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21,400 | Other antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle. HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the HIV-1 protease for it to become fully infectious. There is a large class of drugs called protease inhibitors that inactivate this enzyme. There are around thirteen classes of antiviral drugs... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,401 | Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80% of people infected, the disease is chronic, and without treatment, they are infected for the remainder of their lives. There are effective treatments that use direct-acting antivirals. The treatment of chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus has also been developed by usi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,402 | Viruses infect all cellular life and, although viruses occur universally, each cellular species has its own specific range that often infects only that species. Some viruses, called satellites, can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,403 | Viruses are important pathogens of livestock. Diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease and bluetongue are caused by viruses. Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, are susceptible to serious viral infections. Canine parvovirus is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,404 | There are many types of plant viruses, but often they cause only a loss of yield, and it is not economically viable to try to control them. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms, known as vectors. These are usually insects, but some fungi, nematode worms, single-celled organisms, and parasitic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,405 | Originally from Peru, the potato has become a staple crop worldwide. The potato virus Y causes disease in potatoes and related species including tomatoes and peppers. In the 1980s, this virus acquired economical importance when it proved difficult to control in seed potato crops. Transmitted by aphids, this virus can r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,406 | Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so-called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,407 | Plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have applications in both biotechnology and nanotechnology. The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems. Plant virus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,408 | Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments—there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria, reaching levels of 250,000,000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater. These viruses infect specific bact... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,409 | The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells. Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genom... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,410 | Some viruses replicate within archaea: these are DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes. These viruses have been studied in most detail in the thermophilic archaea, particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales. Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequenc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,411 | Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments. There are about ten million of them in a teaspoon of seawater. Most of these viruses are bacteriophages infecting heterotrophic bacteria and cyanophages infecting cyanobacteria and they are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,412 | Bacteriophages are harmless to plants and animals, and are essential to the regulation of marine and freshwater ecosystems are important mortality agents of phytoplankton, the base of the foodchain in aquatic environments. They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are one of the most import... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,413 | Microorganisms constitute more than 90% of the biomass in the sea. It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20% of this biomass each day and that there are 10 to 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are also major agents responsible for the destruction of phytoplankto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,414 | The number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,415 | In January 2018, scientists reported that 800 million viruses, mainly of marine origin, are deposited daily from the Earth atmosphere onto every square meter of the planet's surface, as the result of a global atmospheric stream of viruses, circulating above the weather system but below the altitude of usual airline tra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,416 | Like any organism, marine mammals are susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus. Many other viruses, including caliciviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses and parvoviruses, circulate in marine mammal populations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,417 | Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species, which increases genetic diversity and drives evolution. It is thought that viruses played a central role in early evolution, before the diversification of the last universal common ancestor into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Vir... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,418 | Viruses are important to the study of molecular and cell biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells. The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology. For example, viruses have been useful in the study of gene... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,419 | Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Similarly, virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,420 | The expression of heterologous proteins by viruses is the basis of several manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of various proteins such as vaccine antigens and antibodies. Industrial processes have been recently developed using viral vectors and several pharmaceutical proteins are c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,421 | Virotherapy involves the use of genetically modified viruses to treat diseases. Viruses have been modified by scientists to reproduce in cancer cells and destroy them but not infect healthy cells. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), for example, is a modified herpes simplex virus that has had a gene, which is required fo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,422 | Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses. From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,423 | Their surface carries specific tools that enable them to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface are precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface mod... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,424 | Because of their size, shape, and well-defined chemical structures, viruses have been used as templates for organising materials on the nanoscale. Recent examples include work at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., using Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) particles to amplify signals in DNA microarray based sens... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,425 | Many viruses can be synthesised de novo ("from scratch"). The first synthetic virus was created in 2002. Although somewhat of a misconception, it is not the actual virus that is synthesised, but rather its DNA genome (in case of a DNA virus), or a cDNA copy of its genome (in case of RNA viruses). For many virus familie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,426 | The ability of viruses to cause devastating epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponised for biological warfare. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous 1918 influenza virus in a laboratory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,427 | The smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. There are only two centres in the world authorised by the WHO to keep stocks of smallpox virus: the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Russia and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the U... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19167679 |
21,428 | Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved throughout history as the main liturgical language of Judaism (since the Second T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,429 | The earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date back to the 10th century BCE. Nearly all of the Hebrew Bible is written in Biblical Hebrew, with much of its present form in the dialect that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BCE, during the time of the Babylonian captivity. For this reason, Hebrew ha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,430 | Hebrew ceased to be a regular spoken language sometime between 200 and 400 CE, declining in the aftermath of the unsuccessful Bar Kokhba revolt that was carried out against the Roman Empire by the Jews of Judaea. Aramaic and, to a lesser extent, Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among soc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,431 | According to "Ethnologue", Hebrew was spoken by five million people worldwide in 1998; in 2013, it was spoken by over nine million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second-largest Hebrew-speaking population, with approximately 220,000 fluent speakers (see Israeli Americans and Jewish Americans).... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,432 | The modern English word "Hebrew" is derived from Old French "Ebrau", via Latin from the Ancient Greek "Ἑβραῖος" ("hebraîos") and Aramaic "'ibrāy", all ultimately derived from Biblical Hebrew "Ivri" (), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people (Hebrews). It is traditionally understood to be a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,433 | One of the earliest references to the language's name as "Ivrit" is found in the prologue to the Book of Ben Sira, from the 2nd century BCE. The Hebrew Bible does not use the term "Hebrew" in reference to the language of the Hebrew people; its later historiography, in the Book of Kings, refers to it as יְהוּדִית "Yehu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,434 | Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,435 | According to Avraham Ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during the period from about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a spoken vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile when the predominant international language in the r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,436 | Hebrew was extinct as a colloquial language by Late Antiquity, but it continued to be used as a literary language, especially in Spain, as the language of commerce between Jews of different native languages, and as the liturgical language of Judaism, evolving various dialects of literary Medieval Hebrew, until its revi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,437 | In July 2008, Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at that he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating from around 3,000 years ago. Hebrew University archaeologist Amihai Mazar said that the inscription was "proto-Canaanite" but cautioned that "The differentiation be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,438 | The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic period, the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon. Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after the city in who... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,439 | Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Proto-Sinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancest... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,440 | In its widest sense, Biblical Hebrew refers to the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between the 10th century BCE and the turn of the 4th century CE. It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,441 | Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 10th century BCE to 2nd century BCE and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and extant in cert... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,442 | By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century CE, Classical Hebrew ceased as a regularly spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kokhba revolt around 135 CE. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,443 | In the early 6th century BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah, destroying much of Jerusalem and exiling its population far to the east in Babylon. During the Babylonian captivity, many Israelites learned Aramaic, the closely related Semitic language of their captors. Thus, for a signifi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,444 | After Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon, he allowed the Jewish people to return from captivity. As a result, a local version of Aramaic came to be spoken in Israel alongside Hebrew. By the beginning of the Common Era, Aramaic was the primary colloquial language of Samarian, Babylonian and Galileean Jews, and western an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,445 | While there is no doubt that at a certain point, Hebrew was displaced as the everyday spoken language of most Jews, and that its chief successor in the Middle East was the closely related Aramaic language, then Greek, scholarly opinions on the exact dating of that shift have changed very much. In the first half of the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,446 | The Qumran scrolls indicate that Hebrew texts were readily understandable to the average Israelite, and that the language had evolved since Biblical times as spoken languages do. Recent scholarship recognizes that reports of Jews speaking in Aramaic indicate a multilingual society, not necessarily the primary language ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,447 | The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local mother tongue with powerful ties to Israel's history, origins and golden age and as the language of Israel's religion; Aramaic functioned as the international langua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,448 | The Christian New Testament contains some Semitic place names and quotes. The language of such Semitic glosses (and in general the language spoken by Jews in scenes from the New Testament) is often referred to as "Hebrew" in the text, although this term is often re-interpreted as referring to Aramaic instead and is ren... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,449 | The term "Mishnaic Hebrew" generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Ra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,450 | About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the Gemara, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in two forms of Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amora... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,451 | Hebrew was always regarded as the language of Israel's religion, history and national pride, and after it faded as a spoken language, it continued to be used as a "lingua franca" among scholars and Jews traveling in foreign countries. After the 2nd century CE when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,452 | After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved. The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,453 | During the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were , Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra and later (in Provence), ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,454 | The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,455 | Hebrew persevered through the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses—not only liturgy, but also poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts. There have been many deviations from this generalization su... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,456 | Hebrew has been revived several times as a literary language, most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th-century Germany. In the early 19th century, a form of spoken Hebrew had emerged in the markets of Jerusalem between Jews of different linguistic backgrounds to communicate for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,457 | The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) and older Aramaic a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,458 | In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously "Israeli Hebrew", "Modern Israeli Hebrew", "Modern Hebrew", "New Hebrew", "Israeli Standard Hebrew", "Standard Hebrew" and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits some features of S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,459 | The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, "HaMe'assef" (The Gatherer), was published by maskilim in Königsberg (today's Kaliningrad) from 1783 onwards. In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-langua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,460 | The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was initiated in the late 19th century by the efforts of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda. He joined the Jewish national movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,461 | While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the British Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,462 | In the Soviet Union, the use of Hebrew, along with other Jewish cultural and religious activities, was suppressed. Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the People's Commiss... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,463 | Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation. However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native language and often introduced calques from Yiddish and phono-semantic matchings of international words. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,464 | Despite using Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation as its primary basis, modern Israeli Hebrew has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in some respects, mainly the following: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,465 | The vocabulary of Israeli Hebrew is much larger than that of earlier periods. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,466 | In Israel, Modern Hebrew is currently taught in institutions called Ulpanim (singular: Ulpan). There are government-owned, as well as private, Ulpanim offering online courses and face-to-face programs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,467 | Modern Hebrew is the primary official language of the State of Israel. , there are about 9 million Hebrew speakers worldwide, of whom 7 million speak it fluently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,468 | Currently, 90% of Israeli Jews are proficient in Hebrew, and 70% are highly proficient. Some 60% of Israeli Arabs are also proficient in Hebrew, and 30% report having a higher proficiency in Hebrew than in Arabic. In total, about 53% of the Israeli population speaks Hebrew as a native language, while most of the rest s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,469 | Steps have been taken to keep Hebrew the primary language of use, and to prevent large-scale incorporation of English words into the Hebrew vocabulary. The Academy of the Hebrew Language of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem currently invents about 2,000 new Hebrew words each year for modern words by finding an origina... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,470 | Hebrew is one of several languages for which the constitution of South Africa calls to be respected in their use for religious purposes. Also, Hebrew is an official national minority language in Poland, since 6 January 2005. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,471 | Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeal /ʕ ħ/, a series of "emphatic" consonants (possibly ejective, but this is debated), lateral fricative /ɬ/, and in its older stages also uvular /χ ʁ/. /χ ʁ/ merged into /ħ ʕ/ in later Biblical Hebrew, and /b ɡ d k p t/ underwent allophonic spirant... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,472 | By the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, /ɬ/ had shifted to /s/ in the Jewish traditions, though for the Samaritans it merged with /ʃ/ instead. The Tiberian reading tradition of the Middle Ages had the vowel system /a ɛ e i ɔ o u ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/, though other Medieval reading traditions had fewer vowels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,473 | A number of reading traditions have been preserved in liturgical use. In Oriental (Sephardi and Mizrahi) Jewish reading traditions, the emphatic consonants are realized as pharyngealized, while the Ashkenazi (northern and eastern European) traditions have lost emphatics and pharyngeals (although according to Ashkenazi ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,474 | Modern Hebrew pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different Jewish reading traditions, generally tending towards simplification. In line with Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary counterparts, /w/ to /v/, and [ɣ ð θ] are not present. Most Israelis today also merge ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,475 | Hebrew grammar is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative and accusative using prepositional particles rather than grammatical cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of verbs and nouns. For example, nouns have a construct state, called "smikhut", to denote the relationship ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,476 | Like all Semitic languages, the Hebrew language exhibits a pattern of stems consisting typically of "triliteral", or 3-consonant consonantal roots, from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways: e.g. by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels and/or adding prefixes, suffixes or in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,477 | Hebrew uses a number of one-letter prefixes that are added to words for various purposes. These are called inseparable prepositions or "Letters of Use" (). Such items include: the definite article "ha-" () (= "the"); prepositions "be-" () (= "in"), "le-" () (= "to"; a shortened version of the preposition "el"), "mi-" (... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,478 | The vowel accompanying each of these letters may differ from those listed above, depending on the first letter or vowel following it. The rules governing these changes are hardly observed in colloquial speech as most speakers tend to employ the regular form. However, they may be heard in more formal circumstances. For ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,479 | The definite article may be inserted between a preposition or a conjunction and the word it refers to, creating composite words like "mé-ha-kfar" (= "from the village"). The latter also demonstrates the change in the vowel of "mi-". With "be", "le" and "ke", the definite article is assimilated into the prefix, which th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,480 | Like most other languages, the vocabulary of the Hebrew language is divided into verbs, nouns, adjectives and so on, and its sentence structure can be analyzed by terms like object, subject and so on. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,481 | Users of the language write Modern Hebrew from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet - an "impure" abjad, or consonant-only script, of 22 letters. The ancient paleo-Hebrew alphabet resembles those used for Canaanite and Phoenician. Modern scripts derive from the "square" letter form, known as "Ashurit" (Assyrian), wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,482 | Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,483 | Ashkenazi Hebrew, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the Haredi and other Orthodox communities. It was influenced by Yiddish pronunciation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,484 | Sephardi Hebrew is the traditional pronunciation of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and Sephardi Jews in the countries of the former Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Yemenite Hebrew. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the Hebrew phonology of Israeli native sp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,485 | Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the Arab and Islamic world. It was derived from the old Arabic language, and in some cases influenced by Sephardi Hebrew. Yemenite Hebrew or "Temanit" differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,486 | These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew. However, some traditionalist Israelis use liturgical pronunciations in prayer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,487 | Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the "Sephardic" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13450 |
21,488 | Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resources are ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,489 | Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 2015 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development Goals(2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,490 | Sustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: ""Sustainability" is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while "sustainable development" refers to the many processes and pathways t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,491 | In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report "Our Common Future", commonly called the Brundtland Report. The report included a definition of "sustainable development" which is now widely used: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,492 | Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management, which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662 essay "Sylva", that "sowing and planting of trees had... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,493 | Following the publication of Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" in 1962, the developing environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation. Kenneth E. Boulding, in his influential 1966 essay "The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth", identified the need for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,494 | In 1975, an MIT research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for the Future" for the US Congress, the first hearings ever held on sustainable development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,495 | In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature published a world conservation strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority and introduced the term "sustainable development". Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five princi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,496 | Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable economic growth". In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,497 | The Rio Protocol was a huge leap forward: for the first time, the world agreed on a sustainability agenda. In fact, a global consensus was facilitated by neglecting concrete goals and operational details. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) now have concrete targets (unlike the results from the Rio Process) but no... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,498 | Sustainable development, like sustainability, is regarded to have three dimensions (also called pillars, domains, aspects, spheres and globalized etc.): the environment, economy and society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
21,499 | The concept of sustainable development has been and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 |
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