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21,500 | The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible. Natural capital can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital. While it is possible tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,501 | The concept of sustainable development has been criticized from different angles. While some see it as paradoxical (or an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,502 | The vagueness of the Brundtland definition of sustainable development has been criticized as follows: The definition has "opened up the possibility of downplaying sustainability. Hence, governments spread the message that we can have it all at the same time, i.e. economic growth, prospering societies and a healthy envi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,503 | Six interdependent capacities are deemed to be necessary for the successful pursuit of sustainable development. These are the capacities to measure progress towards sustainable development; promote equity within and between generations; adapt to shocks and surprises; transform the system onto more sustainable developme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,504 | A sustainable city is an urban center that improves its environmental impact through urban planning and management. For the definition of an eco-city, imagine a city with parks and green spaces, solar-powered buildings, rooftop gardens, and more pedestrians and bicycles than cars. This is not a futuristic dream. Smart ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,505 | Environmental sustainability concerns the natural environment and how it endures and remains diverse and productive. Since natural resources are derived from the environment, the state of air, water, and climate is of particular concern. Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,506 | An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The concept of sustainable development is intertwined with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,507 | Important operational principles of sustainable development were published by Herman Daly in 1990: renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste g... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,508 | Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through approaches such as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and more sustainable business practices. The most cost-effective climate change mitigation options include afforestation, sustainable forest manageme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,509 | As global population and affluence have increased, so has the use of various materials increased in volume, diversity, and distance transported. Included here are raw materials, minerals, synthetic chemicals (including hazardous substances), manufactured products, food, living organisms, and waste. By 2050, humanity co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,510 | Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization, converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature. Dematerialization is being encouraged throug... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,511 | This way of thinking is expressed in the concept of circular economy, which employs reuse, sharing, repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing and recycling to create a closed-loop system, minimizing the use of resource inputs and the creation of waste, pollution and carbon emissions. Building electric vehicles has been on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,512 | In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services was published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. It recommended that human civilization will need a transformative change, including sustainab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,513 | The 2022 IPCC report emphasizes how there have been many studies done on the loss of biodiversity, and provides additional strategies to decrease the rate of our declining biodiversity. The report suggests how preserving natural ecosystems, fire and soil management, and reducing the competition for land can create posi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,514 | The environmental impact of a community or humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,515 | The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption. This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but also making the full cycle of production, use, and disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analyzed and managed at all scales through the chain of cons... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,516 | It has been suggested that because of rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital. Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be over. S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,517 | As early as the 1970s, the concept of sustainability was used to describe an economy "in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems". Scientists in many fields have highlighted "The Limits to Growth", and economists have presented alternatives, for example a 'steady-state economy', to address concerns over the i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,518 | A World Bank study from 1999 concluded that based on the theory of genuine savings (defined as "traditional net savings less the value of resource depletion and environmental degradation plus the value of investment in human capital"), policymakers have many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in macroec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,519 | A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and economic valuations and found a "lack of concrete understanding of what “sustainability policies” might entail in practice". A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital (health and education) has not compensated for the degradation of natura... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,520 | The 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report discussed how ambitious climate change mitigation policies have created negative social and economical impacts when they are not aligned with sustainable development goals. As a result, the transition towards sustainable development mitigation policies has slowed down which is why ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,521 | The World Business Council for Sustainable Development published a Vision 2050 document in 2021 to show "How business can lead the transformations the world needs". The vision states that "we envision a world in which 9+billion people can live well, within planetary boundaries, by 2050." This report was highlighted by ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,522 | Gender and sustainable development have been examined, focusing on women's leadership potential and barriers to it. While leadership roles in sustainable development have become more androgynous over time, patriarchal structures and perceptions continue to constrain women from becoming leaders. Some hidden issues are w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,523 | There are barriers that small and medium enterprises face when implementing sustainable development such as lack of expertise, lack of resources, and high initial capital cost of implementing sustainability measures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,524 | Globally, the lack of political will is a barrier to achieving sustainable development. To overcome this impediment, governments must jointly form an agreement of social and political strength. Efforts to enact reforms or design and implement programs to decrease the harmful effects of human behaviors allow for progres... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,525 | Another barrier towards sustainable development would be negative externalities that may potentially arise from implementing sustainable development technology. One example would be the development of lithium-ion batteries, a key element towards environmental sustainability and the reduction in reliance towards fossil ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,526 | Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a term used by the United Nations and is defined as education that encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for all. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,527 | Agenda 21 was the first international document that identified education as an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for education. ESD is a component of measurement in an indicator for Sustainable Development Goal 12 (SDG) for "responsible consumption and production". SDG... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,528 | One version of education for Sustainable Development recognizes modern-day environmental challenges and seeks to define new ways to adjust to a changing biosphere, as well as engage individuals to address societal issues that come with them In the International Encyclopedia of Education, this approach to education is s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,529 | The Thessaloniki Declaration, presented at the "International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability" by UNESCO and the Government of Greece (December 1997), highlights the importance of sustainability not only with regards to the natural environment, but also with "pov... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,530 | A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery which uses the reversible reduction of lithium ions to store energy. It is the predominant battery type used in portable consumer electronics and electric vehicles. It also sees significant use for grid-scale energy storage and military and aerospace app... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,531 | Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across types of lithium-ion batteries. Most commercial Li-ion cells use intercalation compounds as the active materials. The anode or negative electrode is usually graphite, although silicon-carbon is also being increasingly used. Cells can be manufactured to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,532 | M. Stanley Whittingham discovered the concept of intercalation electrodes in the 1970s and created the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery, which was based on a titanium disulfide cathode and a lithium-aluminum anode, although it suffered from safety issues and was never commercialized. John Goodenough expanded on t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,533 | Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard if not properly engineered and manufactured since cells have flammable electrolytes and if damaged or incorrectly charged, can lead to explosions and fires. Much development has made progress in manufacturing safe Lithium-ion batteries. Lithium Ion All Solid State Batteries ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,534 | Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in the area of non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,535 | Research on rechargeable Li-ion batteries dates to the 1960s; one of the earliest examples is a /Li battery developed by NASA in 1965. The breakthrough that produced the earliest form of the modern Li-ion battery was made by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in 1974, who first used titanium disulfide () as a catho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,536 | In 1980 working in separate groups Ned A. Godshall et al., and, shortly thereafter, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough, after testing a range of alternative materials, replaced with lithium cobalt oxide (, or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,537 | These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause short-circuiting. The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,538 | Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing the soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite, a concept originally proposed by Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974 but considered unfeasible due to unresolved incompatibilities with the electrolytes then in use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,539 | In 2012 John B. Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham, and Yoshino were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium-ion batteries". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,540 | In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Global production capacity was 767 GWh in 2020, with China accounting for 75%. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,541 | Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is graphite made from carbon. The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide. The electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent. The anode (negative electrode) and cathode (positive electrode) are prevented from shorting by a separator. The a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,542 | The most common commercially used anode is graphite, which in its fully lithiated state of LiC correlates to a maximal capacity of 1339 C/g (372 mAh/g). The cathode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as lith... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,543 | Lithium reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. The non-aqueous electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate and propy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,544 | The electrolyte salt is almost always lithium hexafluorophosphate (), which combines good ionic conductivity with chemical and electrochemical stability. Hexafluorophosphate is essential for passivating the aluminum current collector used for the cathode. A titanium tab is ultrasonically welded to the aluminum current ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,545 | Other salts like lithium perchlorate (), lithium tetrafluoroborate (), and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide () are frequently used in research in tab-less coin cells, but are not usable in larger format cells, often because they are not compatible with the aluminum current collector. Copper (with a spot-welde... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,546 | Current collector design and surface treatments may take various forms: foil, mesh, foam (dealloyed), etched (wholly or selectively), and coated (with various materials) to improve electrical characteristics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,547 | Depending on materials choices, the voltage, energy density, life, and safety of a lithium-ion cell can change dramatically. Current effort has been exploring the use of novel architectures using nanotechnology to improve performance. Areas of interest include nano-scale electrode materials and alternative electrode st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,548 | The increasing demand for batteries has led vendors and academics to focus on improving the energy density, operating temperature, safety, durability, charging time, output power, elimination of cobalt requirements, and cost of lithium-ion battery technology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,549 | The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion cell are materials of anode and cathode, both of which are compounds containing lithium atoms. During discharge, an oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons. The oxidation half-reaction ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,550 | Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with a process called "insertion" ("intercalation") or "extraction" ("deintercalation"), respectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,551 | As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,552 | The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarging supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,553 | Overcharging up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt (IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,554 | In a lithium-ion cell, the lithium ions are transported to and from the positive or negative electrodes by oxidizing the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in from to during charge, and reducing from to during discharge. The cobalt electrode reaction is "only" reversible for "x" < 0.5 ("x" in mole units), limiting the dept... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,555 | The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant/6.941, or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kilogram of lithium. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline but does not consider the other materi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,556 | The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which aqueous solutions will electrolyze. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,557 | Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as , or in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A liquid electrolyte acts as a conductive pathway for the movement of cations passing from the negative to the positive electrodes during disc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,558 | Recent advances in battery technology involve using a solid as the electrolyte material. The most promising of these are ceramics. Solid ceramic electrolytes are mostly lithium metal oxides, which allow lithium-ion transport through the solid more readily due to the intrinsic lithium. The main benefit of solid electrol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,559 | During discharge, lithium ions () carry the current within the battery cell from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,560 | During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-voltage (a higher voltage than the battery produces, of the same polarity), forcing a charging current to flow within each cell from the positive to the negative electrode, i.e., in the reverse direction of a discharge current u... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,561 | Energy losses arising from electrical contact resistance at interfaces between electrode layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,562 | The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,563 | During the "constant current" phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a steadily increasing voltage, until the top-of-charge voltage limit per cell is reached. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,564 | During the "balance" phase, the charger/battery reduces the charging current (or cycles the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by a balancing circuit, until the battery is balanced. Balancing typically occurs whenever one or more... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,565 | During the "constant voltage" phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,566 | Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,567 | Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life. Li‑ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow "fast-charging" within a temperature... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,568 | Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li-ion rechargeable batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5–2% per month. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,569 | The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,570 | By comparison, the self-discharge rate for NiMH batteries dropped, as of 2017, from up to 30% per month for previously common cells to about 0.08–0.33% per month for low self-discharge NiMH batteries, and is about 10% per month in NiCd batteries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,571 | Cathode materials are generally constructed from or . The cobalt-based material develops a pseudo tetrahedral structure that allows for two-dimensional lithium-ion diffusion. The cobalt-based cathodes are ideal due to their high theoretical specific heat capacity, high volumetric capacity, low self-discharge, high disc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,572 | , is a candidate for large-scale production of lithium-ion batteries such as electric vehicle applications due to its low cost, excellent safety, and high cycle durability. For example, Sony Fortelion batteries have retained 74% of their capacity after 8000 cycles with 100% discharge. A carbon conductive agent is requi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,573 | It is worth mentioning so-called "lithium-rich" cathodes, that can be produced from thraditional NCM layered cathode materials upon cycling them to voltages/charges higher than those corresponding to Li:M=1. Under such conditions a new semi-reversible redox transition at a higher voltage with ca. 0.4-0.8 electrons/meta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,574 | Negative electrode materials are traditionally constructed from graphite and other carbon materials, although newer silicon-based materials are being increasingly used (see Nanowire battery). In 2016, 89% of lithium-ion batteries contained graphite (43% artificial and 46% natural), 7% contained amorphous carbon (either... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,575 | These materials are used because they are abundant, electrically conducting and can intercalate lithium ions to store electrical charge with modest volume expansion (~10%). Graphite is the dominant material because of its low intercalation voltage and excellent performance. Various alternative materials with higher cap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,576 | As graphite is limited to a maximum capacity of 372 mAh/g much research has been dedicated to the development of materials that exhibit higher theoretical capacities, and overcoming the technical challenges that presently encumber their implementation. The extensive 2007 Review Article by Kasavajjula et al. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,577 | summarizes early research on silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion secondary cells. In particular, Hong Li et al. showed in 2000 that the electrochemical insertion of lithium ions in silicon nanoparticles and silicon nanowires leads to the formation of an amorphous Li-Si alloy. The same year, Bo Gao and his doctoral adv... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,578 | To improve stability of the lithium anode, several approaches of installing a protective layer have been suggested. Silicon is beginning to be looked at as an anode material because it can accommodate significantly more lithium ions, storing up to 10 times the electric charge, however this alloying between lithium and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,579 | Electrolyte alternatives have also played a significant role, for example the lithium polymer battery. Polymer electrolytes are promising for minimizing the dendrite formation of lithium. Polymers are supposed to prevent short circuits and maintain conductivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,580 | The ions in the electrolyte diffuse because there are small changes in the electrolyte concentration. Linear diffusion is only considered here. The change in concentration "c", as a function of time "t" and distance "x", is | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,581 | In this equation, "D" is the diffusion coefficient for the lithium ion. It has a value of in the electrolyte. The value for "ε", the porosity of the electrolyte, is 0.724. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,582 | Li-ion cells (as distinct from entire batteries) are available in various shapes, which can generally be divided into four groups: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,583 | Cells with a cylindrical shape are made in a characteristic "swiss roll" manner (known as a "jelly roll" in the US), which means it is a single long "sandwich" of the positive electrode, separator, negative electrode, and separator rolled into a single spool. The shape of the jelly roll in cylindrical cells can be appr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,584 | The absence of a case gives pouch cells the highest gravimetric energy density; however, for many practical applications they still require an external means of containment to prevent expansion when their state of charge (SOC) level is high, and for general structural stability of the battery pack of which they are par... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,585 | Since 2011, several research groups have announced demonstrations of lithium-ion flow batteries that suspend the cathode or anode material in an aqueous or organic solution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,586 | In 2014, Panasonic created the smallest Li-ion cell. It is pin shaped. It has a diameter of 3.5mm and a weight of 0.6g. A coin cell form factor resembling that of ordinary lithium batteries is available since as early as 2006 for LiCoO cells, usually designated with a "LiR" prefix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,587 | A "battery" (also called a "battery pack") consists of multiple connected lithium-ion cells. Battery packs for large consumer electronics like laptop computers also contain temperature sensors, voltage regulator circuits, voltage taps, and charge-state monitors. These components minimize safety risks like overheating a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,588 | The vast majority of commercial Li-ion batteries are used in consumer electronics and electric vehicles. Such devices include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,589 | More niche uses include backup power in telecommunications applications. Lithium-ion batteries are also frequently discussed as a potential option for grid energy storage, although they are not yet cost-competitive at scale. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,590 | Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of positive and negative electrode materials, the energy density and voltage vary accordingly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,591 | The open-circuit voltage is higher than in aqueous batteries (such as lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride and nickel-cadmium). Internal resistance increases with both cycling and age, although this depends strongly on the voltage and temperature the batteries are stored at. Rising internal resistance causes the voltage at ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,592 | Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3.2 V and a typical charging voltage of 3.6 V. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3.7 V nominal voltage with a 4.2 V maximum while charging. The char... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,593 | Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from 1991 to 2005 the energy capacity per price of lithium ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0.3 W·h per dollar to over 3 W·h per dollar. In the period from 2011 to 2017, progress has averaged 7.5% annually. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,594 | Overall, between 1991 and 2018, prices for all types of lithium-ion cells (in dollars per kWh) fell approximately 97%. Over the same time period, energy density more than tripled. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,595 | Differently sized cells with similar chemistry can also have different energy densities. The 21700 cell has 50% more energy than the 18650 cell, and the bigger size reduces heat transfer to its surroundings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,596 | Life of a lithium-ion battery is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles to reach a failure threshold in terms of capacity loss or impedance rise. Manufacturers' datasheet typically uses the word "cycle life" to specify lifespan in terms of the number of cycles to reach 80% of the rated battery ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,597 | Over their lifespan batteries degrade gradually leading to reduced capacity (and, in some cases, lower operating cell voltage) due to a variety of chemical and mechanical changes to the electrodes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,598 | Several degradation processes occur in lithium-ion batteries, some during cycling, some during storage, and some all the time: Degradation is strongly temperature-dependent: degradation at room temperature is minimal but increases for batteries stored or used in hot or cold environments. High charge levels also hasten ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
21,599 | (1) Reduction of the organic carbonate electrolyte at the anode, which results in the growth of Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI), where Li+ ions get irreversibly trapped, i.e. loss of lithium inventory. This shows as increased ohmic impedance and reduced Ah charge. At constant temperature the SEI film thickness (and t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201485 |
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