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Languages, our main tools of communication, evolve constantly: words obtain new and lose old meanings over time, they become popular or fade into obscurity. Because of its importance, language is studied by academics and public alike, as shown by the large number of publications and websites devoted to language evoluti... | 0 |
The three most essential components of a Statistical Machine Translation (SMT) system are:(1) Translation Model (TM); (2) Language Model (LM); and (3) Reordering Model (RM). Among these models, the RM plays an important role in Phrase-Based SMT (PBSMT) (Marcu and Wong, 2002; Koehn et al., 2003) , and it still remains a... | 0 |
The ever-growing field of polarity-classification of written texts may benefit greatly from linguistic insights and tools that will allow to efficiently (and thus economically) extract the polarity of written texts, in particular, online customer reviews.Many researchers interpret "efficiently" as using better computat... | 0 |
As the attention in linguistics is shifting from the analysis of isolated sentences to how information is encoded in discourse, the information structure of sentences and how it is expressed in a given language is receiving increasing interest. In order to connect the information structure of sentences to the overall s... | 0 |
Studying language acquisition among children exposed to multiple languages is interesting for both scientific and societal reasons. As to the former, studies on bilingual and multilingual infant language development could provide answers regarding the cognitive organization of language, and further our understanding of... | 0 |
Consider the following (scribbled) message, left by a computer science professor on a colleague's desk:[i] Met w/chrmn agreed on changes to prposl nxt mtg 3 Feb.A good deal of informal text such as everyday messages like the one above are very ill-formed grammatically and contain misspellings, ad hoc abbreviations and ... | 0 |
Classical phrase-based translation models rely heavily on the language model and the reordering model to capture dependencies between phrases. Sequence models over Minimum Translation Units (MTUs) have been shown to complement both syntax-based (Quirk and Menezes, 2006) as well as phrase-based (Zhang et al., 2013) mode... | 0 |
Machine readable dictionaries (MRDs) contain knowledge about language and the world essential for tasks in natural language processing (NLP). However, this knowledge, collected and recorded by lexicographers for human readers, is not presented in a principled enough manner for MRDs to be used directly as tools for such... | 0 |
Controversy is a state of sustained public debate on a topic or issue that evokes conflicting opinions, beliefs, claims, arguments, and points of view. In this paper, we will refer to utterances of opinion, belief, claim, argument, or point of view relevant to an issue as assertions. People make assertions on a controv... | 0 |
Topic models uncover the main subjects addressed in the documents of a corpus by inferring their themes or topics, which in turn correspond to probability distributions over words. Topic models are useful for improving traditional browsing and indexing, summarisation of large quantities of text, and text classification... | 0 |
Construal Level theory (CLT) (Trope and Liberman, 2010) postulates that people create differing mental representations of the same information depending upon whether the information is psychologically proximal or psychologically distant. For instance, people experience geographically distant, and hence psychologically ... | 0 |
Sentiment analysis is one of the specified smaller tasks of opinion mining, which is sub-discipline at the crossroads of information retrieval and computational linguistics. It involves the contextual mining of sentences to identify sentiment information in input material. Furthermore, it summarizes the target into spe... | 0 |
The association of words takes an important role in finding out the dependency relation among them. The associations among words or phrases are indicators of the lexical preference. :t vlany works have shown that the association value computed with statistical information makes good results in resolving structural ambi... | 0 |
The Multiple-choice test items (MCQs) are frequently used for knowledge assessment, e.g., ongoing assessment or during an examination. They are also used for career-significant assessment in medical training and certification, e.g., the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) or the United States Medical Licensing Examin... | 0 |
Evaluation of the produced results is crucial for natural language processing (NLP) research in general and, in particular for machine translation (MT). Human evaluation of MT system output is a time consuming and expensive task. This is why automatic evaluation is preferred to human evaluation in the research communit... | 0 |
Remarkable progress has been made in Neural Machine Translation (NMT) (Bahdanau et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020) in recent years, which has been widely applied in everyday life. A typical scenario for such application is translating dialogue texts, in particular the record of group cha... | 0 |
Un modèle statistique du langage est une distribution de probabilités sur des mots ou suites de mots. Il permet de classer les mots ou les phrases selon leur probabilité d'apparition. Son objectif est d'assigner relativement une grande probabilité aux séquences de mots fréquentes, significatives, grammaticalement corre... | 0 |
Machine Translation (MT) is automated translation of one natural language to another using computer software. Translation is a tough task, not only for computers, but humans as well as it incorporates a thorough understanding of the syntax and semantics of both languages. For any MT system to return good translations, ... | 0 |
In this paper, we consider the task of voice-based postediting of the output of a machine translation (MT) system. In other words, a human corrects the translation produced by a system simply by speaking out this correction. The paper presents a method for using an existing dataset to evaluate spoken post-editing metho... | 0 |
One of the main problems for a spoken dialogue system is to determine the user's goal (e.g. plan suitable meeting times or find a good Indian restaurant nearby) under uncertainty, and thereby to compute the optimal next system dialogue action (e.g. offer a restaurant, ask for clarification). Recent research in statisti... | 0 |
If a user asks a system "How many painkillers should I take?", it is better for the system to say "don't know" rather than making a costly incorrect prediction. When the system is learned from data, uncertainty pervades, and we must manage this uncertainty properly to achieve our precision requirement. It is particular... | 0 |
The problem of information overload in personal communication media such as email, instant messaging, and on-line discussion boards is a well documented phenomenon (Bellotti, 2005) . Because of this, conversation summarization is an area with a great potential impact (Zechner, 2001) . What is strikingly different about... | 0 |
In the machine translation (MT) field, human evaluators subjectively evaluate the results of MT systems from the viewpoints of adequacy and fluency. However, two problems in subjective evaluations have been noted. The first is that the time and cost consumption of such evaluations is high. The second is that the evalua... | 0 |
Recent success of graph-based semi-supervised learning builds on access to plentiful unsupervised data and accurate similarity measures between data examples (Zhu et al., 2003; Joachims, 2003; Zhu and Lafferty, 2005; Altun et al., 2005; Zhu, 2005; Chapelle et al., 2006; Subramanya and Bilmes, 2009; Subramanya et al., 2... | 0 |
Chinese zero pronoun resolution is a special task of coreference resolution (Zhao and Ng, 2007) . Its purpose is to find the real referent of the omitted parts with syntactic functions in the text. These omitted parts are usually called zero pronouns, and their real referents are called antecedents. Below is a sentence... | 0 |
Previous literature on selectional preference has usually learned preferences for words in the form of classes, e.g., the object of eat is an edible entity. This paper extends previous statistical models to classes of verbs, yielding a relation between classes in a hierarchy, as opposed to a relation between a word and... | 0 |
Recommendation systems are engines that use algorithms leveraging the interaction between users to generate personalized recommendations. They provide users with recommendations for new content these users might be interested in (music, movies, books, etc) .Recommendation systems can be divided into three main types: C... | 0 |
In this paper, we propose a sentence (or "micro") planning system that can quickly adapt to new domains provided a corpus of sentences from the target domain is supplied. First, all sentences from the corpus are parsed and a semantic representation is generated. We used predicate and domain general named entities from ... | 0 |
Emotion recognition in conversations (ERC) has garnered attention recently (Poria et al., 2019) , due to its potential in developing practical chatting machines (Zhou et al., 2018a) . Unlike traditional text classification that handles context-free sentences, ERC aims to predict the emotional state of each utterance in... | 0 |
Using the natural language processing methods to discover and mine drug-related knowledge from text has been a hot topic in recent years. For the goal of drug repurposing, an active gene annotation corpus (AGAC) was developed as a benchmark dataset (Wang et al., 2018b) . The AGAC track is part of the BioNLP Open Shared... | 0 |
The phrase translation model, also known as the phrase table, is one of the core components of a phrase-based statistical machine translation (SMT) system. The most common method of constructing the phrase table takes a two-phase approach. First, the bilingual phrase pairs are extracted heuristically from an automatica... | 0 |
The task of mapping natural language instructions to actions for a robot has been gaining momentum in recent years Tellex et al., 2011; Bollini et al., 2011; Guadarrama et al., 2013; Matuszek et al., 2012b; Fasola and Mataric, 2013) . We are particularly interested in instructions containing verbs such as "microwave" d... | 0 |
The goal of relation extraction is to extract tuples of a particular relation from a corpus of natural language text. A widely employed approach to relation extraction is based on iterative bootstrapping (Brin, 1998; Agichtein and Gravano, 2000; Pasca et al., 2006; Pantel and Pennacchiotti, 2006) , which can be applied... | 0 |
A picture is worth a thousand words-especially when you are someone with communicative disorders, a foreign language speaker, or a young child. Pictorial communication systems aim to automatically convert general natural language text into meaningful pictures. A perfect pictorial c 2008.Licensed under the Creative Comm... | 0 |
Learning continuous representations of words has a long history in natural language processing (Rumelhart et al., 1988) . These representations are typically derived from large unlabeled corpora using co-occurrence statistics (Deerwester et al., 1990; Schütze, 1992; Lund and Burgess, 1996) . A large body of work, known... | 0 |
Word sense disambiguation, the determination of the correct sense of a polysemous word from a number of possible senses based on the context in which it occurs, is a continuing obstacle to high performance natural language processing applications. There are several well-documented factors that make accurate WSD particu... | 0 |
A critical part of understanding natural language is connecting specific textual references to real world entities. In text processing systems, this is the task of entity resolution: given a document where certain spans of text have been recognized as mentions referring to entities, the goal is to link them to unique e... | 0 |
State-of-the-art transfer learning methods model classification tasks as text generation, such as GPT2 (Radford et al., 2019) and T5 (Raffel et al., 2019) , and have led to significant improvements across a variety of NLP tasks. In this setting, labels are represented as strings for the model to generate, and the pretr... | 0 |
Graphs are popular for both (semantic web) knowledge representation (Screiber and Raimond, 2014; Dong et al., 2014; Rospocher et al., 2016) and natural language semantics (Banarescu et al., 2013; Perera et al., 2018; Wities et al., 2017) . The casual observer might assume there is substantial overlap between the two ac... | 0 |
All the known cases of lost language decipherment have been accomplished by human experts, oftentimes over decades of painstaking efforts. At least a dozen languages are still undeciphered today. For some of those languages, even the most fundamental questions pertaining to their origins and connections to known langua... | 0 |
Pour les plateformes de streaming musical, l'exploitation des données liées aux genres musicaux est essentielle (Mandel et al., 2010; Schedl & Ferwerda, 2017) . Ces genres peuvent en effet refléter et résumer les préférences musicales des utilisateurs, permettre d'améliorer l'organisation d'un catalogue musical ou enco... | 0 |
Relation extraction (RE) is a sub-task under the broad category of information extraction (IE) that aims to identify relationship(s) between named entities based on textual information (corpus). The groundtruth relationship(s) between an entity pair can be either internal, if each sentence in the corpus is explicitly l... | 0 |
Deep neural models have recently gained popularity, leading to significant improvements in many Natural Language Understanding (NLU) tasks (Goldberg, 2017) . However, the research community still lacks in-depth understanding of how these models work and what kind of linguistic information is actually captured by neural... | 0 |
Asymmetrical text matching, which predicts the relationship (e.g., category, similarity) of two text sequences from different domains, is a fundamental problem in both information retrieval (IR) and natural language processing (NLP). For example, * Corresponding author in natural language inference (NLI), text matching... | 0 |
Cet article s'intéresse à la modélisation des restructurations syntaxiques dans un système de traduction par transfert. L'architecture que nous considérons a été introduite dès les premiers travaux en traduction automatique [TA] (Kulagina & Mel' uk 1967) et reprise par différents systèmes comme la plateforme Etap-2 (Ap... | 0 |
Advanced NLP applications such as question answering require deep semantic interpretation. In this context, prepositions play an important role since they encode relational information. The proper semantic analysis of prepositional phrases is faced with various problems: (1) There is the well-known problem of attachmen... | 0 |
Textual coherence is essential for writing a natural language text that is comprehensible to readers. To recognize the coherent structure of a natural language text, Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) is applied to describe an internal discourse structure for the text as a constituent tree (Mann and Thompson, 1988) . A ... | 0 |
Paraphrase generation (McKeown, 1983 ; Barzilay and Lee, 2003) has seen a recent surge of interest, both with large-scale dataset collection and curation (Lan et al., 2017; and with modeling advances such as deep generative models (Gupta et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019) . Paraphrasing models have proven to be especially ... | 0 |
Wiktionary 1 is a free online multilingual dictionary containing a plethora of interesting information. In this paper, we focus on the pronunciation annotations in Wiktionary, which are relatively understudied. For any given word, Wiktionary may include data for IPA (both phonetic and phonemic), hyphenation, dialectica... | 0 |
Word embeddings learned by methods like Word2vec (Mikolov et al., 2013) and Glove (Pennington et al., 2014) have had a big impact on natural language processing (NLP) and information retrieval (IR). They are effective and efficient for many tasks. More recently, contextualized embeddings like ELMo (Peters et al., 2018)... | 0 |
Adversarial examples are slightly perturbed input samples purposely crafted to fool a target model (Szegedy et al., 2014) . Despite being similar to the original samples, they are often misclassified with high confidence (Goodfellow et al., 2015) . Without effective defense techniques, machine learning models become un... | 0 |
Universal Dependencies (UD) are a cross-linguistic dependency grammar framework driven by a largescale multi-lingual community effort (de Marneffe et al., 2014) . In general, UD prioritizes relations between content words. The treatment of function words, being a rather language-specific issue, is to date sometimes inc... | 0 |
Les capacités d'interaction entre internautes se sont spectaculairement accrues au cours des dernières décennies, et avec elles les plate-formes d'échange participatives. Ces plate-formes, qui se déclinent en différentes modalités -salons de chat, listes de diffusion, forums de discussions -sont souvent utilisées par l... | 0 |
Neural Machine Translation (NMT) has recently achieved impressive performance on high-resource language pairs which have large amounts of parallel training data (Wu et al., 2016) (Vaswani et al., 2017) . However, these systems still work poorly when the parallel data is low or unavailable. Research on zero-resource lan... | 0 |
The role of corrections in language learning has recently received substantial attention in Grammatical Inference. The kinds of corrections considered are mainly syntactic corrections based on proximity between strings. For example, a correction of a string may be given by using edit distance (Becerra-Bonache et al., 2... | 0 |
Image-text retrieval (ITR) has been widely studied as a staple benchmark task in both NLP and computer vision communities. Traditional ITR search engines typically deploy ranking-based models built upon visual-semantic embedding matching (Faghri et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2018) or deep cross-modal fusion with attentio... | 0 |
Speech corpora for speech synthesisers (namely Unit Selection synthesisers) in different languages have increased in number and vary in size. The size of these corpora is rarely justified in the literature as there is no consensus on what is the minimum length for a speech corpus required to build a synthesiser with a ... | 0 |
Knowledge bases (KBs) such as Freebase (Bollacker et al., 2008) and YAGO (Fabian et al., 2007) play a pivotal role in many NLP related applications. KBs consist of facts in the form of triplets (e i , r, e j ), indicating that head entity e i and tail entity e j is linked by relation r. Although KBs are large, they are... | 0 |
Translation Memory systems are one of the many translation technology tools available in the translation market. Their main purpose is to accelerate translators' productivity and improve the overall translation process. As many authors recognise, Translation Memories have achieved remarkable success among both translat... | 0 |
Il est devenu de nos jours très facile d'assembler de grandes quantités de textes d'opinion à partir des réseaux sociaux, de forums et de sites de critique en ligne pour construire un classifieur de documents basé sur les opinions, qui fonctionnera avec un niveau de performance suffisant pour une utilisation industriel... | 0 |
The TC-STAR project 1 is a long-term effort to advance research in the core technologies of Speech-to-Speech Translation (SST). The project targets a selection of speech domains (speeches and broadcast news) and three languages: UK English, European Spanish and Mandarin Chinese. To assess the advances made in all SST t... | 0 |
Recent research in syntax-based statistical machine translation and the recent availability of syntactically annotated corpora for multiple languages (Nivre et al., 2007) has provided a new opportunity for evaluating the cross-linguistic validity of statistical models of syntactic structure. This opportunity has been s... | 0 |
There is a significant progress in movement from early natural language understanding computer programs like SHRDLU (Winograd, 1972) with its deterministic actions in the virtual world to modern cognitive robots operating in the physical world and mapping language to actions. Artificial agents enter our lives and the e... | 0 |
Understanding most nontrivial claims requires insights from various perspectives. Today, we make use of search engines or recommendation systems to retrieve information relevant to a claim, but this process carries multiple forms of bias. In particular, they are optimized relative to the claim (query) presented, and th... | 0 |
Les progrès considérables accomplis en IRM dynamique temps réel dans la dernière décennie (cf. Uecker et al. (2010) ou Niebergall et al. (2013) ) ont rendu cette technique d'imagerie médicale extrêmement intéressante pour l'étude des mouvements des articulateurs orofaciaux dans les tâches de parole (Silva & Teixeira (2... | 0 |
In dialogue, interlocutors produce speech incrementally and on-line as the dialogue progresses. Articulation can be initiated before the speaker has a complete plan of what to say (Pechmann, 1989) . When speaking, processes at all levels (e.g. semantic, syntactic, phonologic and articulatory) work in parallel to render... | 0 |
The automatic treatment of time expressions, events and their relations over natural language text consists of making temporal elements explicit through a system that identifies and annotates them following a standard scheme. This information is crucial for other natural language processing (NLP) areas, such as summari... | 0 |
Public sentiments, whose information hidden in a temporal sequence of documents, become increasingly valuable for real-world applications. Especially, identifying when public drifts occur is of great importance to different stakeholders, such as government agencies, companies and news agencies, where they can take proa... | 0 |
Liner2 (Marcińczuk et al., 2013 ) is a generic framework which can be used to solve various tasks based on sequence labeling, i.e. recognition of named entities, temporal expressions, mentions of events. It provides a set of modules (based on statistical models, dictionaries, rules and heuristics) which recognize and a... | 0 |
Distributional semantics models such as word embeddings (Bengio et al., 2003; Collobert et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2012; Mikolov et al., 2013b) notoriously require exposure to a large amount of contextual data in order to generate high quality vector representations of words. This poses practical challenges when the a... | 0 |
Sentences in patent texts are long. Figure 1 shows the frequency distribution of sentence length (characters) for Japanese patent text and Japanese newspaper text. The mean length of Japanese patent sentence 1 is 60 characters and of Japanese news sentence is 38 characters. Long sentences are difficult to translate by ... | 0 |
The idea of interacting with machines via natural language instructions and queries has fascinated researchers for decades (Winograd, 1971) . Recent years have seen an increasing number of applications that have a natural language interface, either in the form of chatbots or via "intelligent personal assistants" such a... | 0 |
Recent and state-of-the-art approaches to unsupervised non-contextual single document keyword extraction typically work on some sort of graph of the input text, formed with respect to word order. The graphs generally pose word-forms as nodes and place edges between words so long as their proximity in the linear text is... | 0 |
While syntactically informed modelling for statistical MT is an active field of research that has recently gained major attention from the MT community, work on integrating semantic models of adequacy into MT is still at preliminary stages. This situation holds not only for system development (most current methods disr... | 0 |
Semantic resources have proved to be useful in information retrieval and information extraction for applications such as query expansion (Voorhees, 1998 ), text summarization (Harabagiu and Maiorano, 2002) or question/answering (Pasca and Harabagiu, 2001) . But this work has also shown that these resources must be used... | 0 |
The research presented in this paper is part of a project whose general objective is to provide linguistically based support for several small Finno-Ugric (FU) digital communities to generate online content and help to revitalize the digital functions of some FU minority languages. The practical objective of the projec... | 0 |
In recent years, the importance of dialogue understanding systems has been increasing because interactive interfaces handling a natural language such as smart speakers have become popular. However, it is difficult for computer programs to understand our daily conversations because we frequently use emotional expression... | 0 |
While developments in MT technology and theory have continued to chip away at the problems of MT, it is not always clear what we are chipping away at. There are problems raised within various theoretical frameworks. There are the general problems of raising the quality ceiling, or reducing the cost of reaching the inev... | 0 |
Due to the rich inflection, derivation, free word order, and other morphological and syntactic phenomena exhibited by Slavic languages, analysis of named entities (NEs) in these languages poses a challenging task (Przepiórkowski, 2007; Piskorski et al., 2009) . Fostering research and development on detection and lemmat... | 0 |
In recent years, we have observed a growing interest in methods of effective sentiment analysis, especially in subjective, opinion-forming online texts. This trend is perfectly illustrated by Figure 1, which compares the popularity of two terms: customer feedback and sentiment analysis. A very dynamic growth has been o... | 0 |
Arabic has a number of diverse dialects from across different regions of the Arab World. Although primarily spoken, written dialectal Arabic has been increasingly used on social media. Automatic dialect identification is helpful for tasks such as sentiment analysis (Al-Twairesh et al., 2016) , author profiling (Sadat e... | 0 |
La conversation est une situation co-construite par les interlocuteurs qui évolue au cours du temps. La dynamique de cette co-construction, est sous-tendue par un phénomène ténu mais néanmoins essentiel : la convergence. Des études ont en effet montré qu'au cours d'une interaction, les locuteurs ont une tendance à imit... | 0 |
Human-machine conversations have different dynamics compared to human-human conversations due to the power imbalance between humans and machines in conversational settings. Such differences include content and voice quality (Hill et al., 2015) . For instance, humans tend to use a more authoritative voice when they talk... | 0 |
The presence on social networks like Twitter, Facebook and Instagram is of main importance for teenagers, but this may also lead to undesirable and harmful situations. We refer to these forms of harassment as cyberbullying, i.e., 'an aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or an individual, using electronic ... | 0 |
Automatic term recognition (ATR) deals with the extraction of domain-specific lexical units from text. The input of ATR is a large collection of documents, i.e., a special corpus, 1 and the output is a vocabulary that is used for communicating specialized knowledge (L 'Homme, 2014) . This vocabulary comprises a collect... | 0 |
In pro-drop languages such as Chinese, pronouns can be dropped as the identity of the pronoun can be inferred from the context, and this happens more frequently in conversations (Yang et al., 2015) . Recovering dropped pronouns (DPs) is a critical task for many NLP applications such as Machine Translation where the dro... | 0 |
1,1 Roadmap Arabic named entity recognition in texts in Arabic script is, to our knowledge, a little researched topic. I In this paper we describe a system, TAGARAB, that uses a generic pattern-matching engine, SRA's NetOwl TurboTag TM, combined with an integrated morphological analysis process, which recognizes names ... | 0 |
Change captioning aims to generate a natural language sentence to detail what has changed in a pair of similar images. It has many practical applications, such as assisted surveillance, medical imaging, and computer assisted tracking of changes in media assets (Jhamtani and Berg-Kirkpatrick, 2018; Tu et al., 2021) .Dif... | 0 |
Natural language processing (NLP) in the clinical domain has received substantial interest, with applications in decision support, patient managing and profiling, mining trends, and others (see the extensive review by Friedman and Johnson (2006) ). While some of these applications, such as document retrieval and trend ... | 0 |
Speech-to-text translation (ST) aims to translate a speech of a certain language into a text translation of another language. Recent advances of end-to-end ST models have been largely boosted by the release of large high-quality parallel datasets (Kocabiyikoglu et al., 2018; Di Gangi et al., 2019; . A clean test set is... | 0 |
There are few non-English datasets dedicated to Natural Legal Language Processing (NLLP) or Legal Information Retrieval (LIR). To our knowledge, not a single dataset exists that provides a standardized benchmark for LIR models on the German language. To this end we contribute GerDaLIR, a legal document retrieval datase... | 0 |
In recent years, Neural Machine Translation (NMT) has become the mainstream method of machine translation as it, in a great number of cases, outperforms most models based on Statistical Machine Translation (SMT), let alone the linguistics-based methods. One of the most popular baseline models is the sequence-to-sequenc... | 0 |
In this paper, we examine current trends in machine translation (MT) in Europe and in Japan. The market for MT systems has changed drastically in the past few years in both regions. The main reasons for this change have been: the urgent demand for keeping abreast with business needs; the voracious appetite of informati... | 0 |
Communities of bilinguals tend to evolve a conversational mode where elements of both languages appear in the same interaction and even in the same sentence despite the fact that all participants may be competent in either of the two languages. Whether this mode is used in preference to monolingual discourse depends on... | 0 |
The design of speech segmentation 1 methods has been much studied ever since Harris' seminal propositions (1955) . Research conducted since the mid 1990's by cognitive scientists (Brent and Cartwright, 1996; Saffran et al., 1996) has established it as a paradigm of its own in the field of computational models of langua... | 0 |
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) are widely used as an assessment of students' knowledge and skills. A MCQ consists of three elements: (i) stem, the question sentence; (ii) key, the correct answer; (iii) distractors, alternative answers used to distract students from the correct answer. Among all methods for creating g... | 0 |
Systems that use natural language as a means of communication must do so in a natural manner. One of the features of communication between people is that they acquire and use considerable knowledge about their conversational partners. In order for machines to interact with people in a comfortable, natural manner, they ... | 0 |
This work presents the Tier-based Strictly 2-Local Inference Algorithm (2TSLIA), an efficient learning algorithm for a class of Tier-based Strictly Local (TSL) formal languages (Heinz et al., 2011) . A TSL class is determined by two parameters: the tier, or subset of the alphabet, and the permissible tier k-factors, wh... | 0 |
With the development on economy and international influence of China,, more and more foreigners begin to learn Chinese. However, Chinese language is one of the most complex and difficult languages in the world, which is hard to master for foreigners. As a result, foreigners may produce a lot of grammatical errors in th... | 0 |
Gender bias can be defined as a systematic preference or discrimination against people of a particular gender (Friedman and Nissenbaum, 1996) . NLP systems that exhibit such biased behavior can perform better for the favored gender, e.g., speech recognizers that achieve higher accuracy for male voices (Tatman, 2017) , ... | 0 |
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