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18,300 | In 2021 a trend emerged in the Democratic Republic of Congo where catalytic converters were stolen for use in drug production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=286802 |
18,301 | Various jurisdictions now require on-board diagnostics to monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter. Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=286802 |
18,302 | Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of . Modern catalytic-converter designs are not as s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=286802 |
18,303 | The oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed-loop control system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O levels. The O levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the burn pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=286802 |
18,304 | The Grand Slam in tennis is the achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline in a calendar year, also referred to as the "Calendar-year Grand Slam" or "Calendar Slam". In doubles, a team may accomplish the Grand Slam playing together or a player may achieve it with different partners. Winning a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,305 | The Grand Slam tournaments, also referred to as majors, are the world's four most important annual professional tennis tournaments. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and the longest matches for men (best of five sets, best of three for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,306 | The four Grand Slam tournaments are the Australian Open in January, the French Open from late May to early June, Wimbledon in late June to early July, and the US Open in August–September, with each played over two weeks. The Australian and the United States tournaments are played on hard courts, the French on clay, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,307 | With the growing popularity of tennis, and with the hopes of unifying the sport's rules internationally, the British and French tennis associations started discussions at their Davis Cup tie, and in October 1912 organized a meeting in Paris, joined by the Australasian, Austrian, Belgian, Spanish, and Swiss associations... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,308 | The LTA was given the perpetual right to organize the World Grass Court Championships, to be held at Wimbledon, and France received permission to stage the World Hard Court Championships until 1916. Anthony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of these World Championships in 1913. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,309 | The United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) expressed disagreement over the power distribution within the ILTF and the designation of "World Championship" status to the British and French tournaments, and thus initially refused to join the Federation, choosing instead to be bystanders to their meetings.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,310 | In 1933, Jack Crawford won the Australian, French, and Wimbledon Championships, leaving him just needing to win the last major event of the year, the U.S. Championships, to become the reigning champion of all four major tournaments, a feat described as a "Grand Slam" by sports columnist Alan Gould of "The Reading Eagle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,311 | At the time, only amateur players were allowed to participate in the Grand Slam and other ILTF-sanctioned tournaments. Amateur standing, regulated by the ILTF alongside its associated national federations, forbade players from receiving prize money, earning pay by teaching tennis, being contracted by promoters and play... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,312 | Tensions over this status quo, which had been building for decades, finally came to a head in 1967. In an experiment, the first tournament open to professional tennis players played on Centre Court at Wimbledon, the Wimbledon Pro, was staged by the All England Lawn Tennis Club in August, offering a prize fund of US$45,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,313 | Even after the advent of the Open Era, players including John McEnroe and Chris Evert have pointed out that skipping majors was not unusual before counting major titles became the norm, especially the Australian Open because of the travelling distance involved and the inconvenient dates close to Christmas and New Year.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,314 | Although it has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925, it was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French Championships due to World War II, the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed dou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,315 | The Australian Open is the first Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late January and early February. The inaugural edition took place in November 1905 on the grass courts of the Warehouseman's Cricket Ground in Melbourne, Australia. It was held as the Australasian Championships until 1927 and thereaf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,316 | Managed by Tennis Australia, formerly the Lawn Tennis Association of Australia (LTAA), the tournament struggled until the mid-1980s to attract the top international players due to its distance from Europe and America and proximity to the Christmas and holiday season, but it has since grown to become one of the biggest ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,317 | Nicknamed the "Happy Slam" and billed as "the Grand Slam of Asia/Pacific", it has become known for its modernity and innovation, being the first Grand Slam tournament to feature indoor play and install retractable roofs on its main courts, the first to schedule night-time men's singles finals, and the first to substitu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,318 | The tournament was designated a major championship by the International Lawn Tennis Federation in 1923. Nowadays, its draws host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2021 tournament being A$71,500,000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,319 | The French Open, also known as Roland Garros, is the second Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late May and early June. It was first held in 1891 on the sand courts of the Societé de Sport de Île de Puteaux, in Puteaux, Île-de-France, and repeatedly changed venues over the years before settling on th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,320 | Organized by the "Fédération française de tennis" (FFT), formerly known as the "Fédération Française de Lawn Tennis" until 1976, the French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament played on a red clay surface. It is generally considered to be the most physically demanding tennis tournament in the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,321 | Until 1925, the tournament was known as the "Championnats de France" (French Championships), and only French players and foreign members of French clubs were eligible to compete in it. Before then, the World Hard Court Championships was considered the premier clay championship in France as it admitted international com... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,322 | Today, it has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2022 tournament being €43,600,000. The 2018 edition saw a record attendance of 480,575 spectators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,323 | The Wimbledon Championships, commonly known as Wimbledon, is the third Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late June and early July. It was first held on 1877 at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, at the time located off Nursery Road in Wimbledon, London, England. The tournament has always ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,324 | Wimbledon is organized by a committee of management consisting of nineteen members, with twelve being club members and the remaining seven nominated by the Lawn Tennis Association (LTA). As the world's oldest tennis event, it is widely regarded as the most prestigious tennis tournament, and it is known for its commitme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,325 | The tournament was given the title "World Grass Court Championships" by the International Lawn Tennis Federation between 1912 and 1923, and was designated a major championship following the abolition of the three ILTF World Championships. Since 1937, the BBC has broadcast the tournament on television in the United King... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,326 | Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2021 tournament being £35,016,000, and 500,397 people attending the 2019 edition. The tournament has some of the longest running sponsorships in sports history, having been associat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,327 | The US Open is the fourth and final Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late August and early September. It was first held in August 1881 on grass courts at the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island, United States. The tournament constantly changed venues in its early years, with each discipline con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,328 | Organized by the United States Tennis Association (USTA), previously known as the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) until 1920, and as United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) until 1975, it is the only Grand Slam tournament to have been played every year since its inception. In 1997... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,329 | Over the years, the tournament has pioneered changes and promoted ideas that other tournaments later implemented for themselves, including the introduction of a tiebreak system to decide the outcome of sets tied at 6–6 in 1970, being the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to the men's and women's ev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,330 | The ILTF officially designated it as a major tournament in 1923. Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2020 tournament being US$53,400,000, and a US television viewership of 700,000. Since 2004, the tournament has been ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,331 | The first player to win all four majors in a calendar year and thus complete the Grand Slam was Don Budge in 1938. To date, five singles players (two men, three women), nine doubles players (four men, five women) and one junior (boy) have completed the Grand Slam. In wheelchair disciplines, two singles players (one qua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,332 | In 1982, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win four consecutive major titles, even if they were won across two seasons. Although groups variously identified as the Men's International Professional Tennis Council, "abetted primarily by some British tenni... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,333 | The ITF planned to offer the cash bonus for three years, apparently to encourage players to compete in all four major tournaments as much as to reward success at them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,334 | Writing in 1982, before the ITF had announced their bonus, Neil Amdur said, "Now the sport spins nervously under the influence of big dollars and even bigger egos and tradition has almost gone the way of white balls and long flannels ... If the four major tournaments want to offer a $1 million incentive for any player ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,335 | When Martina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women's singles discipline, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets did, indeed, say that she had won a Grand Slam. Curry Kirkpatrick of "Sports Illustrated" w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,336 | When Steffi Graf completed the Grand Slam in 1988, George Vecsey wrote, "Even the International Tennis Federation, which should have more respect for history, ruled in 1982 that winning any four straight majors constituted a Grand Slam—and offered a $1 million bonus for it ... But many tennis people, and most writers, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,337 | When Rafael Nadal was on the verge of completing a non-calendar-year Grand Slam at the 2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, "Most traditionalists insist that the 'Grand Slam' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the spor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,338 | Combining the Grand Slam and the non-calendar-year Grand Slam, only eight singles players on 11 occasions achieved the feat of being the reigning champion of all four majors, three men (Don Budge, Rod Laver, Novak Djokovic) and five women (Maureen Connolly, Margaret Court, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Willi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,339 | The following list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar-year Grand Slam by holding the four major titles at the same time but not in the calendar year. Players who completed a Grand Slam within the same streak as a non-calendar-year Grand Slam are not included here. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,340 | The career achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline is termed a "Career Grand Slam". In singles, eight men (Fred Perry, Don Budge, Roy Emerson, Rod Laver, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, and Novak Djokovic) and ten women (Maureen Connolly, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Margaret ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,341 | Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five females (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Court, Hart, and Navratilova are the only players to have completed a "Boxed Set", that is, winning all four... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,342 | A "Boxed Set" refers to winning one of every possible major title in the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles disciplines throughout a player's career. Only three players have completed a Boxed Set: Doris Hart, Margaret Court, and Martina Navratilova. Court's second Boxed Set, completed in 1969, spans the pre-Open and O... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,343 | The term "Golden Slam" (initially "Golden Grand Slam") refers to the achievement of winning all four majors and the Olympic, Paralympic, or Youth Olympic gold medal in a calendar year. The phrase was coined in 1988, when Steffi Graf won that year's Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon Championships, and US Open, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,344 | Diede de Groot and Dylan Alcott also accomplished the feat, for wheelchair singles and wheelchair quad singles respectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,345 | Similarly, the term "non-calendar-year Golden Slam" has been used since 2013, when Bob and Mike Bryan won the 2012 Olympics, 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 French Open and 2013 Wimbledon Championships doubles titles consecutively. Their achievement was also dubbed the "Golden Bryan Slam". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,346 | A player who wins all four majors and the Olympic or Paralympic gold medal during their professional career (or the Youth Olympic gold medal during their junior career) is said to have achieved a "Career Golden Slam". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,347 | Serena Williams became the first player to achieve the career Golden Slam in both singles and doubles with her singles gold at the 2012 London Olympics. Williams is the only singles player to have a career Golden Slam in both singles and doubles. Dylan Alcott, Diede de Groot, and Shingo Kunieda have since also accompli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,348 | Soon after the Open Era began in 1968, the new professional tours each held a year-end championship (YEC), elite tournaments featuring only the top performers of the season. The return of tennis to the Olympics in 1988 gave rise to the notion of a "Super Slam" as a combination of the Golden Slam and YEC title. The YECs... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,349 | In 2021, Diede de Groot became the first player to win all six titles in a calendar year, doing so in women's wheelchair singles. Steffi Graf achieved a "non-calendar-year Super Slam" in 1988 by the aforementioned titles consecutively, with her Golden Slam in 1988 following her victory at the 1987 Virginia Slims Champi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,350 | A player who wins all four majors, the Olympic or Paralympic gold medal, and the year-end championship throughout their career is said to have achieved a "Career Super Slam". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,351 | Wheelchair tennis players Diede de Groot and Shingo Kunieda are the only players in history to have completed a career Super Slam in both singles and doubles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,352 | Several players have won three of the four majors in the same year, missing out on the Grand Slam by only one title, an achievement sometimes referred to as a "Three-Quarter Slam". In five notable instances, singles players won the first three events of the year and went to the final major tournament with the opportuni... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,353 | Since 1978, when the US Open changed its playing surface from clay to hard courts, the four majors have been contested on three surfaces: clay, hard and grass. A player who wins a major title on each of those three current surfaces in a calendar year is said to have achieved a "Surface Slam". From 1978 to 1987, the Aus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,354 | Since their inceptions, the French Open has been contested on clay or sand courts and Wimbledon on grass courts, surfaces that favor very distinct play styles from each other. Wimbledon usually starts a few weeks after the end of the French Open, meaning that the players who have deep runs in the French Open have littl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,355 | Before the start of the Open Era in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four Grand Slam tournaments. Many male top players "went pro" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completely separate events. From 1927 to 1967, the three tournaments later co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,356 | A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered retrospectively to have achieved a "Professional Grand Slam", or "Pro Slam". The feat was accomplished by Ken Rosewall in 1963 and Rod Laver in 1967, while Ellsworth Vines, Hans Nüsslein and Don Budge have won the three major trophies during their careers. Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197638 |
18,357 | Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which can contain data and code. The data is in the form of fields (often known as attributes or "properties"), and the code is in the form of procedures (often known as "methods"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,358 | A common feature of objects is that procedures (or methods) are attached to them and can access and modify the object's data fields. In this brand of OOP, there is usually a special name such as or used to refer to the current object. In OOP, computer programs are designed by making them out of objects that interact wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,359 | Many of the most widely used programming languages (such as C++, Java, Python, etc.) are multi-paradigm and they support object-oriented programming to a greater or lesser degree, typically in combination with imperative, procedural programming. Significant object-oriented languages include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,360 | Terminology invoking "objects" and "oriented" in the modern sense of object-oriented programming made its first appearance at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the environment of the artificial intelligence group, as early as 1960, "object" could refer to identified items (LISP atoms) with properties (attribute... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,361 | Alan Kay later cited a detailed understanding of LISP internals as a strong influence on his thinking in 1966. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,362 | Another early MIT example was Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland in 1960–1961; in the glossary of the 1963 technical report based on his dissertation about Sketchpad, Sutherland defined notions of "object" and "instance" (with the class concept covered by "master" or "definition"), albeit specialized to graphical int... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,363 | Also, an MIT ALGOL version, AED-0, established a direct link between data structures ("plexes", in that dialect) and procedures, prefiguring what were later termed "messages", "methods", and "member functions". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,364 | Simula introduced important concepts that are today an essential part of object-oriented programming, such as class and object, inheritance, and dynamic binding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,365 | The object-oriented Simula programming language was used mainly by researchers involved with physical modelling, such as models to study and improve the movement of ships and their content through cargo ports. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,366 | In the 1970s, the first version of the Smalltalk programming language was developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls and Adele Goldberg. Smalltalk-72 included a programming environment and was dynamically typed, and at first was interpreted, not compiled. Smalltalk became noted for its application of object orien... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,367 | In the 1970s, Smalltalk influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object-based techniques that were introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. Experimentation with various extensions to Lisp (such as LOOPS and Flavors introducing multiple inheritance and mixins) eventually led to the Common Lisp Object System, w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,368 | In 1981, Goldberg edited the August issue of Byte Magazine, introducing Smalltalk and object-oriented programming to a wider audience. In 1986, the Association for Computing Machinery organised the first "Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications" (OOPSLA), which was unexpectedly a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,369 | In the early and mid-1990s object-oriented programming developed as the dominant programming paradigm when programming languages supporting the techniques became widely available. These included Visual FoxPro 3.0, C++, and Delphi. Its dominance was further enhanced by the rising popularity of graphical user interfaces,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,370 | At ETH Zürich, Niklaus Wirth and his colleagues had also been investigating such topics as data abstraction and modular programming (although this had been in common use in the 1960s or earlier). Modula-2 (1978) included both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation, c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,371 | Object-oriented features have been added to many previously existing languages, including Ada, BASIC, Fortran, Pascal, and COBOL. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,372 | More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented, but that are also compatible with procedural methodology. Two such languages are Python and Ruby. Probably the most commercially important recent object-oriented languages are Java, developed by Sun Microsystems, as well as C# and Vis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,373 | Object-oriented programming uses objects, but not all of the associated techniques and structures are supported directly in languages that claim to support OOP. It performs operations on operands. The features listed below are common among languages considered to be strongly class- and object-oriented (or multi-paradig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,374 | Modular programming support provides the ability to group procedures into files and modules for organizational purposes. Modules are namespaced so identifiers in one module will not conflict with a procedure or variable sharing the same name in another file or module. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,375 | Languages that support object-oriented programming (OOP) typically use inheritance for code reuse and extensibility in the form of either classes or prototypes. Those that use classes support two main concepts: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,376 | Objects sometimes correspond to things found in the real world. For example, a graphics program may have objects such as "circle", "square", "menu". An online shopping system might have objects such as "shopping cart", "customer", and "product". Sometimes objects represent more abstract entities, like an object that re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,377 | Each object is said to be an instance of a particular class (for example, an object with its name field set to "Mary" might be an instance of class Employee). Procedures in object-oriented programming are known as methods; variables are also known as fields, members, attributes, or properties. This leads to the followi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,378 | Objects are accessed somewhat like variables with complex internal structure, and in many languages are effectively pointers, serving as actual references to a single instance of said object in memory within a heap or stack. They provide a layer of abstraction which can be used to separate internal from external code. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,379 | Object-oriented programming that uses classes is sometimes called class-based programming, while prototype-based programming does not typically use classes. As a result, significantly different yet analogous terminology is used to define the concepts of "object" and "instance". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,380 | In class-based languages the "classes" are defined beforehand and the "objects" are instantiated based on the classes. If two objects "apple" and "orange" are instantiated from the class "Fruit", they are inherently fruits and it is guaranteed that you may handle them in the same way; e.g. a programmer can expect the e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,381 | In prototype-based languages the "objects" are the primary entities. No "classes" even exist. The "prototype" of an object is just another object to which the object is linked. Every object has one "prototype" link (and only one). New objects can be created based on already existing objects chosen as their prototype. Y... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,382 | It is the responsibility of the object, not any external code, to select the procedural code to execute in response to a method call, typically by looking up the method at run time in a table associated with the object. This feature is known as dynamic dispatch. If the call variability relies on more than the single ty... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,383 | A method call is also known as "message passing". It is conceptualized as a message (the name of the method and its input parameters) being passed to the object for dispatch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,384 | Data Abstraction is a design pattern in which data are visible only to semantically related functions, so as to prevent misuse. The success of data abstraction leads to frequent incorporation of data hiding as a design principle in object oriented and pure functional programming. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,385 | If a class does not allow calling code to access internal object data and permits access through methods only, this is a form of information hiding known as abstraction. Some languages (Java, for example) let classes enforce access restrictions explicitly, for example denoting internal data with the codice_1 keyword an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,386 | Encapsulation prevents external code from being concerned with the internal workings of an object. This facilitates code refactoring, for example allowing the author of the class to change how objects of that class represent their data internally without changing any external code (as long as "public" method calls work... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,387 | Objects can contain other objects in their instance variables; this is known as object composition. For example, an object in the Employee class might contain (either directly or through a pointer) an object in the Address class, in addition to its own instance variables like "first_name" and "position". Object composi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,388 | Languages that support classes almost always support inheritance. This allows classes to be arranged in a hierarchy that represents "is-a-type-of" relationships. For example, class Employee might inherit from class Person. All the data and methods available to the parent class also appear in the child class with the sa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,389 | Subclasses can override the methods defined by superclasses. Multiple inheritance is allowed in some languages, though this can make resolving overrides complicated. Some languages have special support for mixins, though in any language with multiple inheritance, a mixin is simply a class that does not represent an is-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,390 | Abstract classes cannot be instantiated into objects; they exist only for the purpose of inheritance into other "concrete" classes that can be instantiated. In Java, the codice_5 keyword can be used to prevent a class from being subclassed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,391 | The doctrine of composition over inheritance advocates implementing has-a relationships using composition instead of inheritance. For example, instead of inheriting from class Person, class Employee could give each Employee object an internal Person object, which it then has the opportunity to hide from external code e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,392 | The "open/closed principle" advocates that classes and functions "should be open for extension, but closed for modification". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,393 | Subtyping – a form of polymorphism – is when calling code can be independent of which class in the supported hierarchy it is operating on – the parent class or one of its descendants. Meanwhile, the same operation name among objects in an inheritance hierarchy may behave differently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,394 | For example, objects of type Circle and Square are derived from a common class called Shape. The Draw function for each type of Shape implements what is necessary to draw itself while calling code can remain indifferent to the particular type of Shape being drawn. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,395 | This is another type of abstraction that simplifies code external to the class hierarchy and enables strong separation of concerns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,396 | In languages that support open recursion, object methods can call other methods on the same object (including themselves), typically using a special variable or keyword called codice_6 or codice_7. This variable is "late-bound"; it allows a method defined in one class to invoke another method that is defined later, in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,397 | Simula (1967) is generally accepted as being the first language with the primary features of an object-oriented language. It was created for making simulation programs, in which what came to be called objects were the most important information representation. Smalltalk (1972 to 1980) is another early example, and the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,398 | In recent years, object-oriented programming has become especially popular in dynamic programming languages. Python, PowerShell, Ruby and Groovy are dynamic languages built on OOP principles, while Perl and PHP have been adding object-oriented features since Perl 5 and PHP 4, and ColdFusion since version 6. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
18,399 | The Document Object Model of HTML, XHTML, and XML documents on the Internet has bindings to the popular JavaScript/ECMAScript language. JavaScript is perhaps the best known prototype-based programming language, which employs cloning from prototypes rather than inheriting from a class (contrast to class-based programmin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27471338 |
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