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21,100 | The speed of sound for pressure waves in stiff materials such as metals is sometimes given for "long rods" of the material in question, in which the speed is easier to measure. In rods where their diameter is shorter than a wavelength, the speed of pure pressure waves may be simplified and is given by: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,101 | where "E" is Young's modulus. This is similar to the expression for shear waves, save that Young's modulus replaces the shear modulus. This speed of sound for pressure waves in long rods will always be slightly less than the same speed in homogeneous 3-dimensional solids, and the ratio of the speeds in the two differen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,102 | In a fluid, the only non-zero stiffness is to volumetric deformation (a fluid does not sustain shear forces). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,103 | In fresh water, sound travels at about at (see the External Links section below for online calculators). Applications of underwater sound can be found in sonar, acoustic communication and acoustical oceanography. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,104 | In salt water that is free of air bubbles or suspended sediment, sound travels at about ( at , 10°C and 3% salinity by one method). The speed of sound in seawater depends on pressure (hence depth), temperature (a change of ~ ), and salinity (a change of 1‰ ~ ), and empirical equations have been derived to accurately ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,105 | with check value for , , . This equation has a standard error of for salinity between 25 and 40 ppt. See for an online calculator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,106 | Other equations for the speed of sound in sea water are accurate over a wide range of conditions, but are far more complicated, e.g., that by V. A. Del Grosso and the Chen-Millero-Li Equation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,107 | The speed of sound in a plasma for the common case that the electrons are hotter than the ions (but not too much hotter) is given by the formula (see here) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,108 | In contrast to a gas, the pressure and the density are provided by separate species: the pressure by the electrons and the density by the ions. The two are coupled through a fluctuating electric field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,109 | The speed of sound on Mars varies as a function of frequency. Higher frequencies travel faster than lower frequencies. Higher frequency sound from lasers travels at , while low frequency sound topped out at . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,110 | When sound spreads out evenly in all directions in three dimensions, the intensity drops in proportion to the inverse square of the distance. However, in the ocean, there is a layer called the 'deep sound channel' or SOFAR channel which can confine sound waves at a particular depth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,111 | In the SOFAR channel, the speed of sound is lower than that in the layers above and below. Just as light waves will refract towards a region of higher refractive index, sound waves will refract towards a region where their speed is reduced. The result is that sound gets confined in the layer, much the way light can be ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,112 | A similar effect occurs in the atmosphere. Project Mogul successfully used this effect to detect a nuclear explosion at a considerable distance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147853 |
21,113 | The Honda K-series engine is a line of four-cylinder four-stroke car engine introduced in 2001. The K-series engines are equipped with DOHC valvetrains and use roller rockers on the cylinder head to reduce friction. The engines use a coil-on-plug, distributorless ignition system with a coil for each spark plug. This sy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1997209 |
21,114 | Similar to B series, the K-series car engines have two short blocks with the same design; the only difference between them being the deck height. K20 uses the short block with a deck height of where K23 and K24 block has a deck height of . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1997209 |
21,115 | Two versions of the Honda i-VTEC system can be found on a K-series engine, and both versions can come with variable timing control (VTC) on the intake cam. The VTEC system on engines like the K20A3 only operate on the intake cam; at low rpm only one intake valve is fully opened, the other opening just slightly to creat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1997209 |
21,116 | Toy Story 4 is a 2019 American computer-animated comedy-drama film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the fourth installment in Pixar's "Toy Story" series and the sequel to "Toy Story 3" (2010). It was directed by Josh Cooley (in his feature directorial debut) from a screenp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,117 | Talks for a fourth film to "Toy Story" began in 2010, and Hanks stated that Pixar was working on the sequel in 2011. When the film was officially announced in November 2014 during an investor's call, it was reported that the film would be directed by Lasseter after writing a film treatment with Stanton, and input from ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,118 | "Toy Story 4" premiered in Los Angeles on June 11, 2019, and was released in the United States on June 21. It grossed $1.073 billion worldwide, becoming the eighth-highest-grossing film of 2019. Like its predecessors, the film received critical acclaim, with praise for its story, humor, emotional weight, musical score,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,119 | Between the events of "Toy Story 2" and "Toy Story 3", Woody and Bo Peep rescue Andy's remote control car, RC, from being washed away in a storm. Moments later, Bo Peep and her lamp are donated to a new owner. A distraught Woody tries to rescue her, but Bo refuses, having already accepted her fate as it is a part of a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,120 | Nine years later, after a college-bound Andy has donated his toys to Bonnie, Woody struggles to adapt as the toys in Bonnie's room already have a leader: Dolly. Bonnie also shows little interest in playing with him. Woody still remains convinced Bonnie must need him, and sneaks into her backpack the day of her kinderga... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,121 | When Bonnie's family goes on a road trip, Forky jumps out the window of the moving RV. Woody does the same, despite Buzz Lightyear's protests. As they walk to the RV park, Woody finally convinces Forky that his place is with Bonnie. As they pass an antique store's window, Woody recognizes Bo Peep's lamp, and detours in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,122 | Buzz, trying to find Woody, gets lost in a carnival and becomes a prize at a game, but escapes with plush toys Bunny and Ducky. They meet up with Woody and Bo, who leads them to a secret toy party inside a pinball machine, where they find Canadian stunt bike toy Duke Caboom. They twice attempt to rescue Forky (who is a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,123 | As Woody and Forky leave, they see Gabby callously rejected by Harmony, the store owner's granddaughter. Woody leaves Forky to go on alone and convinces Gabby to come back to Bonnie's house with him. Bo, Caboom, McDimples, Bunny and Ducky return, and help the pair escape to the fairgrounds. Jessie, after Forky informs ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,124 | Woody and Bo Peep decide they must leave each other again, but Buzz convinces Woody that Bonnie is okay without him, and that he is free to stay with Bo. Woody gives his badge to Jessie and becomes a "Lost Toy" along with Bo, her sheep, McDimples, Caboom, Bunny and Ducky. His longtime friends share an emotional goodbye... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,125 | In 2010, "Toy Story 3" director Lee Unkrich said that Pixar was not planning another "Toy Story" film, saying, "It was really important to me with this film that we not just create another sequel, that it not just be another appendage coming off of the other two... there may be opportunities for Woody and Buzz in the f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,126 | Disney officially announced "Toy Story 4" during an investor's call on November 6, 2014. Then-studio head of Pixar John Lasseter, who directed the first two films and executive-produced the third, was scheduled to direct after writing a film treatment with Andrew Stanton, with input from Pete Docter and Unkrich. Rashid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,127 | In March 2015, Pixar president Jim Morris described the film as a romantic comedy and said it would not be a continuation of the third film. The same month, "Variety" reported that Josh Cooley was named co-director with Lasseter, having previously been head of story on "Inside Out". According to Lasseter, the film was ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,128 | During the 2017 D23 Expo, Lasseter announced he was stepping down and leaving Cooley as sole director, saying he could no longer commit to directing the film between his positions at Pixar, Walt Disney Animation Studios, and Disneytoon Studios. Jones and McCormack withdrew in November 2017, citing "philosophical differ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,129 | By January 2018, Disney had confirmed that the screenplay was being written by Stephany Folsom, who eventually rewrote three quarters of Jones and McCormack's original script, according to Annie Potts. Folsom collaborated on the screenplay with Stanton, who had co-wrote the first two films. According to Cooley, the cen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,130 | Most of the previous voice actors, including Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, signed on to reprise their roles. Hanks stated in May 2016 that he had recorded his first lines for Woody. Annie Potts was confirmed to return as Bo Peep, after being absent from "Toy Story 3". Potts was told by Pixar's then chief creative officer Jo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,131 | Tony Hale was cast as Forky, a homemade toy suffering an existential crisis. Hale has performed roles before with similar panicked characters, including Buster Bluth on "Arrested Development" and Gary Walsh on "Veep". When asked to voice Forky, Hale said, "A utensil's existential crisis? I'm in!" Keegan-Michael Key and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,132 | Randy Newman, who composed and wrote songs for the previous three films, was confirmed to be returning during the 2015 D23 Expo. Director Josh Cooley said that he hired Newman to return because he "can't imagine making a fourth [film] without Randy Newman." Newman wrote new themes for Bonnie, Gabby Gabby, and Duke Cabo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,133 | "Toy Story 4" premiered on June 11, 2019, at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles. The film was originally scheduled for general release on June 16, 2017, but it was pushed back by two release dates, first to June 15, 2018, and later to June 21, 2019. "Toy Story 4" was the first Pixar film without a theatrical short s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,134 | Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released "Toy Story 4" for digital download on October 1, 2019, and on DVD, Blu-ray, and Ultra HD Blu-ray on October 8. Physical copies contain behind-the-scenes featurettes and deleted scenes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,135 | "Toy Story 4" grossed in the United States and Canada, and $639.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.073 billion. It was the eighth-highest-grossing film of 2019. The film had a worldwide opening of $244.5 million, the third biggest for an animated film. It crossed the billion dollar mark on Augu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,136 | In the United States and Canada, On May 28, 2019, "Toy Story 4" set the records on Fandango for most tickets sold by an animated film in its first 24 hours of pre-sales (besting "Incredibles 2"), while Atom Tickets reported it sold nearly 50% more than the previous three highest-selling animated films combined did in t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,137 | In other territories, the film opened day-and-date with the U.S. in 37 countries (64% of its total market), and was projected to gross around $100 million abroad for a global debut of $260 million. In China, where the film opened alongside a re-release of "Spirited Away" (2001), it was expected to debut to $15–20 milli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,138 | On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Heartwarming, funny, and beautifully animated, "Toy Story 4" manages the unlikely feat of extending – and perhaps concluding – a practically perfect a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,139 | The film received a four-star rating from Matt Zoller Seitz of "RogerEbert.com", who wrote "This franchise has demonstrated an impressive ability to beat the odds and reinvent itself, over a span of time long enough for two generations to grow up in. It's a toy store of ideas, with new wonders in every aisle." "The Was... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,140 | Writing for "IndieWire", David Ehrlich gave the film a grade of B+ and wrote "Clever, breathless, and never manic just for the sake of keeping your kids' eyes busy, the action in "Toy Story 4" is character-driven and paced to perfection." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone", who gave the film four-and-a-half stars out of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,141 | Conversely, Kyle Smith of "National Review" called the film "the weakest effort in the series so far", finding its subject matter was unclear and the motives of the characters opposed and undermined the series' previous installments. He further critiqued the film for prioritizing its comedy while the story's underlying... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,142 | At the 92nd Academy Awards, "Toy Story 4" received a nomination for Best Original Song and won Best Animated Feature. The film's other nominations include six Annie Awards, a British Academy Film Award, a Critics' Choice Movie Award (which it won), and a Golden Globe Award. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,143 | In February 2019, Allen expressed interest in doing another film as he "did not see any reason why they would not do it". That May, producer Mark Nielsen confirmed that after "Toy Story 4", Pixar would return its focus to making original films instead of sequels for a while. On "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", Hanks said th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,144 | A spin-off of the main series of films entitled "Lightyear" was released on June 17, 2022, directed by Angus MacLane. It starred Chris Evans as the voice of a human Buzz Lightyear, and focused on Buzz's in-universe backstory before he became a famous toy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,145 | A short film titled "Lamp Life" reveals Bo Peep's whereabouts between leaving and reuniting with Woody. The short was released on Disney+ on January 31, 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,146 | A 10-episode short-form educational series, "Forky Asks a Question", debuted exclusively on the Disney+ streaming service upon its launch on November 12, 2019. It focuses mainly on Forky, but other "Toy Story" characters such as Rex, Hamm, Trixie, Buttercup, and Mr. Pricklepants also make appearances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,147 | Evel Knievel's son Kelly and K&K Promotions sued Disney and Pixar in September 2020 for using his father's likeness without permission to the character Duke Caboom. On September 23, 2021, the judge dismissed the case and stated "Duke Caboom is not a carbon copy of Evel Knievel minus a few details, The Duke Caboom actio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57782491 |
21,148 | The Stanford prison experiment (SPE) was a psychological experiment conducted in the summer of 1971. It was a two-week simulation of a prison environment that examined the effects of situational variables on participants' reactions and behaviors. Stanford University psychology professor Philip Zimbardo led the research... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,149 | Participants were recruited from the local community with an ad in the newspapers offering $15 per day to male students who wanted to participate in a "psychological study of prison life." Volunteers were chosen after assessments of psychological stability, and then randomly assigned to being prisoners or prison guards... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,150 | Those volunteers selected to be "guards" were given uniforms specifically to de-individuate them, and instructed to prevent prisoners from escaping. The experiment officially started when "prisoners" were arrested by real Palo Alto police. Over the following five days, psychological abuse of the prisoners by the "guard... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,151 | SPE has been referenced and critiqued as one of the most unethical psychology experiments in history. The harm inflicted on the participants prompted universities worldwide to improve their ethics requirements for human subjects of experiments to prevent them from being similarly harmed. Other researchers have found it... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,152 | The study was funded by the US Office of Naval Research to understand anti-social behaviour. The United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps wanted to investigate conflict between military guards and prisoners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,153 | Criticism of the SPE has continued long after the experiment ended. Many researchers have critiqued Philip Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment for its methodology, whether it meets the criteria to be a scientific experiment, and whether the guard orientation created a demand bias. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,154 | Prior to publishing in American Psychologist and other peer-reviewed journals, the researchers reported the findings in "Naval Research Reviews", "International Journal of Criminology and Penalogy" (IJCP), and the "New York Times Magazine". David Amodio, psychology instructor at both New York University and the Univers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,155 | Zimbardo has stated that the grant agreement with the Office of Naval Research included a requirement to publish data in their journal, "Naval Research Reviews". He states that the "International Journal of Criminology and Penalogy" invited Zimbardo to write about his study in their journal, and he then wrote an articl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,156 | After receiving approval from the university to conduct the experiment, study participants were recruited using an ad in the "help wanted" section of the "Palo Alto Times" and "The Stanford Daily" newspapers in August 1971: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,157 | Seventy-five men applied, and after screening assessments and interviews, 24 were selected to participate in a two-week prison simulation. The applicants were predominantly white, middle-class, and appeared to be psychologically stable and healthy. The group of subjects was intentionally selected to exclude those with ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,158 | Critics of the study have argued that selection bias may have played a role in the results due to the ad describing a need for prisoners and guards rather than a social psychology study. In 2007, Thomas Carnahan and Sam McFarland argued that those who applied to participate in the SPE already had traits associated with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,159 | On a random basis, half of the subjects were assigned the role of guard (nine plus three potential substitutes), and half were assigned to the role of prisoner (also nine plus three potential substitutes). They agreed to participate for a 7- to 14-day period for $15 per day (roughly equivalent to $108 ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,160 | The day before the experiment began, small mock prison cells were set up to hold three prisoners each. There was a small corridor for the prison yard, a closet for solitary confinement, and a bigger room across from the prisoners for the guards and warden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,161 | The experiment was conducted in a section of the basement of Jordan Hall, Stanford's psychology building. The prison had two fabricated walls: one at the entrance, and one at the cell wall to block observation. Each cell () was unlit, was intended to house 3 prisoners and had a cot (with mattress, sheet, and pillow) fo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,162 | Zimbardo took on the role of the Superintendent and an undergraduate research assistant, David Jaffe, took on the role of the Warden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,163 | Digitized recordings available on the official SPE website were widely discussed in 2018, particularly one where warden David Jaffe tried to influence the behavior of one of the guards by encouraging him to participate more and be more "tough" for the benefit of the experiment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,164 | The researchers held an orientation session for the guards the day before the experiment began, during which "guards" were instructed not to harm the prisoners physically or withhold food or drink, but to maintain law and order. The researchers provided the guards with wooden batons to establish their status, deindivid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,165 | Based on recordings from the experiment, guards were instructed by the researchers to disrespect the prisoners and make them feel submissive, helpless and unheard. For example, they had to refer to prisoners by number rather than by name. This, according to Zimbardo, was intended to diminish the prisoners' individualit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,166 | Zimbardo has explained that guard orientations in the prison system instructed the guards to exert power over the prisoners. Further, Zimbardo asserts that his fellow researcher explicitly instructed the guards to not physically inflict harm on the prisoners, but at the same time make the prisoners feel that they were ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,167 | The study was criticized in 2013 for demand characteristics by psychologist Peter Gray, who argued that participants in psychological experiments are more likely to do what they believe the researchers want them to do, and specifically in the case of the SPE, "to act out their stereotyped views of what prisoners and gu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,168 | In 1975, Ali Banuazizi and Siamak Movahedi argued that the behavior of the participants in the SPE was a result of demand characteristics and not the prison environment, that there is no single definition of prisoner behavior, and that participants were simply acting in the role in which they had been cast. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,169 | In 2013, Peter Gray, researcher, textbook writer and editor, stipulated demand characteristics (participants guessing which behavior researchers want) influenced the SPE significantly. Guards' behaviors were implicitly condoned as neither Zimbardo nor his research assistants intervened. They argue that Zimbardo did not... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,170 | In 2018, Thibault Le Texier, a French researcher, in his book, ('The History of a Lie'), questions the scientific validity and merit of the SPE. He further discussed his critiques in an article published by the APA in 2019. Le Texier asserts his arguments using testimonies of those participants who were assigned as gua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,171 | In 2020, Dutch historian Rutger Bregman claimed the experiment to be dubious. He states that the guards were urged to act aggressive towards the prisoners. In his book "", he is of the opinion that in similar experiments researchers set up the experiments to create hostility between groups and the interpret the finding... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,172 | David Eshelman, aka John Wayne, acknowledges that his theater background lent itself well to his role as guard, that he purposely thought of new ways to demean the prisoners – on one shift, Eshelman instructed the prisoners to simulate sodomy. Zimbardo has responded to this argument by stating that other guards acted s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,173 | The has pointed to the importance of leadership, of the form displayed by Zimbardo when briefing guards in the Stanford experiment, in the emergence of tyranny. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,174 | In 2005, an article was published by Carlo Prescott in "The Stanford Daily", explaining that the antagonistic tactics used by the guards were ones that he experienced during his time spent in San Quentin. He shared each one in detail with the researchers prior to the experiment. In Prescott's opinion, the participants ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,175 | Zimbardo has stated that he believed that the article was not written by Prescott, but rather by the screenwriter and producer, Michael Lazarou, who had unsuccessfully attempted to get the film rights to the story of the SPE. In Zimbardo's opinion, Prescott would not have written in such a legalistic way, and Zimbardo ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,176 | The small mock prison cells were set up, and the participants who had been assigned a guard role attended an orientation where they were briefed and given uniforms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,177 | The participants who had been assigned a prisoner role were mock-arrested by the local Palo Alto police at their homes or assigned sites. The participants were intentionally not informed that they would be arrested, as the researchers wanted it to come as a surprise. This was a breach of the ethics of Zimbardo’s own co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,178 | Prisoners wore uncomfortable, ill-fitting smocks without any underwear and stocking caps, as well as a chain around one ankle. Guards were instructed to call prisoners by their assigned numbers, sewn on their uniforms, instead of by name, thereby dehumanizing prisoners. The prisoners were then greeted by the warden, wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,179 | Guards referred to prisoners by their identification and confined them to their small cells. At 2:30 am the prisoners rebelled against guards' wake up calls of whistles and clanging of batons. Prisoners refused to leave their cells to eat in the yard, ripped off their inmate number tags, took off their stocking caps an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,180 | In response, guards sprayed fire extinguishers at the prisoners to reassert control. The three back-up guards were called in to help regain control of the prison. Guards removed all of the prisoners' clothes, removed mattresses and sentenced the main instigators to time in The Hole. They attempted to dissuade any furth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,181 | In order to restrict further acts of disobedience, the guards separated and rewarded prisoners who had minor roles in the rebellion. The three spent time in the "good" cell where they received clothing, beds, and food denied to the rest of the jail population. After an estimated 12 hours, the three returned to their ol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,182 | Guards were allowed to abuse their power to humiliate the inmates. They had the prisoners count off and do pushups arbitrarily, restricted access to the bathrooms, and forced them to relieve themselves in a bucket in their cells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,183 | The first prisoner to leave the experiment was Douglas Korpi, prisoner 8612. After 36 hours, he had an apparent mental breakdown in which he yelled, "Jesus Christ, I'm burning up inside" and "I can't stand another night! I just can't take it anymore!" Upon seeing his suffering, research assistant Craig Haney immediatel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,184 | However, in a 2017 interview, Korpi stated that his breakdown had been fake, and that he did it only so that he could leave and return to studying for his Graduate Record Exam; he had originally thought that he could study while "imprisoned", but the "prison staff" would not allow him. Further, Korpi expressed regret t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,185 | Zimbardo responded to this criticism in 2018. First, while this experiment has been criticized overall for its ethics, Zimbardo stated that he needed to treat the breakdown as real and release the prisoner. Further, Zimbardo believes Korpi's 2017 interview was a lie: in 1992, in a documentary film about the study, "Qui... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,186 | Witnessing that guards divide prisoners based on their good or rebellious behavior, the inmates started to distance themselves from one another. Rioters believed that other prisoners were snitches and vice versa. Other prisoners saw the rebels as a threat to the status quo since they wanted to have their sleeping cots ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,187 | Prisoner 819 began showing symptoms of distress: he began crying in his cell. A priest was brought in to speak with him, but 819 declined to talk and instead asked for a medical doctor. After hearing him cry, Zimbardo reassured him of his actual identity and removed the prisoner. When 819 was leaving, the guards cajole... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,188 | The day was scheduled for visitations by friends and family of the inmates in order to simulate the prison experience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,189 | Zimbardo and the guards made visitors wait for long periods of time to see their loved ones. Only two visitors could see any one prisoner and only for just ten minutes while a guard watched. Parents grew concerned about their sons' wellbeing and whether they had enough to eat. Some parents left with plans to contact la... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,190 | On the same day, Zimbardo's colleague Gordon H. Bower arrived to check on the experiment and questioned Zimbardo about what the independent variable of the research was. Christina Maslach also visited the prison that night, and was distressed by observing the guards abusing the prisoners, forcing them to wear bags over... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,191 | Due to Maslach's objections, the parents' concerns, and the increasing brutality exhibited by guards in the experiment, Zimbardo ended the study on day 6. Zimbardo gathered the participants (guards, prisoners, and researchers) to let them know that the experiment was over, and arranged to pay them the full fee for 14 d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,192 | Later, the physical components of the Stanford County Jail were taken down and out of the basement of Jordan Hall as the cells returned to their usual function as grad student offices. Zimbardo and his graduate student research team, Craig Haney and Curtis Banks, began compiling the multiple sources of data that would ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,193 | According to Zimbardo's interpretation of the SPE, it demonstrated that the simulated-prison situation, rather than individual personality traits, caused the participants' behavior. Using this situational attribution, the results are compatible with those of the Milgram experiment, where participants complied with orde... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,194 | Conclusions and observations drawn by the experimenters were largely subjective and anecdotal, and the experiment is practically impossible for other researchers to accurately reproduce. In 1973, Erich Fromm argued, as only a third of the guards displayed sadistic behaviors, SPE is more accurately an example of how a s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,195 | The experiment has also been used to illustrate cognitive dissonance theory and the power of authority. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,196 | Participants' behavior may have been shaped by knowing that they were watched (Hawthorne effect). Instead of being restrained by fear of an observer, guards may have behaved more aggressively when supervisors observing them did not step in to restrain them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,197 | Many have argued that the validity and merit of the research findings were significantly affected by the , and selection bias resulting from the . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,198 | Psychologists Alex Haslam and Steve Reicher conducted the BBC Prison Study in 2002 to examine Zimbardo's themes of tyranny and resistance, and published the results in 2006. It was a partial replication of the SPE conducted with the assistance of the BBC, which broadcast a documentary series about the SPE called "The E... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
21,199 | As in the SPE, there was a makeshift prison, and all participants were male. Unlike the SPE's invitation to participate, Haslam and Reicher advertised their study as a university-backed social science experiment to be shown on TV. Guards were not instructed on how to behave, only to figure out how to manage a prison. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309812 |
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