Slovak dialect in 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second was Ľudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843.Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček.Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly on pork, poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. It is relatively closely related to Hungarian, Czech, Polish and Austrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced by Ukrainian, including Lemko and Rusyn. In comparison with other European countries, "game meat" is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular. Boar, rabbit, and venison are generally available throughout the year. Lamb and goat are eaten but are not widely popular.The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants.A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal.Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing. Beer (mainly of the pilsener style, though dark lagers are also consumed) is also popular.Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level. Ice hockey and football have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, though tennis, handball, basketball, volleyball, whitewater slalom, cycling and athletics are also popular.One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia is ice hockey. Slovakia became a member of the IIHF on 2 February 1993 and since then has won 4 medals in Ice Hockey World Championships, consisting of 1 gold, 2 silver and 1 bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the 2012 IIHF World Championship in Helsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made five appearances in the Olympic games, finishing 4th in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked 7th in the IIHF World Ranking at present. Before 2012, the Slovak team HC Slovan Bratislava participated in the Kontinental Hockey League, considered the strongest hockey league in Europe, and the second-best in the world.Slovakia hosted the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where Finland won the gold medal and 2019 IIHF World Championship, where Finland also won the gold medal. Both competitions took place in Bratislava and Košice.Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, the Slovak national football team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by the Netherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory over Italy. In 2016, the Slovak national football team qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, under head coach Ján Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings.In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, namely MFK Košice in 1997–98, FC Artmedia Bratislava in 2005–06 season, and MŠK Žilina in 2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing 3rd at the Group Stage of the UEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage.
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[
"Ivan Gašparovič",
"Andrej Kiska",
"Zuzana Čaputová",
"Rudolf Schuster"
] |
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Who was the head of state of Slovakia in Feb, 2003?
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February 09, 2003
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{
"text": [
"Rudolf Schuster"
]
}
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L2_Q214_P35_1
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Ivan Gašparovič is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2014.
Zuzana Čaputová is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Rudolf Schuster is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 1999 to Jun, 2004.
Andrej Kiska is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2014 to Jun, 2019.
Michal Kováč is the head of the state of Slovakia from Mar, 1993 to Mar, 1998.
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SlovakiaSlovakia (; ), officially the Slovak Republic (, ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the southwest, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about , with a population of over 5.4 million. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, while the second largest city is Košice.The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samo's Empire. In the 9th century, they established the Principality of Nitra, which was later conquered by the Principality of Moravia to establish Great Moravia. In the 10th century, after the dissolution of Great Moravia, the territory was integrated into the Principality of Hungary, which would then become the Kingdom of Hungary in 1000. In 1241 and 1242, after the Mongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed. The area was recovered largely thanks to Béla IV of Hungary, who also settled Germans, leading them to become an important ethnic group in the area, especially in what are today parts of central and eastern Slovakia.After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the state of Czechoslovakia was established. The first Slovak Republic existed during World War II as a partially-recognized client state of Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakia was re-established as an independent country. After a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia came under communist administration, and became a part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Attempts to liberalize communism in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Prague Spring, which was crushed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce.Slovakia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, ranking very high in the Human Development Index. It also performs favourably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, and peacefulness. The country maintains a combination of a market economy with a comprehensive social security system, providing citizens with a universal health care, free education, and one of the longest paid parental leaves in the OECD. Slovakia is a member of NATO, CERN, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Group, and the OSCE. It is the world's largest per-capita car producer; it manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" ("Slovensko" in Slovak stemming from the older form "Sloven/Slovienin"). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; the Czech word "Slovák" (in medieval sources from 1291 onward). This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name ("Slovenka"), reference to the lands inhabited ("Slovensko") and the name of the language ("slovenčina") all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tends to stem from this newer form ("Slovakia" in English, "Slowakei" in German, "Slovaquie" in French, etc.).In medieval Latin sources, terms Slavus, Slavonia, or Slavorum (and more variants, from as early as 1029) have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands were Windenland or Windishen landen (early 15th century), with the forms "Slovakia" and "Schlowakei" starting to appear in the 16th century. The present Slovak form "Slovensko" is first attested in the year 1675.The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites. The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful "oppida" on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and ahead on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Devín Castle (present-day downtown Bratislava), the suburbs of Dúbravka and Stupava, and Bratislava Castle Hill.Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hun tribe. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant. After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline but its reign lasted to 804.The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the 7th century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the 8th century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them. When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne. The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., "Dowina", sometimes identified with Devín Castle) are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king ("rex"). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors. Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896. Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary.Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the 10th century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the Lech River they abandoned their nomadic ways; they settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, adopted Christianity and began to build a new state—the Hungarian kingdom.From the 11th century, when the territory inhabited by the Slavic-speaking population of Danubian Basin was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of modern Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state. The ethnic composition became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of the present-day Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts. In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava, Pozsony), but it was closed in 1490 after his death. Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before. Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism. For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans. They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg Monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas. In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia. Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarization), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities, at least on paper.During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialize. Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Secession had created the first Slovak state in history. The government of the First Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso and Vojtech Tuka, was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects.Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War.As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps. Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labor camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky. Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered. The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched a fierce armed insurrection, known as the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians and 32,000 Germans were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference. Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained. The NKVD arrested and deported over 20,000 people to SiberiaAs a result of the Yalta Conference, Czechoslovakia came under the influence and later under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact, after a coup in 1948. Eight thousand two hundred and forty people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree.Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989.The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. The word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics, with the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic. On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways after 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce. Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic. Both countries co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. Slovakia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2009, Slovakia adopted the Euro as its national currency. In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became Slovakia's first female president.Slovakia lies between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains extending across most of the northern half of the country. Among these mountain ranges are the high peaks of the Fatra-Tatra Area (including Tatra Mountains, Greater Fatra and Lesser Fatra), Slovak Ore Mountains, Slovak Central Mountains or Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, followed by the Eastern Slovak Lowland in the southeast. Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of , of which the greater part lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts.To the north, close to the Polish border, are the High Tatras which are a popular hiking and skiing destination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, the Gerlachovský štít at and the country's highly symbolic mountain Kriváň. To the west are the Western Tatras with their highest peak of Bystrá at and to the east are the Belianske Tatras, smallest by area.Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of the Váh river are the Low Tatras, with their highest peak of Ďumbier at .The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on the coat of arms of Slovakia.There are 9 national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface.Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public. Most of the caves have stalagmites rising from the ground and stalactites hanging from above. There are currently five Slovak caves under UNESCO's World Heritage Site status. They are Dobšiná Ice Cave, Domica, Gombasek Cave, Jasovská Cave and Ochtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public include Belianska Cave, Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave or Bystrianska Cave.Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than ). For example, the Dunajec () to the north, the Danube () to the south or the Morava () to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is .The longest river in Slovakia is the Váh (), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are the Myjava, the Nitra (), the Orava, the Hron (), the Hornád (), the Slaná (), the Ipeľ (, forming the border with Hungary), the Bodrog, the Laborec, the Latorica and the Ondava.The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is during spring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in the Alps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.The Slovak climate lies between the temperate and continental climate zones with relatively warm summers and cold, cloudy and humid winters. Temperature extremes are between although temperatures below are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south.The warmest region is Bratislava and Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach in summer, occasionally to in Hurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to . The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of to . During night it may be freezing, but usually not below .In Slovakia, there are four seasons, each season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter.Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of in the first weeks and about in May and in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable.Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding . July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about , especially in regions of southern Slovakia—in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop—40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around (less in the mountains).Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around , in November to . Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-called Indian summer).Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around . In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to and colder.Slovakia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.The biodiversity of Slovakia comprises animals (such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates), fungi (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota), micro-organisms (including Mycetozoa), and plants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa. Endemic biodiversity is also common.Slovakia is located in the biome of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and terrestrial ecoregions of Pannonian mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak, beech, spruce, scrub pine, alpine meadows and subsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries. In terms of forest stands, 60% are broadleaf trees and 40% are coniferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia. Of these, nearly 1,500 are lichen-forming species. Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The last parliamentary elections were held on 29 February 2020 and two rounds of presidential elections took place on 16 and 30 March 2019.The Slovak head of state and the formal head of the executive is the president (currently Zuzana Čaputová, the first female president), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under the two-round system for a five-year term. Most executive power lies with the head of government, the prime minister (currently Eduard Heger), who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.Slovakia's highest legislative body is the 150-seat unicameral National Council of the Slovak Republic ("Národná rada Slovenskej republiky"). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation.Slovakia's highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court of Slovakia ("Ústavný súd"), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament.The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allow direct election of the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. The civil law system is based on Austro-Hungarian codes. The legal code was modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge the Marxist–Leninist legal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with reservations.The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs () is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The ministry's director is Ivan Korčok. The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations.Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2009.Slovakia is a member of the United Nations (since 1993) and participates in its specialized agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council from 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and part of the Visegrád Group (V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland).In 2020, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world.Slovakia maintains diplomatic relations with 134 countries, primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of December 2013, Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes. There are 44 embassies and 35 honorary consulates in Bratislava.Slovakia and the United States retain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in the military and law enforcement areas. The U.S. Department of Defense programs has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. Hundreds of thousands of Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of the original Czechoslovak state on 28 October 1918.The Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic number 14,000 uniformed personnel. Slovakia joined NATO in March 2004. The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions. There is a joint Czech-Slovak peacekeeping force in Kosovo. From 2006 the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished.Slovak Ground Forces are made up of two active mechanised infantry brigades. The Air and Air Defence Forces comprise one wing of fighters, one wing of utility helicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics and communication and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of the General Staff include the 5th Special Forces Regiment.The US State Department in 2017 reported:The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. The most significant human rights issues included incidents of interference with privacy; corruption; widespread discrimination against Roma minority; and security force violence against ethnic and racial minorities government actions and rhetoric did little to discourage. The government investigated reports of abuses by members of the security forces and other government institutions, although some observers questioned the thoroughness of these investigations. Some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Two former ministers were convicted of corruption during the year.Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by the Constitution of Slovakia from the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.According to the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), Romani people in Slovakia "endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."Slovakia is divided into 8 "kraje" (singular—"kraj", usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Their self-governing bodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg. "samosprávny kraj", pl. "samosprávne kraje") or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg. "vyšší územný celok", pl. "vyššie územné celky", abbr. VÚC).The "kraje" are subdivided into many "okresy" (sg. "okres", usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts.The "okresy" are further divided into "obce" (sg. "obec", usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities.In terms of economics and unemployment rate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the third-richest region of the European Union by GDP (PPP) per capita (after Hamburg and Luxembourg City); GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.The Slovak economy is a developed, high-income economy, with the GDP per capita equalling 78% of the average of the European Union in 2018. The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes.The OECD in 2017 reported:The Slovak Republic continues exhibiting robust economic performance, with strong growth backed by a sound financial sector, low public debt and high international competitiveness drawing on large inward investment.In 2020, Slovakia was ranked by the International Monetary Fund as the 38th richest country in the world (out of 187 countries), with purchasing power parity per capita GDP of $38,321. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger". Slovakia successfully transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven economy. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.The Slovak economy is one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and 3rd-fastest in eurozone (2017). In 2007, 2008 and 2010 (with GDP growth of 10.5%, 6% and 4%, retrospectively). In 2016, more than 86% of Slovak exports went to European Union, and more than 50% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 49.4% by the end of 2018, far below the OECD average.Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.Slovakia adopted the Euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved by the European commission on 7 May 2008. The Slovak koruna was revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro, which was also the exchange rate for the euro.The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas. Foreign direct investment inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of $17.3 billion in 2006, or around $22,000 per capita by the end of 2008.Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the 2020 World Bank Doing Business Report and 57th out of the 63 countries in terms of competitive economy, according to the 2020 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report.Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita, with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone. 275,000 people are employed directly and indirectlyby the automotive industry. There are currently four automobile assembly plants: Volkswagen's in Bratislava (models: Volkswagen Up, Volkswagen Touareg, Audi Q7, Audi Q8, Porsche Cayenne, Lamborghini Urus), PSA Peugeot Citroën's in Trnava (models: Peugeot 208, Citroën C3 Picasso), Kia Motors' Žilina Plant (models: Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage, Kia Venga) and Jaguar Land Rover's in Nitra (model: Land Rover Discovery). Hyundai Mobis in Žilina is the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.From electrical engineering companies, Foxconn has a factory at Nitra for LCD TV manufacturing, Samsung at Galanta for computer monitors and television sets manufacturing. Slovnaft based in Bratislava with 4,000 employees, is an oil refinery with a processing capacity of 5.5 - 6 million tonnes of crude oil, annually. Steel producer U. S. Steel in Košice is the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees.ESET is an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000 employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, the Czech Republic, Singapore and Poland. In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres here. Reasons for the influx of multi-national corporations include proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities. Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Amazon, Slovak Telekom, Orange Slovensko, Slovenská sporiteľňa, Tatra banka, Doprastav, Hewlett-Packard Slovakia, Henkel Slovensko, Slovenský plynárenský priemysel, Microsoft Slovakia, Mondelez Slovakia, Whirlpool Slovakia and Zurich Insurance Group Slovakia.Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads for international trade traffic. Various ancient trade routes, such as the Amber Road and the Danube waterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is the road, railway, waterway and airway hub.In 2012, Slovakia produced a total of 28,393 GWh of electricity while at the same time consumed 28 786 GWh. The slightly higher level of consumption than the capacity of production (- 393 GWh) meant the country was not self-sufficient in energy sourcing. Slovakia imported electricity mainly from the Czech Republic (9,961 GWh—73.6% of total import) and exported mainly to Hungary (10,231 GWh—78.2% of total export).Nuclear energy accounts for 53.8% of total electricity production in Slovakia, followed by 18.1% of thermal power energy, 15.1% by hydro power energy, 2% by solar energy, 9.6% by other sources and the rest 1.4% is imported.The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are in Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce, each of them containing two operating reactors. Before the accession of Slovakia to the EU in 2004, the government agreed to turn-off the V1 block of Jaslovské Bohunice power-plant, built-in 1978. After deactivating the last of the two reactors of the V1 block in 2008, Slovakia stopped being self-dependent in energy production. Currently there is another block (V2) with two active reactors in Jaslovské Bohunice. It is scheduled for decommissioning in 2025. Two new reactors are under construction in Mochovce plant. The nuclear power production in Slovakia occasionally draws the attention of Austrian green-energy activists who organise protests and block the borders between the two countries.There are four main highways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction.The D1 motorway connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond, while the D2 motorway connects it to Prague, Brno and Budapest in the north–south direction. A large part of D4 motorway (an outer bypass), which should ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, is scheduled to open in 2020. The A6 motorway to Vienna connects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.Slovakia has four international airports. Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport is the main and largest international airport. It is located northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018. Košice International Airport is an airport serving Košice. It is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Poprad–Tatry Airport is the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest of ski resort town Poprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher than Innsbruck Airport in Austria. The Sliač Airport is the smallest international airport and currently operates only summer charter flights to popular sea resort destinations.Railways of Slovak Republic provides railway transport services on national and international lines.The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere. The Port of Komárno is the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers - the Danube and Váh.Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Most visitors come from the Czech Republic (about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle (often used as a filming location), Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list), Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle. Čachtice Castle was once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady', Elizabeth Báthory.Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and Czechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in the Czech Republic (such as Prague), Austria (such as Salzburg) or Hungary (such as Budapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centers can be found in Bratislava, Trenčín, Košice, Banská Štiavnica, Levoča, and Trnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years.Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in the Baroque style, but there are also many examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, for example Banská Bystrica, Bardejov and Spišská Kapitula. The Basilica of St. James in Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit in Žehra with medieval frescos are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The St. Martin's Concathedral in Bratislava served as the coronation church for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from the Great Moravian period in the 9th century.Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards by Catholics, Lutherans and members of eastern-rite churches.Tourism in Slovak Republic is one of the main sectors of the economy, but not using its whole capacity. It is based on internal tourism, where Slovaks spend holidays within the country. Major areas are: Bratislava and Vysoké Tatry. To other regions belong: Pieniny National Park, Malá Fatra NP, and Nízke Tatry NP.There are many castles located throughout the country. To the biggest and the most beautiful ones belong: Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle, Krásna Hôrka Castle, Orava Castle, Trenčín Castle and Bratislava Castle. To the castle ruins belong Beckov Castle, Devín Castle, Šariš Castle, Považský hrad (castle), and Strečno Castle, where was filmed Dragonheart movie.Caves opened for public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia. In the south-west of the country only Jaskyňa Driny is opened to the public. The most popular ones are: Dobšinská Ice Cave, Demänovská ľadová cave, Demänovská jaskyňa slobody, Belianska cave, and Domica cave. To the other caves which are opened belong Ochtinská aragonitová cave, Gombasecká cave, and Jasovská cave.There are many spas throughout the whole country. The biggest and the most favorite center is Piešťany spa, where a big portion of visitors come from The Gulf countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. To the other famous spas belong: Bardejovské kúpele, Trenčianske Teplice spa, Turčianske Teplice spa, and Spa Rajecké Teplice. There are many smaller ones: Kúpele Štós, Kúpele Číž, Kúpele Dudince, Kováčová, Kúpele Nimnica, Kúpele Smrdáky, Kúpele Lúčky, and Kúpele Vyšné Ružbachy with treatments against schizophrenia.Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV ("Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby"—Centre of Folk Art Production). "Dielo" shop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities.Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower.The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. Slovakia is currently in the negotiation process of becoming a member of the European Space Agency. Observer status was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA. In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organizations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Full membership of Slovakia in the ESA is expected in 2020 after signing the ESA Convention. Slovakia will be obliged to set state budget inclusive ESA funding.The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly of Slovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km. According to the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are Slovaks (80.7%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (8.5%). Other ethnic groups include Roma (2%), Czechs (0.6%), Rusyns (0.6%) and others or unspecified (7.6%).In 2018 the median age of the Slovak population was 41 years.The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family. Hungarian is widely spoken in the southern regions, and Rusyn is used in some parts of the Northeast. Minority languages hold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing 2nd highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia is Czech. Eurostat report also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union. According to a Eurobarometer survey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).The deaf community uses the Slovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close to Czech Sign Language.The Slovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion. In 2011, 62.0% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 5.9% as Lutherans, 1.8% as Calvinists, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 13.4% identified themselves as atheists or non-religious, and 10.6% did not answer the question about their belief. In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services. The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern rite sui iuris Catholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during the Holocaust. After further reductions due to postwar emigration and assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is the Baháʼí Faith. In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that will obstruct Islam and other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovak president Andrej Kiska vetoed the bill. In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000 Muslims in Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population. Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union without a mosque.The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Slovak secondary education the 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, in Slovak and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school.After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school.After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university is Comenius University, established in 1919. Although it's not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it's the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools.Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities.Folk tradition has rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is a Slovak national anthem, ""Nad Tatrou sa blýska"", which is based on a melody from ""Kopala studienku"" folk song.The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the ""Východná"" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation, which takes place in Východná annually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK ("Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective"). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition.An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec which has been the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993. The Prešov Region preserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law as cultural heritage, but some of them are on the UNESCO list too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá.The best known Slovak hero, found in many folk mythologies, is Juraj Jánošík (1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a film "Jánošík" directed by Martin Frič in 1935.Visual art in Slovakia is represented through painting, drawing, printmaking, illustration, arts and crafts, sculpture, photography or conceptual art. The Slovak National Gallery founded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated in Esterházy Palace ("Esterházyho palác") and the Water Barracks ("Vodné kasárne"), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.The Bratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays in Pálffy Palace and Mirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated near Čunovo waterworks (part of Gabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include: Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art (Warhol's parents were from Miková), East Slovak Gallery, Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery, Zvolen Castle.Christian topics include poem Proglas as a foreword to the four Gospels, partial translations of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic, "Zakon sudnyj ljudem".Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written in Latin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period include Johannes de Thurocz, author of the Chronica Hungarorum and Maurus, both of them Hungarians. The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period.Two leading persons codified Slovak. The first was Anton Bernolák, whose concept was based on the western Slovak dialect in 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second was Ľudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843.Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček.Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly on pork, poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. It is relatively closely related to Hungarian, Czech, Polish and Austrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced by Ukrainian, including Lemko and Rusyn. In comparison with other European countries, "game meat" is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular. Boar, rabbit, and venison are generally available throughout the year. Lamb and goat are eaten but are not widely popular.The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants.A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal.Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing. Beer (mainly of the pilsener style, though dark lagers are also consumed) is also popular.Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level. Ice hockey and football have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, though tennis, handball, basketball, volleyball, whitewater slalom, cycling and athletics are also popular.One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia is ice hockey. Slovakia became a member of the IIHF on 2 February 1993 and since then has won 4 medals in Ice Hockey World Championships, consisting of 1 gold, 2 silver and 1 bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the 2012 IIHF World Championship in Helsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made five appearances in the Olympic games, finishing 4th in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked 7th in the IIHF World Ranking at present. Before 2012, the Slovak team HC Slovan Bratislava participated in the Kontinental Hockey League, considered the strongest hockey league in Europe, and the second-best in the world.Slovakia hosted the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where Finland won the gold medal and 2019 IIHF World Championship, where Finland also won the gold medal. Both competitions took place in Bratislava and Košice.Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, the Slovak national football team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by the Netherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory over Italy. In 2016, the Slovak national football team qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, under head coach Ján Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings.In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, namely MFK Košice in 1997–98, FC Artmedia Bratislava in 2005–06 season, and MŠK Žilina in 2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing 3rd at the Group Stage of the UEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage.
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[
"Ivan Gašparovič",
"Andrej Kiska",
"Zuzana Čaputová",
"Michal Kováč"
] |
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Who was the head of state of Slovakia in Sep, 2011?
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September 17, 2011
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{
"text": [
"Ivan Gašparovič"
]
}
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L2_Q214_P35_2
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Rudolf Schuster is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 1999 to Jun, 2004.
Ivan Gašparovič is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2014.
Zuzana Čaputová is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Andrej Kiska is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2014 to Jun, 2019.
Michal Kováč is the head of the state of Slovakia from Mar, 1993 to Mar, 1998.
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SlovakiaSlovakia (; ), officially the Slovak Republic (, ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the southwest, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about , with a population of over 5.4 million. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, while the second largest city is Košice.The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samo's Empire. In the 9th century, they established the Principality of Nitra, which was later conquered by the Principality of Moravia to establish Great Moravia. In the 10th century, after the dissolution of Great Moravia, the territory was integrated into the Principality of Hungary, which would then become the Kingdom of Hungary in 1000. In 1241 and 1242, after the Mongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed. The area was recovered largely thanks to Béla IV of Hungary, who also settled Germans, leading them to become an important ethnic group in the area, especially in what are today parts of central and eastern Slovakia.After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the state of Czechoslovakia was established. The first Slovak Republic existed during World War II as a partially-recognized client state of Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakia was re-established as an independent country. After a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia came under communist administration, and became a part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Attempts to liberalize communism in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Prague Spring, which was crushed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce.Slovakia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, ranking very high in the Human Development Index. It also performs favourably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, and peacefulness. The country maintains a combination of a market economy with a comprehensive social security system, providing citizens with a universal health care, free education, and one of the longest paid parental leaves in the OECD. Slovakia is a member of NATO, CERN, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Group, and the OSCE. It is the world's largest per-capita car producer; it manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" ("Slovensko" in Slovak stemming from the older form "Sloven/Slovienin"). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; the Czech word "Slovák" (in medieval sources from 1291 onward). This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name ("Slovenka"), reference to the lands inhabited ("Slovensko") and the name of the language ("slovenčina") all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tends to stem from this newer form ("Slovakia" in English, "Slowakei" in German, "Slovaquie" in French, etc.).In medieval Latin sources, terms Slavus, Slavonia, or Slavorum (and more variants, from as early as 1029) have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands were Windenland or Windishen landen (early 15th century), with the forms "Slovakia" and "Schlowakei" starting to appear in the 16th century. The present Slovak form "Slovensko" is first attested in the year 1675.The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites. The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful "oppida" on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and ahead on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Devín Castle (present-day downtown Bratislava), the suburbs of Dúbravka and Stupava, and Bratislava Castle Hill.Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hun tribe. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant. After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline but its reign lasted to 804.The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the 7th century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the 8th century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them. When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne. The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., "Dowina", sometimes identified with Devín Castle) are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king ("rex"). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors. Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896. Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary.Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the 10th century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the Lech River they abandoned their nomadic ways; they settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, adopted Christianity and began to build a new state—the Hungarian kingdom.From the 11th century, when the territory inhabited by the Slavic-speaking population of Danubian Basin was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of modern Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state. The ethnic composition became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of the present-day Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts. In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava, Pozsony), but it was closed in 1490 after his death. Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before. Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism. For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans. They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg Monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas. In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia. Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarization), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities, at least on paper.During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialize. Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Secession had created the first Slovak state in history. The government of the First Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso and Vojtech Tuka, was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects.Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War.As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps. Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labor camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky. Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered. The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched a fierce armed insurrection, known as the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians and 32,000 Germans were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference. Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained. The NKVD arrested and deported over 20,000 people to SiberiaAs a result of the Yalta Conference, Czechoslovakia came under the influence and later under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact, after a coup in 1948. Eight thousand two hundred and forty people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree.Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989.The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. The word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics, with the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic. On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways after 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce. Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic. Both countries co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. Slovakia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2009, Slovakia adopted the Euro as its national currency. In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became Slovakia's first female president.Slovakia lies between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains extending across most of the northern half of the country. Among these mountain ranges are the high peaks of the Fatra-Tatra Area (including Tatra Mountains, Greater Fatra and Lesser Fatra), Slovak Ore Mountains, Slovak Central Mountains or Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, followed by the Eastern Slovak Lowland in the southeast. Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of , of which the greater part lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts.To the north, close to the Polish border, are the High Tatras which are a popular hiking and skiing destination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, the Gerlachovský štít at and the country's highly symbolic mountain Kriváň. To the west are the Western Tatras with their highest peak of Bystrá at and to the east are the Belianske Tatras, smallest by area.Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of the Váh river are the Low Tatras, with their highest peak of Ďumbier at .The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on the coat of arms of Slovakia.There are 9 national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface.Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public. Most of the caves have stalagmites rising from the ground and stalactites hanging from above. There are currently five Slovak caves under UNESCO's World Heritage Site status. They are Dobšiná Ice Cave, Domica, Gombasek Cave, Jasovská Cave and Ochtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public include Belianska Cave, Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave or Bystrianska Cave.Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than ). For example, the Dunajec () to the north, the Danube () to the south or the Morava () to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is .The longest river in Slovakia is the Váh (), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are the Myjava, the Nitra (), the Orava, the Hron (), the Hornád (), the Slaná (), the Ipeľ (, forming the border with Hungary), the Bodrog, the Laborec, the Latorica and the Ondava.The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is during spring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in the Alps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.The Slovak climate lies between the temperate and continental climate zones with relatively warm summers and cold, cloudy and humid winters. Temperature extremes are between although temperatures below are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south.The warmest region is Bratislava and Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach in summer, occasionally to in Hurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to . The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of to . During night it may be freezing, but usually not below .In Slovakia, there are four seasons, each season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter.Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of in the first weeks and about in May and in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable.Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding . July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about , especially in regions of southern Slovakia—in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop—40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around (less in the mountains).Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around , in November to . Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-called Indian summer).Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around . In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to and colder.Slovakia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.The biodiversity of Slovakia comprises animals (such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates), fungi (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota), micro-organisms (including Mycetozoa), and plants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa. Endemic biodiversity is also common.Slovakia is located in the biome of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and terrestrial ecoregions of Pannonian mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak, beech, spruce, scrub pine, alpine meadows and subsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries. In terms of forest stands, 60% are broadleaf trees and 40% are coniferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia. Of these, nearly 1,500 are lichen-forming species. Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The last parliamentary elections were held on 29 February 2020 and two rounds of presidential elections took place on 16 and 30 March 2019.The Slovak head of state and the formal head of the executive is the president (currently Zuzana Čaputová, the first female president), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under the two-round system for a five-year term. Most executive power lies with the head of government, the prime minister (currently Eduard Heger), who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.Slovakia's highest legislative body is the 150-seat unicameral National Council of the Slovak Republic ("Národná rada Slovenskej republiky"). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation.Slovakia's highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court of Slovakia ("Ústavný súd"), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament.The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allow direct election of the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. The civil law system is based on Austro-Hungarian codes. The legal code was modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge the Marxist–Leninist legal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with reservations.The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs () is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The ministry's director is Ivan Korčok. The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations.Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2009.Slovakia is a member of the United Nations (since 1993) and participates in its specialized agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council from 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and part of the Visegrád Group (V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland).In 2020, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world.Slovakia maintains diplomatic relations with 134 countries, primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of December 2013, Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes. There are 44 embassies and 35 honorary consulates in Bratislava.Slovakia and the United States retain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in the military and law enforcement areas. The U.S. Department of Defense programs has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. Hundreds of thousands of Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of the original Czechoslovak state on 28 October 1918.The Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic number 14,000 uniformed personnel. Slovakia joined NATO in March 2004. The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions. There is a joint Czech-Slovak peacekeeping force in Kosovo. From 2006 the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished.Slovak Ground Forces are made up of two active mechanised infantry brigades. The Air and Air Defence Forces comprise one wing of fighters, one wing of utility helicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics and communication and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of the General Staff include the 5th Special Forces Regiment.The US State Department in 2017 reported:The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. The most significant human rights issues included incidents of interference with privacy; corruption; widespread discrimination against Roma minority; and security force violence against ethnic and racial minorities government actions and rhetoric did little to discourage. The government investigated reports of abuses by members of the security forces and other government institutions, although some observers questioned the thoroughness of these investigations. Some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Two former ministers were convicted of corruption during the year.Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by the Constitution of Slovakia from the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.According to the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), Romani people in Slovakia "endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."Slovakia is divided into 8 "kraje" (singular—"kraj", usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Their self-governing bodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg. "samosprávny kraj", pl. "samosprávne kraje") or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg. "vyšší územný celok", pl. "vyššie územné celky", abbr. VÚC).The "kraje" are subdivided into many "okresy" (sg. "okres", usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts.The "okresy" are further divided into "obce" (sg. "obec", usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities.In terms of economics and unemployment rate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the third-richest region of the European Union by GDP (PPP) per capita (after Hamburg and Luxembourg City); GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.The Slovak economy is a developed, high-income economy, with the GDP per capita equalling 78% of the average of the European Union in 2018. The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes.The OECD in 2017 reported:The Slovak Republic continues exhibiting robust economic performance, with strong growth backed by a sound financial sector, low public debt and high international competitiveness drawing on large inward investment.In 2020, Slovakia was ranked by the International Monetary Fund as the 38th richest country in the world (out of 187 countries), with purchasing power parity per capita GDP of $38,321. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger". Slovakia successfully transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven economy. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.The Slovak economy is one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and 3rd-fastest in eurozone (2017). In 2007, 2008 and 2010 (with GDP growth of 10.5%, 6% and 4%, retrospectively). In 2016, more than 86% of Slovak exports went to European Union, and more than 50% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 49.4% by the end of 2018, far below the OECD average.Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.Slovakia adopted the Euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved by the European commission on 7 May 2008. The Slovak koruna was revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro, which was also the exchange rate for the euro.The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas. Foreign direct investment inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of $17.3 billion in 2006, or around $22,000 per capita by the end of 2008.Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the 2020 World Bank Doing Business Report and 57th out of the 63 countries in terms of competitive economy, according to the 2020 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report.Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita, with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone. 275,000 people are employed directly and indirectlyby the automotive industry. There are currently four automobile assembly plants: Volkswagen's in Bratislava (models: Volkswagen Up, Volkswagen Touareg, Audi Q7, Audi Q8, Porsche Cayenne, Lamborghini Urus), PSA Peugeot Citroën's in Trnava (models: Peugeot 208, Citroën C3 Picasso), Kia Motors' Žilina Plant (models: Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage, Kia Venga) and Jaguar Land Rover's in Nitra (model: Land Rover Discovery). Hyundai Mobis in Žilina is the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.From electrical engineering companies, Foxconn has a factory at Nitra for LCD TV manufacturing, Samsung at Galanta for computer monitors and television sets manufacturing. Slovnaft based in Bratislava with 4,000 employees, is an oil refinery with a processing capacity of 5.5 - 6 million tonnes of crude oil, annually. Steel producer U. S. Steel in Košice is the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees.ESET is an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000 employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, the Czech Republic, Singapore and Poland. In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres here. Reasons for the influx of multi-national corporations include proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities. Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Amazon, Slovak Telekom, Orange Slovensko, Slovenská sporiteľňa, Tatra banka, Doprastav, Hewlett-Packard Slovakia, Henkel Slovensko, Slovenský plynárenský priemysel, Microsoft Slovakia, Mondelez Slovakia, Whirlpool Slovakia and Zurich Insurance Group Slovakia.Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads for international trade traffic. Various ancient trade routes, such as the Amber Road and the Danube waterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is the road, railway, waterway and airway hub.In 2012, Slovakia produced a total of 28,393 GWh of electricity while at the same time consumed 28 786 GWh. The slightly higher level of consumption than the capacity of production (- 393 GWh) meant the country was not self-sufficient in energy sourcing. Slovakia imported electricity mainly from the Czech Republic (9,961 GWh—73.6% of total import) and exported mainly to Hungary (10,231 GWh—78.2% of total export).Nuclear energy accounts for 53.8% of total electricity production in Slovakia, followed by 18.1% of thermal power energy, 15.1% by hydro power energy, 2% by solar energy, 9.6% by other sources and the rest 1.4% is imported.The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are in Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce, each of them containing two operating reactors. Before the accession of Slovakia to the EU in 2004, the government agreed to turn-off the V1 block of Jaslovské Bohunice power-plant, built-in 1978. After deactivating the last of the two reactors of the V1 block in 2008, Slovakia stopped being self-dependent in energy production. Currently there is another block (V2) with two active reactors in Jaslovské Bohunice. It is scheduled for decommissioning in 2025. Two new reactors are under construction in Mochovce plant. The nuclear power production in Slovakia occasionally draws the attention of Austrian green-energy activists who organise protests and block the borders between the two countries.There are four main highways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction.The D1 motorway connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond, while the D2 motorway connects it to Prague, Brno and Budapest in the north–south direction. A large part of D4 motorway (an outer bypass), which should ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, is scheduled to open in 2020. The A6 motorway to Vienna connects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.Slovakia has four international airports. Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport is the main and largest international airport. It is located northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018. Košice International Airport is an airport serving Košice. It is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Poprad–Tatry Airport is the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest of ski resort town Poprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher than Innsbruck Airport in Austria. The Sliač Airport is the smallest international airport and currently operates only summer charter flights to popular sea resort destinations.Railways of Slovak Republic provides railway transport services on national and international lines.The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere. The Port of Komárno is the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers - the Danube and Váh.Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Most visitors come from the Czech Republic (about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle (often used as a filming location), Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list), Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle. Čachtice Castle was once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady', Elizabeth Báthory.Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and Czechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in the Czech Republic (such as Prague), Austria (such as Salzburg) or Hungary (such as Budapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centers can be found in Bratislava, Trenčín, Košice, Banská Štiavnica, Levoča, and Trnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years.Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in the Baroque style, but there are also many examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, for example Banská Bystrica, Bardejov and Spišská Kapitula. The Basilica of St. James in Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit in Žehra with medieval frescos are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The St. Martin's Concathedral in Bratislava served as the coronation church for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from the Great Moravian period in the 9th century.Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards by Catholics, Lutherans and members of eastern-rite churches.Tourism in Slovak Republic is one of the main sectors of the economy, but not using its whole capacity. It is based on internal tourism, where Slovaks spend holidays within the country. Major areas are: Bratislava and Vysoké Tatry. To other regions belong: Pieniny National Park, Malá Fatra NP, and Nízke Tatry NP.There are many castles located throughout the country. To the biggest and the most beautiful ones belong: Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle, Krásna Hôrka Castle, Orava Castle, Trenčín Castle and Bratislava Castle. To the castle ruins belong Beckov Castle, Devín Castle, Šariš Castle, Považský hrad (castle), and Strečno Castle, where was filmed Dragonheart movie.Caves opened for public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia. In the south-west of the country only Jaskyňa Driny is opened to the public. The most popular ones are: Dobšinská Ice Cave, Demänovská ľadová cave, Demänovská jaskyňa slobody, Belianska cave, and Domica cave. To the other caves which are opened belong Ochtinská aragonitová cave, Gombasecká cave, and Jasovská cave.There are many spas throughout the whole country. The biggest and the most favorite center is Piešťany spa, where a big portion of visitors come from The Gulf countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. To the other famous spas belong: Bardejovské kúpele, Trenčianske Teplice spa, Turčianske Teplice spa, and Spa Rajecké Teplice. There are many smaller ones: Kúpele Štós, Kúpele Číž, Kúpele Dudince, Kováčová, Kúpele Nimnica, Kúpele Smrdáky, Kúpele Lúčky, and Kúpele Vyšné Ružbachy with treatments against schizophrenia.Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV ("Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby"—Centre of Folk Art Production). "Dielo" shop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities.Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower.The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. Slovakia is currently in the negotiation process of becoming a member of the European Space Agency. Observer status was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA. In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organizations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Full membership of Slovakia in the ESA is expected in 2020 after signing the ESA Convention. Slovakia will be obliged to set state budget inclusive ESA funding.The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly of Slovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km. According to the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are Slovaks (80.7%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (8.5%). Other ethnic groups include Roma (2%), Czechs (0.6%), Rusyns (0.6%) and others or unspecified (7.6%).In 2018 the median age of the Slovak population was 41 years.The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family. Hungarian is widely spoken in the southern regions, and Rusyn is used in some parts of the Northeast. Minority languages hold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing 2nd highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia is Czech. Eurostat report also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union. According to a Eurobarometer survey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).The deaf community uses the Slovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close to Czech Sign Language.The Slovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion. In 2011, 62.0% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 5.9% as Lutherans, 1.8% as Calvinists, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 13.4% identified themselves as atheists or non-religious, and 10.6% did not answer the question about their belief. In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services. The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern rite sui iuris Catholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during the Holocaust. After further reductions due to postwar emigration and assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is the Baháʼí Faith. In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that will obstruct Islam and other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovak president Andrej Kiska vetoed the bill. In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000 Muslims in Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population. Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union without a mosque.The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Slovak secondary education the 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, in Slovak and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school.After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school.After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university is Comenius University, established in 1919. Although it's not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it's the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools.Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities.Folk tradition has rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is a Slovak national anthem, ""Nad Tatrou sa blýska"", which is based on a melody from ""Kopala studienku"" folk song.The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the ""Východná"" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation, which takes place in Východná annually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK ("Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective"). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition.An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec which has been the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993. The Prešov Region preserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law as cultural heritage, but some of them are on the UNESCO list too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá.The best known Slovak hero, found in many folk mythologies, is Juraj Jánošík (1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a film "Jánošík" directed by Martin Frič in 1935.Visual art in Slovakia is represented through painting, drawing, printmaking, illustration, arts and crafts, sculpture, photography or conceptual art. The Slovak National Gallery founded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated in Esterházy Palace ("Esterházyho palác") and the Water Barracks ("Vodné kasárne"), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.The Bratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays in Pálffy Palace and Mirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated near Čunovo waterworks (part of Gabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include: Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art (Warhol's parents were from Miková), East Slovak Gallery, Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery, Zvolen Castle.Christian topics include poem Proglas as a foreword to the four Gospels, partial translations of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic, "Zakon sudnyj ljudem".Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written in Latin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period include Johannes de Thurocz, author of the Chronica Hungarorum and Maurus, both of them Hungarians. The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period.Two leading persons codified Slovak. The first was Anton Bernolák, whose concept was based on the western Slovak dialect in 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second was Ľudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843.Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček.Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly on pork, poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. It is relatively closely related to Hungarian, Czech, Polish and Austrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced by Ukrainian, including Lemko and Rusyn. In comparison with other European countries, "game meat" is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular. Boar, rabbit, and venison are generally available throughout the year. Lamb and goat are eaten but are not widely popular.The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants.A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal.Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing. Beer (mainly of the pilsener style, though dark lagers are also consumed) is also popular.Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level. Ice hockey and football have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, though tennis, handball, basketball, volleyball, whitewater slalom, cycling and athletics are also popular.One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia is ice hockey. Slovakia became a member of the IIHF on 2 February 1993 and since then has won 4 medals in Ice Hockey World Championships, consisting of 1 gold, 2 silver and 1 bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the 2012 IIHF World Championship in Helsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made five appearances in the Olympic games, finishing 4th in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked 7th in the IIHF World Ranking at present. Before 2012, the Slovak team HC Slovan Bratislava participated in the Kontinental Hockey League, considered the strongest hockey league in Europe, and the second-best in the world.Slovakia hosted the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where Finland won the gold medal and 2019 IIHF World Championship, where Finland also won the gold medal. Both competitions took place in Bratislava and Košice.Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, the Slovak national football team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by the Netherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory over Italy. In 2016, the Slovak national football team qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, under head coach Ján Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings.In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, namely MFK Košice in 1997–98, FC Artmedia Bratislava in 2005–06 season, and MŠK Žilina in 2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing 3rd at the Group Stage of the UEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage.
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[
"Andrej Kiska",
"Zuzana Čaputová",
"Michal Kováč",
"Rudolf Schuster"
] |
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Who was the head of state of Slovakia in Sep, 2017?
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September 18, 2017
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{
"text": [
"Andrej Kiska"
]
}
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L2_Q214_P35_3
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Rudolf Schuster is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 1999 to Jun, 2004.
Zuzana Čaputová is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Ivan Gašparovič is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2014.
Andrej Kiska is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2014 to Jun, 2019.
Michal Kováč is the head of the state of Slovakia from Mar, 1993 to Mar, 1998.
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SlovakiaSlovakia (; ), officially the Slovak Republic (, ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the southwest, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about , with a population of over 5.4 million. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, while the second largest city is Košice.The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samo's Empire. In the 9th century, they established the Principality of Nitra, which was later conquered by the Principality of Moravia to establish Great Moravia. In the 10th century, after the dissolution of Great Moravia, the territory was integrated into the Principality of Hungary, which would then become the Kingdom of Hungary in 1000. In 1241 and 1242, after the Mongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed. The area was recovered largely thanks to Béla IV of Hungary, who also settled Germans, leading them to become an important ethnic group in the area, especially in what are today parts of central and eastern Slovakia.After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the state of Czechoslovakia was established. The first Slovak Republic existed during World War II as a partially-recognized client state of Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakia was re-established as an independent country. After a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia came under communist administration, and became a part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Attempts to liberalize communism in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Prague Spring, which was crushed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce.Slovakia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, ranking very high in the Human Development Index. It also performs favourably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, and peacefulness. The country maintains a combination of a market economy with a comprehensive social security system, providing citizens with a universal health care, free education, and one of the longest paid parental leaves in the OECD. Slovakia is a member of NATO, CERN, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Group, and the OSCE. It is the world's largest per-capita car producer; it manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" ("Slovensko" in Slovak stemming from the older form "Sloven/Slovienin"). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; the Czech word "Slovák" (in medieval sources from 1291 onward). This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name ("Slovenka"), reference to the lands inhabited ("Slovensko") and the name of the language ("slovenčina") all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tends to stem from this newer form ("Slovakia" in English, "Slowakei" in German, "Slovaquie" in French, etc.).In medieval Latin sources, terms Slavus, Slavonia, or Slavorum (and more variants, from as early as 1029) have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands were Windenland or Windishen landen (early 15th century), with the forms "Slovakia" and "Schlowakei" starting to appear in the 16th century. The present Slovak form "Slovensko" is first attested in the year 1675.The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites. The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful "oppida" on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and ahead on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Devín Castle (present-day downtown Bratislava), the suburbs of Dúbravka and Stupava, and Bratislava Castle Hill.Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hun tribe. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant. After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline but its reign lasted to 804.The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the 7th century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the 8th century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them. When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne. The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., "Dowina", sometimes identified with Devín Castle) are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king ("rex"). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors. Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896. Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary.Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the 10th century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the Lech River they abandoned their nomadic ways; they settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, adopted Christianity and began to build a new state—the Hungarian kingdom.From the 11th century, when the territory inhabited by the Slavic-speaking population of Danubian Basin was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of modern Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state. The ethnic composition became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of the present-day Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts. In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava, Pozsony), but it was closed in 1490 after his death. Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before. Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism. For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans. They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg Monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas. In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia. Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarization), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities, at least on paper.During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialize. Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Secession had created the first Slovak state in history. The government of the First Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso and Vojtech Tuka, was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects.Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War.As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps. Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labor camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky. Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered. The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched a fierce armed insurrection, known as the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians and 32,000 Germans were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference. Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained. The NKVD arrested and deported over 20,000 people to SiberiaAs a result of the Yalta Conference, Czechoslovakia came under the influence and later under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact, after a coup in 1948. Eight thousand two hundred and forty people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree.Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989.The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. The word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics, with the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic. On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways after 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce. Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic. Both countries co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. Slovakia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2009, Slovakia adopted the Euro as its national currency. In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became Slovakia's first female president.Slovakia lies between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains extending across most of the northern half of the country. Among these mountain ranges are the high peaks of the Fatra-Tatra Area (including Tatra Mountains, Greater Fatra and Lesser Fatra), Slovak Ore Mountains, Slovak Central Mountains or Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, followed by the Eastern Slovak Lowland in the southeast. Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of , of which the greater part lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts.To the north, close to the Polish border, are the High Tatras which are a popular hiking and skiing destination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, the Gerlachovský štít at and the country's highly symbolic mountain Kriváň. To the west are the Western Tatras with their highest peak of Bystrá at and to the east are the Belianske Tatras, smallest by area.Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of the Váh river are the Low Tatras, with their highest peak of Ďumbier at .The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on the coat of arms of Slovakia.There are 9 national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface.Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public. Most of the caves have stalagmites rising from the ground and stalactites hanging from above. There are currently five Slovak caves under UNESCO's World Heritage Site status. They are Dobšiná Ice Cave, Domica, Gombasek Cave, Jasovská Cave and Ochtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public include Belianska Cave, Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave or Bystrianska Cave.Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than ). For example, the Dunajec () to the north, the Danube () to the south or the Morava () to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is .The longest river in Slovakia is the Váh (), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are the Myjava, the Nitra (), the Orava, the Hron (), the Hornád (), the Slaná (), the Ipeľ (, forming the border with Hungary), the Bodrog, the Laborec, the Latorica and the Ondava.The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is during spring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in the Alps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.The Slovak climate lies between the temperate and continental climate zones with relatively warm summers and cold, cloudy and humid winters. Temperature extremes are between although temperatures below are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south.The warmest region is Bratislava and Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach in summer, occasionally to in Hurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to . The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of to . During night it may be freezing, but usually not below .In Slovakia, there are four seasons, each season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter.Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of in the first weeks and about in May and in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable.Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding . July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about , especially in regions of southern Slovakia—in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop—40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around (less in the mountains).Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around , in November to . Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-called Indian summer).Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around . In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to and colder.Slovakia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.The biodiversity of Slovakia comprises animals (such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates), fungi (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota), micro-organisms (including Mycetozoa), and plants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa. Endemic biodiversity is also common.Slovakia is located in the biome of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and terrestrial ecoregions of Pannonian mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak, beech, spruce, scrub pine, alpine meadows and subsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries. In terms of forest stands, 60% are broadleaf trees and 40% are coniferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia. Of these, nearly 1,500 are lichen-forming species. Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The last parliamentary elections were held on 29 February 2020 and two rounds of presidential elections took place on 16 and 30 March 2019.The Slovak head of state and the formal head of the executive is the president (currently Zuzana Čaputová, the first female president), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under the two-round system for a five-year term. Most executive power lies with the head of government, the prime minister (currently Eduard Heger), who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.Slovakia's highest legislative body is the 150-seat unicameral National Council of the Slovak Republic ("Národná rada Slovenskej republiky"). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation.Slovakia's highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court of Slovakia ("Ústavný súd"), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament.The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allow direct election of the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. The civil law system is based on Austro-Hungarian codes. The legal code was modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge the Marxist–Leninist legal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with reservations.The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs () is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The ministry's director is Ivan Korčok. The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations.Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2009.Slovakia is a member of the United Nations (since 1993) and participates in its specialized agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council from 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and part of the Visegrád Group (V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland).In 2020, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world.Slovakia maintains diplomatic relations with 134 countries, primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of December 2013, Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes. There are 44 embassies and 35 honorary consulates in Bratislava.Slovakia and the United States retain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in the military and law enforcement areas. The U.S. Department of Defense programs has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. Hundreds of thousands of Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of the original Czechoslovak state on 28 October 1918.The Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic number 14,000 uniformed personnel. Slovakia joined NATO in March 2004. The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions. There is a joint Czech-Slovak peacekeeping force in Kosovo. From 2006 the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished.Slovak Ground Forces are made up of two active mechanised infantry brigades. The Air and Air Defence Forces comprise one wing of fighters, one wing of utility helicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics and communication and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of the General Staff include the 5th Special Forces Regiment.The US State Department in 2017 reported:The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. The most significant human rights issues included incidents of interference with privacy; corruption; widespread discrimination against Roma minority; and security force violence against ethnic and racial minorities government actions and rhetoric did little to discourage. The government investigated reports of abuses by members of the security forces and other government institutions, although some observers questioned the thoroughness of these investigations. Some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Two former ministers were convicted of corruption during the year.Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by the Constitution of Slovakia from the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.According to the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), Romani people in Slovakia "endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."Slovakia is divided into 8 "kraje" (singular—"kraj", usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Their self-governing bodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg. "samosprávny kraj", pl. "samosprávne kraje") or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg. "vyšší územný celok", pl. "vyššie územné celky", abbr. VÚC).The "kraje" are subdivided into many "okresy" (sg. "okres", usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts.The "okresy" are further divided into "obce" (sg. "obec", usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities.In terms of economics and unemployment rate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the third-richest region of the European Union by GDP (PPP) per capita (after Hamburg and Luxembourg City); GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.The Slovak economy is a developed, high-income economy, with the GDP per capita equalling 78% of the average of the European Union in 2018. The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes.The OECD in 2017 reported:The Slovak Republic continues exhibiting robust economic performance, with strong growth backed by a sound financial sector, low public debt and high international competitiveness drawing on large inward investment.In 2020, Slovakia was ranked by the International Monetary Fund as the 38th richest country in the world (out of 187 countries), with purchasing power parity per capita GDP of $38,321. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger". Slovakia successfully transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven economy. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.The Slovak economy is one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and 3rd-fastest in eurozone (2017). In 2007, 2008 and 2010 (with GDP growth of 10.5%, 6% and 4%, retrospectively). In 2016, more than 86% of Slovak exports went to European Union, and more than 50% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 49.4% by the end of 2018, far below the OECD average.Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.Slovakia adopted the Euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved by the European commission on 7 May 2008. The Slovak koruna was revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro, which was also the exchange rate for the euro.The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas. Foreign direct investment inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of $17.3 billion in 2006, or around $22,000 per capita by the end of 2008.Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the 2020 World Bank Doing Business Report and 57th out of the 63 countries in terms of competitive economy, according to the 2020 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report.Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita, with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone. 275,000 people are employed directly and indirectlyby the automotive industry. There are currently four automobile assembly plants: Volkswagen's in Bratislava (models: Volkswagen Up, Volkswagen Touareg, Audi Q7, Audi Q8, Porsche Cayenne, Lamborghini Urus), PSA Peugeot Citroën's in Trnava (models: Peugeot 208, Citroën C3 Picasso), Kia Motors' Žilina Plant (models: Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage, Kia Venga) and Jaguar Land Rover's in Nitra (model: Land Rover Discovery). Hyundai Mobis in Žilina is the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.From electrical engineering companies, Foxconn has a factory at Nitra for LCD TV manufacturing, Samsung at Galanta for computer monitors and television sets manufacturing. Slovnaft based in Bratislava with 4,000 employees, is an oil refinery with a processing capacity of 5.5 - 6 million tonnes of crude oil, annually. Steel producer U. S. Steel in Košice is the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees.ESET is an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000 employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, the Czech Republic, Singapore and Poland. In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres here. Reasons for the influx of multi-national corporations include proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities. Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Amazon, Slovak Telekom, Orange Slovensko, Slovenská sporiteľňa, Tatra banka, Doprastav, Hewlett-Packard Slovakia, Henkel Slovensko, Slovenský plynárenský priemysel, Microsoft Slovakia, Mondelez Slovakia, Whirlpool Slovakia and Zurich Insurance Group Slovakia.Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads for international trade traffic. Various ancient trade routes, such as the Amber Road and the Danube waterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is the road, railway, waterway and airway hub.In 2012, Slovakia produced a total of 28,393 GWh of electricity while at the same time consumed 28 786 GWh. The slightly higher level of consumption than the capacity of production (- 393 GWh) meant the country was not self-sufficient in energy sourcing. Slovakia imported electricity mainly from the Czech Republic (9,961 GWh—73.6% of total import) and exported mainly to Hungary (10,231 GWh—78.2% of total export).Nuclear energy accounts for 53.8% of total electricity production in Slovakia, followed by 18.1% of thermal power energy, 15.1% by hydro power energy, 2% by solar energy, 9.6% by other sources and the rest 1.4% is imported.The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are in Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce, each of them containing two operating reactors. Before the accession of Slovakia to the EU in 2004, the government agreed to turn-off the V1 block of Jaslovské Bohunice power-plant, built-in 1978. After deactivating the last of the two reactors of the V1 block in 2008, Slovakia stopped being self-dependent in energy production. Currently there is another block (V2) with two active reactors in Jaslovské Bohunice. It is scheduled for decommissioning in 2025. Two new reactors are under construction in Mochovce plant. The nuclear power production in Slovakia occasionally draws the attention of Austrian green-energy activists who organise protests and block the borders between the two countries.There are four main highways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction.The D1 motorway connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond, while the D2 motorway connects it to Prague, Brno and Budapest in the north–south direction. A large part of D4 motorway (an outer bypass), which should ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, is scheduled to open in 2020. The A6 motorway to Vienna connects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.Slovakia has four international airports. Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport is the main and largest international airport. It is located northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018. Košice International Airport is an airport serving Košice. It is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Poprad–Tatry Airport is the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest of ski resort town Poprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher than Innsbruck Airport in Austria. The Sliač Airport is the smallest international airport and currently operates only summer charter flights to popular sea resort destinations.Railways of Slovak Republic provides railway transport services on national and international lines.The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere. The Port of Komárno is the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers - the Danube and Váh.Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Most visitors come from the Czech Republic (about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle (often used as a filming location), Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list), Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle. Čachtice Castle was once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady', Elizabeth Báthory.Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and Czechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in the Czech Republic (such as Prague), Austria (such as Salzburg) or Hungary (such as Budapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centers can be found in Bratislava, Trenčín, Košice, Banská Štiavnica, Levoča, and Trnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years.Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in the Baroque style, but there are also many examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, for example Banská Bystrica, Bardejov and Spišská Kapitula. The Basilica of St. James in Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit in Žehra with medieval frescos are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The St. Martin's Concathedral in Bratislava served as the coronation church for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from the Great Moravian period in the 9th century.Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards by Catholics, Lutherans and members of eastern-rite churches.Tourism in Slovak Republic is one of the main sectors of the economy, but not using its whole capacity. It is based on internal tourism, where Slovaks spend holidays within the country. Major areas are: Bratislava and Vysoké Tatry. To other regions belong: Pieniny National Park, Malá Fatra NP, and Nízke Tatry NP.There are many castles located throughout the country. To the biggest and the most beautiful ones belong: Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle, Krásna Hôrka Castle, Orava Castle, Trenčín Castle and Bratislava Castle. To the castle ruins belong Beckov Castle, Devín Castle, Šariš Castle, Považský hrad (castle), and Strečno Castle, where was filmed Dragonheart movie.Caves opened for public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia. In the south-west of the country only Jaskyňa Driny is opened to the public. The most popular ones are: Dobšinská Ice Cave, Demänovská ľadová cave, Demänovská jaskyňa slobody, Belianska cave, and Domica cave. To the other caves which are opened belong Ochtinská aragonitová cave, Gombasecká cave, and Jasovská cave.There are many spas throughout the whole country. The biggest and the most favorite center is Piešťany spa, where a big portion of visitors come from The Gulf countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. To the other famous spas belong: Bardejovské kúpele, Trenčianske Teplice spa, Turčianske Teplice spa, and Spa Rajecké Teplice. There are many smaller ones: Kúpele Štós, Kúpele Číž, Kúpele Dudince, Kováčová, Kúpele Nimnica, Kúpele Smrdáky, Kúpele Lúčky, and Kúpele Vyšné Ružbachy with treatments against schizophrenia.Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV ("Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby"—Centre of Folk Art Production). "Dielo" shop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities.Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower.The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. Slovakia is currently in the negotiation process of becoming a member of the European Space Agency. Observer status was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA. In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organizations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Full membership of Slovakia in the ESA is expected in 2020 after signing the ESA Convention. Slovakia will be obliged to set state budget inclusive ESA funding.The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly of Slovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km. According to the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are Slovaks (80.7%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (8.5%). Other ethnic groups include Roma (2%), Czechs (0.6%), Rusyns (0.6%) and others or unspecified (7.6%).In 2018 the median age of the Slovak population was 41 years.The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family. Hungarian is widely spoken in the southern regions, and Rusyn is used in some parts of the Northeast. Minority languages hold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing 2nd highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia is Czech. Eurostat report also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union. According to a Eurobarometer survey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).The deaf community uses the Slovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close to Czech Sign Language.The Slovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion. In 2011, 62.0% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 5.9% as Lutherans, 1.8% as Calvinists, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 13.4% identified themselves as atheists or non-religious, and 10.6% did not answer the question about their belief. In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services. The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern rite sui iuris Catholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during the Holocaust. After further reductions due to postwar emigration and assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is the Baháʼí Faith. In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that will obstruct Islam and other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovak president Andrej Kiska vetoed the bill. In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000 Muslims in Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population. Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union without a mosque.The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Slovak secondary education the 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, in Slovak and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school.After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school.After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university is Comenius University, established in 1919. Although it's not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it's the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools.Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities.Folk tradition has rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is a Slovak national anthem, ""Nad Tatrou sa blýska"", which is based on a melody from ""Kopala studienku"" folk song.The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the ""Východná"" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation, which takes place in Východná annually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK ("Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective"). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition.An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec which has been the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993. The Prešov Region preserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law as cultural heritage, but some of them are on the UNESCO list too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá.The best known Slovak hero, found in many folk mythologies, is Juraj Jánošík (1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a film "Jánošík" directed by Martin Frič in 1935.Visual art in Slovakia is represented through painting, drawing, printmaking, illustration, arts and crafts, sculpture, photography or conceptual art. The Slovak National Gallery founded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated in Esterházy Palace ("Esterházyho palác") and the Water Barracks ("Vodné kasárne"), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.The Bratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays in Pálffy Palace and Mirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated near Čunovo waterworks (part of Gabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include: Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art (Warhol's parents were from Miková), East Slovak Gallery, Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery, Zvolen Castle.Christian topics include poem Proglas as a foreword to the four Gospels, partial translations of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic, "Zakon sudnyj ljudem".Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written in Latin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period include Johannes de Thurocz, author of the Chronica Hungarorum and Maurus, both of them Hungarians. The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period.Two leading persons codified Slovak. The first was Anton Bernolák, whose concept was based on the western Slovak dialect in 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second was Ľudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843.Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček.Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly on pork, poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. It is relatively closely related to Hungarian, Czech, Polish and Austrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced by Ukrainian, including Lemko and Rusyn. In comparison with other European countries, "game meat" is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular. Boar, rabbit, and venison are generally available throughout the year. Lamb and goat are eaten but are not widely popular.The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants.A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal.Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing. Beer (mainly of the pilsener style, though dark lagers are also consumed) is also popular.Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level. Ice hockey and football have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, though tennis, handball, basketball, volleyball, whitewater slalom, cycling and athletics are also popular.One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia is ice hockey. Slovakia became a member of the IIHF on 2 February 1993 and since then has won 4 medals in Ice Hockey World Championships, consisting of 1 gold, 2 silver and 1 bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the 2012 IIHF World Championship in Helsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made five appearances in the Olympic games, finishing 4th in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked 7th in the IIHF World Ranking at present. Before 2012, the Slovak team HC Slovan Bratislava participated in the Kontinental Hockey League, considered the strongest hockey league in Europe, and the second-best in the world.Slovakia hosted the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where Finland won the gold medal and 2019 IIHF World Championship, where Finland also won the gold medal. Both competitions took place in Bratislava and Košice.Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, the Slovak national football team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by the Netherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory over Italy. In 2016, the Slovak national football team qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, under head coach Ján Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings.In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, namely MFK Košice in 1997–98, FC Artmedia Bratislava in 2005–06 season, and MŠK Žilina in 2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing 3rd at the Group Stage of the UEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage.
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[
"Ivan Gašparovič",
"Zuzana Čaputová",
"Michal Kováč",
"Rudolf Schuster"
] |
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Who was the head of state of Slovakia in Dec, 2020?
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December 20, 2020
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{
"text": [
"Zuzana Čaputová"
]
}
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L2_Q214_P35_4
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Andrej Kiska is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2014 to Jun, 2019.
Ivan Gašparovič is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2014.
Zuzana Čaputová is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Rudolf Schuster is the head of the state of Slovakia from Jun, 1999 to Jun, 2004.
Michal Kováč is the head of the state of Slovakia from Mar, 1993 to Mar, 1998.
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SlovakiaSlovakia (; ), officially the Slovak Republic (, ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the southwest, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about , with a population of over 5.4 million. The capital and largest city is Bratislava, while the second largest city is Košice.The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samo's Empire. In the 9th century, they established the Principality of Nitra, which was later conquered by the Principality of Moravia to establish Great Moravia. In the 10th century, after the dissolution of Great Moravia, the territory was integrated into the Principality of Hungary, which would then become the Kingdom of Hungary in 1000. In 1241 and 1242, after the Mongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed. The area was recovered largely thanks to Béla IV of Hungary, who also settled Germans, leading them to become an important ethnic group in the area, especially in what are today parts of central and eastern Slovakia.After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the state of Czechoslovakia was established. The first Slovak Republic existed during World War II as a partially-recognized client state of Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakia was re-established as an independent country. After a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia came under communist administration, and became a part of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Attempts to liberalize communism in Czechoslovakia culminated in the Prague Spring, which was crushed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce.Slovakia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, ranking very high in the Human Development Index. It also performs favourably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, and peacefulness. The country maintains a combination of a market economy with a comprehensive social security system, providing citizens with a universal health care, free education, and one of the longest paid parental leaves in the OECD. Slovakia is a member of NATO, CERN, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Group, and the OSCE. It is the world's largest per-capita car producer; it manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" ("Slovensko" in Slovak stemming from the older form "Sloven/Slovienin"). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; the Czech word "Slovák" (in medieval sources from 1291 onward). This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name ("Slovenka"), reference to the lands inhabited ("Slovensko") and the name of the language ("slovenčina") all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tends to stem from this newer form ("Slovakia" in English, "Slowakei" in German, "Slovaquie" in French, etc.).In medieval Latin sources, terms Slavus, Slavonia, or Slavorum (and more variants, from as early as 1029) have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands were Windenland or Windishen landen (early 15th century), with the forms "Slovakia" and "Schlowakei" starting to appear in the 16th century. The present Slovak form "Slovensko" is first attested in the year 1675.The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites. The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful "oppida" on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and ahead on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Devín Castle (present-day downtown Bratislava), the suburbs of Dúbravka and Stupava, and Bratislava Castle Hill.Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hun tribe. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant. After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline but its reign lasted to 804.The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the 7th century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the 8th century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them. When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne. The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., "Dowina", sometimes identified with Devín Castle) are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king ("rex"). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors. Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896. Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary.Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the 10th century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the Lech River they abandoned their nomadic ways; they settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, adopted Christianity and began to build a new state—the Hungarian kingdom.From the 11th century, when the territory inhabited by the Slavic-speaking population of Danubian Basin was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of modern Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state. The ethnic composition became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of the present-day Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts. In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava, Pozsony), but it was closed in 1490 after his death. Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before. Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism. For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans. They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg Monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas. In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia. Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarization), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities, at least on paper.During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialize. Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.After the Munich Agreement and its Vienna Award, Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Secession had created the first Slovak state in history. The government of the First Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso and Vojtech Tuka, was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became a puppet regime in many respects.Meanwhile, the Czechoslovak government-in-exile sought to reverse the Munich Agreement and the subsequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia and to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated from London and it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government for Czechoslovakia throughout the Second World War.As part of the Holocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to German death camps. Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labor camps in Sereď, Vyhne, and Nováky. Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered. The Slovak state paid Germany 500 RM per every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid by Croatia).After it became clear that the Soviet Red Army was going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Nazi resistance movement launched a fierce armed insurrection, known as the Slovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and their local collaborators completely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted and Jozef Tiso was executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than 80,000 Hungarians and 32,000 Germans were forced to leave Slovakia, in a series of population transfers initiated by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference. Out of about 130,000 Carpathian Germans in Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained. The NKVD arrested and deported over 20,000 people to SiberiaAs a result of the Yalta Conference, Czechoslovakia came under the influence and later under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact, after a coup in 1948. Eight thousand two hundred and forty people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.In 1968, following the Prague Spring, the country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Poland, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation.In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree.Borders with the West were protected by the Iron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria and West Germany between 1948 and 1989.The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peaceful Velvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into two successor states. The word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics, with the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed as Slovak Republic. On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Mečiar and Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.The Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic went their separate ways after 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called the Velvet Divorce. Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic. Both countries co-operate with Hungary and Poland in the Visegrád Group. Slovakia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2009, Slovakia adopted the Euro as its national currency. In 2019, Zuzana Čaputová became Slovakia's first female president.Slovakia lies between latitudes 47° and 50° N, and longitudes 16° and 23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with the Carpathian Mountains extending across most of the northern half of the country. Among these mountain ranges are the high peaks of the Fatra-Tatra Area (including Tatra Mountains, Greater Fatra and Lesser Fatra), Slovak Ore Mountains, Slovak Central Mountains or Beskids. The largest lowland is the fertile Danubian Lowland in the southwest, followed by the Eastern Slovak Lowland in the southeast. Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of , of which the greater part lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts.To the north, close to the Polish border, are the High Tatras which are a popular hiking and skiing destination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, the Gerlachovský štít at and the country's highly symbolic mountain Kriváň. To the west are the Western Tatras with their highest peak of Bystrá at and to the east are the Belianske Tatras, smallest by area.Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of the Váh river are the Low Tatras, with their highest peak of Ďumbier at .The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on the coat of arms of Slovakia.There are 9 national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface.Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public. Most of the caves have stalagmites rising from the ground and stalactites hanging from above. There are currently five Slovak caves under UNESCO's World Heritage Site status. They are Dobšiná Ice Cave, Domica, Gombasek Cave, Jasovská Cave and Ochtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public include Belianska Cave, Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave or Bystrianska Cave.Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than ). For example, the Dunajec () to the north, the Danube () to the south or the Morava () to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is .The longest river in Slovakia is the Váh (), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are the Myjava, the Nitra (), the Orava, the Hron (), the Hornád (), the Slaná (), the Ipeľ (, forming the border with Hungary), the Bodrog, the Laborec, the Latorica and the Ondava.The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is during spring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in the Alps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.The Slovak climate lies between the temperate and continental climate zones with relatively warm summers and cold, cloudy and humid winters. Temperature extremes are between although temperatures below are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south.The warmest region is Bratislava and Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach in summer, occasionally to in Hurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to . The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of to . During night it may be freezing, but usually not below .In Slovakia, there are four seasons, each season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter.Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of in the first weeks and about in May and in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable.Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding . July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about , especially in regions of southern Slovakia—in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop—40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around (less in the mountains).Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around , in November to . Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-called Indian summer).Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around . In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to and colder.Slovakia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.The biodiversity of Slovakia comprises animals (such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates), fungi (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota), micro-organisms (including Mycetozoa), and plants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa. Endemic biodiversity is also common.Slovakia is located in the biome of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and terrestrial ecoregions of Pannonian mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak, beech, spruce, scrub pine, alpine meadows and subsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries. In terms of forest stands, 60% are broadleaf trees and 40% are coniferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia. Of these, nearly 1,500 are lichen-forming species. Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.Slovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic with a multi-party system. The last parliamentary elections were held on 29 February 2020 and two rounds of presidential elections took place on 16 and 30 March 2019.The Slovak head of state and the formal head of the executive is the president (currently Zuzana Čaputová, the first female president), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under the two-round system for a five-year term. Most executive power lies with the head of government, the prime minister (currently Eduard Heger), who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.Slovakia's highest legislative body is the 150-seat unicameral National Council of the Slovak Republic ("Národná rada Slovenskej republiky"). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation.Slovakia's highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court of Slovakia ("Ústavný súd"), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament.The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allow direct election of the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. The civil law system is based on Austro-Hungarian codes. The legal code was modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and to expunge the Marxist–Leninist legal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction with reservations.The Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs () is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic's external relations and the management of its international diplomatic missions. The ministry's director is Ivan Korčok. The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organizations.Slovakia joined the European Union and NATO in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2009.Slovakia is a member of the United Nations (since 1993) and participates in its specialized agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on the UN Security Council from 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and part of the Visegrád Group (V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland).In 2020, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 181 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world.Slovakia maintains diplomatic relations with 134 countries, primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of December 2013, Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes. There are 44 embassies and 35 honorary consulates in Bratislava.Slovakia and the United States retain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in the military and law enforcement areas. The U.S. Department of Defense programs has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. Hundreds of thousands of Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of the original Czechoslovak state on 28 October 1918.The Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic number 14,000 uniformed personnel. Slovakia joined NATO in March 2004. The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions. There is a joint Czech-Slovak peacekeeping force in Kosovo. From 2006 the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished.Slovak Ground Forces are made up of two active mechanised infantry brigades. The Air and Air Defence Forces comprise one wing of fighters, one wing of utility helicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics and communication and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of the General Staff include the 5th Special Forces Regiment.The US State Department in 2017 reported:The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas. The most significant human rights issues included incidents of interference with privacy; corruption; widespread discrimination against Roma minority; and security force violence against ethnic and racial minorities government actions and rhetoric did little to discourage. The government investigated reports of abuses by members of the security forces and other government institutions, although some observers questioned the thoroughness of these investigations. Some officials engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. Two former ministers were convicted of corruption during the year.Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by the Constitution of Slovakia from the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.According to the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), Romani people in Slovakia "endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."Slovakia is divided into 8 "kraje" (singular—"kraj", usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Their self-governing bodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg. "samosprávny kraj", pl. "samosprávne kraje") or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg. "vyšší územný celok", pl. "vyššie územné celky", abbr. VÚC).The "kraje" are subdivided into many "okresy" (sg. "okres", usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts.The "okresy" are further divided into "obce" (sg. "obec", usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities.In terms of economics and unemployment rate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the third-richest region of the European Union by GDP (PPP) per capita (after Hamburg and Luxembourg City); GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.The Slovak economy is a developed, high-income economy, with the GDP per capita equalling 78% of the average of the European Union in 2018. The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes.The OECD in 2017 reported:The Slovak Republic continues exhibiting robust economic performance, with strong growth backed by a sound financial sector, low public debt and high international competitiveness drawing on large inward investment.In 2020, Slovakia was ranked by the International Monetary Fund as the 38th richest country in the world (out of 187 countries), with purchasing power parity per capita GDP of $38,321. The country used to be dubbed the "Tatra Tiger". Slovakia successfully transformed from a centrally planned economy to a market-driven economy. Major privatisations are completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.The Slovak economy is one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and 3rd-fastest in eurozone (2017). In 2007, 2008 and 2010 (with GDP growth of 10.5%, 6% and 4%, retrospectively). In 2016, more than 86% of Slovak exports went to European Union, and more than 50% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 49.4% by the end of 2018, far below the OECD average.Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.Slovakia adopted the Euro currency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved by the European commission on 7 May 2008. The Slovak koruna was revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro, which was also the exchange rate for the euro.The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country for foreign investors mainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educated labour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas. Foreign direct investment inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of $17.3 billion in 2006, or around $22,000 per capita by the end of 2008.Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the 2020 World Bank Doing Business Report and 57th out of the 63 countries in terms of competitive economy, according to the 2020 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report.Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors are car manufacturing and electrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita, with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone. 275,000 people are employed directly and indirectlyby the automotive industry. There are currently four automobile assembly plants: Volkswagen's in Bratislava (models: Volkswagen Up, Volkswagen Touareg, Audi Q7, Audi Q8, Porsche Cayenne, Lamborghini Urus), PSA Peugeot Citroën's in Trnava (models: Peugeot 208, Citroën C3 Picasso), Kia Motors' Žilina Plant (models: Kia Cee'd, Kia Sportage, Kia Venga) and Jaguar Land Rover's in Nitra (model: Land Rover Discovery). Hyundai Mobis in Žilina is the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.From electrical engineering companies, Foxconn has a factory at Nitra for LCD TV manufacturing, Samsung at Galanta for computer monitors and television sets manufacturing. Slovnaft based in Bratislava with 4,000 employees, is an oil refinery with a processing capacity of 5.5 - 6 million tonnes of crude oil, annually. Steel producer U. S. Steel in Košice is the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees.ESET is an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000 employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, the Czech Republic, Singapore and Poland. In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres here. Reasons for the influx of multi-national corporations include proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities. Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Amazon, Slovak Telekom, Orange Slovensko, Slovenská sporiteľňa, Tatra banka, Doprastav, Hewlett-Packard Slovakia, Henkel Slovensko, Slovenský plynárenský priemysel, Microsoft Slovakia, Mondelez Slovakia, Whirlpool Slovakia and Zurich Insurance Group Slovakia.Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads for international trade traffic. Various ancient trade routes, such as the Amber Road and the Danube waterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is the road, railway, waterway and airway hub.In 2012, Slovakia produced a total of 28,393 GWh of electricity while at the same time consumed 28 786 GWh. The slightly higher level of consumption than the capacity of production (- 393 GWh) meant the country was not self-sufficient in energy sourcing. Slovakia imported electricity mainly from the Czech Republic (9,961 GWh—73.6% of total import) and exported mainly to Hungary (10,231 GWh—78.2% of total export).Nuclear energy accounts for 53.8% of total electricity production in Slovakia, followed by 18.1% of thermal power energy, 15.1% by hydro power energy, 2% by solar energy, 9.6% by other sources and the rest 1.4% is imported.The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are in Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce, each of them containing two operating reactors. Before the accession of Slovakia to the EU in 2004, the government agreed to turn-off the V1 block of Jaslovské Bohunice power-plant, built-in 1978. After deactivating the last of the two reactors of the V1 block in 2008, Slovakia stopped being self-dependent in energy production. Currently there is another block (V2) with two active reactors in Jaslovské Bohunice. It is scheduled for decommissioning in 2025. Two new reactors are under construction in Mochovce plant. The nuclear power production in Slovakia occasionally draws the attention of Austrian green-energy activists who organise protests and block the borders between the two countries.There are four main highways D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction.The D1 motorway connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond, while the D2 motorway connects it to Prague, Brno and Budapest in the north–south direction. A large part of D4 motorway (an outer bypass), which should ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, is scheduled to open in 2020. The A6 motorway to Vienna connects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.Slovakia has four international airports. Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport is the main and largest international airport. It is located northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018. Košice International Airport is an airport serving Košice. It is the second-largest international airport in Slovakia. The Poprad–Tatry Airport is the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest of ski resort town Poprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher than Innsbruck Airport in Austria. The Sliač Airport is the smallest international airport and currently operates only summer charter flights to popular sea resort destinations.Railways of Slovak Republic provides railway transport services on national and international lines.The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere. The Port of Komárno is the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers - the Danube and Váh.Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Most visitors come from the Czech Republic (about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles include Bojnice Castle (often used as a filming location), Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list), Orava Castle, Bratislava Castle, and the ruins of Devín Castle. Čachtice Castle was once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady', Elizabeth Báthory.Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and Czechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in the Czech Republic (such as Prague), Austria (such as Salzburg) or Hungary (such as Budapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centers can be found in Bratislava, Trenčín, Košice, Banská Štiavnica, Levoča, and Trnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years.Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in the Baroque style, but there are also many examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture, for example Banská Bystrica, Bardejov and Spišská Kapitula. The Basilica of St. James in Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit in Žehra with medieval frescos are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The St. Martin's Concathedral in Bratislava served as the coronation church for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from the Great Moravian period in the 9th century.Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards by Catholics, Lutherans and members of eastern-rite churches.Tourism in Slovak Republic is one of the main sectors of the economy, but not using its whole capacity. It is based on internal tourism, where Slovaks spend holidays within the country. Major areas are: Bratislava and Vysoké Tatry. To other regions belong: Pieniny National Park, Malá Fatra NP, and Nízke Tatry NP.There are many castles located throughout the country. To the biggest and the most beautiful ones belong: Bojnice Castle, Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle, Krásna Hôrka Castle, Orava Castle, Trenčín Castle and Bratislava Castle. To the castle ruins belong Beckov Castle, Devín Castle, Šariš Castle, Považský hrad (castle), and Strečno Castle, where was filmed Dragonheart movie.Caves opened for public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia. In the south-west of the country only Jaskyňa Driny is opened to the public. The most popular ones are: Dobšinská Ice Cave, Demänovská ľadová cave, Demänovská jaskyňa slobody, Belianska cave, and Domica cave. To the other caves which are opened belong Ochtinská aragonitová cave, Gombasecká cave, and Jasovská cave.There are many spas throughout the whole country. The biggest and the most favorite center is Piešťany spa, where a big portion of visitors come from The Gulf countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. To the other famous spas belong: Bardejovské kúpele, Trenčianske Teplice spa, Turčianske Teplice spa, and Spa Rajecké Teplice. There are many smaller ones: Kúpele Štós, Kúpele Číž, Kúpele Dudince, Kováčová, Kúpele Nimnica, Kúpele Smrdáky, Kúpele Lúčky, and Kúpele Vyšné Ružbachy with treatments against schizophrenia.Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV ("Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby"—Centre of Folk Art Production). "Dielo" shop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities.Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower.The Slovak Academy of Sciences has been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history. Slovakia is currently in the negotiation process of becoming a member of the European Space Agency. Observer status was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA. In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organizations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Full membership of Slovakia in the ESA is expected in 2020 after signing the ESA Convention. Slovakia will be obliged to set state budget inclusive ESA funding.The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly of Slovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km. According to the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia are Slovaks (80.7%). Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority (8.5%). Other ethnic groups include Roma (2%), Czechs (0.6%), Rusyns (0.6%) and others or unspecified (7.6%).In 2018 the median age of the Slovak population was 41 years.The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family. Hungarian is widely spoken in the southern regions, and Rusyn is used in some parts of the Northeast. Minority languages hold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing 2nd highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia is Czech. Eurostat report also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union. According to a Eurobarometer survey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).The deaf community uses the Slovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close to Czech Sign Language.The Slovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion. In 2011, 62.0% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 5.9% as Lutherans, 1.8% as Calvinists, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 13.4% identified themselves as atheists or non-religious, and 10.6% did not answer the question about their belief. In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services. The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is an Eastern rite sui iuris Catholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during the Holocaust. After further reductions due to postwar emigration and assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is the Baháʼí Faith. In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that will obstruct Islam and other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovak president Andrej Kiska vetoed the bill. In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000 Muslims in Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population. Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union without a mosque.The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Slovak secondary education the 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, in Slovak and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school.After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school.After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university is Comenius University, established in 1919. Although it's not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it's the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools.Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities.Folk tradition has rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is a Slovak national anthem, ""Nad Tatrou sa blýska"", which is based on a melody from ""Kopala studienku"" folk song.The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the ""Východná"" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation, which takes place in Východná annually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK ("Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective"). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition.An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village of Vlkolínec which has been the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993. The Prešov Region preserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law as cultural heritage, but some of them are on the UNESCO list too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá.The best known Slovak hero, found in many folk mythologies, is Juraj Jánošík (1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent of Robin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a film "Jánošík" directed by Martin Frič in 1935.Visual art in Slovakia is represented through painting, drawing, printmaking, illustration, arts and crafts, sculpture, photography or conceptual art. The Slovak National Gallery founded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated in Esterházy Palace ("Esterházyho palác") and the Water Barracks ("Vodné kasárne"), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.The Bratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays in Pálffy Palace and Mirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated near Čunovo waterworks (part of Gabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include: Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art (Warhol's parents were from Miková), East Slovak Gallery, Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery, Zvolen Castle.Christian topics include poem Proglas as a foreword to the four Gospels, partial translations of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic, "Zakon sudnyj ljudem".Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written in Latin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period include Johannes de Thurocz, author of the Chronica Hungarorum and Maurus, both of them Hungarians. The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period.Two leading persons codified Slovak. The first was Anton Bernolák, whose concept was based on the western Slovak dialect in 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second was Ľudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843.Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom include Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Matej Bel, Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, such Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Alexander Dubček.Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly on pork, poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. It is relatively closely related to Hungarian, Czech, Polish and Austrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced by Ukrainian, including Lemko and Rusyn. In comparison with other European countries, "game meat" is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular. Boar, rabbit, and venison are generally available throughout the year. Lamb and goat are eaten but are not widely popular.The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants.A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal.Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing. Beer (mainly of the pilsener style, though dark lagers are also consumed) is also popular.Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level. Ice hockey and football have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, though tennis, handball, basketball, volleyball, whitewater slalom, cycling and athletics are also popular.One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia is ice hockey. Slovakia became a member of the IIHF on 2 February 1993 and since then has won 4 medals in Ice Hockey World Championships, consisting of 1 gold, 2 silver and 1 bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the 2012 IIHF World Championship in Helsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made five appearances in the Olympic games, finishing 4th in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked 7th in the IIHF World Ranking at present. Before 2012, the Slovak team HC Slovan Bratislava participated in the Kontinental Hockey League, considered the strongest hockey league in Europe, and the second-best in the world.Slovakia hosted the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where Finland won the gold medal and 2019 IIHF World Championship, where Finland also won the gold medal. Both competitions took place in Bratislava and Košice.Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, the Slovak national football team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by the Netherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory over Italy. In 2016, the Slovak national football team qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, under head coach Ján Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings.In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, namely MFK Košice in 1997–98, FC Artmedia Bratislava in 2005–06 season, and MŠK Žilina in 2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing 3rd at the Group Stage of the UEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage.
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[
"Ivan Gašparovič",
"Andrej Kiska",
"Rudolf Schuster",
"Michal Kováč"
] |
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Who was the head of Belgium in Nov, 2015?
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November 07, 2015
|
{
"text": [
"Charles Michel"
]
}
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L2_Q31_P6_0
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Sophie Wilmès is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2019 to Oct, 2020.
Charles Michel is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2014 to Oct, 2019.
Alexander De Croo is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
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BelgiumBelgium ( ; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the southwest, and the North Sea to the northwest. It covers an area of and has a population of more than 11.5 million, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe, with a density of . The capital and largest city is Brussels; other major cities are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges, Namur, and Leuven.Belgium is a sovereign state and a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. Its institutional organization is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions: the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region. Brussels is the smallest and most densely populated region, as well as the richest region in terms of GDP per capita.Belgium is home to two main linguistic communities: the Dutch-speaking Flemish Community, which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French-speaking Community, which constitutes about 40 percent of the population. A small German-speaking Community, numbering around one percent, exists in the East Cantons. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the dominant language. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments.The country as it exists today was established following the 1830 Belgian Revolution, when it seceded from the Netherlands, which had itself only existed since 1815. The name chosen for the new state is derived from the Latin word "Belgium", used in Julius Caesar's "Gallic Wars", to describe a nearby region in the period around 55 BCE. Belgium is part of an area known as the Low Countries, historically a somewhat larger region than the Benelux group of states, as it also included parts of northern France. Since the Middle Ages, its central location near several major rivers has meant that the area has been relatively prosperous, connected commercially and politically to its bigger neighbours. Belgium has unfortunately also been the battleground of European powers, earning the moniker the "Battlefield of Europe", a reputation strengthened in the 20th century by both world wars. Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. Between 1888 and 1908, Leopold II, king of Belgium, perpetrated one of the largest massacres in human history in Congo Free State, which was his private estate, and not yet a colony of Belgium. Estimates of the death toll are disputed but millions of people, a significant part of the population, died for the sake of rubber and ivory exports.The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speaking and the French-speaking citizens fuelled by differences in language and culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions between the groups have remained, if not increased; there is significant separatism particularly among the Flemish; controversial language laws exist such as the municipalities with language facilities; and the formation of a coalition government took 18 months following the June 2010 federal election, a world record. Unemployment in Wallonia is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the war.Belgium is one of the six founding countries of the European Union and its capital, Brussels, hosts the official seats of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, and the European Council, as well as one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg). Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD, and WTO, and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area. Brussels hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations such as NATO.Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy. It has very high standards of living, quality of life, healthcare, education, and is categorized as "very high" in the Human Development Index. It also ranks as one of the safest or most peaceful countries in the world.The "Belgae" were the inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul, which was much bigger than modern Belgium. Caesar used the Latin word ""Belgium"", to refer to their country within northern Gaul, which was a region now in northern France. Modern Belgium corresponds to the lands of the Morini, Menapii, Nervii, Germani Cisrhenani, Aduatuci, and, around Arlon, a part of the country of the Treveri. All of these except the Treveri formed a less Celtic-influenced "transition zone", north of the area Caesar treated as "Belgium".After Caesar's conquests, "Gallia Belgica" came to be the Latin name of a large Roman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Treveri. Areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, eventually became part of the frontier province of "Germania Inferior", which interacted with Germanic tribes outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in the Western Roman Empire, the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of a Romanized population and Germanic-speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class.During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who were probably first established in what is northern France. During the 8th century, the kingdom of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian Dynasty, whose centre of power was around the area which is now eastern Belgium. The frankish kingdom had been divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms, whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium was in the Middle Kingdom, later known as Lotharingia, but the coastal county of Flanders, west of the Scheldt, became part of West Francia, the predecessor of France. In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen, modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont, Lotharingia returned to the lasting control of the Holy Roman Emperor. The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. The county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in the County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France. Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province.In the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from there they proceeded to unite much of what is now the Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands. "Belgium" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation.Born in Belgium, the Habsburg Emperor Charles V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria, Castile and Aragon. With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union. He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, which continued to exist as a large semi-independent enclave.The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards protestantism, which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ("Belgica Foederata" in Latin, the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ("Belgica Regia", the "Royal Netherlands"). The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish (Spanish Netherlands) and the Austrian Habsburgs (Austrian Netherlands) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).Following the , the Low Countriesincluding territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liègewere annexed by the French First Republic, ending Austrian rule in the region. A reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon.In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress. Since the installation of Leopold I as king on 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day, Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code. Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949.The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party, with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie. It progressively lost its overall importance as Dutch became recognized as well. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967, the parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution.The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II, for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. In 1908, this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo. A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879.Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France, and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of the war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority.German forces again invaded the country in May 1940, and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and The Holocaust. From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II, a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951, since many Belgians felt he had collaborated with Germany during the war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis; Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg.Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community, established in 1957. The latter has now become the European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament.In the early 1990s, Belgium saw several large corruption scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux, Andre Cools, the Dioxin Affair, Agusta Scandal and Murder of Karel Van Noppen.Belgium shares borders with France (), Germany (), Luxembourg () and the Netherlands (). Its total surface, including water area, is . Before 2018, its total area was believed to be . However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing the country to be larger in surface area than previously thought. Its land area alone is 30,278 km. It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E.Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in the southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine.The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders. Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ("Kempen"). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of the Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges. Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at .The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: "Cfb"), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature is lowest in January at and highest in July at . The average precipitation per month varies between for February and April, to for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of and maximums of and monthly rainfall of ; these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimetres above last century's normal values, respectively.Phytogeographically, Belgium is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of Belgium belongs to the terrestrial ecoregions of Atlantic mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. Belgium had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd globally out of 172 countries.The territory of Belgium is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region, are in turn subdivided into provinces; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region, is neither a province nor a part of a province.Belgium is a constitutional, popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy. The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The former is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators. Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts. Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world.The King (currently Philippe) is the head of state, though with limited prerogatives. He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government. The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members.The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code. The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below.Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organized around the need to represent the main cultural communities.Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities.The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats, Liberals, and Social Democrats.Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly around linguistic, nationalist, or environmental themes and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature.A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958 was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis, a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a "purple coalition" of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election.The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved a balanced budget, some tax reforms, a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on withholding euthanasia were reduced and same-sex marriage legalized. The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed the invasion of Iraq. It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia.Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections. For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis. This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium. From 2007 until 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government was in office. This coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats, the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats was an interim government until 2008.On that day a new government, led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme, the actual winner of the federal elections of , was sworn in by the king. On 2008 Leterme announced the resignation of the cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made.In December 2008, he once more offered his resignation to the king after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas. At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 2008.After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD, withdrew from the government, and on 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation.The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of a new government. By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq. Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in.The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in the Michel Government. It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia.In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party the N-VA remained the largest party in parliament.In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council. His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after the elections.Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation.While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict.Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of the country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels:The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters.The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium. The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully.The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways. The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of the civil servants.Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.).Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies.In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of the Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world.Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe, Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration. Both the European Union and NATO are headquartered in Belgium.The Belgian Armed Forces have about 47,000 active troops. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. They are organized into one unified structure which consists of four main components: Land Component, or the Army; Air Component, or the Air Force; Marine Component, or the Navy; Medical Component. The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense, which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to the Chief of Defense.The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy. In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels and then joined NATO in 1948. However, the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War. The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command. This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Marine Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux.Belgium's strongly globalized economy and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world's 15th largest trading nation in 2007. The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, high GNP and high exports per capita. Belgium's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs.The Belgian economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union.Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 19th century. Areas in Liège Province and around Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850.After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced a serious decline. In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic center of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area.By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. , the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30% of GDP. In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5% and 3.0%, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4% in 2005 and 8.2% in 2006 were close to the area average. By , this had grown to 8.5% compared to an average rate of 9.6% for the European Union as a whole (EU 27). From 1832 until 2002, Belgium's currency was the Belgian franc. Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe).Despite an 18% decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km/1 000 km. On the other hand, the same period, 1970–1999, has seen a huge growth (+56%) of the motorway network. In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU's means of 13.7 and 15.9.From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium's biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016.Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams. Like in most small European countries, more than 80% of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, the Brussels Airport. The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80% of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbor with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9% over the preceding five years. In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year-on-year growth of 2.7%.There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia. Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to its heavy industries, but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already-existing language divide. Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) party, for instance, is the largest party in Belgium.Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country's history. The 16th century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists.Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme (École industrielle de Liège) gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo, respectively, in the 1860s. Bakelite was developed in 1907–1909 by Leo Baekeland. Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology, the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles. In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry. A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian, Monsignor Georges Lemaître (Catholic University of Louvain), who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927.Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet (Université libre de Bruxelles) in 1919, Corneille Heymans (University of Ghent) in 1938 and Albert Claude (Université libre de Bruxelles) together with Christian de Duve (Université catholique de Louvain) in 1974. François Englert (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013. Ilya Prigogine (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994.As of 1 January 2020, the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,492,641. The population density of Belgium is as of January 2019, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world, and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe. The most densely populated province is Antwerp, the least densely populated province is Luxembourg. As of January 2019, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,589,069 (57.6% of Belgium), its most populous cities being Antwerp (523,248), Ghent (260,341) and Bruges (118,284). Wallonia had a population of 3,633,795 (31.8% of Belgium) with Charleroi (201,816), Liège (197,355) and Namur (110,939), its most populous cities. The Brussels-Capital Region has 1,208,542 inhabitants (10.6% of Belgium) in the 19 municipalities, three of which have over 100,000 residents.In 2017 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Belgium was 1.64 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 4.87 children born per woman in 1873. Belgium subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.6 years., nearly 92% of the population had Belgian citizenship, and other European Union member citizens account for around 6%. The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian (171,918), French (125,061), Dutch (116,970), Moroccan (80,579), Portuguese (43,509), Spanish (42,765), Turkish (39,419) and German (37,621). In 2007, there were 1.38 million foreign-born residents in Belgium, corresponding to 12.9% of the total population. Of these, 685,000 (6.4%) were born outside the EU and 695,000 (6.5%) were born in another EU Member State.At the beginning of 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25% of the total population i.e. 2.8 million "new Belgians". Of these new Belgians, 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000 are from non-Western countries (most of them from Morocco, Turkey, and the DR Congo). Since the modification of the Belgian nationality law in 1984 more than 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans. 89.2% of inhabitants of Turkish origin have been naturalized, as have 88.4% of people of Moroccan background, 75.4% of Italians, 56.2% of the French and 47.8% of Dutch people.Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French and German. A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well.As no census exists, there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium's three official languages or their dialects. However, various criteria, including the language(s) of parents, of education, or the second-language status of foreign born, may provide suggested figures. An estimated 60% of the Belgian population are native speakers of Dutch (often referred to as Flemish), and 40% of the population speaks French natively. French-speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons, although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons.The total number of native Dutch speakers is estimated to be about 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while native French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85%) in the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region. The German-speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.Both Belgian Dutch and Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France. Many Flemish people still speak dialects of Dutch in their local environment. Walloon, considered either as a dialect of French or a distinct Romance language, is now only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. Walloon is divided into four dialects, which along with those of Picard, are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French.Since the country's independence, Roman Catholicism has had an important role in Belgium's politics. However Belgium is largely a secular country as the constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. During the reigns of Albert I and Baudouin, the Belgian royal family had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism.Roman Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium's majority religion; being especially strong in Flanders. However, by 2009 Sunday church attendance was 5% for Belgium in total; 3% in Brussels, and 5.4% in Flanders. Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 (11% for the total of Belgium in 1998). Despite the drop in church attendance, Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium's culture.According to the Eurobarometer 2010, 37% of Belgian citizens responded that they believe there is a God. 31% answered that they believe there is some sort of spirit or life-force. 27% answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life-force. 5% did not respond. According to the Eurobarometer 2015, 60.7% of the total population of Belgium adhered to Christianity, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9%. Protestants comprised 2.1% and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6% of the total. Non-religious people comprised 32.0% of the population and were divided between atheists (14.9%) and agnostics (17.1%). A further 5.2% of the population was Muslim and 2.1% were believers in other religions. The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium, accounting for 65% of Belgians.Symbolically and materially, the Roman Catholic Church remains in a favorable position. Belgium officially recognizes three religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestantism, Orthodox churches and Anglicanism), Islam and Judaism.In the early 2000s, there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium. The Jewish Community of Antwerp (numbering some 18,000) is one of the largest in Europe, and one of the last places in the world where Yiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York, New Jersey, and Israel). In addition, most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education. There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues (30 of which are in Antwerp) in the country.A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia, showed that 55% considered themselves religious and that 36% believed that God created the universe. On the other hand, Wallonia has become one of Europe's most secular/least religious regions. Most of the French-speaking region's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives, and as much as 45% of the population identifies as irreligious. This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border.A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6% of the Belgian population (628,751 people) is Muslim. Muslims constitute 23.6% of the population of Brussels, 4.9% of Wallonia and 5.1% of Flanders. The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities, such as Antwerp, Brussels and Charleroi. The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans, with 400,000 people. The Turks are the third largest group, and the second largest Muslim ethnic group, numbering 220,000.The Belgians enjoy good health. According to 2012 estimates, the average life expectancy is 79.65 years. Since 1960, life expectancy has, in line with the European average, grown by two months per year. Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders, neoplasms, disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death (accidents, suicide). Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44.Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory. Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public, university and semi-private hospitals. Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions, but for ineligible categories (of patients and services) so-called 3rd party payment systems exist. The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government, the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments; and the German Community also has (indirect) oversight and responsibilities.For the first time in Belgian history, the first child was euthanized following the 2-year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions. The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child. Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide. Excluding assisted suicide, Belgium has the highest suicide rate in Western Europe and one of the highest suicide rates in the developed world (exceeded only by Lithuania, South Korea, and Latvia).Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians. Among OECD countries in 2002, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education, at 42%. Though an estimated 99% of the adult population is literate, concern is rising over functional illiteracy. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Belgium's education as the 19th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Education being organized separately by each, the Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German-speaking Communities.Mirroring the dual structure of the 19th-century Belgian political landscape, characterized by the Liberal and the Catholic parties, the educational system is segregated within a secular and a religious segment. The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, while religious, mainly Catholic branch education, is organized by religious authorities, although subsidized and supervised by the communities.Despite its political and linguistic divisions, the region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced. Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy.Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich. The Mosan art, the Early Netherlandish, the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting and major examples of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture are milestones in the history of art. While the 15th century's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's representation of the antique. Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands, it gradually declined thereafter.During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged, including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte. The avant-garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s, while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art. Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre, Wim Delvoye and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene.Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde, who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style.The vocal music of the Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was an emergence of major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux, while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822. Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame. Nowadays, singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond, having great success. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base.Belgium has produced several well-known authors, including the poets Emile Verhaeren, Guido Gezelle, Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Stijn Streuvels, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar, Hugo Claus and Amélie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. "The Adventures of Tintin" by Hergé is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics, but many other major authors, including Peyo ("The Smurfs"), André Franquin ("Gaston Lagaffe"), Dupa ("Cubitus"), Morris ("Lucky Luke"), Greg ("Achille Talon"), Lambil ("Les Tuniques Bleues"), Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame. Additionally, famous crime author Agatha Christie created the character Hercule Poirot, a Belgian detective, who has served as a protagonist in a number of her acclaimed mystery novels.Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. Other Belgian directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne; well-known actors include Jean-Claude Van Damme, Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain; and successful films include "Bullhead, Man Bites Dog" and "The Alzheimer Affair".Belgium is also home to a number of successful fashion designers . For instance, in the 1980s, Antwerp's Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced important fashion trendsetters, known as the Antwerp Six.Folklore plays a major role in Belgium's cultural life: the country has a comparatively high number of processions, cavalcades, parades, " and 'ducasses', 'kermesse' and other local festivals, nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background. The Carnival of Binche with its famous Gilles and the 'Processional Giants and Dragons' of Ath, Brussels, Dendermonde, Mechelen and Mons are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.Other examples are the Carnival of Aalst; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood in Bruges, Virga Jesse Basilica in Hasselt and Basilica of Our Lady of Hanswijk in Mechelen; festival in Liège; and the Walloon festival in Namur. Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, the Gentse Feesten have become a modern tradition. A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day, a festivity for children and, in Liège, for students.Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as the Michelin Guide. Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries with mayonnaise. Contrary to their name, french fries are claimed to have originated in Belgium, although their exact place of origin is uncertain. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad", and "mussels with fries".Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva are famous, as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary's in Brussels. Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer.The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven.Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community. Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium; also very popular are cycling, tennis, swimming, judo and basketball.The Belgium national football team have been on the top spot of the FIFA World Rankings ever since September 2018 (first time reached this rank in November 2015). Since the 1990s, the team have been the world's number one for the most years in history, only behind the records of Brazil and Spain. The team's golden generations with the world class players in the squad, namely Eden Hazard, Kevin De Bruyne, Jean-Marie Pfaff, Jan Ceulemans achieved the bronze medals at World Cup 2018, and silver medals at Euro 1980. Belgium hosted the Euro 1972, and co-hosted the Euro 2000 with the Netherlands.Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France. They have also the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships. Philippe Gilbert is the 2012 world champion. Another modern well-known Belgian cyclist is Tom Boonen. With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records, Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time.Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player.The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner-up in the Formula One World Championship. Belgium also has a strong reputation in, motocross with the riders Joël Robert, Roger De Coster, Georges Jobé, Eric Geboers and Stefan Everts among others. Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp. The 1977 European Basketball Championship was held in Liège and Ostend.
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[
"Sophie Wilmès",
"Alexander De Croo"
] |
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Who was the head of Belgium in May, 2020?
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May 28, 2020
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{
"text": [
"Sophie Wilmès"
]
}
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L2_Q31_P6_1
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Charles Michel is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2014 to Oct, 2019.
Alexander De Croo is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Sophie Wilmès is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2019 to Oct, 2020.
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BelgiumBelgium ( ; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the southwest, and the North Sea to the northwest. It covers an area of and has a population of more than 11.5 million, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe, with a density of . The capital and largest city is Brussels; other major cities are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges, Namur, and Leuven.Belgium is a sovereign state and a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. Its institutional organization is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions: the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region. Brussels is the smallest and most densely populated region, as well as the richest region in terms of GDP per capita.Belgium is home to two main linguistic communities: the Dutch-speaking Flemish Community, which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French-speaking Community, which constitutes about 40 percent of the population. A small German-speaking Community, numbering around one percent, exists in the East Cantons. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the dominant language. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments.The country as it exists today was established following the 1830 Belgian Revolution, when it seceded from the Netherlands, which had itself only existed since 1815. The name chosen for the new state is derived from the Latin word "Belgium", used in Julius Caesar's "Gallic Wars", to describe a nearby region in the period around 55 BCE. Belgium is part of an area known as the Low Countries, historically a somewhat larger region than the Benelux group of states, as it also included parts of northern France. Since the Middle Ages, its central location near several major rivers has meant that the area has been relatively prosperous, connected commercially and politically to its bigger neighbours. Belgium has unfortunately also been the battleground of European powers, earning the moniker the "Battlefield of Europe", a reputation strengthened in the 20th century by both world wars. Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. Between 1888 and 1908, Leopold II, king of Belgium, perpetrated one of the largest massacres in human history in Congo Free State, which was his private estate, and not yet a colony of Belgium. Estimates of the death toll are disputed but millions of people, a significant part of the population, died for the sake of rubber and ivory exports.The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speaking and the French-speaking citizens fuelled by differences in language and culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions between the groups have remained, if not increased; there is significant separatism particularly among the Flemish; controversial language laws exist such as the municipalities with language facilities; and the formation of a coalition government took 18 months following the June 2010 federal election, a world record. Unemployment in Wallonia is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the war.Belgium is one of the six founding countries of the European Union and its capital, Brussels, hosts the official seats of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, and the European Council, as well as one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg). Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD, and WTO, and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area. Brussels hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations such as NATO.Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy. It has very high standards of living, quality of life, healthcare, education, and is categorized as "very high" in the Human Development Index. It also ranks as one of the safest or most peaceful countries in the world.The "Belgae" were the inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul, which was much bigger than modern Belgium. Caesar used the Latin word ""Belgium"", to refer to their country within northern Gaul, which was a region now in northern France. Modern Belgium corresponds to the lands of the Morini, Menapii, Nervii, Germani Cisrhenani, Aduatuci, and, around Arlon, a part of the country of the Treveri. All of these except the Treveri formed a less Celtic-influenced "transition zone", north of the area Caesar treated as "Belgium".After Caesar's conquests, "Gallia Belgica" came to be the Latin name of a large Roman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Treveri. Areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, eventually became part of the frontier province of "Germania Inferior", which interacted with Germanic tribes outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in the Western Roman Empire, the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of a Romanized population and Germanic-speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class.During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who were probably first established in what is northern France. During the 8th century, the kingdom of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian Dynasty, whose centre of power was around the area which is now eastern Belgium. The frankish kingdom had been divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms, whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium was in the Middle Kingdom, later known as Lotharingia, but the coastal county of Flanders, west of the Scheldt, became part of West Francia, the predecessor of France. In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen, modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont, Lotharingia returned to the lasting control of the Holy Roman Emperor. The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. The county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in the County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France. Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province.In the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from there they proceeded to unite much of what is now the Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands. "Belgium" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation.Born in Belgium, the Habsburg Emperor Charles V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria, Castile and Aragon. With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union. He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, which continued to exist as a large semi-independent enclave.The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards protestantism, which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ("Belgica Foederata" in Latin, the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ("Belgica Regia", the "Royal Netherlands"). The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish (Spanish Netherlands) and the Austrian Habsburgs (Austrian Netherlands) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).Following the , the Low Countriesincluding territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liègewere annexed by the French First Republic, ending Austrian rule in the region. A reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon.In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress. Since the installation of Leopold I as king on 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day, Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code. Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949.The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party, with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie. It progressively lost its overall importance as Dutch became recognized as well. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967, the parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution.The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II, for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. In 1908, this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo. A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879.Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France, and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of the war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority.German forces again invaded the country in May 1940, and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and The Holocaust. From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II, a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951, since many Belgians felt he had collaborated with Germany during the war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis; Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg.Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community, established in 1957. The latter has now become the European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament.In the early 1990s, Belgium saw several large corruption scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux, Andre Cools, the Dioxin Affair, Agusta Scandal and Murder of Karel Van Noppen.Belgium shares borders with France (), Germany (), Luxembourg () and the Netherlands (). Its total surface, including water area, is . Before 2018, its total area was believed to be . However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing the country to be larger in surface area than previously thought. Its land area alone is 30,278 km. It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E.Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in the southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine.The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders. Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ("Kempen"). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of the Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges. Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at .The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: "Cfb"), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature is lowest in January at and highest in July at . The average precipitation per month varies between for February and April, to for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of and maximums of and monthly rainfall of ; these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimetres above last century's normal values, respectively.Phytogeographically, Belgium is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of Belgium belongs to the terrestrial ecoregions of Atlantic mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. Belgium had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd globally out of 172 countries.The territory of Belgium is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region, are in turn subdivided into provinces; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region, is neither a province nor a part of a province.Belgium is a constitutional, popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy. The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The former is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators. Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts. Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world.The King (currently Philippe) is the head of state, though with limited prerogatives. He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government. The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members.The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code. The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below.Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organized around the need to represent the main cultural communities.Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities.The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats, Liberals, and Social Democrats.Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly around linguistic, nationalist, or environmental themes and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature.A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958 was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis, a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a "purple coalition" of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election.The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved a balanced budget, some tax reforms, a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on withholding euthanasia were reduced and same-sex marriage legalized. The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed the invasion of Iraq. It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia.Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections. For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis. This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium. From 2007 until 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government was in office. This coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats, the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats was an interim government until 2008.On that day a new government, led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme, the actual winner of the federal elections of , was sworn in by the king. On 2008 Leterme announced the resignation of the cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made.In December 2008, he once more offered his resignation to the king after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas. At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 2008.After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD, withdrew from the government, and on 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation.The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of a new government. By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq. Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in.The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in the Michel Government. It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia.In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party the N-VA remained the largest party in parliament.In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council. His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after the elections.Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation.While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict.Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of the country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels:The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters.The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium. The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully.The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways. The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of the civil servants.Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.).Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies.In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of the Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world.Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe, Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration. Both the European Union and NATO are headquartered in Belgium.The Belgian Armed Forces have about 47,000 active troops. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. They are organized into one unified structure which consists of four main components: Land Component, or the Army; Air Component, or the Air Force; Marine Component, or the Navy; Medical Component. The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense, which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to the Chief of Defense.The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy. In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels and then joined NATO in 1948. However, the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War. The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command. This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Marine Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux.Belgium's strongly globalized economy and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world's 15th largest trading nation in 2007. The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, high GNP and high exports per capita. Belgium's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs.The Belgian economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union.Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 19th century. Areas in Liège Province and around Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850.After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced a serious decline. In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic center of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area.By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. , the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30% of GDP. In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5% and 3.0%, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4% in 2005 and 8.2% in 2006 were close to the area average. By , this had grown to 8.5% compared to an average rate of 9.6% for the European Union as a whole (EU 27). From 1832 until 2002, Belgium's currency was the Belgian franc. Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe).Despite an 18% decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km/1 000 km. On the other hand, the same period, 1970–1999, has seen a huge growth (+56%) of the motorway network. In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU's means of 13.7 and 15.9.From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium's biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016.Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams. Like in most small European countries, more than 80% of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, the Brussels Airport. The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80% of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbor with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9% over the preceding five years. In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year-on-year growth of 2.7%.There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia. Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to its heavy industries, but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already-existing language divide. Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) party, for instance, is the largest party in Belgium.Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country's history. The 16th century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists.Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme (École industrielle de Liège) gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo, respectively, in the 1860s. Bakelite was developed in 1907–1909 by Leo Baekeland. Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology, the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles. In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry. A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian, Monsignor Georges Lemaître (Catholic University of Louvain), who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927.Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet (Université libre de Bruxelles) in 1919, Corneille Heymans (University of Ghent) in 1938 and Albert Claude (Université libre de Bruxelles) together with Christian de Duve (Université catholique de Louvain) in 1974. François Englert (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013. Ilya Prigogine (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994.As of 1 January 2020, the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,492,641. The population density of Belgium is as of January 2019, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world, and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe. The most densely populated province is Antwerp, the least densely populated province is Luxembourg. As of January 2019, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,589,069 (57.6% of Belgium), its most populous cities being Antwerp (523,248), Ghent (260,341) and Bruges (118,284). Wallonia had a population of 3,633,795 (31.8% of Belgium) with Charleroi (201,816), Liège (197,355) and Namur (110,939), its most populous cities. The Brussels-Capital Region has 1,208,542 inhabitants (10.6% of Belgium) in the 19 municipalities, three of which have over 100,000 residents.In 2017 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Belgium was 1.64 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 4.87 children born per woman in 1873. Belgium subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.6 years., nearly 92% of the population had Belgian citizenship, and other European Union member citizens account for around 6%. The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian (171,918), French (125,061), Dutch (116,970), Moroccan (80,579), Portuguese (43,509), Spanish (42,765), Turkish (39,419) and German (37,621). In 2007, there were 1.38 million foreign-born residents in Belgium, corresponding to 12.9% of the total population. Of these, 685,000 (6.4%) were born outside the EU and 695,000 (6.5%) were born in another EU Member State.At the beginning of 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25% of the total population i.e. 2.8 million "new Belgians". Of these new Belgians, 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000 are from non-Western countries (most of them from Morocco, Turkey, and the DR Congo). Since the modification of the Belgian nationality law in 1984 more than 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans. 89.2% of inhabitants of Turkish origin have been naturalized, as have 88.4% of people of Moroccan background, 75.4% of Italians, 56.2% of the French and 47.8% of Dutch people.Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French and German. A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well.As no census exists, there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium's three official languages or their dialects. However, various criteria, including the language(s) of parents, of education, or the second-language status of foreign born, may provide suggested figures. An estimated 60% of the Belgian population are native speakers of Dutch (often referred to as Flemish), and 40% of the population speaks French natively. French-speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons, although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons.The total number of native Dutch speakers is estimated to be about 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while native French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85%) in the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region. The German-speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.Both Belgian Dutch and Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France. Many Flemish people still speak dialects of Dutch in their local environment. Walloon, considered either as a dialect of French or a distinct Romance language, is now only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. Walloon is divided into four dialects, which along with those of Picard, are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French.Since the country's independence, Roman Catholicism has had an important role in Belgium's politics. However Belgium is largely a secular country as the constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. During the reigns of Albert I and Baudouin, the Belgian royal family had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism.Roman Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium's majority religion; being especially strong in Flanders. However, by 2009 Sunday church attendance was 5% for Belgium in total; 3% in Brussels, and 5.4% in Flanders. Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 (11% for the total of Belgium in 1998). Despite the drop in church attendance, Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium's culture.According to the Eurobarometer 2010, 37% of Belgian citizens responded that they believe there is a God. 31% answered that they believe there is some sort of spirit or life-force. 27% answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life-force. 5% did not respond. According to the Eurobarometer 2015, 60.7% of the total population of Belgium adhered to Christianity, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9%. Protestants comprised 2.1% and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6% of the total. Non-religious people comprised 32.0% of the population and were divided between atheists (14.9%) and agnostics (17.1%). A further 5.2% of the population was Muslim and 2.1% were believers in other religions. The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium, accounting for 65% of Belgians.Symbolically and materially, the Roman Catholic Church remains in a favorable position. Belgium officially recognizes three religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestantism, Orthodox churches and Anglicanism), Islam and Judaism.In the early 2000s, there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium. The Jewish Community of Antwerp (numbering some 18,000) is one of the largest in Europe, and one of the last places in the world where Yiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York, New Jersey, and Israel). In addition, most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education. There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues (30 of which are in Antwerp) in the country.A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia, showed that 55% considered themselves religious and that 36% believed that God created the universe. On the other hand, Wallonia has become one of Europe's most secular/least religious regions. Most of the French-speaking region's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives, and as much as 45% of the population identifies as irreligious. This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border.A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6% of the Belgian population (628,751 people) is Muslim. Muslims constitute 23.6% of the population of Brussels, 4.9% of Wallonia and 5.1% of Flanders. The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities, such as Antwerp, Brussels and Charleroi. The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans, with 400,000 people. The Turks are the third largest group, and the second largest Muslim ethnic group, numbering 220,000.The Belgians enjoy good health. According to 2012 estimates, the average life expectancy is 79.65 years. Since 1960, life expectancy has, in line with the European average, grown by two months per year. Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders, neoplasms, disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death (accidents, suicide). Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44.Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory. Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public, university and semi-private hospitals. Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions, but for ineligible categories (of patients and services) so-called 3rd party payment systems exist. The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government, the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments; and the German Community also has (indirect) oversight and responsibilities.For the first time in Belgian history, the first child was euthanized following the 2-year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions. The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child. Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide. Excluding assisted suicide, Belgium has the highest suicide rate in Western Europe and one of the highest suicide rates in the developed world (exceeded only by Lithuania, South Korea, and Latvia).Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians. Among OECD countries in 2002, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education, at 42%. Though an estimated 99% of the adult population is literate, concern is rising over functional illiteracy. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Belgium's education as the 19th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Education being organized separately by each, the Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German-speaking Communities.Mirroring the dual structure of the 19th-century Belgian political landscape, characterized by the Liberal and the Catholic parties, the educational system is segregated within a secular and a religious segment. The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, while religious, mainly Catholic branch education, is organized by religious authorities, although subsidized and supervised by the communities.Despite its political and linguistic divisions, the region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced. Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy.Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich. The Mosan art, the Early Netherlandish, the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting and major examples of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture are milestones in the history of art. While the 15th century's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's representation of the antique. Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands, it gradually declined thereafter.During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged, including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte. The avant-garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s, while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art. Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre, Wim Delvoye and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene.Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde, who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style.The vocal music of the Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was an emergence of major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux, while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822. Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame. Nowadays, singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond, having great success. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base.Belgium has produced several well-known authors, including the poets Emile Verhaeren, Guido Gezelle, Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Stijn Streuvels, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar, Hugo Claus and Amélie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. "The Adventures of Tintin" by Hergé is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics, but many other major authors, including Peyo ("The Smurfs"), André Franquin ("Gaston Lagaffe"), Dupa ("Cubitus"), Morris ("Lucky Luke"), Greg ("Achille Talon"), Lambil ("Les Tuniques Bleues"), Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame. Additionally, famous crime author Agatha Christie created the character Hercule Poirot, a Belgian detective, who has served as a protagonist in a number of her acclaimed mystery novels.Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. Other Belgian directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne; well-known actors include Jean-Claude Van Damme, Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain; and successful films include "Bullhead, Man Bites Dog" and "The Alzheimer Affair".Belgium is also home to a number of successful fashion designers . For instance, in the 1980s, Antwerp's Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced important fashion trendsetters, known as the Antwerp Six.Folklore plays a major role in Belgium's cultural life: the country has a comparatively high number of processions, cavalcades, parades, " and 'ducasses', 'kermesse' and other local festivals, nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background. The Carnival of Binche with its famous Gilles and the 'Processional Giants and Dragons' of Ath, Brussels, Dendermonde, Mechelen and Mons are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.Other examples are the Carnival of Aalst; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood in Bruges, Virga Jesse Basilica in Hasselt and Basilica of Our Lady of Hanswijk in Mechelen; festival in Liège; and the Walloon festival in Namur. Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, the Gentse Feesten have become a modern tradition. A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day, a festivity for children and, in Liège, for students.Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as the Michelin Guide. Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries with mayonnaise. Contrary to their name, french fries are claimed to have originated in Belgium, although their exact place of origin is uncertain. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad", and "mussels with fries".Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva are famous, as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary's in Brussels. Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer.The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven.Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community. Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium; also very popular are cycling, tennis, swimming, judo and basketball.The Belgium national football team have been on the top spot of the FIFA World Rankings ever since September 2018 (first time reached this rank in November 2015). Since the 1990s, the team have been the world's number one for the most years in history, only behind the records of Brazil and Spain. The team's golden generations with the world class players in the squad, namely Eden Hazard, Kevin De Bruyne, Jean-Marie Pfaff, Jan Ceulemans achieved the bronze medals at World Cup 2018, and silver medals at Euro 1980. Belgium hosted the Euro 1972, and co-hosted the Euro 2000 with the Netherlands.Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France. They have also the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships. Philippe Gilbert is the 2012 world champion. Another modern well-known Belgian cyclist is Tom Boonen. With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records, Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time.Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player.The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner-up in the Formula One World Championship. Belgium also has a strong reputation in, motocross with the riders Joël Robert, Roger De Coster, Georges Jobé, Eric Geboers and Stefan Everts among others. Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp. The 1977 European Basketball Championship was held in Liège and Ostend.
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[
"Charles Michel",
"Alexander De Croo"
] |
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Who was the head of Belgium in Dec, 2021?
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December 31, 2021
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{
"text": [
"Alexander De Croo"
]
}
|
L2_Q31_P6_2
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Charles Michel is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2014 to Oct, 2019.
Sophie Wilmès is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2019 to Oct, 2020.
Alexander De Croo is the head of the government of Belgium from Oct, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
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BelgiumBelgium ( ; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Western Europe. It is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the southwest, and the North Sea to the northwest. It covers an area of and has a population of more than 11.5 million, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe, with a density of . The capital and largest city is Brussels; other major cities are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges, Namur, and Leuven.Belgium is a sovereign state and a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. Its institutional organization is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions: the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region. Brussels is the smallest and most densely populated region, as well as the richest region in terms of GDP per capita.Belgium is home to two main linguistic communities: the Dutch-speaking Flemish Community, which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French-speaking Community, which constitutes about 40 percent of the population. A small German-speaking Community, numbering around one percent, exists in the East Cantons. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the dominant language. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments.The country as it exists today was established following the 1830 Belgian Revolution, when it seceded from the Netherlands, which had itself only existed since 1815. The name chosen for the new state is derived from the Latin word "Belgium", used in Julius Caesar's "Gallic Wars", to describe a nearby region in the period around 55 BCE. Belgium is part of an area known as the Low Countries, historically a somewhat larger region than the Benelux group of states, as it also included parts of northern France. Since the Middle Ages, its central location near several major rivers has meant that the area has been relatively prosperous, connected commercially and politically to its bigger neighbours. Belgium has unfortunately also been the battleground of European powers, earning the moniker the "Battlefield of Europe", a reputation strengthened in the 20th century by both world wars. Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. Between 1888 and 1908, Leopold II, king of Belgium, perpetrated one of the largest massacres in human history in Congo Free State, which was his private estate, and not yet a colony of Belgium. Estimates of the death toll are disputed but millions of people, a significant part of the population, died for the sake of rubber and ivory exports.The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speaking and the French-speaking citizens fuelled by differences in language and culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions between the groups have remained, if not increased; there is significant separatism particularly among the Flemish; controversial language laws exist such as the municipalities with language facilities; and the formation of a coalition government took 18 months following the June 2010 federal election, a world record. Unemployment in Wallonia is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the war.Belgium is one of the six founding countries of the European Union and its capital, Brussels, hosts the official seats of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, and the European Council, as well as one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg). Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD, and WTO, and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area. Brussels hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations such as NATO.Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy. It has very high standards of living, quality of life, healthcare, education, and is categorized as "very high" in the Human Development Index. It also ranks as one of the safest or most peaceful countries in the world.The "Belgae" were the inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul, which was much bigger than modern Belgium. Caesar used the Latin word ""Belgium"", to refer to their country within northern Gaul, which was a region now in northern France. Modern Belgium corresponds to the lands of the Morini, Menapii, Nervii, Germani Cisrhenani, Aduatuci, and, around Arlon, a part of the country of the Treveri. All of these except the Treveri formed a less Celtic-influenced "transition zone", north of the area Caesar treated as "Belgium".After Caesar's conquests, "Gallia Belgica" came to be the Latin name of a large Roman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Treveri. Areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, eventually became part of the frontier province of "Germania Inferior", which interacted with Germanic tribes outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in the Western Roman Empire, the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of a Romanized population and Germanic-speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class.During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who were probably first established in what is northern France. During the 8th century, the kingdom of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian Dynasty, whose centre of power was around the area which is now eastern Belgium. The frankish kingdom had been divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms, whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium was in the Middle Kingdom, later known as Lotharingia, but the coastal county of Flanders, west of the Scheldt, became part of West Francia, the predecessor of France. In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen, modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont, Lotharingia returned to the lasting control of the Holy Roman Emperor. The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. The county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in the County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France. Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province.In the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from there they proceeded to unite much of what is now the Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands. "Belgium" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation.Born in Belgium, the Habsburg Emperor Charles V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria, Castile and Aragon. With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union. He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, which continued to exist as a large semi-independent enclave.The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards protestantism, which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ("Belgica Foederata" in Latin, the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ("Belgica Regia", the "Royal Netherlands"). The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish (Spanish Netherlands) and the Austrian Habsburgs (Austrian Netherlands) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).Following the , the Low Countriesincluding territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liègewere annexed by the French First Republic, ending Austrian rule in the region. A reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon.In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress. Since the installation of Leopold I as king on 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day, Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code. Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949.The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party, with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie. It progressively lost its overall importance as Dutch became recognized as well. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967, the parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution.The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II, for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. In 1908, this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo. A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879.Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France, and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of the war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority.German forces again invaded the country in May 1940, and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and The Holocaust. From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II, a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951, since many Belgians felt he had collaborated with Germany during the war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis; Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg.Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community, established in 1957. The latter has now become the European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament.In the early 1990s, Belgium saw several large corruption scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux, Andre Cools, the Dioxin Affair, Agusta Scandal and Murder of Karel Van Noppen.Belgium shares borders with France (), Germany (), Luxembourg () and the Netherlands (). Its total surface, including water area, is . Before 2018, its total area was believed to be . However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing the country to be larger in surface area than previously thought. Its land area alone is 30,278 km. It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E.Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in the southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine.The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders. Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ("Kempen"). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of the Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges. Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at .The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: "Cfb"), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature is lowest in January at and highest in July at . The average precipitation per month varies between for February and April, to for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of and maximums of and monthly rainfall of ; these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimetres above last century's normal values, respectively.Phytogeographically, Belgium is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of Belgium belongs to the terrestrial ecoregions of Atlantic mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. Belgium had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd globally out of 172 countries.The territory of Belgium is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region, are in turn subdivided into provinces; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region, is neither a province nor a part of a province.Belgium is a constitutional, popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy. The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The former is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators. Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts. Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world.The King (currently Philippe) is the head of state, though with limited prerogatives. He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government. The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members.The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code. The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below.Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organized around the need to represent the main cultural communities.Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities.The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats, Liberals, and Social Democrats.Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly around linguistic, nationalist, or environmental themes and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature.A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958 was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis, a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a "purple coalition" of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election.The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved a balanced budget, some tax reforms, a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on withholding euthanasia were reduced and same-sex marriage legalized. The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed the invasion of Iraq. It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia.Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections. For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis. This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium. From 2007 until 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government was in office. This coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats, the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats was an interim government until 2008.On that day a new government, led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme, the actual winner of the federal elections of , was sworn in by the king. On 2008 Leterme announced the resignation of the cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made.In December 2008, he once more offered his resignation to the king after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas. At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 2008.After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD, withdrew from the government, and on 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation.The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of a new government. By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq. Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in.The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in the Michel Government. It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia.In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party the N-VA remained the largest party in parliament.In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council. His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after the elections.Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation.While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict.Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of the country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels:The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters.The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium. The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully.The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways. The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of the civil servants.Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.).Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies.In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of the Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world.Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe, Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration. Both the European Union and NATO are headquartered in Belgium.The Belgian Armed Forces have about 47,000 active troops. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. They are organized into one unified structure which consists of four main components: Land Component, or the Army; Air Component, or the Air Force; Marine Component, or the Navy; Medical Component. The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense, which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to the Chief of Defense.The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy. In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels and then joined NATO in 1948. However, the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War. The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command. This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Marine Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux.Belgium's strongly globalized economy and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world's 15th largest trading nation in 2007. The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, high GNP and high exports per capita. Belgium's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs.The Belgian economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union.Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 19th century. Areas in Liège Province and around Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850.After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced a serious decline. In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic center of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area.By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. , the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30% of GDP. In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5% and 3.0%, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4% in 2005 and 8.2% in 2006 were close to the area average. By , this had grown to 8.5% compared to an average rate of 9.6% for the European Union as a whole (EU 27). From 1832 until 2002, Belgium's currency was the Belgian franc. Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe).Despite an 18% decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km/1 000 km. On the other hand, the same period, 1970–1999, has seen a huge growth (+56%) of the motorway network. In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU's means of 13.7 and 15.9.From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium's biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016.Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams. Like in most small European countries, more than 80% of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, the Brussels Airport. The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80% of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbor with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9% over the preceding five years. In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year-on-year growth of 2.7%.There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia. Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to its heavy industries, but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already-existing language divide. Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) party, for instance, is the largest party in Belgium.Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country's history. The 16th century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists.Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme (École industrielle de Liège) gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo, respectively, in the 1860s. Bakelite was developed in 1907–1909 by Leo Baekeland. Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology, the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles. In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry. A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian, Monsignor Georges Lemaître (Catholic University of Louvain), who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927.Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet (Université libre de Bruxelles) in 1919, Corneille Heymans (University of Ghent) in 1938 and Albert Claude (Université libre de Bruxelles) together with Christian de Duve (Université catholique de Louvain) in 1974. François Englert (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013. Ilya Prigogine (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994.As of 1 January 2020, the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,492,641. The population density of Belgium is as of January 2019, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world, and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe. The most densely populated province is Antwerp, the least densely populated province is Luxembourg. As of January 2019, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,589,069 (57.6% of Belgium), its most populous cities being Antwerp (523,248), Ghent (260,341) and Bruges (118,284). Wallonia had a population of 3,633,795 (31.8% of Belgium) with Charleroi (201,816), Liège (197,355) and Namur (110,939), its most populous cities. The Brussels-Capital Region has 1,208,542 inhabitants (10.6% of Belgium) in the 19 municipalities, three of which have over 100,000 residents.In 2017 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Belgium was 1.64 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 4.87 children born per woman in 1873. Belgium subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.6 years., nearly 92% of the population had Belgian citizenship, and other European Union member citizens account for around 6%. The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian (171,918), French (125,061), Dutch (116,970), Moroccan (80,579), Portuguese (43,509), Spanish (42,765), Turkish (39,419) and German (37,621). In 2007, there were 1.38 million foreign-born residents in Belgium, corresponding to 12.9% of the total population. Of these, 685,000 (6.4%) were born outside the EU and 695,000 (6.5%) were born in another EU Member State.At the beginning of 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25% of the total population i.e. 2.8 million "new Belgians". Of these new Belgians, 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000 are from non-Western countries (most of them from Morocco, Turkey, and the DR Congo). Since the modification of the Belgian nationality law in 1984 more than 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans. 89.2% of inhabitants of Turkish origin have been naturalized, as have 88.4% of people of Moroccan background, 75.4% of Italians, 56.2% of the French and 47.8% of Dutch people.Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French and German. A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well.As no census exists, there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium's three official languages or their dialects. However, various criteria, including the language(s) of parents, of education, or the second-language status of foreign born, may provide suggested figures. An estimated 60% of the Belgian population are native speakers of Dutch (often referred to as Flemish), and 40% of the population speaks French natively. French-speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons, although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons.The total number of native Dutch speakers is estimated to be about 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while native French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85%) in the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region. The German-speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.Both Belgian Dutch and Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France. Many Flemish people still speak dialects of Dutch in their local environment. Walloon, considered either as a dialect of French or a distinct Romance language, is now only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. Walloon is divided into four dialects, which along with those of Picard, are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French.Since the country's independence, Roman Catholicism has had an important role in Belgium's politics. However Belgium is largely a secular country as the constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. During the reigns of Albert I and Baudouin, the Belgian royal family had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism.Roman Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium's majority religion; being especially strong in Flanders. However, by 2009 Sunday church attendance was 5% for Belgium in total; 3% in Brussels, and 5.4% in Flanders. Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 (11% for the total of Belgium in 1998). Despite the drop in church attendance, Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium's culture.According to the Eurobarometer 2010, 37% of Belgian citizens responded that they believe there is a God. 31% answered that they believe there is some sort of spirit or life-force. 27% answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life-force. 5% did not respond. According to the Eurobarometer 2015, 60.7% of the total population of Belgium adhered to Christianity, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9%. Protestants comprised 2.1% and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6% of the total. Non-religious people comprised 32.0% of the population and were divided between atheists (14.9%) and agnostics (17.1%). A further 5.2% of the population was Muslim and 2.1% were believers in other religions. The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium, accounting for 65% of Belgians.Symbolically and materially, the Roman Catholic Church remains in a favorable position. Belgium officially recognizes three religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestantism, Orthodox churches and Anglicanism), Islam and Judaism.In the early 2000s, there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium. The Jewish Community of Antwerp (numbering some 18,000) is one of the largest in Europe, and one of the last places in the world where Yiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York, New Jersey, and Israel). In addition, most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education. There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues (30 of which are in Antwerp) in the country.A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia, showed that 55% considered themselves religious and that 36% believed that God created the universe. On the other hand, Wallonia has become one of Europe's most secular/least religious regions. Most of the French-speaking region's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives, and as much as 45% of the population identifies as irreligious. This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border.A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6% of the Belgian population (628,751 people) is Muslim. Muslims constitute 23.6% of the population of Brussels, 4.9% of Wallonia and 5.1% of Flanders. The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities, such as Antwerp, Brussels and Charleroi. The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans, with 400,000 people. The Turks are the third largest group, and the second largest Muslim ethnic group, numbering 220,000.The Belgians enjoy good health. According to 2012 estimates, the average life expectancy is 79.65 years. Since 1960, life expectancy has, in line with the European average, grown by two months per year. Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders, neoplasms, disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death (accidents, suicide). Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44.Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory. Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public, university and semi-private hospitals. Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions, but for ineligible categories (of patients and services) so-called 3rd party payment systems exist. The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government, the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments; and the German Community also has (indirect) oversight and responsibilities.For the first time in Belgian history, the first child was euthanized following the 2-year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions. The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child. Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide. Excluding assisted suicide, Belgium has the highest suicide rate in Western Europe and one of the highest suicide rates in the developed world (exceeded only by Lithuania, South Korea, and Latvia).Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians. Among OECD countries in 2002, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education, at 42%. Though an estimated 99% of the adult population is literate, concern is rising over functional illiteracy. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Belgium's education as the 19th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Education being organized separately by each, the Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German-speaking Communities.Mirroring the dual structure of the 19th-century Belgian political landscape, characterized by the Liberal and the Catholic parties, the educational system is segregated within a secular and a religious segment. The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, while religious, mainly Catholic branch education, is organized by religious authorities, although subsidized and supervised by the communities.Despite its political and linguistic divisions, the region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced. Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy.Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich. The Mosan art, the Early Netherlandish, the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting and major examples of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture are milestones in the history of art. While the 15th century's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's representation of the antique. Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands, it gradually declined thereafter.During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged, including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte. The avant-garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s, while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art. Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre, Wim Delvoye and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene.Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde, who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style.The vocal music of the Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was an emergence of major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux, while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822. Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame. Nowadays, singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond, having great success. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base.Belgium has produced several well-known authors, including the poets Emile Verhaeren, Guido Gezelle, Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Stijn Streuvels, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar, Hugo Claus and Amélie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. "The Adventures of Tintin" by Hergé is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics, but many other major authors, including Peyo ("The Smurfs"), André Franquin ("Gaston Lagaffe"), Dupa ("Cubitus"), Morris ("Lucky Luke"), Greg ("Achille Talon"), Lambil ("Les Tuniques Bleues"), Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame. Additionally, famous crime author Agatha Christie created the character Hercule Poirot, a Belgian detective, who has served as a protagonist in a number of her acclaimed mystery novels.Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. Other Belgian directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne; well-known actors include Jean-Claude Van Damme, Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain; and successful films include "Bullhead, Man Bites Dog" and "The Alzheimer Affair".Belgium is also home to a number of successful fashion designers . For instance, in the 1980s, Antwerp's Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced important fashion trendsetters, known as the Antwerp Six.Folklore plays a major role in Belgium's cultural life: the country has a comparatively high number of processions, cavalcades, parades, " and 'ducasses', 'kermesse' and other local festivals, nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background. The Carnival of Binche with its famous Gilles and the 'Processional Giants and Dragons' of Ath, Brussels, Dendermonde, Mechelen and Mons are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.Other examples are the Carnival of Aalst; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood in Bruges, Virga Jesse Basilica in Hasselt and Basilica of Our Lady of Hanswijk in Mechelen; festival in Liège; and the Walloon festival in Namur. Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, the Gentse Feesten have become a modern tradition. A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day, a festivity for children and, in Liège, for students.Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as the Michelin Guide. Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries with mayonnaise. Contrary to their name, french fries are claimed to have originated in Belgium, although their exact place of origin is uncertain. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad", and "mussels with fries".Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva are famous, as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary's in Brussels. Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer.The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven.Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community. Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium; also very popular are cycling, tennis, swimming, judo and basketball.The Belgium national football team have been on the top spot of the FIFA World Rankings ever since September 2018 (first time reached this rank in November 2015). Since the 1990s, the team have been the world's number one for the most years in history, only behind the records of Brazil and Spain. The team's golden generations with the world class players in the squad, namely Eden Hazard, Kevin De Bruyne, Jean-Marie Pfaff, Jan Ceulemans achieved the bronze medals at World Cup 2018, and silver medals at Euro 1980. Belgium hosted the Euro 1972, and co-hosted the Euro 2000 with the Netherlands.Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France. They have also the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships. Philippe Gilbert is the 2012 world champion. Another modern well-known Belgian cyclist is Tom Boonen. With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records, Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time.Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player.The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner-up in the Formula One World Championship. Belgium also has a strong reputation in, motocross with the riders Joël Robert, Roger De Coster, Georges Jobé, Eric Geboers and Stefan Everts among others. Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp. The 1977 European Basketball Championship was held in Liège and Ostend.
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[
"Sophie Wilmès",
"Charles Michel"
] |
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Which political party did Jerzy Buzek belong to in Mar, 1993?
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March 14, 1993
|
{
"text": [
"Solidarity"
]
}
|
L2_Q55910_P102_0
|
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Civic Platform from Jan, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Solidarity Electoral Action from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2001.
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Solidarity from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1996.
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Jerzy BuzekJerzy Karol Buzek (born 3 July 1940) is a Polish politician and Member of the European Parliament from Poland. He has served as Prime Minister of Poland from 1997 to 2001, since being elected to the European Parliament in 2004, he served as President of the European Parliament between 2009 and 2012. He is married to Ludgarda Buzek and is the father of Polish actress Agata Buzek.Jerzy Karol Buzek was born to a Lutheran family on 3 July 1940 in Smilovice, Czechoslovakia (under the National Socialist German occupation). He was born into the prominent Buzek family, which participated in Polish politics in the Second Polish Republic during the interbellum. The family was part of the Polish community in Zaolzie. Buzek's father was an engineer. After the Second World War, his family moved to Chorzów. He is a Lutheran.In 1963 Jerzy Buzek graduated from the Mechanics-and-Energy Division of the Silesian University of Technology, specialising in chemical engineering. He became a scientist in the Chemical Engineering Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Since 1997 he has been a professor of technical science. He is also an honorary doctor of the universities in Seoul and Dortmund among others.From 1997 to 2001, Buzek was a coalition Prime Minister of Poland.In 1998 he became the first laureate of the Grzegorz Palka Award and was nominated "European of the Year" by the European Union Business Chambers Forum.In 1998 he was named 'Person of the Year' by the influential Polish political weekly "Wprost". He won the award for the second time in 2009. On receiving the award again, as President of the European Parliament, he stressed that he was the first winner to be honoured for his work beyond the borders of Poland.He was the first Prime Minister of the 3rd Republic of Poland to serve a full term.After losing the parliamentary elections in 2001, he stepped back from political life and focused more on his scientific work, becoming the prorector of Akademia Polonijna in Częstochowa and professor in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Opole University of Technology in Opole.His return to political life in 2004 saw him gain the largest popular vote in Poland as the member for Katowice to the European Parliament standing for the Civic Platform.Whilst President of the European Parliament, on 30 March 2011, he was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Institution of Chemical Engineers at a meeting of the European Federation of Chemical Engineering (EFCE) in Brussels, Belgium.In the 1980s, Buzek was an activist of the anti-communist movements, including the legal (1980–1981 and since 1989) and underground (1981–1989) Solidarity trade union and political movement in communist Poland. He was an active organiser of the trade union's regional and national underground authorities. He was also the chairman of the four national general meetings (1st, 4th, 5th, and 6th) when the Solidarity movement was allowed to participate in the political process again.Jerzy Buzek was a member of the Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and co-author of the AWS's economic program. After the 1997 elections he was elected to the Sejm, the lower house of the Polish Parliament, and was soon appointed Prime Minister of Poland. In 1999 he became the chairman of the AWS Social Movement (Ruch Społeczny AWS) and in 2001 he became the Chairman of the Solidarity Electoral Action coalition.Between the years 1997–2001 he was the Prime Minister of Poland, first of the right-centrist AWS–Freedom Union coalition government until 2001, and then of the rightist AWS minority government. His cabinet's major achievements were four significant political and economic reforms: a new local government and administration division of Poland, reform of the pension system, reform of the educational system, and reform of the medical care system. AWS was defeated in the 2001 Polish parliamentary election. Buzek resigned as the chairman of AWS Social Movement and was replaced by Mieczysław Janowski.On 13 June 2004, in the European Parliament election, 2004, Jerzy Buzek was elected a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from the Silesian Voivodeship, basing his candidacy only on the popularity of his name and on direct contact with the voters. He received a record number of votes, 173,389 (22.14% of the total votes in the region). His current party affiliation is with the Civic Platform, which is a member of the European People's Party.In the 2004–2009 European Parliament, he was a member of the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy, an alternate member of the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety, a member of the Delegation to the EU–Ukraine Parliamentary Cooperation Committee, and an alternate delegate for the delegation for relations with the countries of Central America. He served as rapporteur on the EU's 7th Framework Programme for Research and Development, a multibillion-euro spending program for the years 2007–2013.On 7 June 2009, in the European Parliament election, 2009, Buzek was re-elected as a Member of the European Parliament from the Silesian Voivodeship constituency. Just as in the previous election, Buzek received a record number of votes in Poland: 393,117 (over 42% of the total votes in the district). On 12 September 2018, he voted in favor of approving the controversial Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market.On 14 July 2009, Buzek was elected President of the European Parliament with 555 votes of the 644 votes cast, the largest majority ever, becoming the first person from the former Eastern Bloc and the first former Prime Minister since Pierre Pflimlin to gain that position. He succeeded the German Christian Democrat MEP, Hans-Gert Pöttering. He pledged to make human rights and the promotion of the Eastern partnership two of his priorities during his term of office, which will last two and a half years until, due to a political deal, Social Democrat MEP Martin Schulz will take over.In his inaugural address in Strasbourg, Buzek stated that among the greatest challenges faced by the European parliament were the economic crisis, European solidarity, human rights, and reform within the Parliament itself. Buzek also stated he would be committed to reform of the European economy, tackling rising unemployment, energy security, and climate change, strengthening European solidarity and integration and promoting equal opportunities for women. However, Buzek noted that the Lisbon Treaty would be a prerequisite to any change "(so that the Union can be) well-organised and effective".On 8 December 2009 Buzek was awarded by the Ministerpräsident of North Rhine-Westphalia, Dr. Jürgen Rüttgers, the annual "Staatspreis award". The prize was awarded in honor of his lifetime achievements and highlighted the European Parliament as a "motor of integration." Affirming his commitment to the Eastern Partnership and "those who do not have the possibility to participate in our European integration project", Buzek announced that the prize money would be donated to the European Humanities University (EHU), A Belarusian university in exile in Vilnius.The Lisbon Treaty, which came into force on 1 December 2009 shortly after Buzek assumed office, brought a conclusion to nearly a decade of internal discussions and greatly boosted the democratic powers of the European Parliament. From very early on Buzek has been a vocal supporter of the treaty as part of a wider push for greater political integration in Europe. The rise in legislative powers under the treaty in fact represents almost a doubling in power. Since its introduction Parliament has equal rights with the Council of Ministers over 40 new fields within the "co-decision" procedure, such as agriculture, energy security, immigration, justice and home affairs, health and structural funds.In late 2011 Buzek's presidency also endorsed the 'Sixpack' legislation on economic governance to tackle the growing Eurozone crisis. This was a follow-up on the earlier Stability and Growth Pact and the Euro Plus Pact intended as a means of optimising macroeconomic surveillance in Europe and avoiding crises in the eurozone in the future. Welcoming the parliament's adoption of the legislation on 28 October 2011, Buzek stated: "The adoption of the six-pack by the whole European Parliament is good news for the European Union. We have a new economic rule-book. We have developed a powerful and resistant armour against any future crises. With the adoption of the six-pack, the EU significantly strengthens its budget discipline and moves towards true economic governance. We can not turn the clock back, but the package will ensure that Member States budgets will be credible."One of Buzek's major challenges as EP president was dealing with the allegations of corruption, illegal lobbying and mismanagement of public funds of which several members of the European Parliament have been accused in the wake of a cash-for-amendments scandal. On 7 July 2011, the Conference of Presidents approved the first-ever code of conduct for MEPs and it was officially endorsed by the parliament on 1 December 2011. The code sets out rules and principles that MEPs should follow in their dealings with outside parties in order to avoid conflicts of interest. "Increased powers of the European Parliament must be accompanied by an increased transparency and accountability on behalf of its members" Buzek has said of the code. According to the code, MEPs have to provide clear declarations of their paid activities outside parliament, as well as the salary they receive. They also have to declare all other activities which might constitute a conflict of interest. The code contains an explicit ban on MEPs receiving payments or other rewards in exchange for influencing parliamentary decisions. It also sets out clear rules on the acceptance of gifts and on the issue of former MEPs working as lobbyists.He is a supporter of Ruch Chorzów.
|
[
"Solidarity Electoral Action",
"Civic Platform"
] |
|
Which political party did Jerzy Buzek belong to in Apr, 1999?
|
April 11, 1999
|
{
"text": [
"Solidarity Electoral Action"
]
}
|
L2_Q55910_P102_1
|
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Solidarity from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1996.
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Solidarity Electoral Action from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2001.
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Civic Platform from Jan, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
|
Jerzy BuzekJerzy Karol Buzek (born 3 July 1940) is a Polish politician and Member of the European Parliament from Poland. He has served as Prime Minister of Poland from 1997 to 2001, since being elected to the European Parliament in 2004, he served as President of the European Parliament between 2009 and 2012. He is married to Ludgarda Buzek and is the father of Polish actress Agata Buzek.Jerzy Karol Buzek was born to a Lutheran family on 3 July 1940 in Smilovice, Czechoslovakia (under the National Socialist German occupation). He was born into the prominent Buzek family, which participated in Polish politics in the Second Polish Republic during the interbellum. The family was part of the Polish community in Zaolzie. Buzek's father was an engineer. After the Second World War, his family moved to Chorzów. He is a Lutheran.In 1963 Jerzy Buzek graduated from the Mechanics-and-Energy Division of the Silesian University of Technology, specialising in chemical engineering. He became a scientist in the Chemical Engineering Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Since 1997 he has been a professor of technical science. He is also an honorary doctor of the universities in Seoul and Dortmund among others.From 1997 to 2001, Buzek was a coalition Prime Minister of Poland.In 1998 he became the first laureate of the Grzegorz Palka Award and was nominated "European of the Year" by the European Union Business Chambers Forum.In 1998 he was named 'Person of the Year' by the influential Polish political weekly "Wprost". He won the award for the second time in 2009. On receiving the award again, as President of the European Parliament, he stressed that he was the first winner to be honoured for his work beyond the borders of Poland.He was the first Prime Minister of the 3rd Republic of Poland to serve a full term.After losing the parliamentary elections in 2001, he stepped back from political life and focused more on his scientific work, becoming the prorector of Akademia Polonijna in Częstochowa and professor in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Opole University of Technology in Opole.His return to political life in 2004 saw him gain the largest popular vote in Poland as the member for Katowice to the European Parliament standing for the Civic Platform.Whilst President of the European Parliament, on 30 March 2011, he was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Institution of Chemical Engineers at a meeting of the European Federation of Chemical Engineering (EFCE) in Brussels, Belgium.In the 1980s, Buzek was an activist of the anti-communist movements, including the legal (1980–1981 and since 1989) and underground (1981–1989) Solidarity trade union and political movement in communist Poland. He was an active organiser of the trade union's regional and national underground authorities. He was also the chairman of the four national general meetings (1st, 4th, 5th, and 6th) when the Solidarity movement was allowed to participate in the political process again.Jerzy Buzek was a member of the Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and co-author of the AWS's economic program. After the 1997 elections he was elected to the Sejm, the lower house of the Polish Parliament, and was soon appointed Prime Minister of Poland. In 1999 he became the chairman of the AWS Social Movement (Ruch Społeczny AWS) and in 2001 he became the Chairman of the Solidarity Electoral Action coalition.Between the years 1997–2001 he was the Prime Minister of Poland, first of the right-centrist AWS–Freedom Union coalition government until 2001, and then of the rightist AWS minority government. His cabinet's major achievements were four significant political and economic reforms: a new local government and administration division of Poland, reform of the pension system, reform of the educational system, and reform of the medical care system. AWS was defeated in the 2001 Polish parliamentary election. Buzek resigned as the chairman of AWS Social Movement and was replaced by Mieczysław Janowski.On 13 June 2004, in the European Parliament election, 2004, Jerzy Buzek was elected a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from the Silesian Voivodeship, basing his candidacy only on the popularity of his name and on direct contact with the voters. He received a record number of votes, 173,389 (22.14% of the total votes in the region). His current party affiliation is with the Civic Platform, which is a member of the European People's Party.In the 2004–2009 European Parliament, he was a member of the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy, an alternate member of the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety, a member of the Delegation to the EU–Ukraine Parliamentary Cooperation Committee, and an alternate delegate for the delegation for relations with the countries of Central America. He served as rapporteur on the EU's 7th Framework Programme for Research and Development, a multibillion-euro spending program for the years 2007–2013.On 7 June 2009, in the European Parliament election, 2009, Buzek was re-elected as a Member of the European Parliament from the Silesian Voivodeship constituency. Just as in the previous election, Buzek received a record number of votes in Poland: 393,117 (over 42% of the total votes in the district). On 12 September 2018, he voted in favor of approving the controversial Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market.On 14 July 2009, Buzek was elected President of the European Parliament with 555 votes of the 644 votes cast, the largest majority ever, becoming the first person from the former Eastern Bloc and the first former Prime Minister since Pierre Pflimlin to gain that position. He succeeded the German Christian Democrat MEP, Hans-Gert Pöttering. He pledged to make human rights and the promotion of the Eastern partnership two of his priorities during his term of office, which will last two and a half years until, due to a political deal, Social Democrat MEP Martin Schulz will take over.In his inaugural address in Strasbourg, Buzek stated that among the greatest challenges faced by the European parliament were the economic crisis, European solidarity, human rights, and reform within the Parliament itself. Buzek also stated he would be committed to reform of the European economy, tackling rising unemployment, energy security, and climate change, strengthening European solidarity and integration and promoting equal opportunities for women. However, Buzek noted that the Lisbon Treaty would be a prerequisite to any change "(so that the Union can be) well-organised and effective".On 8 December 2009 Buzek was awarded by the Ministerpräsident of North Rhine-Westphalia, Dr. Jürgen Rüttgers, the annual "Staatspreis award". The prize was awarded in honor of his lifetime achievements and highlighted the European Parliament as a "motor of integration." Affirming his commitment to the Eastern Partnership and "those who do not have the possibility to participate in our European integration project", Buzek announced that the prize money would be donated to the European Humanities University (EHU), A Belarusian university in exile in Vilnius.The Lisbon Treaty, which came into force on 1 December 2009 shortly after Buzek assumed office, brought a conclusion to nearly a decade of internal discussions and greatly boosted the democratic powers of the European Parliament. From very early on Buzek has been a vocal supporter of the treaty as part of a wider push for greater political integration in Europe. The rise in legislative powers under the treaty in fact represents almost a doubling in power. Since its introduction Parliament has equal rights with the Council of Ministers over 40 new fields within the "co-decision" procedure, such as agriculture, energy security, immigration, justice and home affairs, health and structural funds.In late 2011 Buzek's presidency also endorsed the 'Sixpack' legislation on economic governance to tackle the growing Eurozone crisis. This was a follow-up on the earlier Stability and Growth Pact and the Euro Plus Pact intended as a means of optimising macroeconomic surveillance in Europe and avoiding crises in the eurozone in the future. Welcoming the parliament's adoption of the legislation on 28 October 2011, Buzek stated: "The adoption of the six-pack by the whole European Parliament is good news for the European Union. We have a new economic rule-book. We have developed a powerful and resistant armour against any future crises. With the adoption of the six-pack, the EU significantly strengthens its budget discipline and moves towards true economic governance. We can not turn the clock back, but the package will ensure that Member States budgets will be credible."One of Buzek's major challenges as EP president was dealing with the allegations of corruption, illegal lobbying and mismanagement of public funds of which several members of the European Parliament have been accused in the wake of a cash-for-amendments scandal. On 7 July 2011, the Conference of Presidents approved the first-ever code of conduct for MEPs and it was officially endorsed by the parliament on 1 December 2011. The code sets out rules and principles that MEPs should follow in their dealings with outside parties in order to avoid conflicts of interest. "Increased powers of the European Parliament must be accompanied by an increased transparency and accountability on behalf of its members" Buzek has said of the code. According to the code, MEPs have to provide clear declarations of their paid activities outside parliament, as well as the salary they receive. They also have to declare all other activities which might constitute a conflict of interest. The code contains an explicit ban on MEPs receiving payments or other rewards in exchange for influencing parliamentary decisions. It also sets out clear rules on the acceptance of gifts and on the issue of former MEPs working as lobbyists.He is a supporter of Ruch Chorzów.
|
[
"Civic Platform",
"Solidarity"
] |
|
Which political party did Jerzy Buzek belong to in Jul, 2010?
|
July 29, 2010
|
{
"text": [
"Civic Platform"
]
}
|
L2_Q55910_P102_2
|
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Civic Platform from Jan, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Solidarity from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1996.
Jerzy Buzek is a member of the Solidarity Electoral Action from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2001.
|
Jerzy BuzekJerzy Karol Buzek (born 3 July 1940) is a Polish politician and Member of the European Parliament from Poland. He has served as Prime Minister of Poland from 1997 to 2001, since being elected to the European Parliament in 2004, he served as President of the European Parliament between 2009 and 2012. He is married to Ludgarda Buzek and is the father of Polish actress Agata Buzek.Jerzy Karol Buzek was born to a Lutheran family on 3 July 1940 in Smilovice, Czechoslovakia (under the National Socialist German occupation). He was born into the prominent Buzek family, which participated in Polish politics in the Second Polish Republic during the interbellum. The family was part of the Polish community in Zaolzie. Buzek's father was an engineer. After the Second World War, his family moved to Chorzów. He is a Lutheran.In 1963 Jerzy Buzek graduated from the Mechanics-and-Energy Division of the Silesian University of Technology, specialising in chemical engineering. He became a scientist in the Chemical Engineering Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Since 1997 he has been a professor of technical science. He is also an honorary doctor of the universities in Seoul and Dortmund among others.From 1997 to 2001, Buzek was a coalition Prime Minister of Poland.In 1998 he became the first laureate of the Grzegorz Palka Award and was nominated "European of the Year" by the European Union Business Chambers Forum.In 1998 he was named 'Person of the Year' by the influential Polish political weekly "Wprost". He won the award for the second time in 2009. On receiving the award again, as President of the European Parliament, he stressed that he was the first winner to be honoured for his work beyond the borders of Poland.He was the first Prime Minister of the 3rd Republic of Poland to serve a full term.After losing the parliamentary elections in 2001, he stepped back from political life and focused more on his scientific work, becoming the prorector of Akademia Polonijna in Częstochowa and professor in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Opole University of Technology in Opole.His return to political life in 2004 saw him gain the largest popular vote in Poland as the member for Katowice to the European Parliament standing for the Civic Platform.Whilst President of the European Parliament, on 30 March 2011, he was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Institution of Chemical Engineers at a meeting of the European Federation of Chemical Engineering (EFCE) in Brussels, Belgium.In the 1980s, Buzek was an activist of the anti-communist movements, including the legal (1980–1981 and since 1989) and underground (1981–1989) Solidarity trade union and political movement in communist Poland. He was an active organiser of the trade union's regional and national underground authorities. He was also the chairman of the four national general meetings (1st, 4th, 5th, and 6th) when the Solidarity movement was allowed to participate in the political process again.Jerzy Buzek was a member of the Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and co-author of the AWS's economic program. After the 1997 elections he was elected to the Sejm, the lower house of the Polish Parliament, and was soon appointed Prime Minister of Poland. In 1999 he became the chairman of the AWS Social Movement (Ruch Społeczny AWS) and in 2001 he became the Chairman of the Solidarity Electoral Action coalition.Between the years 1997–2001 he was the Prime Minister of Poland, first of the right-centrist AWS–Freedom Union coalition government until 2001, and then of the rightist AWS minority government. His cabinet's major achievements were four significant political and economic reforms: a new local government and administration division of Poland, reform of the pension system, reform of the educational system, and reform of the medical care system. AWS was defeated in the 2001 Polish parliamentary election. Buzek resigned as the chairman of AWS Social Movement and was replaced by Mieczysław Janowski.On 13 June 2004, in the European Parliament election, 2004, Jerzy Buzek was elected a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from the Silesian Voivodeship, basing his candidacy only on the popularity of his name and on direct contact with the voters. He received a record number of votes, 173,389 (22.14% of the total votes in the region). His current party affiliation is with the Civic Platform, which is a member of the European People's Party.In the 2004–2009 European Parliament, he was a member of the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy, an alternate member of the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety, a member of the Delegation to the EU–Ukraine Parliamentary Cooperation Committee, and an alternate delegate for the delegation for relations with the countries of Central America. He served as rapporteur on the EU's 7th Framework Programme for Research and Development, a multibillion-euro spending program for the years 2007–2013.On 7 June 2009, in the European Parliament election, 2009, Buzek was re-elected as a Member of the European Parliament from the Silesian Voivodeship constituency. Just as in the previous election, Buzek received a record number of votes in Poland: 393,117 (over 42% of the total votes in the district). On 12 September 2018, he voted in favor of approving the controversial Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market.On 14 July 2009, Buzek was elected President of the European Parliament with 555 votes of the 644 votes cast, the largest majority ever, becoming the first person from the former Eastern Bloc and the first former Prime Minister since Pierre Pflimlin to gain that position. He succeeded the German Christian Democrat MEP, Hans-Gert Pöttering. He pledged to make human rights and the promotion of the Eastern partnership two of his priorities during his term of office, which will last two and a half years until, due to a political deal, Social Democrat MEP Martin Schulz will take over.In his inaugural address in Strasbourg, Buzek stated that among the greatest challenges faced by the European parliament were the economic crisis, European solidarity, human rights, and reform within the Parliament itself. Buzek also stated he would be committed to reform of the European economy, tackling rising unemployment, energy security, and climate change, strengthening European solidarity and integration and promoting equal opportunities for women. However, Buzek noted that the Lisbon Treaty would be a prerequisite to any change "(so that the Union can be) well-organised and effective".On 8 December 2009 Buzek was awarded by the Ministerpräsident of North Rhine-Westphalia, Dr. Jürgen Rüttgers, the annual "Staatspreis award". The prize was awarded in honor of his lifetime achievements and highlighted the European Parliament as a "motor of integration." Affirming his commitment to the Eastern Partnership and "those who do not have the possibility to participate in our European integration project", Buzek announced that the prize money would be donated to the European Humanities University (EHU), A Belarusian university in exile in Vilnius.The Lisbon Treaty, which came into force on 1 December 2009 shortly after Buzek assumed office, brought a conclusion to nearly a decade of internal discussions and greatly boosted the democratic powers of the European Parliament. From very early on Buzek has been a vocal supporter of the treaty as part of a wider push for greater political integration in Europe. The rise in legislative powers under the treaty in fact represents almost a doubling in power. Since its introduction Parliament has equal rights with the Council of Ministers over 40 new fields within the "co-decision" procedure, such as agriculture, energy security, immigration, justice and home affairs, health and structural funds.In late 2011 Buzek's presidency also endorsed the 'Sixpack' legislation on economic governance to tackle the growing Eurozone crisis. This was a follow-up on the earlier Stability and Growth Pact and the Euro Plus Pact intended as a means of optimising macroeconomic surveillance in Europe and avoiding crises in the eurozone in the future. Welcoming the parliament's adoption of the legislation on 28 October 2011, Buzek stated: "The adoption of the six-pack by the whole European Parliament is good news for the European Union. We have a new economic rule-book. We have developed a powerful and resistant armour against any future crises. With the adoption of the six-pack, the EU significantly strengthens its budget discipline and moves towards true economic governance. We can not turn the clock back, but the package will ensure that Member States budgets will be credible."One of Buzek's major challenges as EP president was dealing with the allegations of corruption, illegal lobbying and mismanagement of public funds of which several members of the European Parliament have been accused in the wake of a cash-for-amendments scandal. On 7 July 2011, the Conference of Presidents approved the first-ever code of conduct for MEPs and it was officially endorsed by the parliament on 1 December 2011. The code sets out rules and principles that MEPs should follow in their dealings with outside parties in order to avoid conflicts of interest. "Increased powers of the European Parliament must be accompanied by an increased transparency and accountability on behalf of its members" Buzek has said of the code. According to the code, MEPs have to provide clear declarations of their paid activities outside parliament, as well as the salary they receive. They also have to declare all other activities which might constitute a conflict of interest. The code contains an explicit ban on MEPs receiving payments or other rewards in exchange for influencing parliamentary decisions. It also sets out clear rules on the acceptance of gifts and on the issue of former MEPs working as lobbyists.He is a supporter of Ruch Chorzów.
|
[
"Solidarity Electoral Action",
"Solidarity"
] |
|
Who was the head of Dresden District in Aug, 1955?
|
August 31, 1955
|
{
"text": [
"Rudolf Jahn"
]
}
|
L2_Q48050_P6_0
|
Manfred Scheler is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1982.
Rudolf Jahn is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1952 to Jan, 1958.
Walter Weidauer is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Günther Witteck is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1989.
|
Bezirk DresdenThe Bezirk Dresden was a district ("Bezirk") of East Germany. The administrative seat and the main town was Dresden.The district was established, with the other 13, on 25 July 1952, substituting the old German states. After 3 October 1990 it was disestablished upon German reunification, becoming again part of the state of Saxony.The Bezirk Dresden was the easternmost Bezirk of East Germany. It, bordered on the 'Bezirke' of Cottbus, Leipzig and Karl-Marx-Stadt, as well as on Czechoslovakia and Poland. It was broadly similar in area to the later Direktionsbezirk Dresden, which functioned from 1990 to 2012.The "Bezirk" was divided into 17 "Kreise": 2 urban districts ("Stadtkreise") and 15 rural districts ("Landkreise"):
|
[
"Manfred Scheler",
"Günther Witteck",
"Walter Weidauer"
] |
|
Who was the head of Dresden District in Mar, 1958?
|
March 17, 1958
|
{
"text": [
"Walter Weidauer"
]
}
|
L2_Q48050_P6_1
|
Günther Witteck is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1989.
Rudolf Jahn is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1952 to Jan, 1958.
Manfred Scheler is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1982.
Walter Weidauer is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
|
Bezirk DresdenThe Bezirk Dresden was a district ("Bezirk") of East Germany. The administrative seat and the main town was Dresden.The district was established, with the other 13, on 25 July 1952, substituting the old German states. After 3 October 1990 it was disestablished upon German reunification, becoming again part of the state of Saxony.The Bezirk Dresden was the easternmost Bezirk of East Germany. It, bordered on the 'Bezirke' of Cottbus, Leipzig and Karl-Marx-Stadt, as well as on Czechoslovakia and Poland. It was broadly similar in area to the later Direktionsbezirk Dresden, which functioned from 1990 to 2012.The "Bezirk" was divided into 17 "Kreise": 2 urban districts ("Stadtkreise") and 15 rural districts ("Landkreise"):
|
[
"Manfred Scheler",
"Rudolf Jahn",
"Günther Witteck"
] |
|
Who was the head of Dresden District in Jan, 1968?
|
January 20, 1968
|
{
"text": [
"Manfred Scheler"
]
}
|
L2_Q48050_P6_2
|
Walter Weidauer is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Rudolf Jahn is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1952 to Jan, 1958.
Manfred Scheler is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1982.
Günther Witteck is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1989.
|
Bezirk DresdenThe Bezirk Dresden was a district ("Bezirk") of East Germany. The administrative seat and the main town was Dresden.The district was established, with the other 13, on 25 July 1952, substituting the old German states. After 3 October 1990 it was disestablished upon German reunification, becoming again part of the state of Saxony.The Bezirk Dresden was the easternmost Bezirk of East Germany. It, bordered on the 'Bezirke' of Cottbus, Leipzig and Karl-Marx-Stadt, as well as on Czechoslovakia and Poland. It was broadly similar in area to the later Direktionsbezirk Dresden, which functioned from 1990 to 2012.The "Bezirk" was divided into 17 "Kreise": 2 urban districts ("Stadtkreise") and 15 rural districts ("Landkreise"):
|
[
"Rudolf Jahn",
"Günther Witteck",
"Walter Weidauer"
] |
|
Who was the head of Dresden District in Jun, 1983?
|
June 21, 1983
|
{
"text": [
"Günther Witteck"
]
}
|
L2_Q48050_P6_3
|
Manfred Scheler is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1982.
Walter Weidauer is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Günther Witteck is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1989.
Rudolf Jahn is the head of the government of Dresden District from Jan, 1952 to Jan, 1958.
|
Bezirk DresdenThe Bezirk Dresden was a district ("Bezirk") of East Germany. The administrative seat and the main town was Dresden.The district was established, with the other 13, on 25 July 1952, substituting the old German states. After 3 October 1990 it was disestablished upon German reunification, becoming again part of the state of Saxony.The Bezirk Dresden was the easternmost Bezirk of East Germany. It, bordered on the 'Bezirke' of Cottbus, Leipzig and Karl-Marx-Stadt, as well as on Czechoslovakia and Poland. It was broadly similar in area to the later Direktionsbezirk Dresden, which functioned from 1990 to 2012.The "Bezirk" was divided into 17 "Kreise": 2 urban districts ("Stadtkreise") and 15 rural districts ("Landkreise"):
|
[
"Manfred Scheler",
"Rudolf Jahn",
"Walter Weidauer"
] |
|
Who was the head of Castres in Oct, 1956?
|
October 15, 1956
|
{
"text": [
"Lucien Coudert"
]
}
|
L2_Q188776_P6_0
|
Arnaud Mandement is the head of the government of Castres from Jun, 1995 to Mar, 2001.
Pascal Bugis is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Lucien Coudert is the head of the government of Castres from Feb, 1953 to Mar, 1971.
Jacques Limouzy is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 1989 to Jun, 1995.
|
CastresCastres (; "Castras" in the Languedocian dialect of Occitan) is a commune, and arrondissement capital in the Tarn department and Occitanie region in southern France. It lies in the former French province of Languedoc.Castres is (after Toulouse, Tarbes and Albi) the fourth-largest industrial centre of the predominantly rural Midi-Pyrénées "région" and the largest in that part of Languedoc lying between Toulouse and Montpellier.Castres is noted for being the birthplace of the famous socialist leader Jean Jaurès and home to the important Goya Museum of Spanish painting.In 1831, the population of Castres was 12,032, making it the largest town of the department of Tarn. One of the few industrial towns in the region of Albigeois, the population of the commune proper grew to 19,483 in 1901, and 34,126 by 1954 (44,161 inhabitants in the metropolitan area). However, with the decline of its industries, population growth diminished. Albi surpassed Castres as the most populous metropolitan area of Tarn. The population of Castres reached its peak in 1975, after that it has been decreasing slowly.Castres is located at an altitude of above sea level. It is located south-southeast of Albi, the "préfecture" (capital) of Tarn, and east of Toulouse, the capital of Midi-Pyrénées. Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout and Durenque rivers.The Thoré forms most of the commune's south-eastern border, then flows into the Agout, which forms part of its western border.Between 1790 and 1797 Castres was the prefecture of Tarn.Since 2001, the mayor of Castres has been Pascal Bugis (right, member of UMP), who defeated the then socialist mayor in the 2001 election after a campaign focused on the bad records of the socialist mayor on fighting crime, and the high level of insecurity in the town.Castres has teamed up with the nearby town of Mazamet ( southeast of Castres) and the independent suburbs and villages in between to create the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council ("Communauté d'agglomération de Castres-Mazamet"), which was established in January 2000 (succeeding a previous district which had been created in 1993 with fewer powers than the current council). The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council groups 16 independent communes (including Castres and Mazamet), with a total population of 79,988 inhabitants (at the 1999 census), 54% of these living in the commune of Castres proper, 13% in the commune of Mazamet, and the rest in the communes in between.The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council was created in order to better coordinate transport, infrastructure, housing, and economic policies between the communes of the area. The current president of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council is Jacques Limouzy (Gaullist, member of UMP), former mayor of Castres before 1995, who became president in 2001.The name of the town comes from Latin "castrum", and means "fortified place". Castres grew up round the Benedictine abbey of Saint Benoît, which is believed to have been founded in AD 647, possibly on the site of an old Roman fort ("castrum"). Castres became an important stop on the international pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela in Spain because its abbey-church, built in the 9th century, was keeping the relics of Saint Vincent, the renowned martyr of Spain. It was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century, and ranked as the second town of the Albigeois behind Albi. Despite the decline of its abbey, which in 1074 came under the authority of Saint Victor abbey in Marseille, Castres was granted a liberal charter in the 12th century by the famous Trencavel family, viscounts of Albi. Resulting from the charter, Castres was ruled by a college of consuls.During the Albigensian Crusade it surrendered of its own accord to Simon de Montfort, and thus entered into the kingdom of France in 1229. In 1317, Pope John XXII established the bishopric of Castres. In 1356, the town of Castres was raised to a countship by King John II of France. However, the town greatly suffered from the Black Plague in 1347-1348, then from the Black Prince of England and the Free Companies (bands of lawless mercenaries) who laid waste the country during the Hundred Years' War. Consequently, by the late 14th century Castres entered a period of sharp decline. In 1375, there were only 4,000 inhabitants left in town, only half the figure from a century before. Following the confiscation of the possessions of Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours, to which the countship of Castres had passed, it was bestowed in 1476 by King Louis XI on Boffille de Juge (Boffillo del Giudice), an Italian nobleman and adventurer serving as a diplomat for Louis XI, but the appointment led to so much disagreement (family feud between Boffille de Juge, his only daughter, and his brother-in-law) that the countship was united to the crown by King Francis I in 1519.Around 1560, the majority of the population of Castres converted to Protestantism. In the wars of the latter part of the 16th century the inhabitants sided with the Protestant party, fortified the town, and established an independent republic. Castres was one of the largest Protestant strongholds in southern France, along with Montauban and La Rochelle. Henry of Navarre, leader of the Protestant party, who later became King Henry IV of France, stayed in Castres in 1585. The Protestants of Castres were brought to terms, however, by King Louis XIII in 1629, and Richelieu came himself to Castres to have its fortifications dismantled. Nonetheless, after these religious wars, the town, now in peace, enjoyed a period of rapid expansion. Business and traditional commercial activities revived, in particular fur and leather-dressing, tanning, and above all wool trade. Culture flourished anew, with the founding of the Academy of Castres in 1648. Castres was turned by the Catholic Church into an active center of Counter-Reformation, with the establishments of several convents in town, and the building of a renowned bishop's palace by Mgr. Tubœuf, still the most famous monument in town today. A new cathedral was also built, after the destructions of the religious wars. Perhaps even more important, Castres was made the seat of the "Chambre de l'Édit" of the Parliament of Toulouse, a court of justice detached from the Parliament of Toulouse and in charge of dealing with the cases involving the Protestants of Languedoc, a measure of protection granted to them by the Edict of Nantes. This court attracted much business to Castres. In 1665, there were 7,000 inhabitants in Castres, 4,000 of whom Catholic, and 3,000 Protestant.In 1670 however, the "Chambre de l'Édit" was transferred to Castelnaudary, much to the discontent of even the catholic citizens of Castres, who lost a major source of business and revenue with the departure of the lawyers and the plaintiffs. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes soon followed, and Castres suffered greatly when many Protestants chose to go into exile. Then came the plague of 1720-1721 and the fire of 1724. Last but not least, Castres lost its liberal charter in 1758. In the 1760s, a few years after the famous Calas Affair in Toulouse, Castres made the headlines nationwide: Pierre-Paul Sirven and his wife, both Protestants, were wrongly accused of having murdered their daughter in order to prevent her from converting to Catholicism. Tried and sentenced to death "in absentia" on March 29, 1764, they were defended by Voltaire, and eventually exonerated in 1771.The outbreak of the French Revolution was generally welcomed in Castres, particularly among the local Protestant merchants and entrepreneurs, but the majority of the population remained moderate during the whole period. In 1793 for instance, Protestant pastor Alba La Source, Castres' representative at the Convention in Paris, opposed the deportation of "non-juror" Catholic priests to French Guiana, where death in the horrid jungle was certain (see Civil Constitution of the Clergy). "Non-juror" priests were by far the majority in the region of Castres. Accused of being a moderate, Alba La Source was guillotined in October 1793. Suspected of being lukewarm toward the revolution, Castres was duly chastised. The bishopric which had been established by Pope John XXII in 1317 was abolished, Castres later becoming part of the bishopric of Albi. Capital of the ' of Tarn in 1790, the town was downgraded to capital of an arrondissement in 1797, Albi being made the capital of the '.Despite these setbacks, in the 19th century the economy of Castres developed greatly, and the town grew outside of its old medieval center. As early as 1815, the first mechanized wool mill was set up in town. Originally specialized in luxury cloth, the Castres textile industry then turned toward more ordinary types of cloth, whose markets were considerably larger. Around 1860, there were 50 wool mills in town, employing 3,000 people. In the end of the 19th century, mechanical engineering industries appeared beside the textile industry, which led to Castres becoming a major arsenal for the French army during the First World War. Castres was linked to the French railway network in 1865. At the end of the 19th century, Castres was the largest town in the "" of Tarn, with 5,000 more inhabitants than Albi.However, in the 20th century the town entered a new period of decline. Although Castres emerged from the two world wars unscathed, no military operations or combats taking place in southwest France, the local economy has been hard hit by change. Like so many towns and cities of Europe which had benefited most from the Industrial Revolution, Castres is experiencing a difficult restructuring of its industrial base. Textile has particularly suffered. Castres is also crippled by its geographical location, isolated in a dead end at the foot of the Massif Central mountains, away from the main exchange and transport routes. Castres is still not connected to the motorway (freeway) network of France, the only town of that size in France not yet connected. The creation of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council in 2000 was expected to deal with the transport problem, and to work on attracting new industries. The good fortune of Castres is to be located only away from the very dynamic Toulouse. The long-promised motorway link with Toulouse is due to be completed soon, and Castres hopes to benefit from its proximity with the big Occitan city.The principal industries are mechanical and electrical engineering, machine tools, wooden furniture, granite, textile, fur and leather-dressing, tanning, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and selective breeding of cows.Traditional and polluting industries such as textile, tanning, fur and leather-dressing, or chemicals, are in sharp decline. However, a multinational pharmaceutical group (Pierre Fabre Group) emerged in the town in the 1960s, and it has kept its headquarters and R&D division in the metropolitan area, helping to counterbalance the general decline in industry. Some now accuse its founder and president, Pierre Fabre, of being the real "master" of Castres, making and designating Castres' mayors at will.The Gare de Castres railway station is served by regional trains to Mazamet and Toulouse.Castres is the hometown of socialist politician and newspaper publisher Jean Jaurès (1859–1914), who was murdered in Paris the day before the start of the First World War.Mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in Castres in 1665, while attending a session of the "Chambre de l'Édit" there.French writer Roger Peyrefitte was born into a wealthy family of Castres in 1907.Former French footballer Claude Puel was also born in Castres.Other people born in the city include:Residents of Castres include:Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout River. The river is fringed by old houses the upper stories of which project over its waters.The church of Saint Benoît, once the cathedral of Castres, and the most important of the churches of Castres today, dates only from the 17th and 18th centuries. The city hall occupies the former bishop's palace, designed in the 17th century by Jules Hardouin-Mansart (the architect of Versailles), and with gardens designed by André Le Nôtre (the designer of the gardens in Versailles). The Romanesque tower beside it ("Tour Saint Benoît") is the only survival of the old Benedictine abbey. The town possesses some old mansions from the 16th and 17th century, including the "Hôtel de Nayrac", of the Renaissance.Castres possesses the renowned Goya Museum, created in 1840, which contains the largest collection of Spanish paintings in France. A Jaurès Museum was also opened in 1954 in the house where Jean Jaurès was born in 1859.The Jardin botanique Pierre Fabre "La Michonne" is a private botanical garden and conservatory that can be visited.As one might expect of a town of western Occitania nicknamed "Ovalie", the main sport in Castres is rugby union, followed religiously by many locals. The local professional club is "Castres Olympique", who are five-time champions of France as well as the current champions (in 1949, 1950, 1993, 2013 and 2018). "Castres Olympique" is the property of local tycoon Pierre Fabre, founder and president of Pierre Fabre Group.The finish of Stage 12 of the 2007 Tour de France was in Castres.Castres is the place where a short film festival occurs each yearThe city happened to see the birth of its first student radio () in 2007.Castres is twinned with:
|
[
"Jacques Limouzy",
"Pascal Bugis",
"Arnaud Mandement"
] |
|
Who was the head of Castres in Oct, 1994?
|
October 24, 1994
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Limouzy"
]
}
|
L2_Q188776_P6_1
|
Jacques Limouzy is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 1989 to Jun, 1995.
Pascal Bugis is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Lucien Coudert is the head of the government of Castres from Feb, 1953 to Mar, 1971.
Arnaud Mandement is the head of the government of Castres from Jun, 1995 to Mar, 2001.
|
CastresCastres (; "Castras" in the Languedocian dialect of Occitan) is a commune, and arrondissement capital in the Tarn department and Occitanie region in southern France. It lies in the former French province of Languedoc.Castres is (after Toulouse, Tarbes and Albi) the fourth-largest industrial centre of the predominantly rural Midi-Pyrénées "région" and the largest in that part of Languedoc lying between Toulouse and Montpellier.Castres is noted for being the birthplace of the famous socialist leader Jean Jaurès and home to the important Goya Museum of Spanish painting.In 1831, the population of Castres was 12,032, making it the largest town of the department of Tarn. One of the few industrial towns in the region of Albigeois, the population of the commune proper grew to 19,483 in 1901, and 34,126 by 1954 (44,161 inhabitants in the metropolitan area). However, with the decline of its industries, population growth diminished. Albi surpassed Castres as the most populous metropolitan area of Tarn. The population of Castres reached its peak in 1975, after that it has been decreasing slowly.Castres is located at an altitude of above sea level. It is located south-southeast of Albi, the "préfecture" (capital) of Tarn, and east of Toulouse, the capital of Midi-Pyrénées. Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout and Durenque rivers.The Thoré forms most of the commune's south-eastern border, then flows into the Agout, which forms part of its western border.Between 1790 and 1797 Castres was the prefecture of Tarn.Since 2001, the mayor of Castres has been Pascal Bugis (right, member of UMP), who defeated the then socialist mayor in the 2001 election after a campaign focused on the bad records of the socialist mayor on fighting crime, and the high level of insecurity in the town.Castres has teamed up with the nearby town of Mazamet ( southeast of Castres) and the independent suburbs and villages in between to create the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council ("Communauté d'agglomération de Castres-Mazamet"), which was established in January 2000 (succeeding a previous district which had been created in 1993 with fewer powers than the current council). The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council groups 16 independent communes (including Castres and Mazamet), with a total population of 79,988 inhabitants (at the 1999 census), 54% of these living in the commune of Castres proper, 13% in the commune of Mazamet, and the rest in the communes in between.The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council was created in order to better coordinate transport, infrastructure, housing, and economic policies between the communes of the area. The current president of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council is Jacques Limouzy (Gaullist, member of UMP), former mayor of Castres before 1995, who became president in 2001.The name of the town comes from Latin "castrum", and means "fortified place". Castres grew up round the Benedictine abbey of Saint Benoît, which is believed to have been founded in AD 647, possibly on the site of an old Roman fort ("castrum"). Castres became an important stop on the international pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela in Spain because its abbey-church, built in the 9th century, was keeping the relics of Saint Vincent, the renowned martyr of Spain. It was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century, and ranked as the second town of the Albigeois behind Albi. Despite the decline of its abbey, which in 1074 came under the authority of Saint Victor abbey in Marseille, Castres was granted a liberal charter in the 12th century by the famous Trencavel family, viscounts of Albi. Resulting from the charter, Castres was ruled by a college of consuls.During the Albigensian Crusade it surrendered of its own accord to Simon de Montfort, and thus entered into the kingdom of France in 1229. In 1317, Pope John XXII established the bishopric of Castres. In 1356, the town of Castres was raised to a countship by King John II of France. However, the town greatly suffered from the Black Plague in 1347-1348, then from the Black Prince of England and the Free Companies (bands of lawless mercenaries) who laid waste the country during the Hundred Years' War. Consequently, by the late 14th century Castres entered a period of sharp decline. In 1375, there were only 4,000 inhabitants left in town, only half the figure from a century before. Following the confiscation of the possessions of Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours, to which the countship of Castres had passed, it was bestowed in 1476 by King Louis XI on Boffille de Juge (Boffillo del Giudice), an Italian nobleman and adventurer serving as a diplomat for Louis XI, but the appointment led to so much disagreement (family feud between Boffille de Juge, his only daughter, and his brother-in-law) that the countship was united to the crown by King Francis I in 1519.Around 1560, the majority of the population of Castres converted to Protestantism. In the wars of the latter part of the 16th century the inhabitants sided with the Protestant party, fortified the town, and established an independent republic. Castres was one of the largest Protestant strongholds in southern France, along with Montauban and La Rochelle. Henry of Navarre, leader of the Protestant party, who later became King Henry IV of France, stayed in Castres in 1585. The Protestants of Castres were brought to terms, however, by King Louis XIII in 1629, and Richelieu came himself to Castres to have its fortifications dismantled. Nonetheless, after these religious wars, the town, now in peace, enjoyed a period of rapid expansion. Business and traditional commercial activities revived, in particular fur and leather-dressing, tanning, and above all wool trade. Culture flourished anew, with the founding of the Academy of Castres in 1648. Castres was turned by the Catholic Church into an active center of Counter-Reformation, with the establishments of several convents in town, and the building of a renowned bishop's palace by Mgr. Tubœuf, still the most famous monument in town today. A new cathedral was also built, after the destructions of the religious wars. Perhaps even more important, Castres was made the seat of the "Chambre de l'Édit" of the Parliament of Toulouse, a court of justice detached from the Parliament of Toulouse and in charge of dealing with the cases involving the Protestants of Languedoc, a measure of protection granted to them by the Edict of Nantes. This court attracted much business to Castres. In 1665, there were 7,000 inhabitants in Castres, 4,000 of whom Catholic, and 3,000 Protestant.In 1670 however, the "Chambre de l'Édit" was transferred to Castelnaudary, much to the discontent of even the catholic citizens of Castres, who lost a major source of business and revenue with the departure of the lawyers and the plaintiffs. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes soon followed, and Castres suffered greatly when many Protestants chose to go into exile. Then came the plague of 1720-1721 and the fire of 1724. Last but not least, Castres lost its liberal charter in 1758. In the 1760s, a few years after the famous Calas Affair in Toulouse, Castres made the headlines nationwide: Pierre-Paul Sirven and his wife, both Protestants, were wrongly accused of having murdered their daughter in order to prevent her from converting to Catholicism. Tried and sentenced to death "in absentia" on March 29, 1764, they were defended by Voltaire, and eventually exonerated in 1771.The outbreak of the French Revolution was generally welcomed in Castres, particularly among the local Protestant merchants and entrepreneurs, but the majority of the population remained moderate during the whole period. In 1793 for instance, Protestant pastor Alba La Source, Castres' representative at the Convention in Paris, opposed the deportation of "non-juror" Catholic priests to French Guiana, where death in the horrid jungle was certain (see Civil Constitution of the Clergy). "Non-juror" priests were by far the majority in the region of Castres. Accused of being a moderate, Alba La Source was guillotined in October 1793. Suspected of being lukewarm toward the revolution, Castres was duly chastised. The bishopric which had been established by Pope John XXII in 1317 was abolished, Castres later becoming part of the bishopric of Albi. Capital of the ' of Tarn in 1790, the town was downgraded to capital of an arrondissement in 1797, Albi being made the capital of the '.Despite these setbacks, in the 19th century the economy of Castres developed greatly, and the town grew outside of its old medieval center. As early as 1815, the first mechanized wool mill was set up in town. Originally specialized in luxury cloth, the Castres textile industry then turned toward more ordinary types of cloth, whose markets were considerably larger. Around 1860, there were 50 wool mills in town, employing 3,000 people. In the end of the 19th century, mechanical engineering industries appeared beside the textile industry, which led to Castres becoming a major arsenal for the French army during the First World War. Castres was linked to the French railway network in 1865. At the end of the 19th century, Castres was the largest town in the "" of Tarn, with 5,000 more inhabitants than Albi.However, in the 20th century the town entered a new period of decline. Although Castres emerged from the two world wars unscathed, no military operations or combats taking place in southwest France, the local economy has been hard hit by change. Like so many towns and cities of Europe which had benefited most from the Industrial Revolution, Castres is experiencing a difficult restructuring of its industrial base. Textile has particularly suffered. Castres is also crippled by its geographical location, isolated in a dead end at the foot of the Massif Central mountains, away from the main exchange and transport routes. Castres is still not connected to the motorway (freeway) network of France, the only town of that size in France not yet connected. The creation of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council in 2000 was expected to deal with the transport problem, and to work on attracting new industries. The good fortune of Castres is to be located only away from the very dynamic Toulouse. The long-promised motorway link with Toulouse is due to be completed soon, and Castres hopes to benefit from its proximity with the big Occitan city.The principal industries are mechanical and electrical engineering, machine tools, wooden furniture, granite, textile, fur and leather-dressing, tanning, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and selective breeding of cows.Traditional and polluting industries such as textile, tanning, fur and leather-dressing, or chemicals, are in sharp decline. However, a multinational pharmaceutical group (Pierre Fabre Group) emerged in the town in the 1960s, and it has kept its headquarters and R&D division in the metropolitan area, helping to counterbalance the general decline in industry. Some now accuse its founder and president, Pierre Fabre, of being the real "master" of Castres, making and designating Castres' mayors at will.The Gare de Castres railway station is served by regional trains to Mazamet and Toulouse.Castres is the hometown of socialist politician and newspaper publisher Jean Jaurès (1859–1914), who was murdered in Paris the day before the start of the First World War.Mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in Castres in 1665, while attending a session of the "Chambre de l'Édit" there.French writer Roger Peyrefitte was born into a wealthy family of Castres in 1907.Former French footballer Claude Puel was also born in Castres.Other people born in the city include:Residents of Castres include:Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout River. The river is fringed by old houses the upper stories of which project over its waters.The church of Saint Benoît, once the cathedral of Castres, and the most important of the churches of Castres today, dates only from the 17th and 18th centuries. The city hall occupies the former bishop's palace, designed in the 17th century by Jules Hardouin-Mansart (the architect of Versailles), and with gardens designed by André Le Nôtre (the designer of the gardens in Versailles). The Romanesque tower beside it ("Tour Saint Benoît") is the only survival of the old Benedictine abbey. The town possesses some old mansions from the 16th and 17th century, including the "Hôtel de Nayrac", of the Renaissance.Castres possesses the renowned Goya Museum, created in 1840, which contains the largest collection of Spanish paintings in France. A Jaurès Museum was also opened in 1954 in the house where Jean Jaurès was born in 1859.The Jardin botanique Pierre Fabre "La Michonne" is a private botanical garden and conservatory that can be visited.As one might expect of a town of western Occitania nicknamed "Ovalie", the main sport in Castres is rugby union, followed religiously by many locals. The local professional club is "Castres Olympique", who are five-time champions of France as well as the current champions (in 1949, 1950, 1993, 2013 and 2018). "Castres Olympique" is the property of local tycoon Pierre Fabre, founder and president of Pierre Fabre Group.The finish of Stage 12 of the 2007 Tour de France was in Castres.Castres is the place where a short film festival occurs each yearThe city happened to see the birth of its first student radio () in 2007.Castres is twinned with:
|
[
"Pascal Bugis",
"Lucien Coudert",
"Arnaud Mandement"
] |
|
Who was the head of Castres in Jun, 1998?
|
June 07, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Arnaud Mandement"
]
}
|
L2_Q188776_P6_2
|
Arnaud Mandement is the head of the government of Castres from Jun, 1995 to Mar, 2001.
Lucien Coudert is the head of the government of Castres from Feb, 1953 to Mar, 1971.
Pascal Bugis is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Jacques Limouzy is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 1989 to Jun, 1995.
|
CastresCastres (; "Castras" in the Languedocian dialect of Occitan) is a commune, and arrondissement capital in the Tarn department and Occitanie region in southern France. It lies in the former French province of Languedoc.Castres is (after Toulouse, Tarbes and Albi) the fourth-largest industrial centre of the predominantly rural Midi-Pyrénées "région" and the largest in that part of Languedoc lying between Toulouse and Montpellier.Castres is noted for being the birthplace of the famous socialist leader Jean Jaurès and home to the important Goya Museum of Spanish painting.In 1831, the population of Castres was 12,032, making it the largest town of the department of Tarn. One of the few industrial towns in the region of Albigeois, the population of the commune proper grew to 19,483 in 1901, and 34,126 by 1954 (44,161 inhabitants in the metropolitan area). However, with the decline of its industries, population growth diminished. Albi surpassed Castres as the most populous metropolitan area of Tarn. The population of Castres reached its peak in 1975, after that it has been decreasing slowly.Castres is located at an altitude of above sea level. It is located south-southeast of Albi, the "préfecture" (capital) of Tarn, and east of Toulouse, the capital of Midi-Pyrénées. Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout and Durenque rivers.The Thoré forms most of the commune's south-eastern border, then flows into the Agout, which forms part of its western border.Between 1790 and 1797 Castres was the prefecture of Tarn.Since 2001, the mayor of Castres has been Pascal Bugis (right, member of UMP), who defeated the then socialist mayor in the 2001 election after a campaign focused on the bad records of the socialist mayor on fighting crime, and the high level of insecurity in the town.Castres has teamed up with the nearby town of Mazamet ( southeast of Castres) and the independent suburbs and villages in between to create the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council ("Communauté d'agglomération de Castres-Mazamet"), which was established in January 2000 (succeeding a previous district which had been created in 1993 with fewer powers than the current council). The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council groups 16 independent communes (including Castres and Mazamet), with a total population of 79,988 inhabitants (at the 1999 census), 54% of these living in the commune of Castres proper, 13% in the commune of Mazamet, and the rest in the communes in between.The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council was created in order to better coordinate transport, infrastructure, housing, and economic policies between the communes of the area. The current president of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council is Jacques Limouzy (Gaullist, member of UMP), former mayor of Castres before 1995, who became president in 2001.The name of the town comes from Latin "castrum", and means "fortified place". Castres grew up round the Benedictine abbey of Saint Benoît, which is believed to have been founded in AD 647, possibly on the site of an old Roman fort ("castrum"). Castres became an important stop on the international pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela in Spain because its abbey-church, built in the 9th century, was keeping the relics of Saint Vincent, the renowned martyr of Spain. It was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century, and ranked as the second town of the Albigeois behind Albi. Despite the decline of its abbey, which in 1074 came under the authority of Saint Victor abbey in Marseille, Castres was granted a liberal charter in the 12th century by the famous Trencavel family, viscounts of Albi. Resulting from the charter, Castres was ruled by a college of consuls.During the Albigensian Crusade it surrendered of its own accord to Simon de Montfort, and thus entered into the kingdom of France in 1229. In 1317, Pope John XXII established the bishopric of Castres. In 1356, the town of Castres was raised to a countship by King John II of France. However, the town greatly suffered from the Black Plague in 1347-1348, then from the Black Prince of England and the Free Companies (bands of lawless mercenaries) who laid waste the country during the Hundred Years' War. Consequently, by the late 14th century Castres entered a period of sharp decline. In 1375, there were only 4,000 inhabitants left in town, only half the figure from a century before. Following the confiscation of the possessions of Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours, to which the countship of Castres had passed, it was bestowed in 1476 by King Louis XI on Boffille de Juge (Boffillo del Giudice), an Italian nobleman and adventurer serving as a diplomat for Louis XI, but the appointment led to so much disagreement (family feud between Boffille de Juge, his only daughter, and his brother-in-law) that the countship was united to the crown by King Francis I in 1519.Around 1560, the majority of the population of Castres converted to Protestantism. In the wars of the latter part of the 16th century the inhabitants sided with the Protestant party, fortified the town, and established an independent republic. Castres was one of the largest Protestant strongholds in southern France, along with Montauban and La Rochelle. Henry of Navarre, leader of the Protestant party, who later became King Henry IV of France, stayed in Castres in 1585. The Protestants of Castres were brought to terms, however, by King Louis XIII in 1629, and Richelieu came himself to Castres to have its fortifications dismantled. Nonetheless, after these religious wars, the town, now in peace, enjoyed a period of rapid expansion. Business and traditional commercial activities revived, in particular fur and leather-dressing, tanning, and above all wool trade. Culture flourished anew, with the founding of the Academy of Castres in 1648. Castres was turned by the Catholic Church into an active center of Counter-Reformation, with the establishments of several convents in town, and the building of a renowned bishop's palace by Mgr. Tubœuf, still the most famous monument in town today. A new cathedral was also built, after the destructions of the religious wars. Perhaps even more important, Castres was made the seat of the "Chambre de l'Édit" of the Parliament of Toulouse, a court of justice detached from the Parliament of Toulouse and in charge of dealing with the cases involving the Protestants of Languedoc, a measure of protection granted to them by the Edict of Nantes. This court attracted much business to Castres. In 1665, there were 7,000 inhabitants in Castres, 4,000 of whom Catholic, and 3,000 Protestant.In 1670 however, the "Chambre de l'Édit" was transferred to Castelnaudary, much to the discontent of even the catholic citizens of Castres, who lost a major source of business and revenue with the departure of the lawyers and the plaintiffs. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes soon followed, and Castres suffered greatly when many Protestants chose to go into exile. Then came the plague of 1720-1721 and the fire of 1724. Last but not least, Castres lost its liberal charter in 1758. In the 1760s, a few years after the famous Calas Affair in Toulouse, Castres made the headlines nationwide: Pierre-Paul Sirven and his wife, both Protestants, were wrongly accused of having murdered their daughter in order to prevent her from converting to Catholicism. Tried and sentenced to death "in absentia" on March 29, 1764, they were defended by Voltaire, and eventually exonerated in 1771.The outbreak of the French Revolution was generally welcomed in Castres, particularly among the local Protestant merchants and entrepreneurs, but the majority of the population remained moderate during the whole period. In 1793 for instance, Protestant pastor Alba La Source, Castres' representative at the Convention in Paris, opposed the deportation of "non-juror" Catholic priests to French Guiana, where death in the horrid jungle was certain (see Civil Constitution of the Clergy). "Non-juror" priests were by far the majority in the region of Castres. Accused of being a moderate, Alba La Source was guillotined in October 1793. Suspected of being lukewarm toward the revolution, Castres was duly chastised. The bishopric which had been established by Pope John XXII in 1317 was abolished, Castres later becoming part of the bishopric of Albi. Capital of the ' of Tarn in 1790, the town was downgraded to capital of an arrondissement in 1797, Albi being made the capital of the '.Despite these setbacks, in the 19th century the economy of Castres developed greatly, and the town grew outside of its old medieval center. As early as 1815, the first mechanized wool mill was set up in town. Originally specialized in luxury cloth, the Castres textile industry then turned toward more ordinary types of cloth, whose markets were considerably larger. Around 1860, there were 50 wool mills in town, employing 3,000 people. In the end of the 19th century, mechanical engineering industries appeared beside the textile industry, which led to Castres becoming a major arsenal for the French army during the First World War. Castres was linked to the French railway network in 1865. At the end of the 19th century, Castres was the largest town in the "" of Tarn, with 5,000 more inhabitants than Albi.However, in the 20th century the town entered a new period of decline. Although Castres emerged from the two world wars unscathed, no military operations or combats taking place in southwest France, the local economy has been hard hit by change. Like so many towns and cities of Europe which had benefited most from the Industrial Revolution, Castres is experiencing a difficult restructuring of its industrial base. Textile has particularly suffered. Castres is also crippled by its geographical location, isolated in a dead end at the foot of the Massif Central mountains, away from the main exchange and transport routes. Castres is still not connected to the motorway (freeway) network of France, the only town of that size in France not yet connected. The creation of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council in 2000 was expected to deal with the transport problem, and to work on attracting new industries. The good fortune of Castres is to be located only away from the very dynamic Toulouse. The long-promised motorway link with Toulouse is due to be completed soon, and Castres hopes to benefit from its proximity with the big Occitan city.The principal industries are mechanical and electrical engineering, machine tools, wooden furniture, granite, textile, fur and leather-dressing, tanning, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and selective breeding of cows.Traditional and polluting industries such as textile, tanning, fur and leather-dressing, or chemicals, are in sharp decline. However, a multinational pharmaceutical group (Pierre Fabre Group) emerged in the town in the 1960s, and it has kept its headquarters and R&D division in the metropolitan area, helping to counterbalance the general decline in industry. Some now accuse its founder and president, Pierre Fabre, of being the real "master" of Castres, making and designating Castres' mayors at will.The Gare de Castres railway station is served by regional trains to Mazamet and Toulouse.Castres is the hometown of socialist politician and newspaper publisher Jean Jaurès (1859–1914), who was murdered in Paris the day before the start of the First World War.Mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in Castres in 1665, while attending a session of the "Chambre de l'Édit" there.French writer Roger Peyrefitte was born into a wealthy family of Castres in 1907.Former French footballer Claude Puel was also born in Castres.Other people born in the city include:Residents of Castres include:Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout River. The river is fringed by old houses the upper stories of which project over its waters.The church of Saint Benoît, once the cathedral of Castres, and the most important of the churches of Castres today, dates only from the 17th and 18th centuries. The city hall occupies the former bishop's palace, designed in the 17th century by Jules Hardouin-Mansart (the architect of Versailles), and with gardens designed by André Le Nôtre (the designer of the gardens in Versailles). The Romanesque tower beside it ("Tour Saint Benoît") is the only survival of the old Benedictine abbey. The town possesses some old mansions from the 16th and 17th century, including the "Hôtel de Nayrac", of the Renaissance.Castres possesses the renowned Goya Museum, created in 1840, which contains the largest collection of Spanish paintings in France. A Jaurès Museum was also opened in 1954 in the house where Jean Jaurès was born in 1859.The Jardin botanique Pierre Fabre "La Michonne" is a private botanical garden and conservatory that can be visited.As one might expect of a town of western Occitania nicknamed "Ovalie", the main sport in Castres is rugby union, followed religiously by many locals. The local professional club is "Castres Olympique", who are five-time champions of France as well as the current champions (in 1949, 1950, 1993, 2013 and 2018). "Castres Olympique" is the property of local tycoon Pierre Fabre, founder and president of Pierre Fabre Group.The finish of Stage 12 of the 2007 Tour de France was in Castres.Castres is the place where a short film festival occurs each yearThe city happened to see the birth of its first student radio () in 2007.Castres is twinned with:
|
[
"Jacques Limouzy",
"Pascal Bugis",
"Lucien Coudert"
] |
|
Who was the head of Castres in Jun, 2007?
|
June 28, 2007
|
{
"text": [
"Pascal Bugis"
]
}
|
L2_Q188776_P6_3
|
Pascal Bugis is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 2001 to Dec, 2022.
Lucien Coudert is the head of the government of Castres from Feb, 1953 to Mar, 1971.
Jacques Limouzy is the head of the government of Castres from Mar, 1989 to Jun, 1995.
Arnaud Mandement is the head of the government of Castres from Jun, 1995 to Mar, 2001.
|
CastresCastres (; "Castras" in the Languedocian dialect of Occitan) is a commune, and arrondissement capital in the Tarn department and Occitanie region in southern France. It lies in the former French province of Languedoc.Castres is (after Toulouse, Tarbes and Albi) the fourth-largest industrial centre of the predominantly rural Midi-Pyrénées "région" and the largest in that part of Languedoc lying between Toulouse and Montpellier.Castres is noted for being the birthplace of the famous socialist leader Jean Jaurès and home to the important Goya Museum of Spanish painting.In 1831, the population of Castres was 12,032, making it the largest town of the department of Tarn. One of the few industrial towns in the region of Albigeois, the population of the commune proper grew to 19,483 in 1901, and 34,126 by 1954 (44,161 inhabitants in the metropolitan area). However, with the decline of its industries, population growth diminished. Albi surpassed Castres as the most populous metropolitan area of Tarn. The population of Castres reached its peak in 1975, after that it has been decreasing slowly.Castres is located at an altitude of above sea level. It is located south-southeast of Albi, the "préfecture" (capital) of Tarn, and east of Toulouse, the capital of Midi-Pyrénées. Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout and Durenque rivers.The Thoré forms most of the commune's south-eastern border, then flows into the Agout, which forms part of its western border.Between 1790 and 1797 Castres was the prefecture of Tarn.Since 2001, the mayor of Castres has been Pascal Bugis (right, member of UMP), who defeated the then socialist mayor in the 2001 election after a campaign focused on the bad records of the socialist mayor on fighting crime, and the high level of insecurity in the town.Castres has teamed up with the nearby town of Mazamet ( southeast of Castres) and the independent suburbs and villages in between to create the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council ("Communauté d'agglomération de Castres-Mazamet"), which was established in January 2000 (succeeding a previous district which had been created in 1993 with fewer powers than the current council). The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council groups 16 independent communes (including Castres and Mazamet), with a total population of 79,988 inhabitants (at the 1999 census), 54% of these living in the commune of Castres proper, 13% in the commune of Mazamet, and the rest in the communes in between.The Greater Castres-Mazamet Council was created in order to better coordinate transport, infrastructure, housing, and economic policies between the communes of the area. The current president of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council is Jacques Limouzy (Gaullist, member of UMP), former mayor of Castres before 1995, who became president in 2001.The name of the town comes from Latin "castrum", and means "fortified place". Castres grew up round the Benedictine abbey of Saint Benoît, which is believed to have been founded in AD 647, possibly on the site of an old Roman fort ("castrum"). Castres became an important stop on the international pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela in Spain because its abbey-church, built in the 9th century, was keeping the relics of Saint Vincent, the renowned martyr of Spain. It was a place of some importance as early as the 12th century, and ranked as the second town of the Albigeois behind Albi. Despite the decline of its abbey, which in 1074 came under the authority of Saint Victor abbey in Marseille, Castres was granted a liberal charter in the 12th century by the famous Trencavel family, viscounts of Albi. Resulting from the charter, Castres was ruled by a college of consuls.During the Albigensian Crusade it surrendered of its own accord to Simon de Montfort, and thus entered into the kingdom of France in 1229. In 1317, Pope John XXII established the bishopric of Castres. In 1356, the town of Castres was raised to a countship by King John II of France. However, the town greatly suffered from the Black Plague in 1347-1348, then from the Black Prince of England and the Free Companies (bands of lawless mercenaries) who laid waste the country during the Hundred Years' War. Consequently, by the late 14th century Castres entered a period of sharp decline. In 1375, there were only 4,000 inhabitants left in town, only half the figure from a century before. Following the confiscation of the possessions of Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours, to which the countship of Castres had passed, it was bestowed in 1476 by King Louis XI on Boffille de Juge (Boffillo del Giudice), an Italian nobleman and adventurer serving as a diplomat for Louis XI, but the appointment led to so much disagreement (family feud between Boffille de Juge, his only daughter, and his brother-in-law) that the countship was united to the crown by King Francis I in 1519.Around 1560, the majority of the population of Castres converted to Protestantism. In the wars of the latter part of the 16th century the inhabitants sided with the Protestant party, fortified the town, and established an independent republic. Castres was one of the largest Protestant strongholds in southern France, along with Montauban and La Rochelle. Henry of Navarre, leader of the Protestant party, who later became King Henry IV of France, stayed in Castres in 1585. The Protestants of Castres were brought to terms, however, by King Louis XIII in 1629, and Richelieu came himself to Castres to have its fortifications dismantled. Nonetheless, after these religious wars, the town, now in peace, enjoyed a period of rapid expansion. Business and traditional commercial activities revived, in particular fur and leather-dressing, tanning, and above all wool trade. Culture flourished anew, with the founding of the Academy of Castres in 1648. Castres was turned by the Catholic Church into an active center of Counter-Reformation, with the establishments of several convents in town, and the building of a renowned bishop's palace by Mgr. Tubœuf, still the most famous monument in town today. A new cathedral was also built, after the destructions of the religious wars. Perhaps even more important, Castres was made the seat of the "Chambre de l'Édit" of the Parliament of Toulouse, a court of justice detached from the Parliament of Toulouse and in charge of dealing with the cases involving the Protestants of Languedoc, a measure of protection granted to them by the Edict of Nantes. This court attracted much business to Castres. In 1665, there were 7,000 inhabitants in Castres, 4,000 of whom Catholic, and 3,000 Protestant.In 1670 however, the "Chambre de l'Édit" was transferred to Castelnaudary, much to the discontent of even the catholic citizens of Castres, who lost a major source of business and revenue with the departure of the lawyers and the plaintiffs. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes soon followed, and Castres suffered greatly when many Protestants chose to go into exile. Then came the plague of 1720-1721 and the fire of 1724. Last but not least, Castres lost its liberal charter in 1758. In the 1760s, a few years after the famous Calas Affair in Toulouse, Castres made the headlines nationwide: Pierre-Paul Sirven and his wife, both Protestants, were wrongly accused of having murdered their daughter in order to prevent her from converting to Catholicism. Tried and sentenced to death "in absentia" on March 29, 1764, they were defended by Voltaire, and eventually exonerated in 1771.The outbreak of the French Revolution was generally welcomed in Castres, particularly among the local Protestant merchants and entrepreneurs, but the majority of the population remained moderate during the whole period. In 1793 for instance, Protestant pastor Alba La Source, Castres' representative at the Convention in Paris, opposed the deportation of "non-juror" Catholic priests to French Guiana, where death in the horrid jungle was certain (see Civil Constitution of the Clergy). "Non-juror" priests were by far the majority in the region of Castres. Accused of being a moderate, Alba La Source was guillotined in October 1793. Suspected of being lukewarm toward the revolution, Castres was duly chastised. The bishopric which had been established by Pope John XXII in 1317 was abolished, Castres later becoming part of the bishopric of Albi. Capital of the ' of Tarn in 1790, the town was downgraded to capital of an arrondissement in 1797, Albi being made the capital of the '.Despite these setbacks, in the 19th century the economy of Castres developed greatly, and the town grew outside of its old medieval center. As early as 1815, the first mechanized wool mill was set up in town. Originally specialized in luxury cloth, the Castres textile industry then turned toward more ordinary types of cloth, whose markets were considerably larger. Around 1860, there were 50 wool mills in town, employing 3,000 people. In the end of the 19th century, mechanical engineering industries appeared beside the textile industry, which led to Castres becoming a major arsenal for the French army during the First World War. Castres was linked to the French railway network in 1865. At the end of the 19th century, Castres was the largest town in the "" of Tarn, with 5,000 more inhabitants than Albi.However, in the 20th century the town entered a new period of decline. Although Castres emerged from the two world wars unscathed, no military operations or combats taking place in southwest France, the local economy has been hard hit by change. Like so many towns and cities of Europe which had benefited most from the Industrial Revolution, Castres is experiencing a difficult restructuring of its industrial base. Textile has particularly suffered. Castres is also crippled by its geographical location, isolated in a dead end at the foot of the Massif Central mountains, away from the main exchange and transport routes. Castres is still not connected to the motorway (freeway) network of France, the only town of that size in France not yet connected. The creation of the Greater Castres-Mazamet Council in 2000 was expected to deal with the transport problem, and to work on attracting new industries. The good fortune of Castres is to be located only away from the very dynamic Toulouse. The long-promised motorway link with Toulouse is due to be completed soon, and Castres hopes to benefit from its proximity with the big Occitan city.The principal industries are mechanical and electrical engineering, machine tools, wooden furniture, granite, textile, fur and leather-dressing, tanning, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and selective breeding of cows.Traditional and polluting industries such as textile, tanning, fur and leather-dressing, or chemicals, are in sharp decline. However, a multinational pharmaceutical group (Pierre Fabre Group) emerged in the town in the 1960s, and it has kept its headquarters and R&D division in the metropolitan area, helping to counterbalance the general decline in industry. Some now accuse its founder and president, Pierre Fabre, of being the real "master" of Castres, making and designating Castres' mayors at will.The Gare de Castres railway station is served by regional trains to Mazamet and Toulouse.Castres is the hometown of socialist politician and newspaper publisher Jean Jaurès (1859–1914), who was murdered in Paris the day before the start of the First World War.Mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in Castres in 1665, while attending a session of the "Chambre de l'Édit" there.French writer Roger Peyrefitte was born into a wealthy family of Castres in 1907.Former French footballer Claude Puel was also born in Castres.Other people born in the city include:Residents of Castres include:Castres is intersected from north to south by the Agout River. The river is fringed by old houses the upper stories of which project over its waters.The church of Saint Benoît, once the cathedral of Castres, and the most important of the churches of Castres today, dates only from the 17th and 18th centuries. The city hall occupies the former bishop's palace, designed in the 17th century by Jules Hardouin-Mansart (the architect of Versailles), and with gardens designed by André Le Nôtre (the designer of the gardens in Versailles). The Romanesque tower beside it ("Tour Saint Benoît") is the only survival of the old Benedictine abbey. The town possesses some old mansions from the 16th and 17th century, including the "Hôtel de Nayrac", of the Renaissance.Castres possesses the renowned Goya Museum, created in 1840, which contains the largest collection of Spanish paintings in France. A Jaurès Museum was also opened in 1954 in the house where Jean Jaurès was born in 1859.The Jardin botanique Pierre Fabre "La Michonne" is a private botanical garden and conservatory that can be visited.As one might expect of a town of western Occitania nicknamed "Ovalie", the main sport in Castres is rugby union, followed religiously by many locals. The local professional club is "Castres Olympique", who are five-time champions of France as well as the current champions (in 1949, 1950, 1993, 2013 and 2018). "Castres Olympique" is the property of local tycoon Pierre Fabre, founder and president of Pierre Fabre Group.The finish of Stage 12 of the 2007 Tour de France was in Castres.Castres is the place where a short film festival occurs each yearThe city happened to see the birth of its first student radio () in 2007.Castres is twinned with:
|
[
"Jacques Limouzy",
"Lucien Coudert",
"Arnaud Mandement"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Sep, 1805?
|
September 22, 1805
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_0
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Jan, 1807?
|
January 19, 1807
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_1
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Jan, 1812?
|
January 03, 1812
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_2
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Nov, 1815?
|
November 25, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_3
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Feb, 1820?
|
February 28, 1820
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_4
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Jan, 1821?
|
January 17, 1821
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_5
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Jul, 1830?
|
July 03, 1830
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_6
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Dugdale Dugdale hold in Nov, 1830?
|
November 13, 1830
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q26213077_P39_7
|
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1802 to Oct, 1806.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1807 to Sep, 1812.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1806 to Apr, 1807.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1812 to Jun, 1818.
Dugdale Dugdale holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
|
Dugdale Stratford DugdaleDugdale Stratford Dugdale (1773–1836) was a Member of Parliament for Warwickshire from 1802 to 1831.Dugdale Stratford Dugdale was the first surviving son of Richard Geast (later Dugdale), barrister, of Blythe Hall, by Penelope Bate Stratford, the daughter of Francis Stratford of Merevale Hall.Dugdale was returned unopposed for the constituency of Warwickshire in 1802, which he went on to serve for 29 years.On 27 June 1799 he married Hon. Charlotte Curzon (d. 30 Dec. 1832), daughter of Assheton Curzon, 1st Viscount Curzon, with whom he had a son, the Conservative MP William Stratford Dugdale
|
[
"Member of the 2nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 5th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 3rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which political party did Amiruddin Hamzah belong to in Apr, 2012?
|
April 24, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Malaysian Islamic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q6672058_P102_0
|
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian Islamic Party from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2017.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Homeland Fighter Party from Aug, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party from Nov, 2017 to May, 2020.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the independent politician from May, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
|
Amiruddin HamzahDato' Wira Amiruddin bin Hamzah (Jawi: أميرالدين بن حمزة; born 20 April 1962) is a Malaysian politician. He has been a member and Secretary-General of the Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG) since its formation in August 2020 and was a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU). He has also served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Kubang Pasu since May 2018. He served as Deputy Minister of Finance in the Pakatan Harapan (PH) administration from July 2018 to its implosion in February 2020.Amiruddin had previously served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Kedah State Legislative Assembly for the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party before leaving for BERSATU in 2017. His decision was caused by PAS' exit from the Pakatan Harapan coalition.Amiruddin is married to Nora Mohamed Noor.
|
[
"Homeland Fighter Party",
"Malaysian United Indigenous Party",
"independent politician"
] |
|
Which political party did Amiruddin Hamzah belong to in May, 2019?
|
May 03, 2019
|
{
"text": [
"Malaysian United Indigenous Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q6672058_P102_1
|
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the independent politician from May, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party from Nov, 2017 to May, 2020.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian Islamic Party from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2017.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Homeland Fighter Party from Aug, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
|
Amiruddin HamzahDato' Wira Amiruddin bin Hamzah (Jawi: أميرالدين بن حمزة; born 20 April 1962) is a Malaysian politician. He has been a member and Secretary-General of the Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG) since its formation in August 2020 and was a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU). He has also served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Kubang Pasu since May 2018. He served as Deputy Minister of Finance in the Pakatan Harapan (PH) administration from July 2018 to its implosion in February 2020.Amiruddin had previously served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Kedah State Legislative Assembly for the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party before leaving for BERSATU in 2017. His decision was caused by PAS' exit from the Pakatan Harapan coalition.Amiruddin is married to Nora Mohamed Noor.
|
[
"Malaysian Islamic Party",
"Homeland Fighter Party",
"independent politician"
] |
|
Which political party did Amiruddin Hamzah belong to in Jun, 2020?
|
June 26, 2020
|
{
"text": [
"independent politician"
]
}
|
L2_Q6672058_P102_2
|
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the independent politician from May, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Homeland Fighter Party from Aug, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian Islamic Party from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2017.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party from Nov, 2017 to May, 2020.
|
Amiruddin HamzahDato' Wira Amiruddin bin Hamzah (Jawi: أميرالدين بن حمزة; born 20 April 1962) is a Malaysian politician. He has been a member and Secretary-General of the Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG) since its formation in August 2020 and was a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU). He has also served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Kubang Pasu since May 2018. He served as Deputy Minister of Finance in the Pakatan Harapan (PH) administration from July 2018 to its implosion in February 2020.Amiruddin had previously served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Kedah State Legislative Assembly for the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party before leaving for BERSATU in 2017. His decision was caused by PAS' exit from the Pakatan Harapan coalition.Amiruddin is married to Nora Mohamed Noor.
|
[
"Homeland Fighter Party",
"Malaysian United Indigenous Party",
"Malaysian Islamic Party"
] |
|
Which political party did Amiruddin Hamzah belong to in Feb, 2021?
|
February 27, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Homeland Fighter Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q6672058_P102_3
|
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Homeland Fighter Party from Aug, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party from Nov, 2017 to May, 2020.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the independent politician from May, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Amiruddin Hamzah is a member of the Malaysian Islamic Party from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2017.
|
Amiruddin HamzahDato' Wira Amiruddin bin Hamzah (Jawi: أميرالدين بن حمزة; born 20 April 1962) is a Malaysian politician. He has been a member and Secretary-General of the Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG) since its formation in August 2020 and was a member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU). He has also served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Kubang Pasu since May 2018. He served as Deputy Minister of Finance in the Pakatan Harapan (PH) administration from July 2018 to its implosion in February 2020.Amiruddin had previously served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Kedah State Legislative Assembly for the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party before leaving for BERSATU in 2017. His decision was caused by PAS' exit from the Pakatan Harapan coalition.Amiruddin is married to Nora Mohamed Noor.
|
[
"Malaysian Islamic Party",
"Malaysian United Indigenous Party",
"independent politician"
] |
|
Which position did Johannes Hougen hold in Jul, 1899?
|
July 07, 1899
|
{
"text": [
"deputy member of the Parliament of Norway"
]
}
|
L2_Q3430916_P39_0
|
Johannes Hougen holds the position of deputy member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1898 to Jan, 1900.
Johannes Hougen holds the position of Minister of Education and Church Affairs from Sep, 1909 to Feb, 1910.
Johannes Hougen holds the position of member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
|
Knut Johannes HougenKnut Johannes Hougen (26 November 1854 – 29 July 1954) was a Norwegian politician for the Liberal Party. He served as Minister of Education and Church Affairs from 1909 to 1910. Hougen was also a representative for the city of Kristiansand in the Norwegian Parliament in the period 1908–27. He was central to the development of broadcasting in Norway, and in 1932 published the 2-volume work "Oslo kringkastingsselskaps historie" ("The Development of Oslo Broadcasting Corporation").
|
[
"member of the Parliament of Norway",
"Minister of Education and Church Affairs"
] |
|
Which position did Johannes Hougen hold in Apr, 1907?
|
April 21, 1907
|
{
"text": [
"member of the Parliament of Norway"
]
}
|
L2_Q3430916_P39_1
|
Johannes Hougen holds the position of deputy member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1898 to Jan, 1900.
Johannes Hougen holds the position of Minister of Education and Church Affairs from Sep, 1909 to Feb, 1910.
Johannes Hougen holds the position of member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
|
Knut Johannes HougenKnut Johannes Hougen (26 November 1854 – 29 July 1954) was a Norwegian politician for the Liberal Party. He served as Minister of Education and Church Affairs from 1909 to 1910. Hougen was also a representative for the city of Kristiansand in the Norwegian Parliament in the period 1908–27. He was central to the development of broadcasting in Norway, and in 1932 published the 2-volume work "Oslo kringkastingsselskaps historie" ("The Development of Oslo Broadcasting Corporation").
|
[
"Minister of Education and Church Affairs",
"deputy member of the Parliament of Norway"
] |
|
Which position did Johannes Hougen hold in Oct, 1909?
|
October 08, 1909
|
{
"text": [
"Minister of Education and Church Affairs"
]
}
|
L2_Q3430916_P39_2
|
Johannes Hougen holds the position of Minister of Education and Church Affairs from Sep, 1909 to Feb, 1910.
Johannes Hougen holds the position of deputy member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1898 to Jan, 1900.
Johannes Hougen holds the position of member of the Parliament of Norway from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
|
Knut Johannes HougenKnut Johannes Hougen (26 November 1854 – 29 July 1954) was a Norwegian politician for the Liberal Party. He served as Minister of Education and Church Affairs from 1909 to 1910. Hougen was also a representative for the city of Kristiansand in the Norwegian Parliament in the period 1908–27. He was central to the development of broadcasting in Norway, and in 1932 published the 2-volume work "Oslo kringkastingsselskaps historie" ("The Development of Oslo Broadcasting Corporation").
|
[
"member of the Parliament of Norway",
"deputy member of the Parliament of Norway"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Eurelectric in Jun, 2012?
|
June 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Fulvio Conti"
]
}
|
L2_Q1374388_P488_0
|
Johannes Teyssen is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2013 to Jun, 2015.
Fulvio Conti is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2011 to Jun, 2013.
António Mexia is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2015 to Jun, 2017.
Francesco Starace is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
|
EurelectricEurelectric (full name: The Union of the Electricity Industry) is the sector association which represents the common interests of the electricity industry at a European level, plus its affiliates and associates on several other continents. eurelectric covers all major issues affecting the sector, from generation and markets to distribution networks and customer issues. eurelectric was formally established in 1989. The goal at the time was to defend the status quo against European Community proposals to liberalize the power market. Eurelectric hosts an Annual Convention and Conference at which energy policy is debated.Eurelectric is led by a President and two Vice Presidents, who are elected to two-year terms, and a Board of Directors. The Secretary-General leads the Secretariat, which consists of several organizational units employing an international staff of approximately thirty people. There are five professional committees and approximately thirty working groups. eurelectric is a signatory to the EU Transparency Register.
|
[
"António Mexia",
"Johannes Teyssen",
"Francesco Starace"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Eurelectric in Jun, 2013?
|
June 30, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Johannes Teyssen",
"Fulvio Conti"
]
}
|
L2_Q1374388_P488_1
|
Fulvio Conti is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2011 to Jun, 2013.
Francesco Starace is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
António Mexia is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2015 to Jun, 2017.
Johannes Teyssen is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2013 to Jun, 2015.
|
EurelectricEurelectric (full name: The Union of the Electricity Industry) is the sector association which represents the common interests of the electricity industry at a European level, plus its affiliates and associates on several other continents. eurelectric covers all major issues affecting the sector, from generation and markets to distribution networks and customer issues. eurelectric was formally established in 1989. The goal at the time was to defend the status quo against European Community proposals to liberalize the power market. Eurelectric hosts an Annual Convention and Conference at which energy policy is debated.Eurelectric is led by a President and two Vice Presidents, who are elected to two-year terms, and a Board of Directors. The Secretary-General leads the Secretariat, which consists of several organizational units employing an international staff of approximately thirty people. There are five professional committees and approximately thirty working groups. eurelectric is a signatory to the EU Transparency Register.
|
[
"António Mexia",
"Francesco Starace",
"Fulvio Conti",
"António Mexia",
"Francesco Starace"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Eurelectric in Aug, 2016?
|
August 11, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"António Mexia"
]
}
|
L2_Q1374388_P488_2
|
Johannes Teyssen is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2013 to Jun, 2015.
Fulvio Conti is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2011 to Jun, 2013.
António Mexia is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2015 to Jun, 2017.
Francesco Starace is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
|
EurelectricEurelectric (full name: The Union of the Electricity Industry) is the sector association which represents the common interests of the electricity industry at a European level, plus its affiliates and associates on several other continents. eurelectric covers all major issues affecting the sector, from generation and markets to distribution networks and customer issues. eurelectric was formally established in 1989. The goal at the time was to defend the status quo against European Community proposals to liberalize the power market. Eurelectric hosts an Annual Convention and Conference at which energy policy is debated.Eurelectric is led by a President and two Vice Presidents, who are elected to two-year terms, and a Board of Directors. The Secretary-General leads the Secretariat, which consists of several organizational units employing an international staff of approximately thirty people. There are five professional committees and approximately thirty working groups. eurelectric is a signatory to the EU Transparency Register.
|
[
"Fulvio Conti",
"Johannes Teyssen",
"Francesco Starace"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Eurelectric in Nov, 2022?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"Francesco Starace"
]
}
|
L2_Q1374388_P488_3
|
António Mexia is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2015 to Jun, 2017.
Johannes Teyssen is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2013 to Jun, 2015.
Fulvio Conti is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2011 to Jun, 2013.
Francesco Starace is the chair of Eurelectric from Jun, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
|
EurelectricEurelectric (full name: The Union of the Electricity Industry) is the sector association which represents the common interests of the electricity industry at a European level, plus its affiliates and associates on several other continents. eurelectric covers all major issues affecting the sector, from generation and markets to distribution networks and customer issues. eurelectric was formally established in 1989. The goal at the time was to defend the status quo against European Community proposals to liberalize the power market. Eurelectric hosts an Annual Convention and Conference at which energy policy is debated.Eurelectric is led by a President and two Vice Presidents, who are elected to two-year terms, and a Board of Directors. The Secretary-General leads the Secretariat, which consists of several organizational units employing an international staff of approximately thirty people. There are five professional committees and approximately thirty working groups. eurelectric is a signatory to the EU Transparency Register.
|
[
"Fulvio Conti",
"Johannes Teyssen",
"António Mexia"
] |
|
Where was Gottfried Köthe educated in Mar, 1925?
|
March 22, 1925
|
{
"text": [
"University of Graz"
]
}
|
L2_Q90312_P69_0
|
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Münster from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1931.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Graz from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1927.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Bonn from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1930.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Göttingen from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1929.
|
Gottfried KötheGottfried Maria Hugo Köthe (born 25 December 1905 in Graz; died 30 April 1989 in Frankfurt) was an Austrian mathematician working in abstract algebra and functional analysis.In 1923 Köthe enrolled in the University of Graz. He started studying chemistry, but switched to mathematics a year later after meeting the philosopher Alfred Kastil. In 1927 he submitted his thesis "Beiträge zu Finslers Grundlegung der Mengenlehre" ("Contributions to Finsler's foundations of set theory") and was awarded a doctorate. After spending a year in Zürich working with Paul Finsler, Köthe received a fellowship to visit the University of Göttingen, where he attended the lectures of Emmy Noether and Bartel van der Waerden on the emerging subject of abstract algebra. He began working in ring theory and in 1930 published the Köthe conjecture stating that a sum of two left nil ideals in an arbitrary ring is a nil ideal. By a recommendation of Emmy Noether, he was appointed an assistant of Otto Toeplitz in Bonn University in 1929–1930. During this time he began transition to functional analysis. He continued scientific collaboration with Toeplitz for several years afterward.Köthe's Habilitationsschrift, "Schiefkörper unendlichen Ranges über dem Zentrum" ("Skew fields of infinite rank over the center"), was accepted in 1931. He became Privatdozent at University of Münster under Heinrich Behnke. During World War II he was involved in coding work. In 1946 he was appointed the director of the Mathematics Institute at the University of Mainz and he served as a dean (1948–1950) and a rector of the university (1954–1956). In 1957 he became the founding director of the Institute for Applied Mathematics at the University of Heidelberg and served as a rector of the university (1960–1961).Köthe's best known work has been in the theory of topological vector spaces. In 1960, volume 1 of his seminal monograph "Topologische lineare Räume" was published (the second edition was translated into English in 1969). It was not until 1979 that volume 2 appeared, this time written in English. He also made contributions to the theory of lattices.
|
[
"University of Bonn",
"University of Münster",
"University of Göttingen"
] |
|
Where was Gottfried Köthe educated in Jul, 1928?
|
July 11, 1928
|
{
"text": [
"University of Göttingen"
]
}
|
L2_Q90312_P69_1
|
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Bonn from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1930.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Münster from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1931.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Graz from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1927.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Göttingen from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1929.
|
Gottfried KötheGottfried Maria Hugo Köthe (born 25 December 1905 in Graz; died 30 April 1989 in Frankfurt) was an Austrian mathematician working in abstract algebra and functional analysis.In 1923 Köthe enrolled in the University of Graz. He started studying chemistry, but switched to mathematics a year later after meeting the philosopher Alfred Kastil. In 1927 he submitted his thesis "Beiträge zu Finslers Grundlegung der Mengenlehre" ("Contributions to Finsler's foundations of set theory") and was awarded a doctorate. After spending a year in Zürich working with Paul Finsler, Köthe received a fellowship to visit the University of Göttingen, where he attended the lectures of Emmy Noether and Bartel van der Waerden on the emerging subject of abstract algebra. He began working in ring theory and in 1930 published the Köthe conjecture stating that a sum of two left nil ideals in an arbitrary ring is a nil ideal. By a recommendation of Emmy Noether, he was appointed an assistant of Otto Toeplitz in Bonn University in 1929–1930. During this time he began transition to functional analysis. He continued scientific collaboration with Toeplitz for several years afterward.Köthe's Habilitationsschrift, "Schiefkörper unendlichen Ranges über dem Zentrum" ("Skew fields of infinite rank over the center"), was accepted in 1931. He became Privatdozent at University of Münster under Heinrich Behnke. During World War II he was involved in coding work. In 1946 he was appointed the director of the Mathematics Institute at the University of Mainz and he served as a dean (1948–1950) and a rector of the university (1954–1956). In 1957 he became the founding director of the Institute for Applied Mathematics at the University of Heidelberg and served as a rector of the university (1960–1961).Köthe's best known work has been in the theory of topological vector spaces. In 1960, volume 1 of his seminal monograph "Topologische lineare Räume" was published (the second edition was translated into English in 1969). It was not until 1979 that volume 2 appeared, this time written in English. He also made contributions to the theory of lattices.
|
[
"University of Bonn",
"University of Münster",
"University of Graz"
] |
|
Where was Gottfried Köthe educated in Feb, 1929?
|
February 10, 1929
|
{
"text": [
"University of Bonn"
]
}
|
L2_Q90312_P69_2
|
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Graz from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1927.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Münster from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1931.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Göttingen from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1929.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Bonn from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1930.
|
Gottfried KötheGottfried Maria Hugo Köthe (born 25 December 1905 in Graz; died 30 April 1989 in Frankfurt) was an Austrian mathematician working in abstract algebra and functional analysis.In 1923 Köthe enrolled in the University of Graz. He started studying chemistry, but switched to mathematics a year later after meeting the philosopher Alfred Kastil. In 1927 he submitted his thesis "Beiträge zu Finslers Grundlegung der Mengenlehre" ("Contributions to Finsler's foundations of set theory") and was awarded a doctorate. After spending a year in Zürich working with Paul Finsler, Köthe received a fellowship to visit the University of Göttingen, where he attended the lectures of Emmy Noether and Bartel van der Waerden on the emerging subject of abstract algebra. He began working in ring theory and in 1930 published the Köthe conjecture stating that a sum of two left nil ideals in an arbitrary ring is a nil ideal. By a recommendation of Emmy Noether, he was appointed an assistant of Otto Toeplitz in Bonn University in 1929–1930. During this time he began transition to functional analysis. He continued scientific collaboration with Toeplitz for several years afterward.Köthe's Habilitationsschrift, "Schiefkörper unendlichen Ranges über dem Zentrum" ("Skew fields of infinite rank over the center"), was accepted in 1931. He became Privatdozent at University of Münster under Heinrich Behnke. During World War II he was involved in coding work. In 1946 he was appointed the director of the Mathematics Institute at the University of Mainz and he served as a dean (1948–1950) and a rector of the university (1954–1956). In 1957 he became the founding director of the Institute for Applied Mathematics at the University of Heidelberg and served as a rector of the university (1960–1961).Köthe's best known work has been in the theory of topological vector spaces. In 1960, volume 1 of his seminal monograph "Topologische lineare Räume" was published (the second edition was translated into English in 1969). It was not until 1979 that volume 2 appeared, this time written in English. He also made contributions to the theory of lattices.
|
[
"University of Graz",
"University of Münster",
"University of Göttingen"
] |
|
Where was Gottfried Köthe educated in Nov, 1930?
|
November 16, 1930
|
{
"text": [
"University of Münster"
]
}
|
L2_Q90312_P69_3
|
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Göttingen from Jan, 1928 to Jan, 1929.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Bonn from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1930.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Graz from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1927.
Gottfried Köthe attended University of Münster from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1931.
|
Gottfried KötheGottfried Maria Hugo Köthe (born 25 December 1905 in Graz; died 30 April 1989 in Frankfurt) was an Austrian mathematician working in abstract algebra and functional analysis.In 1923 Köthe enrolled in the University of Graz. He started studying chemistry, but switched to mathematics a year later after meeting the philosopher Alfred Kastil. In 1927 he submitted his thesis "Beiträge zu Finslers Grundlegung der Mengenlehre" ("Contributions to Finsler's foundations of set theory") and was awarded a doctorate. After spending a year in Zürich working with Paul Finsler, Köthe received a fellowship to visit the University of Göttingen, where he attended the lectures of Emmy Noether and Bartel van der Waerden on the emerging subject of abstract algebra. He began working in ring theory and in 1930 published the Köthe conjecture stating that a sum of two left nil ideals in an arbitrary ring is a nil ideal. By a recommendation of Emmy Noether, he was appointed an assistant of Otto Toeplitz in Bonn University in 1929–1930. During this time he began transition to functional analysis. He continued scientific collaboration with Toeplitz for several years afterward.Köthe's Habilitationsschrift, "Schiefkörper unendlichen Ranges über dem Zentrum" ("Skew fields of infinite rank over the center"), was accepted in 1931. He became Privatdozent at University of Münster under Heinrich Behnke. During World War II he was involved in coding work. In 1946 he was appointed the director of the Mathematics Institute at the University of Mainz and he served as a dean (1948–1950) and a rector of the university (1954–1956). In 1957 he became the founding director of the Institute for Applied Mathematics at the University of Heidelberg and served as a rector of the university (1960–1961).Köthe's best known work has been in the theory of topological vector spaces. In 1960, volume 1 of his seminal monograph "Topologische lineare Räume" was published (the second edition was translated into English in 1969). It was not until 1979 that volume 2 appeared, this time written in English. He also made contributions to the theory of lattices.
|
[
"University of Bonn",
"University of Graz",
"University of Göttingen"
] |
|
Which team did Luke Varney play for in Jun, 2001?
|
June 06, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Quorn F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q2637561_P54_0
|
Luke Varney plays for Ipswich Town F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016.
Luke Varney plays for Blackburn Rovers F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Luke Varney plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Luke Varney plays for Quorn F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Luke Varney plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2014.
Luke Varney plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Luke Varney plays for Portsmouth F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Luke Varney plays for Charlton Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2009.
Luke Varney plays for Derby County F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Luke Varney plays for Sheffield Wednesday F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
|
Luke VarneyLuke Ivan Varney (born 28 September 1982) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Quorn.He started his career with non-League club Quorn, a club in his home county of Leicestershire, before moving to league football with Crewe Alexandra. His performances during Crewe's 2006–07 campaign, where he was named in the League One "Team of the Year" despite Crewe's finishing only mid-table and scoring against Manchester United in the League Cup saw him come to the attentions of bigger clubs and consecutive £1m-plus transfers to the Championship followed, as he joined Charlton Athletic and then Derby County. He had made over 200 league appearances, and scored his 50th career league goal, and career first top-flight goal, in the Premier League, with a 76th-minute strike against Fulham on his debut for Blackpool.Varney was born in Leicester and played for Leicester youth up front alongside strike partner (& now SWISH Sales Coaching Co-Founder) Ryan Tuckwood who now resides in Australia, and began his career as a semi-professional footballer at non-league level with Quorn before being spotted by Crewe's assistant manager Neil Baker. The Englishman signed for the Railwaymen in 2003 and spent four years at the club, appearing in 95 league games and scoring 27 goals. Varney signed for Crewe Alexandra from non-league Quorn in 2003 for £50,000. Varney's deal also had a 20% sell-on clause with the Leicestershire club. Whilst at Quorn, he worked as a quality controller at a factory. Varney made his Crewe debut five months later in a 3–1 away defeat to Wimbledon. The young Englishman also managed to get his first goal for the club four games after his debut in Crewe's 3–1 away win over Crystal Palace, Dean Ashton scoring the other two goals for The Railwaymen. Unfortunately, Varney picked up a shoulder injury during January 2004, denying him a chance of making any further appearances during the rest of the 2003–04 season.Varney recovered from his injury in time for the following season, making 26 appearances for Crewe, scoring four goals in those appearances. The striker also picked up two yellow cards during the course of the year. He became more involved in the first team during the 2004–05 season, making 27 appearances and scoring five goals.In 2006, Crewe Alexandra were relegated to League One. Varney would make his name during the 2006–07 season, scoring 25 goals in all competitions during the season, which saw the Englishman take the honour of the League's third top goalscorer. Varney also formed a notable partnership with Nicky Maynard, as the two became League One's most productive partnership, scoring a total of 44 goals between them.However, it was Varney's performance against Manchester United in the League Cup that gained attention from the bigger clubs as during the weeks following the game, which saw Varney score the goal that forced extra time, FA Premier League clubs such as Portsmouth were reported to be interested in signing him. On the contrary, however, Varney himself played down any talk of him moving clubs. Varney's season however was cut short in March 2007 after breaking his toe in Crewe's 1–1 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion.Varney completed a move to Charlton Athletic for £2 million in May 2007 with a percentage of the fee going to Quorn, rising to £2.5 million depending on appearances. Charlton manager Alan Pardew commented that "Luke is an exciting young player and perfectly fits the mould of a Charlton player". "The deal was done very quickly" Dario Gradi recalled, "Alan [Pardew] rang me out of the blue really and asked me about Luke. It was a surprise because I had no indication that they were interested before. I said what we wanted for him and then we discussed his strengths and his weaknesses" he added. Varney's first goal for the Addicks came against Leicester City in September 2007, the club he had supported as a boy. Varney scored eight goals in 39 league appearances. In the 2008–09 season, Varney made a further 18 league appearances, scoring twice, joining Derby County on loan.He signed for Derby County on loan on 27 November 2008 with a view to a £1m transfer in January 2009. On 6 December he scored on his home debut for Derby in a match against Crystal Palace. The move became permanent in January 2009 for a fee of just over £1 million. After suffering from various niggling injuries, illness and a loss of form, Varney joined Sheffield Wednesday on a month's loan on 20 March 2009. Varney made four appearances at Wednesday, scoring two goals – a brace against Southampton. He returned to Derby on 21 April 2009, saying that "The loan was enjoyable and now I'm fit and ready to put my all into the last few games with Derby. It feels like a fresh start, a clean slate. When you go out on loan you do think "am I needed here [at Derby]?", but the manager said I was 100% in his plans for next season. It has been an unsettling season as a whole coming from Charlton, the quick change of manager at Derby, and the injuries and illness. But I wish the season was not about to end because I've come into a bit of form and I'm enjoying my football." He rejoined Sheffield Wednesday on a four-month loan on 21 August 2009. On his return to Derby he hinted at a return to Sheffield Wednesday either on loan or permanently, Sheffield Wednesday caretaker manager Sean Mcauley also hinted at this. New permanent Wednesday manager Alan Irvine signed Varney on loan for the remainder of the season on 21 January 2010. Despite Varney's goals he was unable to prevent Sheffield Wednesday slipping to relegation on the final day of the 2009–10 season and returned to Derby his future still very much up in the air.Prior to the 2010–11 season, Varney was linked with a move to Southampton but remained at Derby and played a part in the club's pre-season preparations, albeit often employed out of position at right back. When employed up front, he put in a Man of the Match display during Derby's 3–1 Bass Charity Vase, scoring twice. Despite this, he was still linked with a move away from the club, with Queens Park Rangers and Crewe Alexandra amongst those expressing an interest before he made a surprise return to the Derby side with his first Derby appearance since 18 August 2010, and his first start since May 2009, in a 1–2 defeat to Cardiff City on 14 August 2010, in which he provided Tomasz Cywka for the Derby goal.On 27 August 2010, Varney joined newly promoted Premier League club Blackpool on a season-long loan with a view to a permanent deal in the region of £500,000. The following day he scored on his debut in "the Seasiders"' first Premier League match at Bloomfield Road, a 2–2 draw with Fulham. He scored his second league goal on 3 October 2010 as Blackpool defeated Liverpool 2–1 at Anfield with Varney's first half goal proving to be the winner, In a performance which saw him named in the week seven 2010–11 Premier League Team of the Week, alongside teammate Charlie Adam. In November, after Varney scored four times in his opening 11 appearances, Blackpool confirmed their desire to sign Varney on a permanent deal in the January 2011 transfer window. Manager Ian Holloway claimed that Blackpool had a "massive clause" in the loan deal which meant they could sign Varney for just £250,000 in the January 2011 transfer window, though Derby denied this saying Varney could be sold to any club and that no deal is in place with Blackpool.Varney scored his fifth for the club with the second in a 2–2 draw at Bolton Wanderers on 22 November 2010 before embarking on a fifteen match goalless run which saw him dropped to the bench for the 1–1 draw at home to Newcastle United on 23 April 2011. After appearing as a substitute versus Newcastle, and the following game against Stoke City, Varney made just one appearance in the remaining three games of the campaign, coming on for the last 15 minutes in a 4–2 defeat against Manchester United which confirmed Blackpool's relegation from the Premier League after one season. Varney ended the season with five goals from 30 appearances, but enduring an 18-game goalless streak.After lengthy speculation, it was confirmed on 6 July 2011, that Varney would join Portsmouth for a fee of £750,000. Varney scored his first league goal for Portsmouth on 6 August 2011 against Middlesbrough. He then scored his second goal for the club in a 4–3 away defeat to West Ham, deflecting in off Carlton Cole, after he volleyed Liam Lawrence's corner. He was then moved up front in a 4–4–2 formation after the departure of Steve Cotterill, where scored three goals in three games, once in a televised home 2–0 victory over Barnsley, and then a brace, again at home, in a 3–1 victory over Doncaster.After a number of weeks of rumours his signing for Leeds United was confirmed by manager, Neil Warnock on 23 July 2012.Varney scored his first Leeds United goal in his debut against Bodmin Town to make it 1–0 to Leeds and the game finished 4–0. Varney was allocated the number 11 shirt for the 2012–13 season on 3 August.Varney made one and scored one in his competitive debut for Leeds in the first game of the season against Shrewsbury Town in the League Cup on 11 August. Varney made his league debut for Leeds in their 1–0 victory against Wolverhampton Wanderers. In Leeds' 3–0 League Cup win against Southampton, Varney was famous for a miss which was described by Neil Warnock as 'miss of the century', when he missed a wide open goal from 2–3 yards out. Warnock later apologised for coming across "as a dinosaur, although I'm not sure which one."Varney was sent off for a deliberate elbow against Millwall on 18 November. Varney scored his second goal for Leeds in their 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur in the Fourth Round of the FA Cup in January.Varney scored in consecutive games against two of his former clubs, scoring a goal in a 2–1 loss to Charlton Athletic before following it up with a brace against Sheffield Wednesday in Brian McDermott's first game in charge in a 2–1 win on 13 April.Following Leeds 1–1 draw with Ipswich on 28 January 2014, then Leeds manager Brian McDermott revealed that Varney had refused to play for Leeds for the game, due to an offer coming in from league rivals Blackburn and him not wanting to get injured.On 8 February 2014, Varney joined Blackburn Rovers on loan until 11 May 2014 with a view to a permanent move. On 16 May 2014, Varney was released by Leeds United.On 1 July 2014, Varney signed a one-year deal with former loan club Blackburn Rovers after his release from Leeds United.On 20 February 2015, Varney joined Ipswich Town on loan for an initial one-month period with the option to extend this loan until the end of the season, having made 11 appearances for Blackburn Rovers, all from the bench.He was injured in the Playoff Semi-Final game against Norwich City but remained at the club before signing permanently in December 2015, taking the number 42 shirt. Varney went on to make 18 appearances for Ipswich in the Championship in 2015–16, most as a substitute. He scored once, a last-minute winner in his final game for the club, a 3–2 home win over MK Dons on 30 April 2016.He signed a new contract in August 2016 as cover for the injured Brett Pitman. His contract with Ipswich was cancelled in January 2017, allowing him to join Burton Albion.Varney scored his first goal for Burton in a 1–1 draw with Barnsley on 29 April 2017. He was released by the club at the end of the 2017–18 season, following their relegation.In August 2018, Varney was released by Burton Albion.Varney joined League Two side Cheltenham Town on 28 September 2018 after appearing on trial and scoring in a reserve team friendly against Hartpury College a few days earlier. Varney made his Cheltenham Town debut as a sub against Lincoln City on 29 September 2018.Despite scoring 7 goals in 23 games across the 2019–20 season, he was released by Cheltenham Town at the end of the season.On 12 August 2020, he returned to Burton Albion as a player-fitness coach on a one-year deal. On 12 May 2021 it was announced that he would be one of 12 players leaving Burton at the end of the season.On 23 June 2021, Quorn announced via their twitter account that Luke Varney had re-signed for the club he began his career at. Ian Holloway criticised him for a dive in a game between Crystal Palace and Leeds United in the 2012–13 season, stating in a post-match interview: "He got a booking for a complete waste-of-time of a dive and he was laughing about it but he basically tried to get a penalty and that ain't funny". Playing for Blackburn Rovers against Leeds in the 2014–15 season, Varney dived to win a penalty that proved to be decisive in the match. The decision was called a "joke" by Leeds manager Neil Redfearn. Varney has also been accused of diving by Gus Poyet in a game between Brighton and Hove Albion and Leeds in the 2012–13 season.Individual
|
[
"Leeds United F.C.",
"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Derby County F.C.",
"Charlton Athletic F.C.",
"Portsmouth F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"Ipswich Town F.C.",
"Blackburn Rovers F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Luke Varney play for in Jul, 2004?
|
July 11, 2004
|
{
"text": [
"Crewe Alexandra F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q2637561_P54_1
|
Luke Varney plays for Portsmouth F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Luke Varney plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2014.
Luke Varney plays for Charlton Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2009.
Luke Varney plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Luke Varney plays for Sheffield Wednesday F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Luke Varney plays for Derby County F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Luke Varney plays for Quorn F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Luke Varney plays for Ipswich Town F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016.
Luke Varney plays for Blackburn Rovers F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Luke Varney plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
|
Luke VarneyLuke Ivan Varney (born 28 September 1982) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Quorn.He started his career with non-League club Quorn, a club in his home county of Leicestershire, before moving to league football with Crewe Alexandra. His performances during Crewe's 2006–07 campaign, where he was named in the League One "Team of the Year" despite Crewe's finishing only mid-table and scoring against Manchester United in the League Cup saw him come to the attentions of bigger clubs and consecutive £1m-plus transfers to the Championship followed, as he joined Charlton Athletic and then Derby County. He had made over 200 league appearances, and scored his 50th career league goal, and career first top-flight goal, in the Premier League, with a 76th-minute strike against Fulham on his debut for Blackpool.Varney was born in Leicester and played for Leicester youth up front alongside strike partner (& now SWISH Sales Coaching Co-Founder) Ryan Tuckwood who now resides in Australia, and began his career as a semi-professional footballer at non-league level with Quorn before being spotted by Crewe's assistant manager Neil Baker. The Englishman signed for the Railwaymen in 2003 and spent four years at the club, appearing in 95 league games and scoring 27 goals. Varney signed for Crewe Alexandra from non-league Quorn in 2003 for £50,000. Varney's deal also had a 20% sell-on clause with the Leicestershire club. Whilst at Quorn, he worked as a quality controller at a factory. Varney made his Crewe debut five months later in a 3–1 away defeat to Wimbledon. The young Englishman also managed to get his first goal for the club four games after his debut in Crewe's 3–1 away win over Crystal Palace, Dean Ashton scoring the other two goals for The Railwaymen. Unfortunately, Varney picked up a shoulder injury during January 2004, denying him a chance of making any further appearances during the rest of the 2003–04 season.Varney recovered from his injury in time for the following season, making 26 appearances for Crewe, scoring four goals in those appearances. The striker also picked up two yellow cards during the course of the year. He became more involved in the first team during the 2004–05 season, making 27 appearances and scoring five goals.In 2006, Crewe Alexandra were relegated to League One. Varney would make his name during the 2006–07 season, scoring 25 goals in all competitions during the season, which saw the Englishman take the honour of the League's third top goalscorer. Varney also formed a notable partnership with Nicky Maynard, as the two became League One's most productive partnership, scoring a total of 44 goals between them.However, it was Varney's performance against Manchester United in the League Cup that gained attention from the bigger clubs as during the weeks following the game, which saw Varney score the goal that forced extra time, FA Premier League clubs such as Portsmouth were reported to be interested in signing him. On the contrary, however, Varney himself played down any talk of him moving clubs. Varney's season however was cut short in March 2007 after breaking his toe in Crewe's 1–1 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion.Varney completed a move to Charlton Athletic for £2 million in May 2007 with a percentage of the fee going to Quorn, rising to £2.5 million depending on appearances. Charlton manager Alan Pardew commented that "Luke is an exciting young player and perfectly fits the mould of a Charlton player". "The deal was done very quickly" Dario Gradi recalled, "Alan [Pardew] rang me out of the blue really and asked me about Luke. It was a surprise because I had no indication that they were interested before. I said what we wanted for him and then we discussed his strengths and his weaknesses" he added. Varney's first goal for the Addicks came against Leicester City in September 2007, the club he had supported as a boy. Varney scored eight goals in 39 league appearances. In the 2008–09 season, Varney made a further 18 league appearances, scoring twice, joining Derby County on loan.He signed for Derby County on loan on 27 November 2008 with a view to a £1m transfer in January 2009. On 6 December he scored on his home debut for Derby in a match against Crystal Palace. The move became permanent in January 2009 for a fee of just over £1 million. After suffering from various niggling injuries, illness and a loss of form, Varney joined Sheffield Wednesday on a month's loan on 20 March 2009. Varney made four appearances at Wednesday, scoring two goals – a brace against Southampton. He returned to Derby on 21 April 2009, saying that "The loan was enjoyable and now I'm fit and ready to put my all into the last few games with Derby. It feels like a fresh start, a clean slate. When you go out on loan you do think "am I needed here [at Derby]?", but the manager said I was 100% in his plans for next season. It has been an unsettling season as a whole coming from Charlton, the quick change of manager at Derby, and the injuries and illness. But I wish the season was not about to end because I've come into a bit of form and I'm enjoying my football." He rejoined Sheffield Wednesday on a four-month loan on 21 August 2009. On his return to Derby he hinted at a return to Sheffield Wednesday either on loan or permanently, Sheffield Wednesday caretaker manager Sean Mcauley also hinted at this. New permanent Wednesday manager Alan Irvine signed Varney on loan for the remainder of the season on 21 January 2010. Despite Varney's goals he was unable to prevent Sheffield Wednesday slipping to relegation on the final day of the 2009–10 season and returned to Derby his future still very much up in the air.Prior to the 2010–11 season, Varney was linked with a move to Southampton but remained at Derby and played a part in the club's pre-season preparations, albeit often employed out of position at right back. When employed up front, he put in a Man of the Match display during Derby's 3–1 Bass Charity Vase, scoring twice. Despite this, he was still linked with a move away from the club, with Queens Park Rangers and Crewe Alexandra amongst those expressing an interest before he made a surprise return to the Derby side with his first Derby appearance since 18 August 2010, and his first start since May 2009, in a 1–2 defeat to Cardiff City on 14 August 2010, in which he provided Tomasz Cywka for the Derby goal.On 27 August 2010, Varney joined newly promoted Premier League club Blackpool on a season-long loan with a view to a permanent deal in the region of £500,000. The following day he scored on his debut in "the Seasiders"' first Premier League match at Bloomfield Road, a 2–2 draw with Fulham. He scored his second league goal on 3 October 2010 as Blackpool defeated Liverpool 2–1 at Anfield with Varney's first half goal proving to be the winner, In a performance which saw him named in the week seven 2010–11 Premier League Team of the Week, alongside teammate Charlie Adam. In November, after Varney scored four times in his opening 11 appearances, Blackpool confirmed their desire to sign Varney on a permanent deal in the January 2011 transfer window. Manager Ian Holloway claimed that Blackpool had a "massive clause" in the loan deal which meant they could sign Varney for just £250,000 in the January 2011 transfer window, though Derby denied this saying Varney could be sold to any club and that no deal is in place with Blackpool.Varney scored his fifth for the club with the second in a 2–2 draw at Bolton Wanderers on 22 November 2010 before embarking on a fifteen match goalless run which saw him dropped to the bench for the 1–1 draw at home to Newcastle United on 23 April 2011. After appearing as a substitute versus Newcastle, and the following game against Stoke City, Varney made just one appearance in the remaining three games of the campaign, coming on for the last 15 minutes in a 4–2 defeat against Manchester United which confirmed Blackpool's relegation from the Premier League after one season. Varney ended the season with five goals from 30 appearances, but enduring an 18-game goalless streak.After lengthy speculation, it was confirmed on 6 July 2011, that Varney would join Portsmouth for a fee of £750,000. Varney scored his first league goal for Portsmouth on 6 August 2011 against Middlesbrough. He then scored his second goal for the club in a 4–3 away defeat to West Ham, deflecting in off Carlton Cole, after he volleyed Liam Lawrence's corner. He was then moved up front in a 4–4–2 formation after the departure of Steve Cotterill, where scored three goals in three games, once in a televised home 2–0 victory over Barnsley, and then a brace, again at home, in a 3–1 victory over Doncaster.After a number of weeks of rumours his signing for Leeds United was confirmed by manager, Neil Warnock on 23 July 2012.Varney scored his first Leeds United goal in his debut against Bodmin Town to make it 1–0 to Leeds and the game finished 4–0. Varney was allocated the number 11 shirt for the 2012–13 season on 3 August.Varney made one and scored one in his competitive debut for Leeds in the first game of the season against Shrewsbury Town in the League Cup on 11 August. Varney made his league debut for Leeds in their 1–0 victory against Wolverhampton Wanderers. In Leeds' 3–0 League Cup win against Southampton, Varney was famous for a miss which was described by Neil Warnock as 'miss of the century', when he missed a wide open goal from 2–3 yards out. Warnock later apologised for coming across "as a dinosaur, although I'm not sure which one."Varney was sent off for a deliberate elbow against Millwall on 18 November. Varney scored his second goal for Leeds in their 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur in the Fourth Round of the FA Cup in January.Varney scored in consecutive games against two of his former clubs, scoring a goal in a 2–1 loss to Charlton Athletic before following it up with a brace against Sheffield Wednesday in Brian McDermott's first game in charge in a 2–1 win on 13 April.Following Leeds 1–1 draw with Ipswich on 28 January 2014, then Leeds manager Brian McDermott revealed that Varney had refused to play for Leeds for the game, due to an offer coming in from league rivals Blackburn and him not wanting to get injured.On 8 February 2014, Varney joined Blackburn Rovers on loan until 11 May 2014 with a view to a permanent move. On 16 May 2014, Varney was released by Leeds United.On 1 July 2014, Varney signed a one-year deal with former loan club Blackburn Rovers after his release from Leeds United.On 20 February 2015, Varney joined Ipswich Town on loan for an initial one-month period with the option to extend this loan until the end of the season, having made 11 appearances for Blackburn Rovers, all from the bench.He was injured in the Playoff Semi-Final game against Norwich City but remained at the club before signing permanently in December 2015, taking the number 42 shirt. Varney went on to make 18 appearances for Ipswich in the Championship in 2015–16, most as a substitute. He scored once, a last-minute winner in his final game for the club, a 3–2 home win over MK Dons on 30 April 2016.He signed a new contract in August 2016 as cover for the injured Brett Pitman. His contract with Ipswich was cancelled in January 2017, allowing him to join Burton Albion.Varney scored his first goal for Burton in a 1–1 draw with Barnsley on 29 April 2017. He was released by the club at the end of the 2017–18 season, following their relegation.In August 2018, Varney was released by Burton Albion.Varney joined League Two side Cheltenham Town on 28 September 2018 after appearing on trial and scoring in a reserve team friendly against Hartpury College a few days earlier. Varney made his Cheltenham Town debut as a sub against Lincoln City on 29 September 2018.Despite scoring 7 goals in 23 games across the 2019–20 season, he was released by Cheltenham Town at the end of the season.On 12 August 2020, he returned to Burton Albion as a player-fitness coach on a one-year deal. On 12 May 2021 it was announced that he would be one of 12 players leaving Burton at the end of the season.On 23 June 2021, Quorn announced via their twitter account that Luke Varney had re-signed for the club he began his career at. Ian Holloway criticised him for a dive in a game between Crystal Palace and Leeds United in the 2012–13 season, stating in a post-match interview: "He got a booking for a complete waste-of-time of a dive and he was laughing about it but he basically tried to get a penalty and that ain't funny". Playing for Blackburn Rovers against Leeds in the 2014–15 season, Varney dived to win a penalty that proved to be decisive in the match. The decision was called a "joke" by Leeds manager Neil Redfearn. Varney has also been accused of diving by Gus Poyet in a game between Brighton and Hove Albion and Leeds in the 2012–13 season.Individual
|
[
"Leeds United F.C.",
"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.",
"Quorn F.C.",
"Derby County F.C.",
"Charlton Athletic F.C.",
"Portsmouth F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"Ipswich Town F.C.",
"Blackburn Rovers F.C."
] |
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