Split (1)

test · 5.4k rows

question stringlengths 36 90	date stringlengths 12 18	text_answers dict	id stringlengths 11 20	fact_context stringlengths 174 4.76k	context stringclasses 999 values	neg_answers listlengths 2 155
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jun, 1857?	June 12, 1857	{ "text": [ "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_2	Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jun, 1858?	June 25, 1858	{ "text": [ "Jean-Pierre Toutsch" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_3	Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jan, 1858?	January 11, 1858	{ "text": [ "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_4	Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler", "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler", "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Oct, 1860?	October 04, 1860	{ "text": [ "Norbert Metz" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_5	Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jun, 1866?	June 24, 1866	{ "text": [ "Michel Witry" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_6	Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Apr, 1871?	April 27, 1871	{ "text": [ "Paul de Scherff" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_7	René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Apr, 1872?	April 19, 1872	{ "text": [ "Félix de Blochausen" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_8	Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Sep, 1884?	September 10, 1884	{ "text": [ "Jacques-Gustave Lessel" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_9	Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jan, 1886?	January 29, 1886	{ "text": [ "Zénon de Muyser", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_10	Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Lucien Weiler", "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Dec, 1894?	December 22, 1894	{ "text": [ "Théodore de Wacquant" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_11	Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Feb, 1899?	February 20, 1899	{ "text": [ "Charles-Jean Simons" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_12	Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Sep, 1906?	September 14, 1906	{ "text": [ "Auguste Laval" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_13	Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jul, 1916?	July 10, 1916	{ "text": [ "Edouard Hemmer" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_14	Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in May, 1917?	May 14, 1917	{ "text": [ "François Altwies" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_15	Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jul, 1936?	July 14, 1936	{ "text": [ "Émile Reuter" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_16	Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Dec, 1944?	December 06, 1944	{ "text": [ "Nicolas Wirtgen" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_17	Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Nov, 1960?	November 25, 1960	{ "text": [ "Joseph Bech" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_18	Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Aug, 1966?	August 29, 1966	{ "text": [ "Victor Bodson" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_19	Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in May, 1967?	May 15, 1967	{ "text": [ "Romain Fandel" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_20	Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Mar, 1976?	March 12, 1976	{ "text": [ "René Van Den Bulcke" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_21	Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jul, 1979?	July 06, 1979	{ "text": [ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Léon Bollendorff" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_22	Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Sep, 1979?	September 07, 1979	{ "text": [ "Léon Bollendorff" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_23	Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Oct, 1992?	October 23, 1992	{ "text": [ "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_24	Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Nov, 1997?	November 18, 1997	{ "text": [ "Jean Spautz" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_25	Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jul, 2004?	July 26, 2004	{ "text": [ "Jean Asselborn", "Lucien Weiler" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_26	Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler", "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Apr, 2005?	April 12, 2005	{ "text": [ "Lucien Weiler" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_27	Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jun, 2011?	June 06, 2011	{ "text": [ "Laurent Mosar" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_28	Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jun, 2018?	June 11, 2018	{ "text": [ "Mars Di Bartolomeo" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_29	Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Fernand Etgen", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Who was the chair of Chamber of Deputies in Jan, 2021?	January 04, 2021	{ "text": [ "Fernand Etgen" ] }	L2_Q517449_P488_30	Jean-Pierre Toutsch is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1859. Nicolas Wirtgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 1944 to Dec, 1944. Victor Bodson is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. Mars Di Bartolomeo is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018. Jean Spautz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 2004. Félix de Blochausen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1872 to Jan, 1873. Auguste Laval is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1915. Paul de Scherff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872. Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1842 to Jan, 1848. Joseph Bech is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1964. Théodore de Wacquant is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1890 to Jan, 1896. Michel Witry is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1867. Lucien Weiler is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jun, 2009. Norbert Metz is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1861. Laurent Mosar is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2009 to Nov, 2013. Fernand Etgen is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022. Erna Hennicot-Schoepges is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1995. Victor de Tornaco is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1855 to Jan, 1856. René Van Den Bulcke is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1979. François Altwies is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1925. Mathias Ulrich is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1858 to Jan, 1858. Jean-Pierre Urwald is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jul, 1979. Edouard Hemmer is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1915 to Jan, 1917. Zénon de Muyser is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1886 to Jan, 1887. Charles-Jean Simons is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1905. Jean Asselborn is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 2004 to Jul, 2004. Jean-Mathias Wellenstein is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1858. Léon Bollendorff is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jul, 1979 to Jun, 1984. Émile Reuter is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1940. Romain Fandel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1969. Jacques-Gustave Lessel is the chair of Chamber of Deputies from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1886.	Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)The Chamber of Deputies (, , ), abbreviated to the Chamber, is the unicameral national legislature of Luxembourg. "Krautmaart" (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: "Herb Market") is sometimes used as a metonym for the Chamber, after the square on which the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: "Hall of the Chamber of Deputies") is located.The Chamber is made up of 60 seats. Deputies are elected to serve five-year terms by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. Voters may vote for as many candidates as the constituency elects deputies.The constitution of 1841 created the Assembly of Estates ("Assemblée des États"), consisting of 34 members. Under the absolute monarchy of William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the legislature's powers were very restricted: it could not take decisions and had a purely advisory role with respect to the monarch. Its consent was necessary in very few matters. Only the sovereign could propose laws. The assembly was only in session 15 days a year, and these sessions were held in secret.In a climate marked by the democratic revolutionary movements in France and elsewhere, a new constitution was drafted in 1848 by a Constituent Assembly. This introduced a constitutional monarchy: the King-Grand Duke only retained those powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution. The parliament, now called the "Chambre des Députés", had the legislative power: it had the right to propose and amend laws. It would decide the budget, and received the power to investigate. The government became accountable to the Chamber. In addition, its sessions were now public.In 1853, William III called on the government to write a new constitution to limit the powers of the Chamber. The latter refused to approve the government's revisions, and the Grand Duke dissolved the legislature. There was then a brief return to absolutist monarchy, in what became known as the Putsch of 1856. The parliament, now renamed the "Assemblée des Etats", retained its legislative powers, but the Grand Duke was no longer required to approve and promulgate its laws within a certain period. Taxes no longer had to be voted on annually, and the permanent budget was re-introduced. The Council of State was created in 1856 as a check on the Chamber. Its role was to render opinions on proposed bills and regulations.After Luxembourg's neutrality and independence had been affirmed in the Second Treaty of London, in 1868, the constitution was revised to obtain a compromise between the liberties of 1848 and the authoritarian charter of 1856. The parliament was renamed the "Chambre des Députés" and regained most of the rights it lost in 1856, such as the annual vote on the budget and taxes. However, the King Grand-Duke still kept wide-ranging powers: he exercised executive power, and wielded legislative power alongside the Chamber.The constitutional changes of 1919 brought in universal suffrage and affirmed the principle of national sovereignty. These steps on a pathway of democratisation took place in a period of crisis of the monarchy, famine, and difficulties in supplying food. Grand Duchess Charlotte remained the head of state, and the co-wielder of legislative power.Most elections between 1922 and 1951 were "partial elections". The four constituencies were paired up, North with Centre and South with East, and elections were staggered so that only deputies from one pair of constituencies were up for election at any given time.During World War II, from 1940 to 1944 under German occupation of Luxembourg, the Chamber was dissolved by the Nazis and the country annexed into the "Gau Moselland". The Grand Ducal family and the Luxembourgish government went into exile, first in the United Kingdom, and later in Canada and the United States.The first post-war session was opened on 6 December 1944 and was limited to one public sitting, as there was no quorum. A consultative assembly sat from March to August 1945, and new elections were held in October 1945. The post-war Chamber proceeded to revise the constitution again, which abolished the country's state of neutrality.1965 saw the introduction of parliamentary commissions. The establishment of specialised and permanent commissions would facilitate the work of the legislature. The previous organisation of the Chamber into sections, un-specialised and with members chosen at random, had not been effective. Another innovation concerned political groups. They were now officially recognised, and received premises, and subsidies based on their proportion of seat. These material means were dwarfed by those established in 1990.Changes to the Chamber's rules in 1990 and 1991 substantially increased the material means available to political groups, and contributed to a professionalisation of politics. In addition, every Deputy had the right to an office close to the Chamber building. The Chamber reimbursed the Deputies' staff expenses. Funds were now also available to "technical groups", following the protests of the small parties at the start of the new session in 1989.In 2003, a new law established the office of the mediator and ombudsman. This was attached to the Chamber, but would not receive instructions from any authority in exercising his or her functions. They would deal with citizens' complaints concerning the central or local government administration, and other public entities. They would attempt to resolve disputes between parties, acting as a mediator. Every year, they would present a report to the Chamber.Since January 2008, the political parties have been directly funded by the state. Their accounts were to be strictly separate from those of the parliamentary political groups. There were to be two different structures, each with their own staff. In order to receive public funds, a party must provide evidence of regular political activity, present complete lists of candidates at the legislative and European elections, and have received at least 2% of the vote.The function of the Chamber of Deputies is covered under Chapter IV of the Constitution of Luxembourg, the first article of which states that the purpose of the Chamber is to represent the country. Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy, in which the Chamber is elected by universal suffrage under the d'Hondt method of Party-list proportional representation.All laws must be passed by the Chamber. Each bill must be submitted to two votes in the Chamber, with an interval of at least three months between the votes, for it to become law. Laws are passed by absolute majority, provided that a quorum of half of the deputies is present.The Chamber is composed of sixty members, called Deputies (Luxembourgish: "Deputéiert" ; French: "Députés"). They each represent one of four constituencies, which are each a combination of at least two cantons. Each constituency elects a number of deputies proportionate to its population, with the largest electing 23 and the smallest electing 7.Deputies are elected by universal suffrage every five years, with the last election having been held on 14 October 2018. Deputies are elected by open list proportional representation, whereby all electors may vote for as many candidates as their constituency has seats. Each party is allocated a number of seats in proportion to the total number of votes cast for its candidates in that constituency. These seats are then allocated to that party's candidates in descending order of votes that each candidate received.The Chamber of Deputies holds session in the Hôtel de la Chambre (Luxembourgish: "Chambergebai", English: Hall of the Chamber of Deputies), located on Krautmaart (French: "Marché aux herbes", English: Herb Market), in the Uewerstad quarter (French: Ville Haute, English: Upper City), the oldest part of Luxembourg City. It was originally built between 1858 and 1860 as an annex to the Grand Ducal Palace, which had, until then, been used as one of many venues for the Chamber's convocations.The building was designed by Antoine Hartmann in a unified historicist style, combining elements of neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-classical architectural styles. The Grand Ducal Palace, by contrast, was built over time in several architectural styles (primarily Renaissance and Baroque), but renovated in 1891 in a historicist neo-Renaissance manner.Government parties are denoted with the letter G, with the Democratic Party holding the office of Prime Minister (Xavier Bettel). "O" stands for opposition.	[ "Jean-Pierre Urwald", "Émile Reuter", "Nicolas Wirtgen", "Charles-Jean Simons", "François Altwies", "Edouard Hemmer", "Joseph Bech", "Victor Bodson", "Mars Di Bartolomeo", "Victor de Tornaco", "Gaspard-Théodore-Ignace de la Fontaine", "Théodore de Wacquant", "Jean-Pierre Toutsch", "Mathias Ulrich", "Paul de Scherff", "Michel Witry", "Auguste Laval", "Laurent Mosar", "Erna Hennicot-Schoepges", "Jacques-Gustave Lessel", "Jean Asselborn", "Jean-Mathias Wellenstein", "Félix de Blochausen", "Romain Fandel", "Norbert Metz", "René Van Den Bulcke", "Léon Bollendorff", "Jean Spautz", "Zénon de Muyser", "Lucien Weiler" ]
Which political party did Shane Knuth belong to in Jan, 2006?	January 15, 2006	{ "text": [ "National Party of Australia" ] }	L2_Q7488127_P102_0	Shane Knuth is a member of the National Party of Australia from Feb, 2004 to Sep, 2008. Shane Knuth is a member of the Katter's Australian Party from Oct, 2011 to Dec, 2022. Shane Knuth is a member of the Liberal National Party of Queensland from Sep, 2008 to Oct, 2011.	Shane KnuthShane Andrew Knuth (born 7 September 1966) is an Australian politician. He has been a member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly since 2004, representing three successive seats: Charters Towers (2004–2009), Dalrymple (2009–2017) and Hill (2017–present). He has variously represented the National Party (2004–08), the Liberal National Party (2008–11) and Katter's Australian Party (2011–present).Knuth was born in the Queensland town of Tully. His brother Jeff Knuth is a former One Nation parliamentarian.Shane Knuth entered the state parliament as the member for Charters Towers at the 2004 state election by defeating incumbent MP Christine Scott of the Labor Party on One Nation preferences. At the 2006 state election, Knuth was re-elected with a large swing.Charters Towers was abolished in a redistribution ahead of the 2009 state election, and Knuth opted to contest the new seat of Dalrymple. The new seat merged most of his former territory, including the city of Charters Towers, with part of the former seat of Tablelands, represented by One Nation MP Rosa Lee Long. The new seat had a notional LNP majority of 57 percent, and Knuth won with only a small swing against him.On 30 October 2011, Knuth resigned from the Liberal National Party to join Katter's Australian Party. Though most LNP MPs at the time were former Nationals like Knuth, Knuth contended the merger had been a Liberal takeover that had been "disastrous" for regional representation, and left rural MPs shut out of decision-making. Knuth also cited reports that the LNP's organisational wing grilled candidates, and had paid a former Labor official for compromising information on Labor MPs, including their sexual behaviour, as having influenced his decision.At the 2012 state election, despite a massive swing to the LNP statewide, Knuth easily retained his seat, defeating his replacement as LNP candidate by a nearly 2-to-1 two-party margin, winning enough primary votes to retain the seat outright. He was re-elected almost as easily in 2015.Dalrymple was abolished in a redistribution ahead of the 2017 election, and Knuth transferred to Hill, essentially the northern portion of his old seat. Although it was notionally a marginal Australian Party seat, Knuth won it on a massive swing of almost 15 percent, turning Hill into a very safe seat in one stroke.	[ "Katter's Australian Party", "Liberal National Party of Queensland" ]
Which political party did Shane Knuth belong to in Jan, 2011?	January 21, 2011	{ "text": [ "Liberal National Party of Queensland" ] }	L2_Q7488127_P102_1	Shane Knuth is a member of the Katter's Australian Party from Oct, 2011 to Dec, 2022. Shane Knuth is a member of the National Party of Australia from Feb, 2004 to Sep, 2008. Shane Knuth is a member of the Liberal National Party of Queensland from Sep, 2008 to Oct, 2011.	Shane KnuthShane Andrew Knuth (born 7 September 1966) is an Australian politician. He has been a member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly since 2004, representing three successive seats: Charters Towers (2004–2009), Dalrymple (2009–2017) and Hill (2017–present). He has variously represented the National Party (2004–08), the Liberal National Party (2008–11) and Katter's Australian Party (2011–present).Knuth was born in the Queensland town of Tully. His brother Jeff Knuth is a former One Nation parliamentarian.Shane Knuth entered the state parliament as the member for Charters Towers at the 2004 state election by defeating incumbent MP Christine Scott of the Labor Party on One Nation preferences. At the 2006 state election, Knuth was re-elected with a large swing.Charters Towers was abolished in a redistribution ahead of the 2009 state election, and Knuth opted to contest the new seat of Dalrymple. The new seat merged most of his former territory, including the city of Charters Towers, with part of the former seat of Tablelands, represented by One Nation MP Rosa Lee Long. The new seat had a notional LNP majority of 57 percent, and Knuth won with only a small swing against him.On 30 October 2011, Knuth resigned from the Liberal National Party to join Katter's Australian Party. Though most LNP MPs at the time were former Nationals like Knuth, Knuth contended the merger had been a Liberal takeover that had been "disastrous" for regional representation, and left rural MPs shut out of decision-making. Knuth also cited reports that the LNP's organisational wing grilled candidates, and had paid a former Labor official for compromising information on Labor MPs, including their sexual behaviour, as having influenced his decision.At the 2012 state election, despite a massive swing to the LNP statewide, Knuth easily retained his seat, defeating his replacement as LNP candidate by a nearly 2-to-1 two-party margin, winning enough primary votes to retain the seat outright. He was re-elected almost as easily in 2015.Dalrymple was abolished in a redistribution ahead of the 2017 election, and Knuth transferred to Hill, essentially the northern portion of his old seat. Although it was notionally a marginal Australian Party seat, Knuth won it on a massive swing of almost 15 percent, turning Hill into a very safe seat in one stroke.	[ "Katter's Australian Party", "National Party of Australia" ]
Which political party did Shane Knuth belong to in Jul, 2019?	July 21, 2019	{ "text": [ "Katter's Australian Party" ] }	L2_Q7488127_P102_2	Shane Knuth is a member of the National Party of Australia from Feb, 2004 to Sep, 2008. Shane Knuth is a member of the Katter's Australian Party from Oct, 2011 to Dec, 2022. Shane Knuth is a member of the Liberal National Party of Queensland from Sep, 2008 to Oct, 2011.	Shane KnuthShane Andrew Knuth (born 7 September 1966) is an Australian politician. He has been a member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly since 2004, representing three successive seats: Charters Towers (2004–2009), Dalrymple (2009–2017) and Hill (2017–present). He has variously represented the National Party (2004–08), the Liberal National Party (2008–11) and Katter's Australian Party (2011–present).Knuth was born in the Queensland town of Tully. His brother Jeff Knuth is a former One Nation parliamentarian.Shane Knuth entered the state parliament as the member for Charters Towers at the 2004 state election by defeating incumbent MP Christine Scott of the Labor Party on One Nation preferences. At the 2006 state election, Knuth was re-elected with a large swing.Charters Towers was abolished in a redistribution ahead of the 2009 state election, and Knuth opted to contest the new seat of Dalrymple. The new seat merged most of his former territory, including the city of Charters Towers, with part of the former seat of Tablelands, represented by One Nation MP Rosa Lee Long. The new seat had a notional LNP majority of 57 percent, and Knuth won with only a small swing against him.On 30 October 2011, Knuth resigned from the Liberal National Party to join Katter's Australian Party. Though most LNP MPs at the time were former Nationals like Knuth, Knuth contended the merger had been a Liberal takeover that had been "disastrous" for regional representation, and left rural MPs shut out of decision-making. Knuth also cited reports that the LNP's organisational wing grilled candidates, and had paid a former Labor official for compromising information on Labor MPs, including their sexual behaviour, as having influenced his decision.At the 2012 state election, despite a massive swing to the LNP statewide, Knuth easily retained his seat, defeating his replacement as LNP candidate by a nearly 2-to-1 two-party margin, winning enough primary votes to retain the seat outright. He was re-elected almost as easily in 2015.Dalrymple was abolished in a redistribution ahead of the 2017 election, and Knuth transferred to Hill, essentially the northern portion of his old seat. Although it was notionally a marginal Australian Party seat, Knuth won it on a massive swing of almost 15 percent, turning Hill into a very safe seat in one stroke.	[ "Liberal National Party of Queensland", "National Party of Australia" ]
Which position did Samuel Christy-Miller hold in Dec, 1851?	December 06, 1851	{ "text": [ "Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16062609_P39_0	Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852. Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859. Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.	Samuel Christy-MillerSamuel Christy-Miller, originally Samuel Christy and from 1862 by royal licence actually Samuel Christie Miller (1810–1889) was an English businessman and politician, from 1847 to 1859 one of the two members of parliament for Newcastle under Lyme, elected as a Peelite.He was the second son of Thomas Christy of Essex, eldest son of Miller Christy, and Rebecca Hawlings. He became a partner in the hat-making firm Christy & Co.Christy was related, though distantly, to William Henry Miller, who died in 1848. He inherited indirectly from Miller an estate, and a noted library, in 1852. At that point he changed surname to Christy-Miller. Miller had been Member of Parliament for Newcastle under Lyme, and Christy-Miller also stood successfully for that constituency. He was a Peelite.	[ "Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Samuel Christy-Miller hold in Nov, 1852?	November 27, 1852	{ "text": [ "Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16062609_P39_1	Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859. Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852. Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857.	Samuel Christy-MillerSamuel Christy-Miller, originally Samuel Christy and from 1862 by royal licence actually Samuel Christie Miller (1810–1889) was an English businessman and politician, from 1847 to 1859 one of the two members of parliament for Newcastle under Lyme, elected as a Peelite.He was the second son of Thomas Christy of Essex, eldest son of Miller Christy, and Rebecca Hawlings. He became a partner in the hat-making firm Christy & Co.Christy was related, though distantly, to William Henry Miller, who died in 1848. He inherited indirectly from Miller an estate, and a noted library, in 1852. At that point he changed surname to Christy-Miller. Miller had been Member of Parliament for Newcastle under Lyme, and Christy-Miller also stood successfully for that constituency. He was a Peelite.	[ "Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Samuel Christy-Miller hold in Oct, 1857?	October 28, 1857	{ "text": [ "Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16062609_P39_2	Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Mar, 1857. Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 17th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1857 to Apr, 1859. Samuel Christy-Miller holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.	Samuel Christy-MillerSamuel Christy-Miller, originally Samuel Christy and from 1862 by royal licence actually Samuel Christie Miller (1810–1889) was an English businessman and politician, from 1847 to 1859 one of the two members of parliament for Newcastle under Lyme, elected as a Peelite.He was the second son of Thomas Christy of Essex, eldest son of Miller Christy, and Rebecca Hawlings. He became a partner in the hat-making firm Christy & Co.Christy was related, though distantly, to William Henry Miller, who died in 1848. He inherited indirectly from Miller an estate, and a noted library, in 1852. At that point he changed surname to Christy-Miller. Miller had been Member of Parliament for Newcastle under Lyme, and Christy-Miller also stood successfully for that constituency. He was a Peelite.	[ "Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Where was Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills educated in Jul, 1997?	July 16, 1997	{ "text": [ "Argyle House School" ] }	L2_Q1753485_P69_0	Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1999. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Royal Holloway, University of London from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2012. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Shiplake College from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended University of Alberta from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.	Nicholas Medforth-MillsNicholas Michael de Roumanie Medforth-Mills, formerly called Prince Nicholas of Romania (born 1 April 1985), is the eldest child and only son of Princess Elena of Romania and Robin Medforth-Mills. As a grandson of King Michael of Romania, he was third in line to the defunct throne of Romania according to a new family statute enacted in 2007, that also conferred the title of a "prince of Romania" on him which was abrogated in 2015. The statute and the titles it confers have no standing in present Romanian law.Nicholas Medforth-Mills was born on 1 April 1985 at La Tour Hospital in Meyrin, a commuter town near Geneva, Switzerland, the first child and son of Princess Elena of Romania and her first husband Robin Medforth-Mills and the second grandchild of King Michael I of Romania and his wife Queen Anne.He was baptised in the Orthodox faith, his godparents being Queen Anne (his maternal grandmother) and Crown Princess Margareta of Romania (his maternal aunt).He was followed by a sister, Elisabeta-Karina (born 4 January 1989).Until the age of four, Medforth-Mills lived with his sister and parents at the Romanian royal family's residence in Versoix, Switzerland. The family moved to England in 1989 where they took up residence at Flass Hall, Esh Winning in County Durham.Medforth-Mills joined the Beaver Scouts at age five. During his childhood, he developed an interest in cars, an interest shared with his grandfather King Michael I. During holidays in Versoix, Switzerland with his maternal grandparents, Nicholas spent hours in his grandfather's garage, watching him maintain his Jeep collection. In an interview with historian Filip-Lucian Iorga, Nicholas recalled the time spent with King Michael, and how he had been allowed to drive one of his cars, a Ford which once belonged to General George S. Patton; the vehicle was given to his grandfather by Queen Anne's paternal uncle Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma as a gift. He also recalled spending time with Queen Anne at Versoix where they used to fish and play golf together.As a descendant of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and King Christian IX of Denmark, he regularly met with many of his extended relatives.Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School, Sunderland, England which he left in 1999 with 8 GCSEs - English Language, English Literature, Mathematics, Science (Chemistry, Biology and Physics), French, German, Information Technology, and Geography.In 1999, he enrolled with Shiplake College, Henley-on-Thames, England where he left with 3 A-levels of French, Business Sciences and Physical Education. During this time he also took part in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award.Before enrolling for university he took a 5-year "Gap year", where:Medforth-Mills' first major appearance in Romania was on 19 April 1992 on Easter Day along with his grandparents King Michael I and Queen Anne and with his mother and her second husband Alexander Nixon.Medforth-Mills came again for the second time on Christmas Day 1997, when the entire royal family set foot in Romania for the first time after nearly five decades of exile. In 2002, he visited Romania for the third time; he stayed at Elisabeta Palace. During this visit he started to consider his role as a member of the royal family, which required a fundamental transformation for him.Since the beginning of 2008, Medforth-Mills has become more involved in the public life of Romania, taking part, for instance, at the 2008 UNITER theatre gala and in visits throughout the country with his aunt, Crown Princess Margareta, and his maternal uncle, Radu Duda.In 1997, Romanian monarchists intended to ask Michael to designate a male heir-presumptive from the House of Hohenzollern in keeping with the rules of the last royal constitution which were based on agnatic primogeniture and Salic law; The monarchists eventually agreed on a compromise and requested him to designate a male rather than female heir-presumptive, in the person of Nicholas. However, under the influence of Queen Anne, Michael rejected the monarchists' request, and at the end of 1997, he designated Princess Margareta as heir presumptive in keeping with the European Convention on Human Rights, which meant Nicholas would only succeed to the headship of the royal family after the deaths of King Michael, Crown Princess Margareta and his mother.In 2005, Michael told Medforth-Mills that he could choose to have the chance of becoming a "prince of Romania" which would mean assuming responsibility in a conscious manner by starting to work for the country.On 30 December 2007, the press office of King Michael announced that Nicholas Medforth-Mills would receive the title "prince of Romania" with the style of "royal highness", coming into effect on Nicholas's 25th birthday. On 1 April 2010, by virtue of his new title, he became a member of the Romanian royal family and was decorated with the "Nihil Sine Deo", the highest of royal decorations at the time.In February 2008, Nicholas stated in an interview with the Romanian daily newspaper "Cotidianul" that if the Romanian people asked him to become king, he would not refuse.In September 2012, after his university studies, he moved to Romania to undertake more of the royal family's public activities.On 1 August 2015, former King Michael of Romania signed a document removing the title prince of Romania and the qualification of royal highness from his grandson. Medforth-Mills also has been removed from the line of succession. The former king took the decision after considering that Romania needed a ruler marked by modesty and moral principles, respect and thought for others after the "reign and life" of his eldest daughter, Crown Princess Margareta, will have finished. In issuing the declaration, the former king expressed the hope that "Nicholas will find in future years a suitable way to serve the ideals and use the qualities that God gave him". Nicholas's mother, Princess Elena, received notification of the former king's decision in a personal letter.The move "stunned Romanians" and "sparked speculation that a jealous relative had sought to edge Nicholas out of the succession." speculated that the exclusion of Nicholas from the royal succession was due to the birth of an illegitimate daughter, born from a short relationship with Nicoleta Cîrjan (b. 1986). The child, born on 9 February 2016 in Brașov and named Iris Anna, was not recognized by the former prince.Nicholas released a press statement on 18 November 2017 from London about the child. Point 2 of the Press release stated, "I returned to Romania in November 2015 to resolve the situation with my alleged child. Due to the constant lack of co-operation from the mother of my alleged child, this situation has remained unclear. So far, there is no medical evidence to support the mother's accusations. Therefore, any accusations that are related to this subject are unfounded." On 27 May 2019, Nicholas confirmed via a Facebook post that paternity tests had confirmed the illegitimate daughter is his, and that he had assumed legal responsibility for her.On 8 November 2017, during Michael I's final illness, the Romanian Royal House filed a complaint with Swiss police alleging that Nicholas tried to force his way into his grandfather's home. It alleged that Nicholas "physically and verbally assaulted" three staff members, while he accused his relatives of trying to stop him seeing his grandfather and discrediting his name. The former king died on 5 December 2017.Nicholas became engaged to Alina Maria Binder (Constanța, 26 January 1988) on 29 July 2017 in Cornwall. They married civilly in Henley-on-Thames on 6 October 2017. On 30 September 2018 the couple married religiously at Saint Elijah Church in Sinaia, and the wedding reception took place at Sinaia Casino.Their daughter Maria-Alexandra was born on 7 November 2020 at Institute for Mother and Child Alfred Rusescu - Polizu in Bucharest, and was baptised at Curtea de Argeș Cathedral on 23 January 2021.	[ "Royal Holloway, University of London", "University of Alberta", "Shiplake College" ]
Where was Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills educated in Jun, 2001?	June 15, 2001	{ "text": [ "Shiplake College" ] }	L2_Q1753485_P69_1	Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Royal Holloway, University of London from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2012. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Shiplake College from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended University of Alberta from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1999.	Nicholas Medforth-MillsNicholas Michael de Roumanie Medforth-Mills, formerly called Prince Nicholas of Romania (born 1 April 1985), is the eldest child and only son of Princess Elena of Romania and Robin Medforth-Mills. As a grandson of King Michael of Romania, he was third in line to the defunct throne of Romania according to a new family statute enacted in 2007, that also conferred the title of a "prince of Romania" on him which was abrogated in 2015. The statute and the titles it confers have no standing in present Romanian law.Nicholas Medforth-Mills was born on 1 April 1985 at La Tour Hospital in Meyrin, a commuter town near Geneva, Switzerland, the first child and son of Princess Elena of Romania and her first husband Robin Medforth-Mills and the second grandchild of King Michael I of Romania and his wife Queen Anne.He was baptised in the Orthodox faith, his godparents being Queen Anne (his maternal grandmother) and Crown Princess Margareta of Romania (his maternal aunt).He was followed by a sister, Elisabeta-Karina (born 4 January 1989).Until the age of four, Medforth-Mills lived with his sister and parents at the Romanian royal family's residence in Versoix, Switzerland. The family moved to England in 1989 where they took up residence at Flass Hall, Esh Winning in County Durham.Medforth-Mills joined the Beaver Scouts at age five. During his childhood, he developed an interest in cars, an interest shared with his grandfather King Michael I. During holidays in Versoix, Switzerland with his maternal grandparents, Nicholas spent hours in his grandfather's garage, watching him maintain his Jeep collection. In an interview with historian Filip-Lucian Iorga, Nicholas recalled the time spent with King Michael, and how he had been allowed to drive one of his cars, a Ford which once belonged to General George S. Patton; the vehicle was given to his grandfather by Queen Anne's paternal uncle Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma as a gift. He also recalled spending time with Queen Anne at Versoix where they used to fish and play golf together.As a descendant of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and King Christian IX of Denmark, he regularly met with many of his extended relatives.Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School, Sunderland, England which he left in 1999 with 8 GCSEs - English Language, English Literature, Mathematics, Science (Chemistry, Biology and Physics), French, German, Information Technology, and Geography.In 1999, he enrolled with Shiplake College, Henley-on-Thames, England where he left with 3 A-levels of French, Business Sciences and Physical Education. During this time he also took part in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award.Before enrolling for university he took a 5-year "Gap year", where:Medforth-Mills' first major appearance in Romania was on 19 April 1992 on Easter Day along with his grandparents King Michael I and Queen Anne and with his mother and her second husband Alexander Nixon.Medforth-Mills came again for the second time on Christmas Day 1997, when the entire royal family set foot in Romania for the first time after nearly five decades of exile. In 2002, he visited Romania for the third time; he stayed at Elisabeta Palace. During this visit he started to consider his role as a member of the royal family, which required a fundamental transformation for him.Since the beginning of 2008, Medforth-Mills has become more involved in the public life of Romania, taking part, for instance, at the 2008 UNITER theatre gala and in visits throughout the country with his aunt, Crown Princess Margareta, and his maternal uncle, Radu Duda.In 1997, Romanian monarchists intended to ask Michael to designate a male heir-presumptive from the House of Hohenzollern in keeping with the rules of the last royal constitution which were based on agnatic primogeniture and Salic law; The monarchists eventually agreed on a compromise and requested him to designate a male rather than female heir-presumptive, in the person of Nicholas. However, under the influence of Queen Anne, Michael rejected the monarchists' request, and at the end of 1997, he designated Princess Margareta as heir presumptive in keeping with the European Convention on Human Rights, which meant Nicholas would only succeed to the headship of the royal family after the deaths of King Michael, Crown Princess Margareta and his mother.In 2005, Michael told Medforth-Mills that he could choose to have the chance of becoming a "prince of Romania" which would mean assuming responsibility in a conscious manner by starting to work for the country.On 30 December 2007, the press office of King Michael announced that Nicholas Medforth-Mills would receive the title "prince of Romania" with the style of "royal highness", coming into effect on Nicholas's 25th birthday. On 1 April 2010, by virtue of his new title, he became a member of the Romanian royal family and was decorated with the "Nihil Sine Deo", the highest of royal decorations at the time.In February 2008, Nicholas stated in an interview with the Romanian daily newspaper "Cotidianul" that if the Romanian people asked him to become king, he would not refuse.In September 2012, after his university studies, he moved to Romania to undertake more of the royal family's public activities.On 1 August 2015, former King Michael of Romania signed a document removing the title prince of Romania and the qualification of royal highness from his grandson. Medforth-Mills also has been removed from the line of succession. The former king took the decision after considering that Romania needed a ruler marked by modesty and moral principles, respect and thought for others after the "reign and life" of his eldest daughter, Crown Princess Margareta, will have finished. In issuing the declaration, the former king expressed the hope that "Nicholas will find in future years a suitable way to serve the ideals and use the qualities that God gave him". Nicholas's mother, Princess Elena, received notification of the former king's decision in a personal letter.The move "stunned Romanians" and "sparked speculation that a jealous relative had sought to edge Nicholas out of the succession." speculated that the exclusion of Nicholas from the royal succession was due to the birth of an illegitimate daughter, born from a short relationship with Nicoleta Cîrjan (b. 1986). The child, born on 9 February 2016 in Brașov and named Iris Anna, was not recognized by the former prince.Nicholas released a press statement on 18 November 2017 from London about the child. Point 2 of the Press release stated, "I returned to Romania in November 2015 to resolve the situation with my alleged child. Due to the constant lack of co-operation from the mother of my alleged child, this situation has remained unclear. So far, there is no medical evidence to support the mother's accusations. Therefore, any accusations that are related to this subject are unfounded." On 27 May 2019, Nicholas confirmed via a Facebook post that paternity tests had confirmed the illegitimate daughter is his, and that he had assumed legal responsibility for her.On 8 November 2017, during Michael I's final illness, the Romanian Royal House filed a complaint with Swiss police alleging that Nicholas tried to force his way into his grandfather's home. It alleged that Nicholas "physically and verbally assaulted" three staff members, while he accused his relatives of trying to stop him seeing his grandfather and discrediting his name. The former king died on 5 December 2017.Nicholas became engaged to Alina Maria Binder (Constanța, 26 January 1988) on 29 July 2017 in Cornwall. They married civilly in Henley-on-Thames on 6 October 2017. On 30 September 2018 the couple married religiously at Saint Elijah Church in Sinaia, and the wedding reception took place at Sinaia Casino.Their daughter Maria-Alexandra was born on 7 November 2020 at Institute for Mother and Child Alfred Rusescu - Polizu in Bucharest, and was baptised at Curtea de Argeș Cathedral on 23 January 2021.	[ "Argyle House School", "Royal Holloway, University of London", "University of Alberta" ]
Where was Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills educated in Dec, 2010?	December 29, 2010	{ "text": [ "Royal Holloway, University of London" ] }	L2_Q1753485_P69_2	Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1999. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Shiplake College from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended University of Alberta from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Royal Holloway, University of London from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2012.	Nicholas Medforth-MillsNicholas Michael de Roumanie Medforth-Mills, formerly called Prince Nicholas of Romania (born 1 April 1985), is the eldest child and only son of Princess Elena of Romania and Robin Medforth-Mills. As a grandson of King Michael of Romania, he was third in line to the defunct throne of Romania according to a new family statute enacted in 2007, that also conferred the title of a "prince of Romania" on him which was abrogated in 2015. The statute and the titles it confers have no standing in present Romanian law.Nicholas Medforth-Mills was born on 1 April 1985 at La Tour Hospital in Meyrin, a commuter town near Geneva, Switzerland, the first child and son of Princess Elena of Romania and her first husband Robin Medforth-Mills and the second grandchild of King Michael I of Romania and his wife Queen Anne.He was baptised in the Orthodox faith, his godparents being Queen Anne (his maternal grandmother) and Crown Princess Margareta of Romania (his maternal aunt).He was followed by a sister, Elisabeta-Karina (born 4 January 1989).Until the age of four, Medforth-Mills lived with his sister and parents at the Romanian royal family's residence in Versoix, Switzerland. The family moved to England in 1989 where they took up residence at Flass Hall, Esh Winning in County Durham.Medforth-Mills joined the Beaver Scouts at age five. During his childhood, he developed an interest in cars, an interest shared with his grandfather King Michael I. During holidays in Versoix, Switzerland with his maternal grandparents, Nicholas spent hours in his grandfather's garage, watching him maintain his Jeep collection. In an interview with historian Filip-Lucian Iorga, Nicholas recalled the time spent with King Michael, and how he had been allowed to drive one of his cars, a Ford which once belonged to General George S. Patton; the vehicle was given to his grandfather by Queen Anne's paternal uncle Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma as a gift. He also recalled spending time with Queen Anne at Versoix where they used to fish and play golf together.As a descendant of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and King Christian IX of Denmark, he regularly met with many of his extended relatives.Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School, Sunderland, England which he left in 1999 with 8 GCSEs - English Language, English Literature, Mathematics, Science (Chemistry, Biology and Physics), French, German, Information Technology, and Geography.In 1999, he enrolled with Shiplake College, Henley-on-Thames, England where he left with 3 A-levels of French, Business Sciences and Physical Education. During this time he also took part in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award.Before enrolling for university he took a 5-year "Gap year", where:Medforth-Mills' first major appearance in Romania was on 19 April 1992 on Easter Day along with his grandparents King Michael I and Queen Anne and with his mother and her second husband Alexander Nixon.Medforth-Mills came again for the second time on Christmas Day 1997, when the entire royal family set foot in Romania for the first time after nearly five decades of exile. In 2002, he visited Romania for the third time; he stayed at Elisabeta Palace. During this visit he started to consider his role as a member of the royal family, which required a fundamental transformation for him.Since the beginning of 2008, Medforth-Mills has become more involved in the public life of Romania, taking part, for instance, at the 2008 UNITER theatre gala and in visits throughout the country with his aunt, Crown Princess Margareta, and his maternal uncle, Radu Duda.In 1997, Romanian monarchists intended to ask Michael to designate a male heir-presumptive from the House of Hohenzollern in keeping with the rules of the last royal constitution which were based on agnatic primogeniture and Salic law; The monarchists eventually agreed on a compromise and requested him to designate a male rather than female heir-presumptive, in the person of Nicholas. However, under the influence of Queen Anne, Michael rejected the monarchists' request, and at the end of 1997, he designated Princess Margareta as heir presumptive in keeping with the European Convention on Human Rights, which meant Nicholas would only succeed to the headship of the royal family after the deaths of King Michael, Crown Princess Margareta and his mother.In 2005, Michael told Medforth-Mills that he could choose to have the chance of becoming a "prince of Romania" which would mean assuming responsibility in a conscious manner by starting to work for the country.On 30 December 2007, the press office of King Michael announced that Nicholas Medforth-Mills would receive the title "prince of Romania" with the style of "royal highness", coming into effect on Nicholas's 25th birthday. On 1 April 2010, by virtue of his new title, he became a member of the Romanian royal family and was decorated with the "Nihil Sine Deo", the highest of royal decorations at the time.In February 2008, Nicholas stated in an interview with the Romanian daily newspaper "Cotidianul" that if the Romanian people asked him to become king, he would not refuse.In September 2012, after his university studies, he moved to Romania to undertake more of the royal family's public activities.On 1 August 2015, former King Michael of Romania signed a document removing the title prince of Romania and the qualification of royal highness from his grandson. Medforth-Mills also has been removed from the line of succession. The former king took the decision after considering that Romania needed a ruler marked by modesty and moral principles, respect and thought for others after the "reign and life" of his eldest daughter, Crown Princess Margareta, will have finished. In issuing the declaration, the former king expressed the hope that "Nicholas will find in future years a suitable way to serve the ideals and use the qualities that God gave him". Nicholas's mother, Princess Elena, received notification of the former king's decision in a personal letter.The move "stunned Romanians" and "sparked speculation that a jealous relative had sought to edge Nicholas out of the succession." speculated that the exclusion of Nicholas from the royal succession was due to the birth of an illegitimate daughter, born from a short relationship with Nicoleta Cîrjan (b. 1986). The child, born on 9 February 2016 in Brașov and named Iris Anna, was not recognized by the former prince.Nicholas released a press statement on 18 November 2017 from London about the child. Point 2 of the Press release stated, "I returned to Romania in November 2015 to resolve the situation with my alleged child. Due to the constant lack of co-operation from the mother of my alleged child, this situation has remained unclear. So far, there is no medical evidence to support the mother's accusations. Therefore, any accusations that are related to this subject are unfounded." On 27 May 2019, Nicholas confirmed via a Facebook post that paternity tests had confirmed the illegitimate daughter is his, and that he had assumed legal responsibility for her.On 8 November 2017, during Michael I's final illness, the Romanian Royal House filed a complaint with Swiss police alleging that Nicholas tried to force his way into his grandfather's home. It alleged that Nicholas "physically and verbally assaulted" three staff members, while he accused his relatives of trying to stop him seeing his grandfather and discrediting his name. The former king died on 5 December 2017.Nicholas became engaged to Alina Maria Binder (Constanța, 26 January 1988) on 29 July 2017 in Cornwall. They married civilly in Henley-on-Thames on 6 October 2017. On 30 September 2018 the couple married religiously at Saint Elijah Church in Sinaia, and the wedding reception took place at Sinaia Casino.Their daughter Maria-Alexandra was born on 7 November 2020 at Institute for Mother and Child Alfred Rusescu - Polizu in Bucharest, and was baptised at Curtea de Argeș Cathedral on 23 January 2021.	[ "Argyle House School", "University of Alberta", "Shiplake College" ]
Where was Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills educated in Sep, 2022?	September 09, 2022	{ "text": [ "University of Alberta" ] }	L2_Q1753485_P69_3	Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended University of Alberta from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1999. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Royal Holloway, University of London from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2012. Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills attended Shiplake College from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.	Nicholas Medforth-MillsNicholas Michael de Roumanie Medforth-Mills, formerly called Prince Nicholas of Romania (born 1 April 1985), is the eldest child and only son of Princess Elena of Romania and Robin Medforth-Mills. As a grandson of King Michael of Romania, he was third in line to the defunct throne of Romania according to a new family statute enacted in 2007, that also conferred the title of a "prince of Romania" on him which was abrogated in 2015. The statute and the titles it confers have no standing in present Romanian law.Nicholas Medforth-Mills was born on 1 April 1985 at La Tour Hospital in Meyrin, a commuter town near Geneva, Switzerland, the first child and son of Princess Elena of Romania and her first husband Robin Medforth-Mills and the second grandchild of King Michael I of Romania and his wife Queen Anne.He was baptised in the Orthodox faith, his godparents being Queen Anne (his maternal grandmother) and Crown Princess Margareta of Romania (his maternal aunt).He was followed by a sister, Elisabeta-Karina (born 4 January 1989).Until the age of four, Medforth-Mills lived with his sister and parents at the Romanian royal family's residence in Versoix, Switzerland. The family moved to England in 1989 where they took up residence at Flass Hall, Esh Winning in County Durham.Medforth-Mills joined the Beaver Scouts at age five. During his childhood, he developed an interest in cars, an interest shared with his grandfather King Michael I. During holidays in Versoix, Switzerland with his maternal grandparents, Nicholas spent hours in his grandfather's garage, watching him maintain his Jeep collection. In an interview with historian Filip-Lucian Iorga, Nicholas recalled the time spent with King Michael, and how he had been allowed to drive one of his cars, a Ford which once belonged to General George S. Patton; the vehicle was given to his grandfather by Queen Anne's paternal uncle Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma as a gift. He also recalled spending time with Queen Anne at Versoix where they used to fish and play golf together.As a descendant of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and King Christian IX of Denmark, he regularly met with many of his extended relatives.Medforth-Mills attended Argyle House School, Sunderland, England which he left in 1999 with 8 GCSEs - English Language, English Literature, Mathematics, Science (Chemistry, Biology and Physics), French, German, Information Technology, and Geography.In 1999, he enrolled with Shiplake College, Henley-on-Thames, England where he left with 3 A-levels of French, Business Sciences and Physical Education. During this time he also took part in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award.Before enrolling for university he took a 5-year "Gap year", where:Medforth-Mills' first major appearance in Romania was on 19 April 1992 on Easter Day along with his grandparents King Michael I and Queen Anne and with his mother and her second husband Alexander Nixon.Medforth-Mills came again for the second time on Christmas Day 1997, when the entire royal family set foot in Romania for the first time after nearly five decades of exile. In 2002, he visited Romania for the third time; he stayed at Elisabeta Palace. During this visit he started to consider his role as a member of the royal family, which required a fundamental transformation for him.Since the beginning of 2008, Medforth-Mills has become more involved in the public life of Romania, taking part, for instance, at the 2008 UNITER theatre gala and in visits throughout the country with his aunt, Crown Princess Margareta, and his maternal uncle, Radu Duda.In 1997, Romanian monarchists intended to ask Michael to designate a male heir-presumptive from the House of Hohenzollern in keeping with the rules of the last royal constitution which were based on agnatic primogeniture and Salic law; The monarchists eventually agreed on a compromise and requested him to designate a male rather than female heir-presumptive, in the person of Nicholas. However, under the influence of Queen Anne, Michael rejected the monarchists' request, and at the end of 1997, he designated Princess Margareta as heir presumptive in keeping with the European Convention on Human Rights, which meant Nicholas would only succeed to the headship of the royal family after the deaths of King Michael, Crown Princess Margareta and his mother.In 2005, Michael told Medforth-Mills that he could choose to have the chance of becoming a "prince of Romania" which would mean assuming responsibility in a conscious manner by starting to work for the country.On 30 December 2007, the press office of King Michael announced that Nicholas Medforth-Mills would receive the title "prince of Romania" with the style of "royal highness", coming into effect on Nicholas's 25th birthday. On 1 April 2010, by virtue of his new title, he became a member of the Romanian royal family and was decorated with the "Nihil Sine Deo", the highest of royal decorations at the time.In February 2008, Nicholas stated in an interview with the Romanian daily newspaper "Cotidianul" that if the Romanian people asked him to become king, he would not refuse.In September 2012, after his university studies, he moved to Romania to undertake more of the royal family's public activities.On 1 August 2015, former King Michael of Romania signed a document removing the title prince of Romania and the qualification of royal highness from his grandson. Medforth-Mills also has been removed from the line of succession. The former king took the decision after considering that Romania needed a ruler marked by modesty and moral principles, respect and thought for others after the "reign and life" of his eldest daughter, Crown Princess Margareta, will have finished. In issuing the declaration, the former king expressed the hope that "Nicholas will find in future years a suitable way to serve the ideals and use the qualities that God gave him". Nicholas's mother, Princess Elena, received notification of the former king's decision in a personal letter.The move "stunned Romanians" and "sparked speculation that a jealous relative had sought to edge Nicholas out of the succession." speculated that the exclusion of Nicholas from the royal succession was due to the birth of an illegitimate daughter, born from a short relationship with Nicoleta Cîrjan (b. 1986). The child, born on 9 February 2016 in Brașov and named Iris Anna, was not recognized by the former prince.Nicholas released a press statement on 18 November 2017 from London about the child. Point 2 of the Press release stated, "I returned to Romania in November 2015 to resolve the situation with my alleged child. Due to the constant lack of co-operation from the mother of my alleged child, this situation has remained unclear. So far, there is no medical evidence to support the mother's accusations. Therefore, any accusations that are related to this subject are unfounded." On 27 May 2019, Nicholas confirmed via a Facebook post that paternity tests had confirmed the illegitimate daughter is his, and that he had assumed legal responsibility for her.On 8 November 2017, during Michael I's final illness, the Romanian Royal House filed a complaint with Swiss police alleging that Nicholas tried to force his way into his grandfather's home. It alleged that Nicholas "physically and verbally assaulted" three staff members, while he accused his relatives of trying to stop him seeing his grandfather and discrediting his name. The former king died on 5 December 2017.Nicholas became engaged to Alina Maria Binder (Constanța, 26 January 1988) on 29 July 2017 in Cornwall. They married civilly in Henley-on-Thames on 6 October 2017. On 30 September 2018 the couple married religiously at Saint Elijah Church in Sinaia, and the wedding reception took place at Sinaia Casino.Their daughter Maria-Alexandra was born on 7 November 2020 at Institute for Mother and Child Alfred Rusescu - Polizu in Bucharest, and was baptised at Curtea de Argeș Cathedral on 23 January 2021.	[ "Argyle House School", "Royal Holloway, University of London", "Shiplake College" ]
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Sep, 1832?	September 20, 1832	{ "text": [ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16066161_P39_0	Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.	Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire.	[ "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Apr, 1833?	April 26, 1833	{ "text": [ "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16066161_P39_1	Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.	Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Aug, 1835?	August 26, 1835	{ "text": [ "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16066161_P39_2	Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.	Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Dec, 1837?	December 21, 1837	{ "text": [ "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16066161_P39_3	Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.	Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Dec, 1843?	December 08, 1843	{ "text": [ "Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ] }	L2_Q16066161_P39_4	Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847. Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.	Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire.	[ "Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Aug, 1902?	August 28, 1902	{ "text": [ "Nicomedes Herrero y López" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_0	Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Mar, 1904?	March 30, 1904	{ "text": [ "Enrique Díaz Rocafull" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_1	Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Dec, 1915?	December 24, 1915	{ "text": [ "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_2	Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina", "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Aug, 1916?	August 09, 1916	{ "text": [ "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_3	Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Sep, 1917?	September 27, 1917	{ "text": [ "Manuel García Noguerol" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_4	Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Jun, 1923?	June 20, 1923	{ "text": [ "Francisco Clotet y Miranda" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_5	Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Jul, 1941?	July 24, 1941	{ "text": [ "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_6	Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Feb, 1942?	February 06, 1942	{ "text": [ "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_7	Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Mar, 1943?	March 12, 1943	{ "text": [ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_8	Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Nov, 1947?	November 02, 1947	{ "text": [ "Francisco Sánchez Cossío" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_9	Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Feb, 1959?	February 19, 1959	{ "text": [ "José León de Carranza" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_10	Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Jun, 1971?	June 12, 1971	{ "text": [ "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_11	Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Jan, 1978?	January 20, 1978	{ "text": [ "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_12	Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in May, 1988?	May 18, 1988	{ "text": [ "Carlos Díaz Medina" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_13	Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Apr, 2008?	April 20, 2008	{ "text": [ "Teófila Martínez" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_14	José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "José María González Santos", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of Cádiz in Jan, 2016?	January 09, 2016	{ "text": [ "José María González Santos" ] }	L2_Q15682_P6_15	Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995. Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979. Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917. Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915. Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941. Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948. Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905. Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947. Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976. Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917. Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942. Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903. Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015. José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969. Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923. José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.	CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:	[ "Alfonso Moreno Gallardo", "Enrique Díaz Rocafull", "Pedro Barbadillo Delgado", "Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca", "Teófila Martínez", "Francisco Sánchez Cossío", "Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva", "Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne", "Nicomedes Herrero y López", "Ramón Rivas y Valladares", "Emilio Beltrami López-Linares", "Manuel García Noguerol", "José León de Carranza", "Francisco Clotet y Miranda", "Carlos Díaz Medina" ]
Who was the head of state of Khmer Republic in May, 1973?	May 01, 1973	{ "text": [ "Lon Nol" ] }	L2_Q1054184_P35_0	Sak Sutsakhan is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Apr, 1975 to Apr, 1975. Saukam Khoy is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Apr, 1975 to Apr, 1975. Lon Nol is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Mar, 1972 to Apr, 1975.	Khmer RepublicThe Khmer Republic was the pro–United States military-led republican government of Cambodia that was formally declared on 9 October 1970. Politically, the Khmer Republic was headed by General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak that took power in the 18 March 1970 coup against Prince Norodom Sihanouk, then the country's Chief of State.The main causes of the coup were Norodom Sihanouk's toleration of North Vietnamese activity within Cambodia's borders, allowing heavily armed Vietnamese Communist outfits "de facto" control over vast areas of eastern Cambodia. Another important factor was the dire state of the Cambodian economy, an indirect result of Sihanouk's policies of pursuing neutrality.With the removal of Sihanouk, the existing Kingdom of Cambodia became a republic, officially removing Sisowath Kossamak. The character of the new regime was far-right and militaristic; most significantly, it ended Sihanouk's period of covert co-operation with the North Vietnamese regime and the Viet Cong, and aligned Cambodia with South Vietnam in the ongoing Second Indochina War. The Khmer Republic was opposed within the Cambodian borders by the National United Front of Kampuchea ("Front uni national de Kampuchea", FUNK), a relatively broad alliance between Sihanouk, his supporters, and the Communist Party of Kampuchea. The insurgency itself was conducted by the CPNLAF, the Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces: they were backed by both the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front (NLF, better known as the Viet Cong), who occupied parts of Cambodia as part of their ongoing war with the South Vietnamese government.Despite the large quantities of military and financial aid from the United States, its Khmer National Armed Forces ("Forces armées nationales khmères", or FANK) was poorly trained and unable to defeat either the CPNLAF or the Vietnamese forces of the PAVN and NLF. The Republic eventually fell on 17 April 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took Phnom Penh and briefly restored the Kingdom of Cambodia before renaming itself Democratic Kampuchea in January 1976.Sihanouk himself claimed that the coup was the result of an alliance between his longstanding enemy, the exiled right-wing nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh, the politician Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak (depicted by Sihanouk as a disgruntled rival claimant to the Cambodian throne) and the CIA, who wished to install a more US-friendly regime. There is in fact little if any evidence of CIA involvement in the coup, although it seems that sections of the US military establishment – notably the Army Special Forces – may have had some involvement in terms of offering support and training to the plotters after being approached by Lon Nol.While Sihanouk was out of the country on a trip to France, anti-Vietnamese rioting took place in Phnom Penh, during which the North Vietnamese and NLF embassies were sacked. It seems likely that this rioting was at least tolerated, and possibly actively organised, by Lon Nol, the Prime Minister, and his deputy Prince Sirik Matak. On 12 March, the prime minister closed the port of Sihanoukville – through which weapons were being smuggled to the NLF – to the North Vietnamese and issued an impossible ultimatum to them. All PAVN/NLF forces were to withdraw from Cambodian soil within 72 hours (on 15 March) or face military action.Despite these actions, which directly contradicted Sihanouk's policy of partial tolerance of North Vietnamese activity, it appears that Lon Nol himself had great personal reluctance to depose the Head of State: he initially may merely have wanted Sihanouk to apply more pressure to the North Vietnamese. He initially refused to commit to the plan; to convince him, Sirik Matak – who appears to have had a coup in mind from the start – played him a tape-recorded press conference from Paris, in which Sihanouk threatened to execute them both on his return to Phnom Penh. However, the Prime Minister remained uncertain, with the result that Sirik Matak, accompanied by three army officers, compelled a weeping Lon Nol to sign the necessary documents at gunpoint.A vote was taken in the National Assembly on 18 March under the direction of In Tam, in which Sihanouk was stripped of his power: Lon Nol assumed the powers of the Head of State on an emergency basis. On 28 and 29 March there were large-scale popular demonstrations in favour of Sihanouk in several provincial cities, but Lon Nol's forces suppressed them with great brutality, causing several hundred deaths. Lon Nol's brother Lon Nil was among a number of government officials who were murdered by demonstrators.Foreign regimes were initially uncertain as to the level of support to give to the new government. The North Vietnamese continued to hold talks with Lon Nol regarding the reinstatement of the cancelled trade agreement, though subsequent events meant that these were soon to come to an end.The most significant immediate effect of the coup was the Cambodian Campaign of April–July 1970, in which the South Vietnamese army (ARVN), backed by US troops, entered eastern Cambodia to attack North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces operating there. Despite this assault, many of the communist forces escaped westward, deeper into Cambodia, or to the rural areas of the north-east, where they would provide support for the insurgency against Lon Nol.Lon Nol's immediate reaction was to condemn the action as a violation of Cambodian territory. He later informed Alexander Haig that his country had been placed in serious danger as a result. When Haig told him that American ground forces would not be used to assist the Cambodian army, and that (in accordance with the Nixon Doctrine) a programme of aid would be given instead, Lon Nol openly wept.On 9 October Sihanouk was condemned to death "in absentia" by a military court; his mother, Queen Kossamak – the symbolic representative of the monarchy under Sihanouk's regime – was placed under house arrest, and his wife Monique was sentenced to life imprisonment. The new regime simultaneously declared the Khmer Republic, and a new constitution was eventually to be adopted in 1972. Sihanouk, in the meantime, had formed GRUNK, a Beijing-based government-in-exile incorporating the communists and dedicated to the Republic's overthrow; he declared Lon Nol to be a "complete idiot" and characterised Sirik Matak as "nasty, perfidious, a lousy bastard".The relatively small royal army, which at the time of the coup had around 35,000 troops (in accordance with Sihanouk's stated policy of neutrality), was greatly expanded. Reorganising as FANK, the republican army had grown to around 150,000 men as early as the end of 1970, mainly through voluntary enlistment as Lon Nol sought to capitalise on a wave of anti-Vietnamese sentiment. The US also implemented its programme of structured military aid and assistance in training, and flew in several thousand Khmer Serei and Khmer Kampuchea Krom militia, trained in South Vietnamese bases. The Joint Chiefs insisted on massive expansion of FANK to over 200,000 men, despite concerns at the severe negative effect this would have on Cambodia's economy, while the Military Equipment Delivery Team, led by General Theodore C. Mataxis, demanded the 'Americanisation' of the army's French-influenced internal structures, in spite of the chaos this caused in the supply chain.Despite the US aid, FANK (commanded by General Sosthène Fernandez) was seriously handicapped by corruption, particularly by officers claiming salaries for non-existent troops, and military incompetence. Although one of the FANK commanders – the former rebel Prince Norodom Chantaraingsey, who was coaxed out of military retirement by Lon Nol to raise FANK's 13th Brigade – was to have considerable success in 'pacifying' the area around the strategic Highway 4 and the Kirirom Plateau, the majority of its generals had little military experience or ability. The large-scale FANK offensives against the Vietnamese, Operations Chenla I and II, ended in heavy defeat despite the conspicuous bravery of the individual Cambodian infantrymen.As well as fighting the Cambodian Civil War against the pro-Sihanouk and communist insurgents and the North Vietnamese, the Khmer Republic faced considerable internal problems. Sihanouk's domination of political life during the 1950s and 60s meant that there were few confident or experienced Cambodian politicians. Almost from the start, the Republic was plagued by many of the same political divisions and infighting that had marked Sihanouk's regime; primary among these was a damaging power struggle between Lon Nol and Sirik Matak. Sirik Matak had been acting Prime Minister during the Republic's first year, when Lon Nol's health had been extremely poor, but had engendered considerable resentment due to his administrative style and royal connections; there was also growing frustration amongst young, urban Cambodians at the continued corruption and inefficiency of the regime. On Lon Nol's return from hospital in Hawaii in April 1971, he instigated a cabinet crisis by resigning, providing a means to dissolve the government, with the probable encouragement of his brother Lon Non (a figure of considerable influence, especially with the military). After much political squabbling, a new cabinet was formed, though Sirik Matak continued as acting premier with the title of "Prime Minister-Delegate". On 16 October 1971, Lon Nol took action to strip the National Assembly of legislative power, and ordered it to write a new constitution, claiming that these actions were necessary to prevent anarchy; this provoked a protest by In Tam and 400 Buddhist monks.By March 1972, Lon Nol and his brother had managed to drive Sirik Matak from power. After Sirik Matak had sacked Keo An, a dissident academic, Lon Non organised a series of vocal student demonstrations against him calling for his removal. Sirik Matak resigned, and (ostensibly for his 'protection') was placed under effective house arrest. Lon Nol used the crisis to oust the Head of State, Cheng Heng, and took over the role himself, appointing the veteran anti-Sihanouk nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister. Thanh, leader of the Khmer Serei, had recruited FANK reinforcements amongst the Khmer Krom of southern Vietnam, and the loyalty he commanded amongst these comparatively elite, US-trained troops meant that his support for the Republic's fragile government remained essential.Later that year, Lon Nol announced he would hold presidential elections, and was surprised when In Tam and Keo An – the latter a reputed Sihanoukist – not only announced that they would run, but then refused to withdraw. The elections, despite an inevitable victory for Lon Nol, revealed considerable dissatisfaction with the government even though they had been rigged in Lon Nol's favour: had they been fair, it is likely that In Tam would have won. The affair prompted In Tam to suggest that the Americans could now "stew in Lon Nol's juice".The political situation continued to unravel throughout 1972: both opposition parties (In Tam's Democratic Party and Sirik Matak's Republican Party) refused to contest the elections to the National Assembly held in September, leading to a sweeping victory for Lon Non's Socio-Republican Party ("Sangkum Sathéaranak Râth"). There were a growing number of terrorist attacks in the capital, one of which was directed at Son Ngoc Thanh. Thanh – whose last political act was to ban Sirik Matak's newspaper – was then forced to resign, going back into South Vietnamese exile, and was replaced by the moderate leftist Hang Thun Hak. While the Khmer Republic's government was being weakened by infighting, North Vietnamese forces – who had previously carried out much of the fighting against FANK, as in Operation Chenla I and II – gradually and deliberately scaled back their presence within Cambodian borders, leaving mainly logistical and support staff. Their place was taken by native Cambodian communist forces of the CPNLAF, which had been greatly increased when Sihanouk gave his support to the insurgency, rural Cambodians remaining overwhelmingly pro-Sihanouk.The Paris Peace Accords of early 1973 seemed to offer a temporary respite from the civil war; Lon Nol declared a unilateral ceasefire, despite FANK's very weak position on the ground. There were in fact a few contacts between some of the more moderate elements of the Khmer Rouge communists – notably Hou Yuon – and the Republic. The North Vietnamese pressured the Cambodian communists to accept the terms of the peace accords; their interests lay more in keeping the war active at a low level (tying down South Vietnamese troops in the process) than in an outright victory for the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge leadership, however, remained intransigent.The fighting resumed on the night of 7 February 1973, when communist forces attacked the FANK perimeter around the besieged city of Kompong Thom. By April, the Republic regime was in general disarray, with FANK troops refusing to fight and looting their own capital, and the CPNLAF advancing in many areas of the country. In response, the US finally threatened to cut off all aid unless Lon Nol acted to broaden the power base and support of the government – specifically, to reinstate the US ally Sirik Matak – and reduce the influence of his brother Lon Non. Accordingly, on 24 April, Lon Nol announced that the National Assembly would be suspended, and that a Political Council formed of himself, Sirik Matak, Cheng Heng, and In Tam, would effectively rule by decree. The CPNLAF advance on Phnom Penh was eventually halted by American bombing, which caused horrific casualty levels amongst the communist troops. Some commentators state that the experience is likely to have contributed to the brutality shown by the Khmer Rouge cadres in later events.By early 1974, the Political Council had been sidelined, and Lon Nol was once again ruling alone. The military situation, in the meantime, was deteriorating further. Communist forces came within shelling distance of Phnom Penh, and captured the former royal capital of Oudong in March: they 'evacuated' its population – shooting government officials and teachers – and destroyed or burnt much of the town. There was a brief improvement as the year progressed, however, as FANK retook Oudong, and was able to secure supply routes through Lake Tonle Sap.Despite this, the Khmer Republic did not survive the 1975 dry season offensive. The communist forces had by this point surrounded the capital, whose population had been vastly increased by refugees from the fighting; Lon Nol, who was extremely superstitious, ordered that consecrated sand be spread around the city from helicopters to protect it. Though FANK was by this time fighting with extreme tenacity, and the Khmer Rouge soldiers were suffering from poor morale, malaria, and even higher rates of casualties than FANK, fresh supplies of arms and ammunition from China gave them the impetus to overrun the Republic's remaining outposts. Proposed peace negotiations repeatedly stalled as Sihanouk refused to deal with Lon Nol directly, requesting his removal as a precondition. A plan proposed by Étienne Manac'h, the French Ambassador to China, in which Sihanouk would return to Cambodia as the head of a national unity government (leading to the likely immediate defection of a large proportion of the Khmer Rouge's peasant soldiers), failed to materialise.On 1 April 1975, Lon Nol resigned and fled the country into exile: FANK almost immediately disintegrated. While Sirik Matak, Long Boret, Lon Non and several other politicians remained in the capital in an attempt to negotiate a ceasefire, the Khmer Rouge finally entered the city on 17 April. Within a few days they had executed many representatives of the old regime, and the Khmer Republic had effectively come to an end. During its brief existence it had received almost exactly one million dollars of US military and economic aid a day.The final area held by the Republic in any form was the Preah Vihear Temple in the Dângrêk Mountains, which FANK forces still occupied in late April 1975. It was finally taken by the Khmer Rouge on 22 May that year.	[ "Saukam Khoy", "Sak Sutsakhan" ]
Who was the head of state of Khmer Republic in Apr, 1975?	April 12, 1975	{ "text": [ "Saukam Khoy", "Sak Sutsakhan", "Lon Nol" ] }	L2_Q1054184_P35_1	Lon Nol is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Mar, 1972 to Apr, 1975. Saukam Khoy is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Apr, 1975 to Apr, 1975. Sak Sutsakhan is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Apr, 1975 to Apr, 1975.	Khmer RepublicThe Khmer Republic was the pro–United States military-led republican government of Cambodia that was formally declared on 9 October 1970. Politically, the Khmer Republic was headed by General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak that took power in the 18 March 1970 coup against Prince Norodom Sihanouk, then the country's Chief of State.The main causes of the coup were Norodom Sihanouk's toleration of North Vietnamese activity within Cambodia's borders, allowing heavily armed Vietnamese Communist outfits "de facto" control over vast areas of eastern Cambodia. Another important factor was the dire state of the Cambodian economy, an indirect result of Sihanouk's policies of pursuing neutrality.With the removal of Sihanouk, the existing Kingdom of Cambodia became a republic, officially removing Sisowath Kossamak. The character of the new regime was far-right and militaristic; most significantly, it ended Sihanouk's period of covert co-operation with the North Vietnamese regime and the Viet Cong, and aligned Cambodia with South Vietnam in the ongoing Second Indochina War. The Khmer Republic was opposed within the Cambodian borders by the National United Front of Kampuchea ("Front uni national de Kampuchea", FUNK), a relatively broad alliance between Sihanouk, his supporters, and the Communist Party of Kampuchea. The insurgency itself was conducted by the CPNLAF, the Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces: they were backed by both the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front (NLF, better known as the Viet Cong), who occupied parts of Cambodia as part of their ongoing war with the South Vietnamese government.Despite the large quantities of military and financial aid from the United States, its Khmer National Armed Forces ("Forces armées nationales khmères", or FANK) was poorly trained and unable to defeat either the CPNLAF or the Vietnamese forces of the PAVN and NLF. The Republic eventually fell on 17 April 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took Phnom Penh and briefly restored the Kingdom of Cambodia before renaming itself Democratic Kampuchea in January 1976.Sihanouk himself claimed that the coup was the result of an alliance between his longstanding enemy, the exiled right-wing nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh, the politician Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak (depicted by Sihanouk as a disgruntled rival claimant to the Cambodian throne) and the CIA, who wished to install a more US-friendly regime. There is in fact little if any evidence of CIA involvement in the coup, although it seems that sections of the US military establishment – notably the Army Special Forces – may have had some involvement in terms of offering support and training to the plotters after being approached by Lon Nol.While Sihanouk was out of the country on a trip to France, anti-Vietnamese rioting took place in Phnom Penh, during which the North Vietnamese and NLF embassies were sacked. It seems likely that this rioting was at least tolerated, and possibly actively organised, by Lon Nol, the Prime Minister, and his deputy Prince Sirik Matak. On 12 March, the prime minister closed the port of Sihanoukville – through which weapons were being smuggled to the NLF – to the North Vietnamese and issued an impossible ultimatum to them. All PAVN/NLF forces were to withdraw from Cambodian soil within 72 hours (on 15 March) or face military action.Despite these actions, which directly contradicted Sihanouk's policy of partial tolerance of North Vietnamese activity, it appears that Lon Nol himself had great personal reluctance to depose the Head of State: he initially may merely have wanted Sihanouk to apply more pressure to the North Vietnamese. He initially refused to commit to the plan; to convince him, Sirik Matak – who appears to have had a coup in mind from the start – played him a tape-recorded press conference from Paris, in which Sihanouk threatened to execute them both on his return to Phnom Penh. However, the Prime Minister remained uncertain, with the result that Sirik Matak, accompanied by three army officers, compelled a weeping Lon Nol to sign the necessary documents at gunpoint.A vote was taken in the National Assembly on 18 March under the direction of In Tam, in which Sihanouk was stripped of his power: Lon Nol assumed the powers of the Head of State on an emergency basis. On 28 and 29 March there were large-scale popular demonstrations in favour of Sihanouk in several provincial cities, but Lon Nol's forces suppressed them with great brutality, causing several hundred deaths. Lon Nol's brother Lon Nil was among a number of government officials who were murdered by demonstrators.Foreign regimes were initially uncertain as to the level of support to give to the new government. The North Vietnamese continued to hold talks with Lon Nol regarding the reinstatement of the cancelled trade agreement, though subsequent events meant that these were soon to come to an end.The most significant immediate effect of the coup was the Cambodian Campaign of April–July 1970, in which the South Vietnamese army (ARVN), backed by US troops, entered eastern Cambodia to attack North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces operating there. Despite this assault, many of the communist forces escaped westward, deeper into Cambodia, or to the rural areas of the north-east, where they would provide support for the insurgency against Lon Nol.Lon Nol's immediate reaction was to condemn the action as a violation of Cambodian territory. He later informed Alexander Haig that his country had been placed in serious danger as a result. When Haig told him that American ground forces would not be used to assist the Cambodian army, and that (in accordance with the Nixon Doctrine) a programme of aid would be given instead, Lon Nol openly wept.On 9 October Sihanouk was condemned to death "in absentia" by a military court; his mother, Queen Kossamak – the symbolic representative of the monarchy under Sihanouk's regime – was placed under house arrest, and his wife Monique was sentenced to life imprisonment. The new regime simultaneously declared the Khmer Republic, and a new constitution was eventually to be adopted in 1972. Sihanouk, in the meantime, had formed GRUNK, a Beijing-based government-in-exile incorporating the communists and dedicated to the Republic's overthrow; he declared Lon Nol to be a "complete idiot" and characterised Sirik Matak as "nasty, perfidious, a lousy bastard".The relatively small royal army, which at the time of the coup had around 35,000 troops (in accordance with Sihanouk's stated policy of neutrality), was greatly expanded. Reorganising as FANK, the republican army had grown to around 150,000 men as early as the end of 1970, mainly through voluntary enlistment as Lon Nol sought to capitalise on a wave of anti-Vietnamese sentiment. The US also implemented its programme of structured military aid and assistance in training, and flew in several thousand Khmer Serei and Khmer Kampuchea Krom militia, trained in South Vietnamese bases. The Joint Chiefs insisted on massive expansion of FANK to over 200,000 men, despite concerns at the severe negative effect this would have on Cambodia's economy, while the Military Equipment Delivery Team, led by General Theodore C. Mataxis, demanded the 'Americanisation' of the army's French-influenced internal structures, in spite of the chaos this caused in the supply chain.Despite the US aid, FANK (commanded by General Sosthène Fernandez) was seriously handicapped by corruption, particularly by officers claiming salaries for non-existent troops, and military incompetence. Although one of the FANK commanders – the former rebel Prince Norodom Chantaraingsey, who was coaxed out of military retirement by Lon Nol to raise FANK's 13th Brigade – was to have considerable success in 'pacifying' the area around the strategic Highway 4 and the Kirirom Plateau, the majority of its generals had little military experience or ability. The large-scale FANK offensives against the Vietnamese, Operations Chenla I and II, ended in heavy defeat despite the conspicuous bravery of the individual Cambodian infantrymen.As well as fighting the Cambodian Civil War against the pro-Sihanouk and communist insurgents and the North Vietnamese, the Khmer Republic faced considerable internal problems. Sihanouk's domination of political life during the 1950s and 60s meant that there were few confident or experienced Cambodian politicians. Almost from the start, the Republic was plagued by many of the same political divisions and infighting that had marked Sihanouk's regime; primary among these was a damaging power struggle between Lon Nol and Sirik Matak. Sirik Matak had been acting Prime Minister during the Republic's first year, when Lon Nol's health had been extremely poor, but had engendered considerable resentment due to his administrative style and royal connections; there was also growing frustration amongst young, urban Cambodians at the continued corruption and inefficiency of the regime. On Lon Nol's return from hospital in Hawaii in April 1971, he instigated a cabinet crisis by resigning, providing a means to dissolve the government, with the probable encouragement of his brother Lon Non (a figure of considerable influence, especially with the military). After much political squabbling, a new cabinet was formed, though Sirik Matak continued as acting premier with the title of "Prime Minister-Delegate". On 16 October 1971, Lon Nol took action to strip the National Assembly of legislative power, and ordered it to write a new constitution, claiming that these actions were necessary to prevent anarchy; this provoked a protest by In Tam and 400 Buddhist monks.By March 1972, Lon Nol and his brother had managed to drive Sirik Matak from power. After Sirik Matak had sacked Keo An, a dissident academic, Lon Non organised a series of vocal student demonstrations against him calling for his removal. Sirik Matak resigned, and (ostensibly for his 'protection') was placed under effective house arrest. Lon Nol used the crisis to oust the Head of State, Cheng Heng, and took over the role himself, appointing the veteran anti-Sihanouk nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister. Thanh, leader of the Khmer Serei, had recruited FANK reinforcements amongst the Khmer Krom of southern Vietnam, and the loyalty he commanded amongst these comparatively elite, US-trained troops meant that his support for the Republic's fragile government remained essential.Later that year, Lon Nol announced he would hold presidential elections, and was surprised when In Tam and Keo An – the latter a reputed Sihanoukist – not only announced that they would run, but then refused to withdraw. The elections, despite an inevitable victory for Lon Nol, revealed considerable dissatisfaction with the government even though they had been rigged in Lon Nol's favour: had they been fair, it is likely that In Tam would have won. The affair prompted In Tam to suggest that the Americans could now "stew in Lon Nol's juice".The political situation continued to unravel throughout 1972: both opposition parties (In Tam's Democratic Party and Sirik Matak's Republican Party) refused to contest the elections to the National Assembly held in September, leading to a sweeping victory for Lon Non's Socio-Republican Party ("Sangkum Sathéaranak Râth"). There were a growing number of terrorist attacks in the capital, one of which was directed at Son Ngoc Thanh. Thanh – whose last political act was to ban Sirik Matak's newspaper – was then forced to resign, going back into South Vietnamese exile, and was replaced by the moderate leftist Hang Thun Hak. While the Khmer Republic's government was being weakened by infighting, North Vietnamese forces – who had previously carried out much of the fighting against FANK, as in Operation Chenla I and II – gradually and deliberately scaled back their presence within Cambodian borders, leaving mainly logistical and support staff. Their place was taken by native Cambodian communist forces of the CPNLAF, which had been greatly increased when Sihanouk gave his support to the insurgency, rural Cambodians remaining overwhelmingly pro-Sihanouk.The Paris Peace Accords of early 1973 seemed to offer a temporary respite from the civil war; Lon Nol declared a unilateral ceasefire, despite FANK's very weak position on the ground. There were in fact a few contacts between some of the more moderate elements of the Khmer Rouge communists – notably Hou Yuon – and the Republic. The North Vietnamese pressured the Cambodian communists to accept the terms of the peace accords; their interests lay more in keeping the war active at a low level (tying down South Vietnamese troops in the process) than in an outright victory for the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge leadership, however, remained intransigent.The fighting resumed on the night of 7 February 1973, when communist forces attacked the FANK perimeter around the besieged city of Kompong Thom. By April, the Republic regime was in general disarray, with FANK troops refusing to fight and looting their own capital, and the CPNLAF advancing in many areas of the country. In response, the US finally threatened to cut off all aid unless Lon Nol acted to broaden the power base and support of the government – specifically, to reinstate the US ally Sirik Matak – and reduce the influence of his brother Lon Non. Accordingly, on 24 April, Lon Nol announced that the National Assembly would be suspended, and that a Political Council formed of himself, Sirik Matak, Cheng Heng, and In Tam, would effectively rule by decree. The CPNLAF advance on Phnom Penh was eventually halted by American bombing, which caused horrific casualty levels amongst the communist troops. Some commentators state that the experience is likely to have contributed to the brutality shown by the Khmer Rouge cadres in later events.By early 1974, the Political Council had been sidelined, and Lon Nol was once again ruling alone. The military situation, in the meantime, was deteriorating further. Communist forces came within shelling distance of Phnom Penh, and captured the former royal capital of Oudong in March: they 'evacuated' its population – shooting government officials and teachers – and destroyed or burnt much of the town. There was a brief improvement as the year progressed, however, as FANK retook Oudong, and was able to secure supply routes through Lake Tonle Sap.Despite this, the Khmer Republic did not survive the 1975 dry season offensive. The communist forces had by this point surrounded the capital, whose population had been vastly increased by refugees from the fighting; Lon Nol, who was extremely superstitious, ordered that consecrated sand be spread around the city from helicopters to protect it. Though FANK was by this time fighting with extreme tenacity, and the Khmer Rouge soldiers were suffering from poor morale, malaria, and even higher rates of casualties than FANK, fresh supplies of arms and ammunition from China gave them the impetus to overrun the Republic's remaining outposts. Proposed peace negotiations repeatedly stalled as Sihanouk refused to deal with Lon Nol directly, requesting his removal as a precondition. A plan proposed by Étienne Manac'h, the French Ambassador to China, in which Sihanouk would return to Cambodia as the head of a national unity government (leading to the likely immediate defection of a large proportion of the Khmer Rouge's peasant soldiers), failed to materialise.On 1 April 1975, Lon Nol resigned and fled the country into exile: FANK almost immediately disintegrated. While Sirik Matak, Long Boret, Lon Non and several other politicians remained in the capital in an attempt to negotiate a ceasefire, the Khmer Rouge finally entered the city on 17 April. Within a few days they had executed many representatives of the old regime, and the Khmer Republic had effectively come to an end. During its brief existence it had received almost exactly one million dollars of US military and economic aid a day.The final area held by the Republic in any form was the Preah Vihear Temple in the Dângrêk Mountains, which FANK forces still occupied in late April 1975. It was finally taken by the Khmer Rouge on 22 May that year.	[ "Lon Nol", "Lon Nol" ]
Who was the head of state of Khmer Republic in Apr, 1975?	April 17, 1975	{ "text": [ "Sak Sutsakhan", "Saukam Khoy", "Lon Nol" ] }	L2_Q1054184_P35_2	Saukam Khoy is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Apr, 1975 to Apr, 1975. Lon Nol is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Mar, 1972 to Apr, 1975. Sak Sutsakhan is the head of the state of Khmer Republic from Apr, 1975 to Apr, 1975.	Khmer RepublicThe Khmer Republic was the pro–United States military-led republican government of Cambodia that was formally declared on 9 October 1970. Politically, the Khmer Republic was headed by General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak that took power in the 18 March 1970 coup against Prince Norodom Sihanouk, then the country's Chief of State.The main causes of the coup were Norodom Sihanouk's toleration of North Vietnamese activity within Cambodia's borders, allowing heavily armed Vietnamese Communist outfits "de facto" control over vast areas of eastern Cambodia. Another important factor was the dire state of the Cambodian economy, an indirect result of Sihanouk's policies of pursuing neutrality.With the removal of Sihanouk, the existing Kingdom of Cambodia became a republic, officially removing Sisowath Kossamak. The character of the new regime was far-right and militaristic; most significantly, it ended Sihanouk's period of covert co-operation with the North Vietnamese regime and the Viet Cong, and aligned Cambodia with South Vietnam in the ongoing Second Indochina War. The Khmer Republic was opposed within the Cambodian borders by the National United Front of Kampuchea ("Front uni national de Kampuchea", FUNK), a relatively broad alliance between Sihanouk, his supporters, and the Communist Party of Kampuchea. The insurgency itself was conducted by the CPNLAF, the Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces: they were backed by both the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front (NLF, better known as the Viet Cong), who occupied parts of Cambodia as part of their ongoing war with the South Vietnamese government.Despite the large quantities of military and financial aid from the United States, its Khmer National Armed Forces ("Forces armées nationales khmères", or FANK) was poorly trained and unable to defeat either the CPNLAF or the Vietnamese forces of the PAVN and NLF. The Republic eventually fell on 17 April 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took Phnom Penh and briefly restored the Kingdom of Cambodia before renaming itself Democratic Kampuchea in January 1976.Sihanouk himself claimed that the coup was the result of an alliance between his longstanding enemy, the exiled right-wing nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh, the politician Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak (depicted by Sihanouk as a disgruntled rival claimant to the Cambodian throne) and the CIA, who wished to install a more US-friendly regime. There is in fact little if any evidence of CIA involvement in the coup, although it seems that sections of the US military establishment – notably the Army Special Forces – may have had some involvement in terms of offering support and training to the plotters after being approached by Lon Nol.While Sihanouk was out of the country on a trip to France, anti-Vietnamese rioting took place in Phnom Penh, during which the North Vietnamese and NLF embassies were sacked. It seems likely that this rioting was at least tolerated, and possibly actively organised, by Lon Nol, the Prime Minister, and his deputy Prince Sirik Matak. On 12 March, the prime minister closed the port of Sihanoukville – through which weapons were being smuggled to the NLF – to the North Vietnamese and issued an impossible ultimatum to them. All PAVN/NLF forces were to withdraw from Cambodian soil within 72 hours (on 15 March) or face military action.Despite these actions, which directly contradicted Sihanouk's policy of partial tolerance of North Vietnamese activity, it appears that Lon Nol himself had great personal reluctance to depose the Head of State: he initially may merely have wanted Sihanouk to apply more pressure to the North Vietnamese. He initially refused to commit to the plan; to convince him, Sirik Matak – who appears to have had a coup in mind from the start – played him a tape-recorded press conference from Paris, in which Sihanouk threatened to execute them both on his return to Phnom Penh. However, the Prime Minister remained uncertain, with the result that Sirik Matak, accompanied by three army officers, compelled a weeping Lon Nol to sign the necessary documents at gunpoint.A vote was taken in the National Assembly on 18 March under the direction of In Tam, in which Sihanouk was stripped of his power: Lon Nol assumed the powers of the Head of State on an emergency basis. On 28 and 29 March there were large-scale popular demonstrations in favour of Sihanouk in several provincial cities, but Lon Nol's forces suppressed them with great brutality, causing several hundred deaths. Lon Nol's brother Lon Nil was among a number of government officials who were murdered by demonstrators.Foreign regimes were initially uncertain as to the level of support to give to the new government. The North Vietnamese continued to hold talks with Lon Nol regarding the reinstatement of the cancelled trade agreement, though subsequent events meant that these were soon to come to an end.The most significant immediate effect of the coup was the Cambodian Campaign of April–July 1970, in which the South Vietnamese army (ARVN), backed by US troops, entered eastern Cambodia to attack North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces operating there. Despite this assault, many of the communist forces escaped westward, deeper into Cambodia, or to the rural areas of the north-east, where they would provide support for the insurgency against Lon Nol.Lon Nol's immediate reaction was to condemn the action as a violation of Cambodian territory. He later informed Alexander Haig that his country had been placed in serious danger as a result. When Haig told him that American ground forces would not be used to assist the Cambodian army, and that (in accordance with the Nixon Doctrine) a programme of aid would be given instead, Lon Nol openly wept.On 9 October Sihanouk was condemned to death "in absentia" by a military court; his mother, Queen Kossamak – the symbolic representative of the monarchy under Sihanouk's regime – was placed under house arrest, and his wife Monique was sentenced to life imprisonment. The new regime simultaneously declared the Khmer Republic, and a new constitution was eventually to be adopted in 1972. Sihanouk, in the meantime, had formed GRUNK, a Beijing-based government-in-exile incorporating the communists and dedicated to the Republic's overthrow; he declared Lon Nol to be a "complete idiot" and characterised Sirik Matak as "nasty, perfidious, a lousy bastard".The relatively small royal army, which at the time of the coup had around 35,000 troops (in accordance with Sihanouk's stated policy of neutrality), was greatly expanded. Reorganising as FANK, the republican army had grown to around 150,000 men as early as the end of 1970, mainly through voluntary enlistment as Lon Nol sought to capitalise on a wave of anti-Vietnamese sentiment. The US also implemented its programme of structured military aid and assistance in training, and flew in several thousand Khmer Serei and Khmer Kampuchea Krom militia, trained in South Vietnamese bases. The Joint Chiefs insisted on massive expansion of FANK to over 200,000 men, despite concerns at the severe negative effect this would have on Cambodia's economy, while the Military Equipment Delivery Team, led by General Theodore C. Mataxis, demanded the 'Americanisation' of the army's French-influenced internal structures, in spite of the chaos this caused in the supply chain.Despite the US aid, FANK (commanded by General Sosthène Fernandez) was seriously handicapped by corruption, particularly by officers claiming salaries for non-existent troops, and military incompetence. Although one of the FANK commanders – the former rebel Prince Norodom Chantaraingsey, who was coaxed out of military retirement by Lon Nol to raise FANK's 13th Brigade – was to have considerable success in 'pacifying' the area around the strategic Highway 4 and the Kirirom Plateau, the majority of its generals had little military experience or ability. The large-scale FANK offensives against the Vietnamese, Operations Chenla I and II, ended in heavy defeat despite the conspicuous bravery of the individual Cambodian infantrymen.As well as fighting the Cambodian Civil War against the pro-Sihanouk and communist insurgents and the North Vietnamese, the Khmer Republic faced considerable internal problems. Sihanouk's domination of political life during the 1950s and 60s meant that there were few confident or experienced Cambodian politicians. Almost from the start, the Republic was plagued by many of the same political divisions and infighting that had marked Sihanouk's regime; primary among these was a damaging power struggle between Lon Nol and Sirik Matak. Sirik Matak had been acting Prime Minister during the Republic's first year, when Lon Nol's health had been extremely poor, but had engendered considerable resentment due to his administrative style and royal connections; there was also growing frustration amongst young, urban Cambodians at the continued corruption and inefficiency of the regime. On Lon Nol's return from hospital in Hawaii in April 1971, he instigated a cabinet crisis by resigning, providing a means to dissolve the government, with the probable encouragement of his brother Lon Non (a figure of considerable influence, especially with the military). After much political squabbling, a new cabinet was formed, though Sirik Matak continued as acting premier with the title of "Prime Minister-Delegate". On 16 October 1971, Lon Nol took action to strip the National Assembly of legislative power, and ordered it to write a new constitution, claiming that these actions were necessary to prevent anarchy; this provoked a protest by In Tam and 400 Buddhist monks.By March 1972, Lon Nol and his brother had managed to drive Sirik Matak from power. After Sirik Matak had sacked Keo An, a dissident academic, Lon Non organised a series of vocal student demonstrations against him calling for his removal. Sirik Matak resigned, and (ostensibly for his 'protection') was placed under effective house arrest. Lon Nol used the crisis to oust the Head of State, Cheng Heng, and took over the role himself, appointing the veteran anti-Sihanouk nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister. Thanh, leader of the Khmer Serei, had recruited FANK reinforcements amongst the Khmer Krom of southern Vietnam, and the loyalty he commanded amongst these comparatively elite, US-trained troops meant that his support for the Republic's fragile government remained essential.Later that year, Lon Nol announced he would hold presidential elections, and was surprised when In Tam and Keo An – the latter a reputed Sihanoukist – not only announced that they would run, but then refused to withdraw. The elections, despite an inevitable victory for Lon Nol, revealed considerable dissatisfaction with the government even though they had been rigged in Lon Nol's favour: had they been fair, it is likely that In Tam would have won. The affair prompted In Tam to suggest that the Americans could now "stew in Lon Nol's juice".The political situation continued to unravel throughout 1972: both opposition parties (In Tam's Democratic Party and Sirik Matak's Republican Party) refused to contest the elections to the National Assembly held in September, leading to a sweeping victory for Lon Non's Socio-Republican Party ("Sangkum Sathéaranak Râth"). There were a growing number of terrorist attacks in the capital, one of which was directed at Son Ngoc Thanh. Thanh – whose last political act was to ban Sirik Matak's newspaper – was then forced to resign, going back into South Vietnamese exile, and was replaced by the moderate leftist Hang Thun Hak. While the Khmer Republic's government was being weakened by infighting, North Vietnamese forces – who had previously carried out much of the fighting against FANK, as in Operation Chenla I and II – gradually and deliberately scaled back their presence within Cambodian borders, leaving mainly logistical and support staff. Their place was taken by native Cambodian communist forces of the CPNLAF, which had been greatly increased when Sihanouk gave his support to the insurgency, rural Cambodians remaining overwhelmingly pro-Sihanouk.The Paris Peace Accords of early 1973 seemed to offer a temporary respite from the civil war; Lon Nol declared a unilateral ceasefire, despite FANK's very weak position on the ground. There were in fact a few contacts between some of the more moderate elements of the Khmer Rouge communists – notably Hou Yuon – and the Republic. The North Vietnamese pressured the Cambodian communists to accept the terms of the peace accords; their interests lay more in keeping the war active at a low level (tying down South Vietnamese troops in the process) than in an outright victory for the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge leadership, however, remained intransigent.The fighting resumed on the night of 7 February 1973, when communist forces attacked the FANK perimeter around the besieged city of Kompong Thom. By April, the Republic regime was in general disarray, with FANK troops refusing to fight and looting their own capital, and the CPNLAF advancing in many areas of the country. In response, the US finally threatened to cut off all aid unless Lon Nol acted to broaden the power base and support of the government – specifically, to reinstate the US ally Sirik Matak – and reduce the influence of his brother Lon Non. Accordingly, on 24 April, Lon Nol announced that the National Assembly would be suspended, and that a Political Council formed of himself, Sirik Matak, Cheng Heng, and In Tam, would effectively rule by decree. The CPNLAF advance on Phnom Penh was eventually halted by American bombing, which caused horrific casualty levels amongst the communist troops. Some commentators state that the experience is likely to have contributed to the brutality shown by the Khmer Rouge cadres in later events.By early 1974, the Political Council had been sidelined, and Lon Nol was once again ruling alone. The military situation, in the meantime, was deteriorating further. Communist forces came within shelling distance of Phnom Penh, and captured the former royal capital of Oudong in March: they 'evacuated' its population – shooting government officials and teachers – and destroyed or burnt much of the town. There was a brief improvement as the year progressed, however, as FANK retook Oudong, and was able to secure supply routes through Lake Tonle Sap.Despite this, the Khmer Republic did not survive the 1975 dry season offensive. The communist forces had by this point surrounded the capital, whose population had been vastly increased by refugees from the fighting; Lon Nol, who was extremely superstitious, ordered that consecrated sand be spread around the city from helicopters to protect it. Though FANK was by this time fighting with extreme tenacity, and the Khmer Rouge soldiers were suffering from poor morale, malaria, and even higher rates of casualties than FANK, fresh supplies of arms and ammunition from China gave them the impetus to overrun the Republic's remaining outposts. Proposed peace negotiations repeatedly stalled as Sihanouk refused to deal with Lon Nol directly, requesting his removal as a precondition. A plan proposed by Étienne Manac'h, the French Ambassador to China, in which Sihanouk would return to Cambodia as the head of a national unity government (leading to the likely immediate defection of a large proportion of the Khmer Rouge's peasant soldiers), failed to materialise.On 1 April 1975, Lon Nol resigned and fled the country into exile: FANK almost immediately disintegrated. While Sirik Matak, Long Boret, Lon Non and several other politicians remained in the capital in an attempt to negotiate a ceasefire, the Khmer Rouge finally entered the city on 17 April. Within a few days they had executed many representatives of the old regime, and the Khmer Republic had effectively come to an end. During its brief existence it had received almost exactly one million dollars of US military and economic aid a day.The final area held by the Republic in any form was the Preah Vihear Temple in the Dângrêk Mountains, which FANK forces still occupied in late April 1975. It was finally taken by the Khmer Rouge on 22 May that year.	[ "Lon Nol", "Saukam Khoy", "Lon Nol", "Saukam Khoy" ]
Which employer did Abraham Fraenkel work for in Sep, 1914?	September 28, 1914	{ "text": [ "German Army" ] }	L2_Q61043_P108_0	Abraham Fraenkel works for German Army from Jan, 1914 to Jan, 1918. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Kiel from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1933. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Marburg from Jan, 1918 to Jan, 1928. Abraham Fraenkel works for Hebrew University of Jerusalem from Jan, 1933 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for Bar-Ilan University from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1957.	Abraham FraenkelAbraham Fraenkel (; February 17, 1891 – October 15, 1965) was a German-born Israeli mathematician. He was an early Zionist and the first Dean of Mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his contributions to axiomatic set theory, especially his additions to Ernst Zermelo's axioms, which resulted in the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.Abraham Adolf Halevi Fraenkel studied mathematics at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, Marburg and Breslau. After graduating, he lectured at the University of Marburg from 1916, and was promoted to professor in 1922.In 1919 he married Wilhelmina Malka A. Prins (1892–1983). Due to the severe housing shortage in post-war Germany, for a few years the couple lived as subtenants at professor Hensel's place.After leaving Marburg in 1928, Fraenkel taught at the University of Kiel for a year. He then made the fateful choice of accepting a position at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which had been founded four years earlier, where he spent the rest of his career. He became the first Dean of the Faculty of Mathematics, and for a while served as Rector of the University.Fraenkel was a fervent Zionist and as such was a member of Jewish National Council and the Jewish Assembly of Representatives under the British mandate. He also belonged to the Mizrachi religious wing of Zionism, which promoted Jewish religious education and schools, and which advocated giving the Chief Rabbinate authority over marriage and divorce.Fraenkel's early work was on Kurt Hensel's p-adic numbers and on the theory of rings. He is best known for his work on axiomatic set theory, publishing his first major work on the topic "Einleitung in die Mengenlehre" (Introduction to set theory) in 1919. In 1922 and 1925, he published two papers that sought to improve Zermelo's axiomatic system; the result is the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Fraenkel worked in set theory and foundational mathematics.Fraenkel also was interested in the history of mathematics, writing in 1920 and 1930 about Gauss's works in algebra, and he published a biography of Georg Cantor. After retiring from the Hebrew University and being succeeded by his former student Abraham Robinson, Fraenkel continued teaching at the Bar Ilan University in Ramat Gan (near Tel Aviv).	[ "Bar-Ilan University", "University of Marburg", "University of Kiel", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem" ]
Which employer did Abraham Fraenkel work for in Oct, 1923?	October 16, 1923	{ "text": [ "University of Marburg" ] }	L2_Q61043_P108_1	Abraham Fraenkel works for German Army from Jan, 1914 to Jan, 1918. Abraham Fraenkel works for Bar-Ilan University from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Kiel from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1933. Abraham Fraenkel works for Hebrew University of Jerusalem from Jan, 1933 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Marburg from Jan, 1918 to Jan, 1928.	Abraham FraenkelAbraham Fraenkel (; February 17, 1891 – October 15, 1965) was a German-born Israeli mathematician. He was an early Zionist and the first Dean of Mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his contributions to axiomatic set theory, especially his additions to Ernst Zermelo's axioms, which resulted in the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.Abraham Adolf Halevi Fraenkel studied mathematics at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, Marburg and Breslau. After graduating, he lectured at the University of Marburg from 1916, and was promoted to professor in 1922.In 1919 he married Wilhelmina Malka A. Prins (1892–1983). Due to the severe housing shortage in post-war Germany, for a few years the couple lived as subtenants at professor Hensel's place.After leaving Marburg in 1928, Fraenkel taught at the University of Kiel for a year. He then made the fateful choice of accepting a position at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which had been founded four years earlier, where he spent the rest of his career. He became the first Dean of the Faculty of Mathematics, and for a while served as Rector of the University.Fraenkel was a fervent Zionist and as such was a member of Jewish National Council and the Jewish Assembly of Representatives under the British mandate. He also belonged to the Mizrachi religious wing of Zionism, which promoted Jewish religious education and schools, and which advocated giving the Chief Rabbinate authority over marriage and divorce.Fraenkel's early work was on Kurt Hensel's p-adic numbers and on the theory of rings. He is best known for his work on axiomatic set theory, publishing his first major work on the topic "Einleitung in die Mengenlehre" (Introduction to set theory) in 1919. In 1922 and 1925, he published two papers that sought to improve Zermelo's axiomatic system; the result is the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Fraenkel worked in set theory and foundational mathematics.Fraenkel also was interested in the history of mathematics, writing in 1920 and 1930 about Gauss's works in algebra, and he published a biography of Georg Cantor. After retiring from the Hebrew University and being succeeded by his former student Abraham Robinson, Fraenkel continued teaching at the Bar Ilan University in Ramat Gan (near Tel Aviv).	[ "Bar-Ilan University", "German Army", "University of Kiel", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem" ]
Which employer did Abraham Fraenkel work for in Sep, 1931?	September 26, 1931	{ "text": [ "University of Kiel" ] }	L2_Q61043_P108_2	Abraham Fraenkel works for Bar-Ilan University from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for Hebrew University of Jerusalem from Jan, 1933 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Kiel from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1933. Abraham Fraenkel works for German Army from Jan, 1914 to Jan, 1918. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Marburg from Jan, 1918 to Jan, 1928.	Abraham FraenkelAbraham Fraenkel (; February 17, 1891 – October 15, 1965) was a German-born Israeli mathematician. He was an early Zionist and the first Dean of Mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his contributions to axiomatic set theory, especially his additions to Ernst Zermelo's axioms, which resulted in the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.Abraham Adolf Halevi Fraenkel studied mathematics at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, Marburg and Breslau. After graduating, he lectured at the University of Marburg from 1916, and was promoted to professor in 1922.In 1919 he married Wilhelmina Malka A. Prins (1892–1983). Due to the severe housing shortage in post-war Germany, for a few years the couple lived as subtenants at professor Hensel's place.After leaving Marburg in 1928, Fraenkel taught at the University of Kiel for a year. He then made the fateful choice of accepting a position at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which had been founded four years earlier, where he spent the rest of his career. He became the first Dean of the Faculty of Mathematics, and for a while served as Rector of the University.Fraenkel was a fervent Zionist and as such was a member of Jewish National Council and the Jewish Assembly of Representatives under the British mandate. He also belonged to the Mizrachi religious wing of Zionism, which promoted Jewish religious education and schools, and which advocated giving the Chief Rabbinate authority over marriage and divorce.Fraenkel's early work was on Kurt Hensel's p-adic numbers and on the theory of rings. He is best known for his work on axiomatic set theory, publishing his first major work on the topic "Einleitung in die Mengenlehre" (Introduction to set theory) in 1919. In 1922 and 1925, he published two papers that sought to improve Zermelo's axiomatic system; the result is the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Fraenkel worked in set theory and foundational mathematics.Fraenkel also was interested in the history of mathematics, writing in 1920 and 1930 about Gauss's works in algebra, and he published a biography of Georg Cantor. After retiring from the Hebrew University and being succeeded by his former student Abraham Robinson, Fraenkel continued teaching at the Bar Ilan University in Ramat Gan (near Tel Aviv).	[ "Bar-Ilan University", "German Army", "University of Marburg", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem" ]
Which employer did Abraham Fraenkel work for in Jul, 1947?	July 27, 1947	{ "text": [ "Hebrew University of Jerusalem" ] }	L2_Q61043_P108_3	Abraham Fraenkel works for German Army from Jan, 1914 to Jan, 1918. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Marburg from Jan, 1918 to Jan, 1928. Abraham Fraenkel works for Hebrew University of Jerusalem from Jan, 1933 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Kiel from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1933. Abraham Fraenkel works for Bar-Ilan University from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1957.	Abraham FraenkelAbraham Fraenkel (; February 17, 1891 – October 15, 1965) was a German-born Israeli mathematician. He was an early Zionist and the first Dean of Mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his contributions to axiomatic set theory, especially his additions to Ernst Zermelo's axioms, which resulted in the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.Abraham Adolf Halevi Fraenkel studied mathematics at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, Marburg and Breslau. After graduating, he lectured at the University of Marburg from 1916, and was promoted to professor in 1922.In 1919 he married Wilhelmina Malka A. Prins (1892–1983). Due to the severe housing shortage in post-war Germany, for a few years the couple lived as subtenants at professor Hensel's place.After leaving Marburg in 1928, Fraenkel taught at the University of Kiel for a year. He then made the fateful choice of accepting a position at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which had been founded four years earlier, where he spent the rest of his career. He became the first Dean of the Faculty of Mathematics, and for a while served as Rector of the University.Fraenkel was a fervent Zionist and as such was a member of Jewish National Council and the Jewish Assembly of Representatives under the British mandate. He also belonged to the Mizrachi religious wing of Zionism, which promoted Jewish religious education and schools, and which advocated giving the Chief Rabbinate authority over marriage and divorce.Fraenkel's early work was on Kurt Hensel's p-adic numbers and on the theory of rings. He is best known for his work on axiomatic set theory, publishing his first major work on the topic "Einleitung in die Mengenlehre" (Introduction to set theory) in 1919. In 1922 and 1925, he published two papers that sought to improve Zermelo's axiomatic system; the result is the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Fraenkel worked in set theory and foundational mathematics.Fraenkel also was interested in the history of mathematics, writing in 1920 and 1930 about Gauss's works in algebra, and he published a biography of Georg Cantor. After retiring from the Hebrew University and being succeeded by his former student Abraham Robinson, Fraenkel continued teaching at the Bar Ilan University in Ramat Gan (near Tel Aviv).	[ "Bar-Ilan University", "German Army", "University of Marburg", "University of Kiel" ]
Which employer did Abraham Fraenkel work for in Jan, 1957?	January 01, 1957	{ "text": [ "Bar-Ilan University", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem" ] }	L2_Q61043_P108_4	Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Kiel from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1933. Abraham Fraenkel works for Bar-Ilan University from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1957. Abraham Fraenkel works for German Army from Jan, 1914 to Jan, 1918. Abraham Fraenkel works for University of Marburg from Jan, 1918 to Jan, 1928. Abraham Fraenkel works for Hebrew University of Jerusalem from Jan, 1933 to Jan, 1957.	Abraham FraenkelAbraham Fraenkel (; February 17, 1891 – October 15, 1965) was a German-born Israeli mathematician. He was an early Zionist and the first Dean of Mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his contributions to axiomatic set theory, especially his additions to Ernst Zermelo's axioms, which resulted in the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.Abraham Adolf Halevi Fraenkel studied mathematics at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, Marburg and Breslau. After graduating, he lectured at the University of Marburg from 1916, and was promoted to professor in 1922.In 1919 he married Wilhelmina Malka A. Prins (1892–1983). Due to the severe housing shortage in post-war Germany, for a few years the couple lived as subtenants at professor Hensel's place.After leaving Marburg in 1928, Fraenkel taught at the University of Kiel for a year. He then made the fateful choice of accepting a position at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which had been founded four years earlier, where he spent the rest of his career. He became the first Dean of the Faculty of Mathematics, and for a while served as Rector of the University.Fraenkel was a fervent Zionist and as such was a member of Jewish National Council and the Jewish Assembly of Representatives under the British mandate. He also belonged to the Mizrachi religious wing of Zionism, which promoted Jewish religious education and schools, and which advocated giving the Chief Rabbinate authority over marriage and divorce.Fraenkel's early work was on Kurt Hensel's p-adic numbers and on the theory of rings. He is best known for his work on axiomatic set theory, publishing his first major work on the topic "Einleitung in die Mengenlehre" (Introduction to set theory) in 1919. In 1922 and 1925, he published two papers that sought to improve Zermelo's axiomatic system; the result is the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Fraenkel worked in set theory and foundational mathematics.Fraenkel also was interested in the history of mathematics, writing in 1920 and 1930 about Gauss's works in algebra, and he published a biography of Georg Cantor. After retiring from the Hebrew University and being succeeded by his former student Abraham Robinson, Fraenkel continued teaching at the Bar Ilan University in Ramat Gan (near Tel Aviv).	[ "German Army", "University of Marburg", "University of Kiel", "German Army", "University of Marburg", "University of Kiel" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Aug, 2008?	August 16, 2008	{ "text": [ "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_0	Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Jacksonville Armada FC", "C.D. Marathón", "Atlanta Silverbacks", "Jaguares de Córdoba", "Puerto Rico Islanders", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Oct, 2010?	October 31, 2010	{ "text": [ "Puerto Rico Islanders" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_1	Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Jacksonville Armada FC", "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves", "C.D. Marathón", "Atlanta Silverbacks", "Jaguares de Córdoba", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Mar, 2012?	March 22, 2012	{ "text": [ "C.D. Marathón" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_2	Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Jacksonville Armada FC", "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves", "Atlanta Silverbacks", "Jaguares de Córdoba", "Puerto Rico Islanders", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Jan, 2014?	January 01, 2014	{ "text": [ "Atlanta Silverbacks" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_3	Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Jacksonville Armada FC", "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves", "C.D. Marathón", "Jaguares de Córdoba", "Puerto Rico Islanders", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Jan, 2015?	January 01, 2015	{ "text": [ "Jaguares de Córdoba" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_4	Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Jacksonville Armada FC", "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves", "C.D. Marathón", "Atlanta Silverbacks", "Puerto Rico Islanders", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Nov, 2019?	November 26, 2019	{ "text": [ "Jacksonville Armada FC" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_5	Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves", "C.D. Marathón", "Atlanta Silverbacks", "Jaguares de Córdoba", "Puerto Rico Islanders", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ]
Which team did Junior Sandoval play for in Jan, 2020?	January 01, 2020	{ "text": [ "Jacksonville Armada FC", "Las Vegas Lights FC" ] }	L2_Q6313447_P54_6	Junior Sandoval plays for Jacksonville Armada FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Junior Sandoval plays for Las Vegas Lights FC from Jan, 2020 to Jan, 2020. Junior Sandoval plays for Puerto Rico Islanders from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014. Junior Sandoval plays for C.D. Marathón from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013. Junior Sandoval plays for Jaguares de Córdoba from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015. Junior Sandoval plays for Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.	Junior SandovalJunior Josué Sandoval López (born October 13, 1990 in Quimistán) is a Honduran footballer who currently plays for Kalonji Pro-Profile in the United Premier Soccer League.Sandoval grew up in Alpharetta, Georgia and attended Centennial High School in Roswell, Georgia before playing a year of college soccer at Georgia Perimeter College. He was the Jaguars' leading scorer as a freshman with 29 points on nine goals and 11 assists, and was named to the NJCAA All-Region First Team.Sandoval also played two seasons with Atlanta FC of the National Premier Soccer League, including their Lamar Hunt US Open Cup match against Charleston Battery in 2009.Sandoval left college early and joined Puerto Rico Islanders on February 17, 2010. He made his professional debut on April 18, 2010, in a 2010 CFU Club Championship game against Haitian side Racing des Gonaïves. Puerto Rico loaned Sandoval to Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League on March 31, 2011. Puerto Rico ended Sandoval's loan to Atlanta on August 12, 2011.Sandoval returned to Atlanta and joined the Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves for the first part of the 2012 season. After 4 games, he signed for Marathón in his native Honduras.In January 2016, Sandoval signed with Jacksonville Armada FC of the NASL. Following the 2016, he signed to play the 2017 season for California United FC II.After being released from the Las Vegas Lights following the 2020 USL Championship season, Sandoval returned to Georgia to play with United Premier Soccer League club Kalonji Pro-Profile.	[ "Atlanta Silverbacks Reserves", "C.D. Marathón", "Atlanta Silverbacks", "Jaguares de Córdoba", "Puerto Rico Islanders" ]
Which team did Kosta Rodrigues play for in Feb, 1998?	February 13, 1998	{ "text": [ "SC Weismain-Obermain" ] }	L2_Q631372_P54_0	Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig II from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2008. Kosta Rodrigues plays for SC Weismain-Obermain from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2009. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Wuppertaler SV from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Hannover 96 from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003. Kosta Rodrigues plays for 1. FC Magdeburg from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.	Kosta RodriguesKosta Rodrigues (born 12 August 1979 in Rüsselsheim) is a retired German footballer who last played professionally for 1. FC Magdeburg. Before joining Magdeburg he spent most of his career with Eintracht Braunschweig, including two seasons in the 2. Bundesliga.After retiring from professional football, Rodrigues became a youth coach at Eintracht Braunschweig.	[ "Eintracht Braunschweig", "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "1. FC Magdeburg", "Hannover 96", "Wuppertaler SV" ]
Which team did Kosta Rodrigues play for in Nov, 2002?	November 09, 2002	{ "text": [ "Hannover 96" ] }	L2_Q631372_P54_1	Kosta Rodrigues plays for SC Weismain-Obermain from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999. Kosta Rodrigues plays for 1. FC Magdeburg from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Hannover 96 from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Wuppertaler SV from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig II from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2008. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2009.	Kosta RodriguesKosta Rodrigues (born 12 August 1979 in Rüsselsheim) is a retired German footballer who last played professionally for 1. FC Magdeburg. Before joining Magdeburg he spent most of his career with Eintracht Braunschweig, including two seasons in the 2. Bundesliga.After retiring from professional football, Rodrigues became a youth coach at Eintracht Braunschweig.	[ "Eintracht Braunschweig", "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "SC Weismain-Obermain", "1. FC Magdeburg", "Wuppertaler SV" ]
Which team did Kosta Rodrigues play for in Apr, 2006?	April 09, 2006	{ "text": [ "Eintracht Braunschweig" ] }	L2_Q631372_P54_2	Kosta Rodrigues plays for Wuppertaler SV from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig II from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2008. Kosta Rodrigues plays for 1. FC Magdeburg from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2009. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Hannover 96 from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003. Kosta Rodrigues plays for SC Weismain-Obermain from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.	Kosta RodriguesKosta Rodrigues (born 12 August 1979 in Rüsselsheim) is a retired German footballer who last played professionally for 1. FC Magdeburg. Before joining Magdeburg he spent most of his career with Eintracht Braunschweig, including two seasons in the 2. Bundesliga.After retiring from professional football, Rodrigues became a youth coach at Eintracht Braunschweig.	[ "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "SC Weismain-Obermain", "1. FC Magdeburg", "Hannover 96", "Wuppertaler SV" ]
Which team did Kosta Rodrigues play for in Mar, 2007?	March 25, 2007	{ "text": [ "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "Eintracht Braunschweig" ] }	L2_Q631372_P54_3	Kosta Rodrigues plays for Wuppertaler SV from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for 1. FC Magdeburg from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2009. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig II from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2008. Kosta Rodrigues plays for SC Weismain-Obermain from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Hannover 96 from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.	Kosta RodriguesKosta Rodrigues (born 12 August 1979 in Rüsselsheim) is a retired German footballer who last played professionally for 1. FC Magdeburg. Before joining Magdeburg he spent most of his career with Eintracht Braunschweig, including two seasons in the 2. Bundesliga.After retiring from professional football, Rodrigues became a youth coach at Eintracht Braunschweig.	[ "Hannover 96", "SC Weismain-Obermain", "Wuppertaler SV", "1. FC Magdeburg" ]
Which team did Kosta Rodrigues play for in Dec, 2010?	December 19, 2010	{ "text": [ "Wuppertaler SV" ] }	L2_Q631372_P54_4	Kosta Rodrigues plays for Hannover 96 from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2009. Kosta Rodrigues plays for 1. FC Magdeburg from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Wuppertaler SV from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for SC Weismain-Obermain from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig II from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2008.	Kosta RodriguesKosta Rodrigues (born 12 August 1979 in Rüsselsheim) is a retired German footballer who last played professionally for 1. FC Magdeburg. Before joining Magdeburg he spent most of his career with Eintracht Braunschweig, including two seasons in the 2. Bundesliga.After retiring from professional football, Rodrigues became a youth coach at Eintracht Braunschweig.	[ "Eintracht Braunschweig", "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "SC Weismain-Obermain", "1. FC Magdeburg", "Hannover 96" ]
Which team did Kosta Rodrigues play for in Jan, 2011?	January 01, 2011	{ "text": [ "1. FC Magdeburg", "Wuppertaler SV" ] }	L2_Q631372_P54_5	Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig II from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2008. Kosta Rodrigues plays for 1. FC Magdeburg from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Hannover 96 from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Wuppertaler SV from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Kosta Rodrigues plays for Eintracht Braunschweig from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2009. Kosta Rodrigues plays for SC Weismain-Obermain from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.	Kosta RodriguesKosta Rodrigues (born 12 August 1979 in Rüsselsheim) is a retired German footballer who last played professionally for 1. FC Magdeburg. Before joining Magdeburg he spent most of his career with Eintracht Braunschweig, including two seasons in the 2. Bundesliga.After retiring from professional football, Rodrigues became a youth coach at Eintracht Braunschweig.	[ "Hannover 96", "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "SC Weismain-Obermain", "Eintracht Braunschweig", "Hannover 96", "Eintracht Braunschweig II", "SC Weismain-Obermain", "Eintracht Braunschweig" ]
Which employer did Paul Arthur Schilpp work for in Oct, 1928?	October 10, 1928	{ "text": [ "University of the Pacific" ] }	L2_Q4356837_P108_0	Paul Arthur Schilpp works for Southern Illinois University Carbondale from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1980. Paul Arthur Schilpp works for Northwestern University from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1965. Paul Arthur Schilpp works for University of the Pacific from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1936.	Paul Arthur SchilppPaul Arthur Schilpp (; February 6, 1897 – September 6, 1993) was an American educator.Schilpp was born in Dillenburg, Germany and immigrated to the United States prior to World War I. Schilpp taught at Northwestern University, University of Puget Sound, UC Santa Barbara, University of the Pacific and spent the last years of his professional career teaching undergraduate philosophy courses at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.A serious and driven teacher of moral decision and thought, often controversial, Schilpp came to Southern Illinois University in 1965 after he was considered "too old to teach at respectable universities." Southern Illinois University agreed with his condition that he be allowed to instruct undergraduate general studies courses in philosophy thus allowing him to reach the greatest number of what Schilpp called "malleable minds". He was known for his passionate teaching methods and highly energetic delivery.Schilpp was for many years the editor of the Library of Living Philosophers. As editor he was able to convince such notable personalities as Albert Einstein, Kurt Gödel and Bertrand Russell to contribute to the library.Schilpp died of respiratory failure at the age of 96 in St. Louis, Missouri.	[ "Southern Illinois University Carbondale", "Northwestern University" ]
Which employer did Paul Arthur Schilpp work for in Nov, 1957?	November 01, 1957	{ "text": [ "Northwestern University" ] }	L2_Q4356837_P108_1	Paul Arthur Schilpp works for University of the Pacific from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1936. Paul Arthur Schilpp works for Southern Illinois University Carbondale from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1980. Paul Arthur Schilpp works for Northwestern University from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1965.	Paul Arthur SchilppPaul Arthur Schilpp (; February 6, 1897 – September 6, 1993) was an American educator.Schilpp was born in Dillenburg, Germany and immigrated to the United States prior to World War I. Schilpp taught at Northwestern University, University of Puget Sound, UC Santa Barbara, University of the Pacific and spent the last years of his professional career teaching undergraduate philosophy courses at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.A serious and driven teacher of moral decision and thought, often controversial, Schilpp came to Southern Illinois University in 1965 after he was considered "too old to teach at respectable universities." Southern Illinois University agreed with his condition that he be allowed to instruct undergraduate general studies courses in philosophy thus allowing him to reach the greatest number of what Schilpp called "malleable minds". He was known for his passionate teaching methods and highly energetic delivery.Schilpp was for many years the editor of the Library of Living Philosophers. As editor he was able to convince such notable personalities as Albert Einstein, Kurt Gödel and Bertrand Russell to contribute to the library.Schilpp died of respiratory failure at the age of 96 in St. Louis, Missouri.	[ "Southern Illinois University Carbondale", "University of the Pacific" ]
Which employer did Paul Arthur Schilpp work for in Feb, 1975?	February 14, 1975	{ "text": [ "Southern Illinois University Carbondale" ] }	L2_Q4356837_P108_2	Paul Arthur Schilpp works for University of the Pacific from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1936. Paul Arthur Schilpp works for Northwestern University from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1965. Paul Arthur Schilpp works for Southern Illinois University Carbondale from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1980.	Paul Arthur SchilppPaul Arthur Schilpp (; February 6, 1897 – September 6, 1993) was an American educator.Schilpp was born in Dillenburg, Germany and immigrated to the United States prior to World War I. Schilpp taught at Northwestern University, University of Puget Sound, UC Santa Barbara, University of the Pacific and spent the last years of his professional career teaching undergraduate philosophy courses at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.A serious and driven teacher of moral decision and thought, often controversial, Schilpp came to Southern Illinois University in 1965 after he was considered "too old to teach at respectable universities." Southern Illinois University agreed with his condition that he be allowed to instruct undergraduate general studies courses in philosophy thus allowing him to reach the greatest number of what Schilpp called "malleable minds". He was known for his passionate teaching methods and highly energetic delivery.Schilpp was for many years the editor of the Library of Living Philosophers. As editor he was able to convince such notable personalities as Albert Einstein, Kurt Gödel and Bertrand Russell to contribute to the library.Schilpp died of respiratory failure at the age of 96 in St. Louis, Missouri.	[ "University of the Pacific", "Northwestern University" ]
Where was Michela Taufer educated in Jul, 1991?	July 14, 1991	{ "text": [ "University of Padua" ] }	L2_Q87105142_P69_0	Michela Taufer attended ETH Zürich from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2002. Michela Taufer attended University of California, San Diego from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004. Michela Taufer attended University of Padua from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1996. Michela Taufer attended Scripps Research from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.	Michela TauferMichela Taufer (born 23 April 1971) is an Italian-American computer scientist and holds the Jack Dongarra Professorship in High Performance Computing within the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. She is an ACM Distinguished Scientist and an IEEE Senior Member.Taufer attended the University of Padua where she obtained a Laurea in Computer Engineering in 1996. She later went on to earn her Ph.D. in computer science at ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) in 2002. The dissertation for her Ph.D. in computer science from ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) was titled, "Inverting Middleware: Performance Analysis of Layered Application Codes in High Performance Distributed Computing", and was supervised by Thomas M. Stricker and Daniel A. Reed.Her current research interests include high performance computing, scientific applications, and their programmability on multi-core and many-core platforms. She applies advances in computational and algorithmic solutions for high-performance computing technologies (i.e., volunteer computing, accelerators and GPUs, and in situ analytics workflows) to multi-disciplinary fields including molecular dynamics, ecoinformatics, seismology, and biology.	[ "Scripps Research", "University of California, San Diego", "ETH Zürich" ]
Where was Michela Taufer educated in Aug, 1996?	August 26, 1996	{ "text": [ "ETH Zürich" ] }	L2_Q87105142_P69_1	Michela Taufer attended University of California, San Diego from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004. Michela Taufer attended University of Padua from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1996. Michela Taufer attended Scripps Research from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004. Michela Taufer attended ETH Zürich from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2002.	Michela TauferMichela Taufer (born 23 April 1971) is an Italian-American computer scientist and holds the Jack Dongarra Professorship in High Performance Computing within the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. She is an ACM Distinguished Scientist and an IEEE Senior Member.Taufer attended the University of Padua where she obtained a Laurea in Computer Engineering in 1996. She later went on to earn her Ph.D. in computer science at ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) in 2002. The dissertation for her Ph.D. in computer science from ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) was titled, "Inverting Middleware: Performance Analysis of Layered Application Codes in High Performance Distributed Computing", and was supervised by Thomas M. Stricker and Daniel A. Reed.Her current research interests include high performance computing, scientific applications, and their programmability on multi-core and many-core platforms. She applies advances in computational and algorithmic solutions for high-performance computing technologies (i.e., volunteer computing, accelerators and GPUs, and in situ analytics workflows) to multi-disciplinary fields including molecular dynamics, ecoinformatics, seismology, and biology.	[ "Scripps Research", "University of Padua", "University of California, San Diego" ]
Where was Michela Taufer educated in Mar, 2003?	March 25, 2003	{ "text": [ "Scripps Research", "University of California, San Diego" ] }	L2_Q87105142_P69_2	Michela Taufer attended ETH Zürich from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2002. Michela Taufer attended University of California, San Diego from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004. Michela Taufer attended Scripps Research from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004. Michela Taufer attended University of Padua from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1996.	Michela TauferMichela Taufer (born 23 April 1971) is an Italian-American computer scientist and holds the Jack Dongarra Professorship in High Performance Computing within the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. She is an ACM Distinguished Scientist and an IEEE Senior Member.Taufer attended the University of Padua where she obtained a Laurea in Computer Engineering in 1996. She later went on to earn her Ph.D. in computer science at ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) in 2002. The dissertation for her Ph.D. in computer science from ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) was titled, "Inverting Middleware: Performance Analysis of Layered Application Codes in High Performance Distributed Computing", and was supervised by Thomas M. Stricker and Daniel A. Reed.Her current research interests include high performance computing, scientific applications, and their programmability on multi-core and many-core platforms. She applies advances in computational and algorithmic solutions for high-performance computing technologies (i.e., volunteer computing, accelerators and GPUs, and in situ analytics workflows) to multi-disciplinary fields including molecular dynamics, ecoinformatics, seismology, and biology.	[ "University of Padua", "ETH Zürich" ]
Where was Michela Taufer educated in Jan, 2003?	January 06, 2003	{ "text": [ "Scripps Research", "University of California, San Diego" ] }	L2_Q87105142_P69_3	Michela Taufer attended University of Padua from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1996. Michela Taufer attended University of California, San Diego from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004. Michela Taufer attended ETH Zürich from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2002. Michela Taufer attended Scripps Research from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.	Michela TauferMichela Taufer (born 23 April 1971) is an Italian-American computer scientist and holds the Jack Dongarra Professorship in High Performance Computing within the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. She is an ACM Distinguished Scientist and an IEEE Senior Member.Taufer attended the University of Padua where she obtained a Laurea in Computer Engineering in 1996. She later went on to earn her Ph.D. in computer science at ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) in 2002. The dissertation for her Ph.D. in computer science from ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich) was titled, "Inverting Middleware: Performance Analysis of Layered Application Codes in High Performance Distributed Computing", and was supervised by Thomas M. Stricker and Daniel A. Reed.Her current research interests include high performance computing, scientific applications, and their programmability on multi-core and many-core platforms. She applies advances in computational and algorithmic solutions for high-performance computing technologies (i.e., volunteer computing, accelerators and GPUs, and in situ analytics workflows) to multi-disciplinary fields including molecular dynamics, ecoinformatics, seismology, and biology.	[ "University of Padua", "ETH Zürich", "University of Padua", "ETH Zürich" ]
Who was the head coach of the team CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu in Sep, 2016?	September 22, 2016	{ "text": [ "Petre Grigoraș" ] }	L2_Q585958_P286_0	Adrian Iencsi is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Aug, 2017 to Sep, 2017. Petre Grigoraș is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Jun, 2016 to Jul, 2017. Laurențiu Adrian Bogoi is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Nov, 2017 to Nov, 2019.	CS Pandurii Târgu JiuClubul Sportiv Pandurii Lignitul Târgu Jiu (), commonly known as Pandurii Târgu Jiu, or simply as Pandurii, is a Romanian professional football club based in Târgu Jiu, Gorj County, currently playing in the Liga II.Founded in 1962, following the merger of "Flacăra-Unirea Târgu Jiu" and "CIL Târgu Jiu", Pandurii is one of the four Romanian clubs that represent the country at the European Club Association. Domestically, "Gorjenii" have never won any major honour, but finished as runners-up in the league at the end of the 2012–13 season and lost a League Cup final in 2015. They qualified for the first time in a European competition in 2013, playing in the UEFA Europa League and reaching the group stage.The colors of the team are white and blue.Pandurii Târgu Jiu was founded in August 1962, after the merger of the two big rivals from the town, "Flacăra-Unirea Târgu Jiu" and "CIL Târgu-Jiu". The club entered the fourth division of Romanian football, with a strong objective, to promote immediately in the third division. And the target was reached, Pandurii gaining the promotion to Divizia C in June 1963. Their first game in this division was played on 1 September 1963, against Siderurgistul Hunedoara. Pandurii won by a big margin, 6–0, goals scored by Chițu (12'), Nelu Băloi (35'), Melinte (53', 80') and Vasilescu (83', 85').In the first years, Pandurii finished constantly in the first half of the standings, so the club decided to attack a promotion to Divizia B. In the 1976–77 season, with a young team and with Titus Ozon as coach, the dream came true. Pandurii dominated the competition, climbed from the first stages on top of the standings and won the promotion to the second division. But this level was a much bigger hat to wear for Pandurii, who relegated the next season back to Divizia C.The following years, the team changed frequently the division, promoting to Divizia B and relegating after a few years. They played in Divizia B between 1979 and 1983 then between 1986 and 1991. After a decade in Divizia C, in 2000 the team promoted again in the second league, and in 2004 finished second, behind Sportul Studențesc.The performance from the last seasons was an incentive for the management who decided to push for the first presence of Pandurii in Divizia A. With Emil Săndoi as coach, and with a young group of players like Tiberiu Lung and Sorin Vintilescu but also with some experienced players like, Florin Popete, Robert Vancea and Romulus Buia, the team won the promotion.It was difficult to maintain its position in Divizia A, and Pandurii finished their first season in the 15th place, right below the relegation line. But the Romanian Football Federation decided at the end of the season not to give Sportul Studențesc their licence for the following year, and kept instead the first team under the line, Pandurii. With the bullet dodged, the management decided to enforce the team, so the relegation shouldn't be a problem.Alexandru Păcurar, Ciprian Vasilache and Liviu Mihai were brought, and the team finished 11th in the 2006–07 season. They kept their position at the middle of the table for the next seasons.In 2010, they finished below the line but avoided the relegation after the withdrawal of Internațional Curtea de Argeș, team that ended tenth but the owner decided to disband the club. With a lot of players from Internațional Curtea de Argeș like Vlad Chiricheș, Mihai Pintilii, and Dan Nistor, Pandurii were 13th the following season.In the 2011–12 season the team reached the highest place in history, finishing seventh. For a while, they were fifth and the fans hoped for Europa League.The following season saw Pandurii finishing as Liga I runners-up for the first time ever, qualifying for the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, the club's first ever European participation. After defeating Levadia Tallinn, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Braga, Pandurii entered the Group stage, being drawn into Group E with F.C. Paços de Ferreira, FC Dnipro and ACF Fiorentina.On 10 March 2015, with Edward Iordănescu as coach Pandurii defeated FC Dinamo București in the semi-finals of the new established competition Cupa Ligii, to qualify for their first ever cup final. On their way to play the final they beat one of the Romanian giants FC Petrolul Ploiești at Ilie Oană Stadium. In the final FC Steaua București beat Pandurii at Arena Națională stadium but with a controversial penalty in the beginning of the match.In the 2015–16, season of Liga I Pandurii had many achievements along the season with the same coach and players like UEFA Europa League winner Cristian Săpunaru, Dan Nistor, Ioan Hora and Mihai Răduț and Narcis Răducan as president. In April 2015 they became the first team to win a match in Liga I with the new play-off, play-out system. On 6 February 2016, they secured both a place in the competition play-offs and a place in a European competition next year with a victory with ASA 2013 Târgu Mureș. During this season they had the most matches without a defeat, about 10 games. At the end of the season, Pandurii finished on the podium as third-place qualifying for the second time in UEFA Europa League, but this time in the third qualifying round.Although the team had a fairly good start for the season 2016–17, with players like Lucian Sânmărtean or George Țucudean coming at the club, and playing in the summer against Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C. in Europa League, problems occurred in the second half of the season. The main sponsor started having problems and for this reason they did not fund the team anymore. Many players have left the team so the young players from the second team were brought to the first team along with other players from elsewhere. Unfortunately after 12 seasons in Liga 1 Pandurii relegated for the first time since the 2005 promotion but fought to avoid it until the last round.For the 2017–18 Liga II, Pandurii has been prepared with some players promoted from the second team or from the youth teams and moved to Motru until the new stadium was completed.The club play its matches at the new Tudor Vladimirescu Stadium, opened in 2019.This is the UEFA club's coefficient as of 1 November 2018:The footballers enlisted below have had international cap(s) for their respective countries at junior and/or senior level and/or more than 100 caps for CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu.	[ "Laurențiu Adrian Bogoi", "Adrian Iencsi" ]
Who was the head coach of the team CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu in Aug, 2017?	August 26, 2017	{ "text": [ "Adrian Iencsi" ] }	L2_Q585958_P286_1	Laurențiu Adrian Bogoi is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Nov, 2017 to Nov, 2019. Adrian Iencsi is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Aug, 2017 to Sep, 2017. Petre Grigoraș is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Jun, 2016 to Jul, 2017.	CS Pandurii Târgu JiuClubul Sportiv Pandurii Lignitul Târgu Jiu (), commonly known as Pandurii Târgu Jiu, or simply as Pandurii, is a Romanian professional football club based in Târgu Jiu, Gorj County, currently playing in the Liga II.Founded in 1962, following the merger of "Flacăra-Unirea Târgu Jiu" and "CIL Târgu Jiu", Pandurii is one of the four Romanian clubs that represent the country at the European Club Association. Domestically, "Gorjenii" have never won any major honour, but finished as runners-up in the league at the end of the 2012–13 season and lost a League Cup final in 2015. They qualified for the first time in a European competition in 2013, playing in the UEFA Europa League and reaching the group stage.The colors of the team are white and blue.Pandurii Târgu Jiu was founded in August 1962, after the merger of the two big rivals from the town, "Flacăra-Unirea Târgu Jiu" and "CIL Târgu-Jiu". The club entered the fourth division of Romanian football, with a strong objective, to promote immediately in the third division. And the target was reached, Pandurii gaining the promotion to Divizia C in June 1963. Their first game in this division was played on 1 September 1963, against Siderurgistul Hunedoara. Pandurii won by a big margin, 6–0, goals scored by Chițu (12'), Nelu Băloi (35'), Melinte (53', 80') and Vasilescu (83', 85').In the first years, Pandurii finished constantly in the first half of the standings, so the club decided to attack a promotion to Divizia B. In the 1976–77 season, with a young team and with Titus Ozon as coach, the dream came true. Pandurii dominated the competition, climbed from the first stages on top of the standings and won the promotion to the second division. But this level was a much bigger hat to wear for Pandurii, who relegated the next season back to Divizia C.The following years, the team changed frequently the division, promoting to Divizia B and relegating after a few years. They played in Divizia B between 1979 and 1983 then between 1986 and 1991. After a decade in Divizia C, in 2000 the team promoted again in the second league, and in 2004 finished second, behind Sportul Studențesc.The performance from the last seasons was an incentive for the management who decided to push for the first presence of Pandurii in Divizia A. With Emil Săndoi as coach, and with a young group of players like Tiberiu Lung and Sorin Vintilescu but also with some experienced players like, Florin Popete, Robert Vancea and Romulus Buia, the team won the promotion.It was difficult to maintain its position in Divizia A, and Pandurii finished their first season in the 15th place, right below the relegation line. But the Romanian Football Federation decided at the end of the season not to give Sportul Studențesc their licence for the following year, and kept instead the first team under the line, Pandurii. With the bullet dodged, the management decided to enforce the team, so the relegation shouldn't be a problem.Alexandru Păcurar, Ciprian Vasilache and Liviu Mihai were brought, and the team finished 11th in the 2006–07 season. They kept their position at the middle of the table for the next seasons.In 2010, they finished below the line but avoided the relegation after the withdrawal of Internațional Curtea de Argeș, team that ended tenth but the owner decided to disband the club. With a lot of players from Internațional Curtea de Argeș like Vlad Chiricheș, Mihai Pintilii, and Dan Nistor, Pandurii were 13th the following season.In the 2011–12 season the team reached the highest place in history, finishing seventh. For a while, they were fifth and the fans hoped for Europa League.The following season saw Pandurii finishing as Liga I runners-up for the first time ever, qualifying for the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, the club's first ever European participation. After defeating Levadia Tallinn, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Braga, Pandurii entered the Group stage, being drawn into Group E with F.C. Paços de Ferreira, FC Dnipro and ACF Fiorentina.On 10 March 2015, with Edward Iordănescu as coach Pandurii defeated FC Dinamo București in the semi-finals of the new established competition Cupa Ligii, to qualify for their first ever cup final. On their way to play the final they beat one of the Romanian giants FC Petrolul Ploiești at Ilie Oană Stadium. In the final FC Steaua București beat Pandurii at Arena Națională stadium but with a controversial penalty in the beginning of the match.In the 2015–16, season of Liga I Pandurii had many achievements along the season with the same coach and players like UEFA Europa League winner Cristian Săpunaru, Dan Nistor, Ioan Hora and Mihai Răduț and Narcis Răducan as president. In April 2015 they became the first team to win a match in Liga I with the new play-off, play-out system. On 6 February 2016, they secured both a place in the competition play-offs and a place in a European competition next year with a victory with ASA 2013 Târgu Mureș. During this season they had the most matches without a defeat, about 10 games. At the end of the season, Pandurii finished on the podium as third-place qualifying for the second time in UEFA Europa League, but this time in the third qualifying round.Although the team had a fairly good start for the season 2016–17, with players like Lucian Sânmărtean or George Țucudean coming at the club, and playing in the summer against Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C. in Europa League, problems occurred in the second half of the season. The main sponsor started having problems and for this reason they did not fund the team anymore. Many players have left the team so the young players from the second team were brought to the first team along with other players from elsewhere. Unfortunately after 12 seasons in Liga 1 Pandurii relegated for the first time since the 2005 promotion but fought to avoid it until the last round.For the 2017–18 Liga II, Pandurii has been prepared with some players promoted from the second team or from the youth teams and moved to Motru until the new stadium was completed.The club play its matches at the new Tudor Vladimirescu Stadium, opened in 2019.This is the UEFA club's coefficient as of 1 November 2018:The footballers enlisted below have had international cap(s) for their respective countries at junior and/or senior level and/or more than 100 caps for CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu.	[ "Laurențiu Adrian Bogoi", "Petre Grigoraș" ]
Who was the head coach of the team CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu in Nov, 2017?	November 13, 2017	{ "text": [ "Laurențiu Adrian Bogoi" ] }	L2_Q585958_P286_2	Petre Grigoraș is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Jun, 2016 to Jul, 2017. Laurențiu Adrian Bogoi is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Nov, 2017 to Nov, 2019. Adrian Iencsi is the head coach of CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu from Aug, 2017 to Sep, 2017.	CS Pandurii Târgu JiuClubul Sportiv Pandurii Lignitul Târgu Jiu (), commonly known as Pandurii Târgu Jiu, or simply as Pandurii, is a Romanian professional football club based in Târgu Jiu, Gorj County, currently playing in the Liga II.Founded in 1962, following the merger of "Flacăra-Unirea Târgu Jiu" and "CIL Târgu Jiu", Pandurii is one of the four Romanian clubs that represent the country at the European Club Association. Domestically, "Gorjenii" have never won any major honour, but finished as runners-up in the league at the end of the 2012–13 season and lost a League Cup final in 2015. They qualified for the first time in a European competition in 2013, playing in the UEFA Europa League and reaching the group stage.The colors of the team are white and blue.Pandurii Târgu Jiu was founded in August 1962, after the merger of the two big rivals from the town, "Flacăra-Unirea Târgu Jiu" and "CIL Târgu-Jiu". The club entered the fourth division of Romanian football, with a strong objective, to promote immediately in the third division. And the target was reached, Pandurii gaining the promotion to Divizia C in June 1963. Their first game in this division was played on 1 September 1963, against Siderurgistul Hunedoara. Pandurii won by a big margin, 6–0, goals scored by Chițu (12'), Nelu Băloi (35'), Melinte (53', 80') and Vasilescu (83', 85').In the first years, Pandurii finished constantly in the first half of the standings, so the club decided to attack a promotion to Divizia B. In the 1976–77 season, with a young team and with Titus Ozon as coach, the dream came true. Pandurii dominated the competition, climbed from the first stages on top of the standings and won the promotion to the second division. But this level was a much bigger hat to wear for Pandurii, who relegated the next season back to Divizia C.The following years, the team changed frequently the division, promoting to Divizia B and relegating after a few years. They played in Divizia B between 1979 and 1983 then between 1986 and 1991. After a decade in Divizia C, in 2000 the team promoted again in the second league, and in 2004 finished second, behind Sportul Studențesc.The performance from the last seasons was an incentive for the management who decided to push for the first presence of Pandurii in Divizia A. With Emil Săndoi as coach, and with a young group of players like Tiberiu Lung and Sorin Vintilescu but also with some experienced players like, Florin Popete, Robert Vancea and Romulus Buia, the team won the promotion.It was difficult to maintain its position in Divizia A, and Pandurii finished their first season in the 15th place, right below the relegation line. But the Romanian Football Federation decided at the end of the season not to give Sportul Studențesc their licence for the following year, and kept instead the first team under the line, Pandurii. With the bullet dodged, the management decided to enforce the team, so the relegation shouldn't be a problem.Alexandru Păcurar, Ciprian Vasilache and Liviu Mihai were brought, and the team finished 11th in the 2006–07 season. They kept their position at the middle of the table for the next seasons.In 2010, they finished below the line but avoided the relegation after the withdrawal of Internațional Curtea de Argeș, team that ended tenth but the owner decided to disband the club. With a lot of players from Internațional Curtea de Argeș like Vlad Chiricheș, Mihai Pintilii, and Dan Nistor, Pandurii were 13th the following season.In the 2011–12 season the team reached the highest place in history, finishing seventh. For a while, they were fifth and the fans hoped for Europa League.The following season saw Pandurii finishing as Liga I runners-up for the first time ever, qualifying for the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, the club's first ever European participation. After defeating Levadia Tallinn, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Braga, Pandurii entered the Group stage, being drawn into Group E with F.C. Paços de Ferreira, FC Dnipro and ACF Fiorentina.On 10 March 2015, with Edward Iordănescu as coach Pandurii defeated FC Dinamo București in the semi-finals of the new established competition Cupa Ligii, to qualify for their first ever cup final. On their way to play the final they beat one of the Romanian giants FC Petrolul Ploiești at Ilie Oană Stadium. In the final FC Steaua București beat Pandurii at Arena Națională stadium but with a controversial penalty in the beginning of the match.In the 2015–16, season of Liga I Pandurii had many achievements along the season with the same coach and players like UEFA Europa League winner Cristian Săpunaru, Dan Nistor, Ioan Hora and Mihai Răduț and Narcis Răducan as president. In April 2015 they became the first team to win a match in Liga I with the new play-off, play-out system. On 6 February 2016, they secured both a place in the competition play-offs and a place in a European competition next year with a victory with ASA 2013 Târgu Mureș. During this season they had the most matches without a defeat, about 10 games. At the end of the season, Pandurii finished on the podium as third-place qualifying for the second time in UEFA Europa League, but this time in the third qualifying round.Although the team had a fairly good start for the season 2016–17, with players like Lucian Sânmărtean or George Țucudean coming at the club, and playing in the summer against Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C. in Europa League, problems occurred in the second half of the season. The main sponsor started having problems and for this reason they did not fund the team anymore. Many players have left the team so the young players from the second team were brought to the first team along with other players from elsewhere. Unfortunately after 12 seasons in Liga 1 Pandurii relegated for the first time since the 2005 promotion but fought to avoid it until the last round.For the 2017–18 Liga II, Pandurii has been prepared with some players promoted from the second team or from the youth teams and moved to Motru until the new stadium was completed.The club play its matches at the new Tudor Vladimirescu Stadium, opened in 2019.This is the UEFA club's coefficient as of 1 November 2018:The footballers enlisted below have had international cap(s) for their respective countries at junior and/or senior level and/or more than 100 caps for CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu.	[ "Adrian Iencsi", "Petre Grigoraș" ]
Which team did Yaser Karami play for in Oct, 2008?	October 21, 2008	{ "text": [ "Iran national under-17 football team" ] }	L2_Q8049681_P54_0	Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-17 football team from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Yaser Karami plays for Saba Qom F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-20 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Yaser Karami plays for Moghavemat Tehran F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.	Yaser KaramiYaser Karami (, born April 22, 1992) is an Iranian football Forward, who currently plays for Moghavemat Tehran in Iran Football's 2nd Division.He played his first match for Saba Qom in 2010–11 season.	[ "Saba Qom F.C.", "Iran national under-20 football team", "Moghavemat Tehran F.C." ]
Which team did Yaser Karami play for in Oct, 2009?	October 13, 2009	{ "text": [ "Iran national under-20 football team" ] }	L2_Q8049681_P54_1	Yaser Karami plays for Saba Qom F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Yaser Karami plays for Moghavemat Tehran F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013. Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-20 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-17 football team from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.	Yaser KaramiYaser Karami (, born April 22, 1992) is an Iranian football Forward, who currently plays for Moghavemat Tehran in Iran Football's 2nd Division.He played his first match for Saba Qom in 2010–11 season.	[ "Saba Qom F.C.", "Iran national under-17 football team", "Moghavemat Tehran F.C." ]
Which team did Yaser Karami play for in Aug, 2010?	August 08, 2010	{ "text": [ "Saba Qom F.C." ] }	L2_Q8049681_P54_2	Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-20 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Yaser Karami plays for Moghavemat Tehran F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013. Yaser Karami plays for Saba Qom F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-17 football team from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.	Yaser KaramiYaser Karami (, born April 22, 1992) is an Iranian football Forward, who currently plays for Moghavemat Tehran in Iran Football's 2nd Division.He played his first match for Saba Qom in 2010–11 season.	[ "Iran national under-17 football team", "Iran national under-20 football team", "Moghavemat Tehran F.C." ]
Which team did Yaser Karami play for in Jun, 2011?	June 07, 2011	{ "text": [ "Moghavemat Tehran F.C." ] }	L2_Q8049681_P54_3	Yaser Karami plays for Saba Qom F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-17 football team from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009. Yaser Karami plays for Moghavemat Tehran F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013. Yaser Karami plays for Iran national under-20 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.	Yaser KaramiYaser Karami (, born April 22, 1992) is an Iranian football Forward, who currently plays for Moghavemat Tehran in Iran Football's 2nd Division.He played his first match for Saba Qom in 2010–11 season.	[ "Iran national under-17 football team", "Saba Qom F.C.", "Iran national under-20 football team" ]
Which team did Jonas Hofmann play for in Oct, 2009?	October 20, 2009	{ "text": [ "Germany national under-18 football team" ] }	L2_Q822781_P54_0	Jonas Hofmann plays for 1. FSV Mainz 05 from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-18 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund II from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Mönchengladbach from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2016. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-21 football team from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.	Jonas HofmannJonas Hofmann (; born 14 July 1992) is a German footballer who plays as a midfielder for Borussia Mönchengladbach and the Germany national team.Hofmann began his club career in 1998 playing at FC Rot in the municipality of St. Leon-Rot and remained there until the end of the 2003–2004 season, before he moved to 1899 Hoffenheim in the 2004–2005 season. Hofmann debuted for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim second team in a 1–0 victory in April 2011 during the 2010–2011 season. At the end of the 2010–2011 season playing for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II, Hofmann made five league appearances, in which he scored two goals.In the 2011–2012 season, Hofmann signed a contract for Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2015; and inducted into Borussia Dortmund II for 2011–2012 season. Hofmann debuted for Dortmund II on 6 August in a 2–0 away victory over 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, scoring his first goal of the 2011–2012 season. On 10 September, Hofmann succeeded in scoring two goals in a 4–0 away victory over the second team of Schalke 04. In the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season, Hofmann was inducted into the Borussia Dortmund first team.Hofmann debuted for Borussia Dortmund first team in the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season on 16 December 2012, in BVB's 3–1 away victory over TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, where he came on as substitute in the 89th minute. On 6 April 2013, he started his first match in the Bundesliga, and he was credited with an assist to Julian Schieber to score an equalizing goal tap-in finish for a 2–2 scoreline in Dortmund's 4–2 home victory over FC Augsburg.On 27 July 2013, Hofmann won the 2013 DFL-Supercup with Dortmund 4–2 against rivals Bayern Munich. Hofmann's first goal for Borussia Dortmund came on 18 August in a win against Eintracht Braunschweig, after coming on as a substitute in the second half. On 12 April 2014, Hofmann scored the third goal as Dortmund defeated Bayern Munich 3–0 at the Allianz Arena. On 13 August 2014, he played in the 2014 Super Cup.During the summer transfer window of 2014, Borussia Dortmund agreed to a year-long loan deal for Hofmann that would send him to 1. FSV Mainz 05 until 30 June 2015. He was injured for most of the 2014-15 season and scored 3 goals in 12 games for Mainz, before returning to Dortmund.On 30 July 2015, Hofmann scored his first European goal in a 1–0 win over Austrian side Wolfsberger AC in the first leg of the Europa League third qualifying round.It was announced on 29 December 2015 that Hofmann would join Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 January 2016, signing a four-year deal until 2020. After only joining Gladbach during the winter break, he made his debut for the club on 23 January 2016 in a 1–3 loss to former club Dortmund.Hofmann scored his first goal for the club in a Round of 16 match in the UEFA Europa League against fellow German side Schalke on 9 March 2017. The game ended in a 1–1 draw with Gladbach eventually going out on away goals after the two-legged tie finished 3–3.On 18 October 2018, Hofmann scored his first ever professional hat-trick in a 4–0 league win over former club Mainz. Hofmann signed a new deal with Gladbach on 16 April 2019, , extending his stay at the club until 2023.On January 8 2021, he scored a brace and got an assist in a historic 3-2 win against Bayern MunichHofmann played between the years 2009 and 2010 for the German U18 national football team and he completed his last cap for the under 18 national team with a victory on 25 March 2010 against France U18 national football team, before going on to represent the German U21 national football team.In October 2020, he was called to represent Germany national team by Joachim Löw for the matches against Turkey, Ukraine and Switzerland. He made his debut on 7 October 2020, against Turkey in a friendly game. On 19 May 2021, he was selected to the squad for the UEFA Euro 2020.	[ "Germany national under-21 football team", "Borussia Dortmund II", "Borussia Dortmund", "Borussia Mönchengladbach", "TSG 1899 Hoffenheim", "1. FSV Mainz 05" ]
Which team did Jonas Hofmann play for in Jan, 2011?	January 01, 2011	{ "text": [ "Borussia Dortmund II", "TSG 1899 Hoffenheim", "Borussia Dortmund" ] }	L2_Q822781_P54_1	Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-21 football team from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Mönchengladbach from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2016. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-18 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund II from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for 1. FSV Mainz 05 from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.	Jonas HofmannJonas Hofmann (; born 14 July 1992) is a German footballer who plays as a midfielder for Borussia Mönchengladbach and the Germany national team.Hofmann began his club career in 1998 playing at FC Rot in the municipality of St. Leon-Rot and remained there until the end of the 2003–2004 season, before he moved to 1899 Hoffenheim in the 2004–2005 season. Hofmann debuted for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim second team in a 1–0 victory in April 2011 during the 2010–2011 season. At the end of the 2010–2011 season playing for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II, Hofmann made five league appearances, in which he scored two goals.In the 2011–2012 season, Hofmann signed a contract for Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2015; and inducted into Borussia Dortmund II for 2011–2012 season. Hofmann debuted for Dortmund II on 6 August in a 2–0 away victory over 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, scoring his first goal of the 2011–2012 season. On 10 September, Hofmann succeeded in scoring two goals in a 4–0 away victory over the second team of Schalke 04. In the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season, Hofmann was inducted into the Borussia Dortmund first team.Hofmann debuted for Borussia Dortmund first team in the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season on 16 December 2012, in BVB's 3–1 away victory over TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, where he came on as substitute in the 89th minute. On 6 April 2013, he started his first match in the Bundesliga, and he was credited with an assist to Julian Schieber to score an equalizing goal tap-in finish for a 2–2 scoreline in Dortmund's 4–2 home victory over FC Augsburg.On 27 July 2013, Hofmann won the 2013 DFL-Supercup with Dortmund 4–2 against rivals Bayern Munich. Hofmann's first goal for Borussia Dortmund came on 18 August in a win against Eintracht Braunschweig, after coming on as a substitute in the second half. On 12 April 2014, Hofmann scored the third goal as Dortmund defeated Bayern Munich 3–0 at the Allianz Arena. On 13 August 2014, he played in the 2014 Super Cup.During the summer transfer window of 2014, Borussia Dortmund agreed to a year-long loan deal for Hofmann that would send him to 1. FSV Mainz 05 until 30 June 2015. He was injured for most of the 2014-15 season and scored 3 goals in 12 games for Mainz, before returning to Dortmund.On 30 July 2015, Hofmann scored his first European goal in a 1–0 win over Austrian side Wolfsberger AC in the first leg of the Europa League third qualifying round.It was announced on 29 December 2015 that Hofmann would join Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 January 2016, signing a four-year deal until 2020. After only joining Gladbach during the winter break, he made his debut for the club on 23 January 2016 in a 1–3 loss to former club Dortmund.Hofmann scored his first goal for the club in a Round of 16 match in the UEFA Europa League against fellow German side Schalke on 9 March 2017. The game ended in a 1–1 draw with Gladbach eventually going out on away goals after the two-legged tie finished 3–3.On 18 October 2018, Hofmann scored his first ever professional hat-trick in a 4–0 league win over former club Mainz. Hofmann signed a new deal with Gladbach on 16 April 2019, , extending his stay at the club until 2023.On January 8 2021, he scored a brace and got an assist in a historic 3-2 win against Bayern MunichHofmann played between the years 2009 and 2010 for the German U18 national football team and he completed his last cap for the under 18 national team with a victory on 25 March 2010 against France U18 national football team, before going on to represent the German U21 national football team.In October 2020, he was called to represent Germany national team by Joachim Löw for the matches against Turkey, Ukraine and Switzerland. He made his debut on 7 October 2020, against Turkey in a friendly game. On 19 May 2021, he was selected to the squad for the UEFA Euro 2020.	[ "Germany national under-21 football team", "Germany national under-18 football team", "Borussia Dortmund", "Borussia Mönchengladbach", "1. FSV Mainz 05", "Germany national under-21 football team", "Germany national under-18 football team", "Borussia Mönchengladbach", "1. FSV Mainz 05" ]
Which team did Jonas Hofmann play for in Mar, 2012?	March 11, 2012	{ "text": [ "Borussia Dortmund II", "Borussia Dortmund" ] }	L2_Q822781_P54_2	Jonas Hofmann plays for 1. FSV Mainz 05 from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Jonas Hofmann plays for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2016. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Mönchengladbach from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-21 football team from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund II from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-18 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.	Jonas HofmannJonas Hofmann (; born 14 July 1992) is a German footballer who plays as a midfielder for Borussia Mönchengladbach and the Germany national team.Hofmann began his club career in 1998 playing at FC Rot in the municipality of St. Leon-Rot and remained there until the end of the 2003–2004 season, before he moved to 1899 Hoffenheim in the 2004–2005 season. Hofmann debuted for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim second team in a 1–0 victory in April 2011 during the 2010–2011 season. At the end of the 2010–2011 season playing for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II, Hofmann made five league appearances, in which he scored two goals.In the 2011–2012 season, Hofmann signed a contract for Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2015; and inducted into Borussia Dortmund II for 2011–2012 season. Hofmann debuted for Dortmund II on 6 August in a 2–0 away victory over 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, scoring his first goal of the 2011–2012 season. On 10 September, Hofmann succeeded in scoring two goals in a 4–0 away victory over the second team of Schalke 04. In the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season, Hofmann was inducted into the Borussia Dortmund first team.Hofmann debuted for Borussia Dortmund first team in the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season on 16 December 2012, in BVB's 3–1 away victory over TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, where he came on as substitute in the 89th minute. On 6 April 2013, he started his first match in the Bundesliga, and he was credited with an assist to Julian Schieber to score an equalizing goal tap-in finish for a 2–2 scoreline in Dortmund's 4–2 home victory over FC Augsburg.On 27 July 2013, Hofmann won the 2013 DFL-Supercup with Dortmund 4–2 against rivals Bayern Munich. Hofmann's first goal for Borussia Dortmund came on 18 August in a win against Eintracht Braunschweig, after coming on as a substitute in the second half. On 12 April 2014, Hofmann scored the third goal as Dortmund defeated Bayern Munich 3–0 at the Allianz Arena. On 13 August 2014, he played in the 2014 Super Cup.During the summer transfer window of 2014, Borussia Dortmund agreed to a year-long loan deal for Hofmann that would send him to 1. FSV Mainz 05 until 30 June 2015. He was injured for most of the 2014-15 season and scored 3 goals in 12 games for Mainz, before returning to Dortmund.On 30 July 2015, Hofmann scored his first European goal in a 1–0 win over Austrian side Wolfsberger AC in the first leg of the Europa League third qualifying round.It was announced on 29 December 2015 that Hofmann would join Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 January 2016, signing a four-year deal until 2020. After only joining Gladbach during the winter break, he made his debut for the club on 23 January 2016 in a 1–3 loss to former club Dortmund.Hofmann scored his first goal for the club in a Round of 16 match in the UEFA Europa League against fellow German side Schalke on 9 March 2017. The game ended in a 1–1 draw with Gladbach eventually going out on away goals after the two-legged tie finished 3–3.On 18 October 2018, Hofmann scored his first ever professional hat-trick in a 4–0 league win over former club Mainz. Hofmann signed a new deal with Gladbach on 16 April 2019, , extending his stay at the club until 2023.On January 8 2021, he scored a brace and got an assist in a historic 3-2 win against Bayern MunichHofmann played between the years 2009 and 2010 for the German U18 national football team and he completed his last cap for the under 18 national team with a victory on 25 March 2010 against France U18 national football team, before going on to represent the German U21 national football team.In October 2020, he was called to represent Germany national team by Joachim Löw for the matches against Turkey, Ukraine and Switzerland. He made his debut on 7 October 2020, against Turkey in a friendly game. On 19 May 2021, he was selected to the squad for the UEFA Euro 2020.	[ "Germany national under-21 football team", "Germany national under-18 football team", "Borussia Mönchengladbach", "TSG 1899 Hoffenheim", "1. FSV Mainz 05" ]
Which team did Jonas Hofmann play for in Jul, 2015?	July 18, 2015	{ "text": [ "Borussia Dortmund" ] }	L2_Q822781_P54_3	Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-18 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Jonas Hofmann plays for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Mönchengladbach from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2016. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund II from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for 1. FSV Mainz 05 from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-21 football team from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.	Jonas HofmannJonas Hofmann (; born 14 July 1992) is a German footballer who plays as a midfielder for Borussia Mönchengladbach and the Germany national team.Hofmann began his club career in 1998 playing at FC Rot in the municipality of St. Leon-Rot and remained there until the end of the 2003–2004 season, before he moved to 1899 Hoffenheim in the 2004–2005 season. Hofmann debuted for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim second team in a 1–0 victory in April 2011 during the 2010–2011 season. At the end of the 2010–2011 season playing for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II, Hofmann made five league appearances, in which he scored two goals.In the 2011–2012 season, Hofmann signed a contract for Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2015; and inducted into Borussia Dortmund II for 2011–2012 season. Hofmann debuted for Dortmund II on 6 August in a 2–0 away victory over 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, scoring his first goal of the 2011–2012 season. On 10 September, Hofmann succeeded in scoring two goals in a 4–0 away victory over the second team of Schalke 04. In the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season, Hofmann was inducted into the Borussia Dortmund first team.Hofmann debuted for Borussia Dortmund first team in the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season on 16 December 2012, in BVB's 3–1 away victory over TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, where he came on as substitute in the 89th minute. On 6 April 2013, he started his first match in the Bundesliga, and he was credited with an assist to Julian Schieber to score an equalizing goal tap-in finish for a 2–2 scoreline in Dortmund's 4–2 home victory over FC Augsburg.On 27 July 2013, Hofmann won the 2013 DFL-Supercup with Dortmund 4–2 against rivals Bayern Munich. Hofmann's first goal for Borussia Dortmund came on 18 August in a win against Eintracht Braunschweig, after coming on as a substitute in the second half. On 12 April 2014, Hofmann scored the third goal as Dortmund defeated Bayern Munich 3–0 at the Allianz Arena. On 13 August 2014, he played in the 2014 Super Cup.During the summer transfer window of 2014, Borussia Dortmund agreed to a year-long loan deal for Hofmann that would send him to 1. FSV Mainz 05 until 30 June 2015. He was injured for most of the 2014-15 season and scored 3 goals in 12 games for Mainz, before returning to Dortmund.On 30 July 2015, Hofmann scored his first European goal in a 1–0 win over Austrian side Wolfsberger AC in the first leg of the Europa League third qualifying round.It was announced on 29 December 2015 that Hofmann would join Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 January 2016, signing a four-year deal until 2020. After only joining Gladbach during the winter break, he made his debut for the club on 23 January 2016 in a 1–3 loss to former club Dortmund.Hofmann scored his first goal for the club in a Round of 16 match in the UEFA Europa League against fellow German side Schalke on 9 March 2017. The game ended in a 1–1 draw with Gladbach eventually going out on away goals after the two-legged tie finished 3–3.On 18 October 2018, Hofmann scored his first ever professional hat-trick in a 4–0 league win over former club Mainz. Hofmann signed a new deal with Gladbach on 16 April 2019, , extending his stay at the club until 2023.On January 8 2021, he scored a brace and got an assist in a historic 3-2 win against Bayern MunichHofmann played between the years 2009 and 2010 for the German U18 national football team and he completed his last cap for the under 18 national team with a victory on 25 March 2010 against France U18 national football team, before going on to represent the German U21 national football team.In October 2020, he was called to represent Germany national team by Joachim Löw for the matches against Turkey, Ukraine and Switzerland. He made his debut on 7 October 2020, against Turkey in a friendly game. On 19 May 2021, he was selected to the squad for the UEFA Euro 2020.	[ "Germany national under-21 football team", "Borussia Dortmund II", "Germany national under-18 football team", "Borussia Mönchengladbach", "TSG 1899 Hoffenheim", "1. FSV Mainz 05" ]
Which team did Jonas Hofmann play for in Sep, 2013?	September 21, 2013	{ "text": [ "Borussia Dortmund II", "Germany national under-21 football team", "Borussia Dortmund" ] }	L2_Q822781_P54_4	Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-21 football team from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Mönchengladbach from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022. Jonas Hofmann plays for Germany national under-18 football team from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010. Jonas Hofmann plays for 1. FSV Mainz 05 from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015. Jonas Hofmann plays for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund II from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2014. Jonas Hofmann plays for Borussia Dortmund from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2016.	Jonas HofmannJonas Hofmann (; born 14 July 1992) is a German footballer who plays as a midfielder for Borussia Mönchengladbach and the Germany national team.Hofmann began his club career in 1998 playing at FC Rot in the municipality of St. Leon-Rot and remained there until the end of the 2003–2004 season, before he moved to 1899 Hoffenheim in the 2004–2005 season. Hofmann debuted for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim second team in a 1–0 victory in April 2011 during the 2010–2011 season. At the end of the 2010–2011 season playing for TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II, Hofmann made five league appearances, in which he scored two goals.In the 2011–2012 season, Hofmann signed a contract for Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2015; and inducted into Borussia Dortmund II for 2011–2012 season. Hofmann debuted for Dortmund II on 6 August in a 2–0 away victory over 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, scoring his first goal of the 2011–2012 season. On 10 September, Hofmann succeeded in scoring two goals in a 4–0 away victory over the second team of Schalke 04. In the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season, Hofmann was inducted into the Borussia Dortmund first team.Hofmann debuted for Borussia Dortmund first team in the 2012–2013 Bundesliga season on 16 December 2012, in BVB's 3–1 away victory over TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, where he came on as substitute in the 89th minute. On 6 April 2013, he started his first match in the Bundesliga, and he was credited with an assist to Julian Schieber to score an equalizing goal tap-in finish for a 2–2 scoreline in Dortmund's 4–2 home victory over FC Augsburg.On 27 July 2013, Hofmann won the 2013 DFL-Supercup with Dortmund 4–2 against rivals Bayern Munich. Hofmann's first goal for Borussia Dortmund came on 18 August in a win against Eintracht Braunschweig, after coming on as a substitute in the second half. On 12 April 2014, Hofmann scored the third goal as Dortmund defeated Bayern Munich 3–0 at the Allianz Arena. On 13 August 2014, he played in the 2014 Super Cup.During the summer transfer window of 2014, Borussia Dortmund agreed to a year-long loan deal for Hofmann that would send him to 1. FSV Mainz 05 until 30 June 2015. He was injured for most of the 2014-15 season and scored 3 goals in 12 games for Mainz, before returning to Dortmund.On 30 July 2015, Hofmann scored his first European goal in a 1–0 win over Austrian side Wolfsberger AC in the first leg of the Europa League third qualifying round.It was announced on 29 December 2015 that Hofmann would join Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 January 2016, signing a four-year deal until 2020. After only joining Gladbach during the winter break, he made his debut for the club on 23 January 2016 in a 1–3 loss to former club Dortmund.Hofmann scored his first goal for the club in a Round of 16 match in the UEFA Europa League against fellow German side Schalke on 9 March 2017. The game ended in a 1–1 draw with Gladbach eventually going out on away goals after the two-legged tie finished 3–3.On 18 October 2018, Hofmann scored his first ever professional hat-trick in a 4–0 league win over former club Mainz. Hofmann signed a new deal with Gladbach on 16 April 2019, , extending his stay at the club until 2023.On January 8 2021, he scored a brace and got an assist in a historic 3-2 win against Bayern MunichHofmann played between the years 2009 and 2010 for the German U18 national football team and he completed his last cap for the under 18 national team with a victory on 25 March 2010 against France U18 national football team, before going on to represent the German U21 national football team.In October 2020, he was called to represent Germany national team by Joachim Löw for the matches against Turkey, Ukraine and Switzerland. He made his debut on 7 October 2020, against Turkey in a friendly game. On 19 May 2021, he was selected to the squad for the UEFA Euro 2020.	[ "Borussia Mönchengladbach", "TSG 1899 Hoffenheim", "1. FSV Mainz 05", "Germany national under-18 football team" ]

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