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22,700 | Iron is one of the elements undoubtedly known to the ancient world. It has been worked, or wrought, for millennia. However, iron artefacts of great age are much rarer than objects made of gold or silver due to the ease with which iron corrodes. The technology developed slowly, and even after the discovery of smelting i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,701 | Beads made from meteoric iron in 3500 BC or earlier were found in Gerzeh, Egypt by G.A. Wainwright. The beads contain 7.5% nickel, which is a signature of meteoric origin since iron found in the Earth's crust generally has only minuscule nickel impurities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,702 | Meteoric iron was highly regarded due to its origin in the heavens and was often used to forge weapons and tools. For example, a dagger made of meteoric iron was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, containing similar proportions of iron, cobalt, and nickel to a meteorite discovered in the area, deposited by an ancient me... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,703 | Meteoritic iron is comparably soft and ductile and easily cold forged but may get brittle when heated because of the nickel content. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,704 | The first iron production started in the Middle Bronze Age, but it took several centuries before iron displaced bronze. Samples of smelted iron from Asmar, Mesopotamia and Tall Chagar Bazaar in northern Syria were made sometime between 3000 and 2700 BC. The Hittites established an empire in north-central Anatolia aroun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,705 | Artifacts of smelted iron are found in India dating from 1800 to 1200 BC, and in the Levant from about 1500 BC (suggesting smelting in Anatolia or the Caucasus). Alleged references (compare history of metallurgy in South Asia) to iron in the Indian Vedas have been used for claims of a very early usage of iron in India ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,706 | Some archaeological evidence suggests iron was smelted in Zimbabwe and southeast Africa as early as the eighth century BC. Iron working was introduced to Greece in the late 11th century BC, from which it spread quickly throughout Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,707 | The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with Celtic expansion. According to Pliny the Elder, iron use was common in the Roman era. In the lands of what is now considered China, iron appears approximately 700–500 BC. Iron smelting may have been introduced into China through Central Asia. Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,708 | During the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Henry Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems. In 1783 he patented the puddling process for refining iron ore. It was later improved by others, including Joseph Hall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,709 | Cast iron was first produced in China during 5th century BC, but was hardly in Europe until the medieval period. The earliest cast iron artifacts were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. During ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,710 | Medieval blast furnaces were about tall and made of fireproof brick; forced air was usually provided by hand-operated bellows. Modern blast furnaces have grown much bigger, with hearths fourteen meters in diameter that allow them to produce thousands of tons of iron each day, but essentially operate in much the same wa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,711 | In 1709, Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, replacing charcoal, although continuing to use blast furnaces. The ensuing availability of inexpensive iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Toward the end of the 18th century, cast iron began to replace wr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,712 | Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative first iron bridge in 1778. This bridge still stands today as a monument to the role iron played in the Industrial Revolution. Following this, iron was used in rails, boats, ships, aque... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,713 | Steel (with smaller carbon content than pig iron but more than wrought iron) was first produced in antiquity by using a bloomery. Blacksmiths in Luristan in western Persia were making good steel by 1000 BC. Then improved versions, Wootz steel by India and Damascus steel were developed around 300 BC and AD 500 respectiv... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,714 | New methods of producing it by carburizing bars of iron in the cementation process were devised in the 17th century. In the Industrial Revolution, new methods of producing bar iron without charcoal were devised and these were later applied to produce steel. In the late 1850s, Henry Bessemer invented a new steelmaking p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,715 | In 1774, Antoine Lavoisier used the reaction of water steam with metallic iron inside an incandescent iron tube to produce hydrogen in his experiments leading to the demonstration of the conservation of mass, which was instrumental in changing chemistry from a qualitative science to a quantitative one. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,716 | Iron plays a certain role in mythology and has found various usage as a metaphor and in folklore. The Greek poet Hesiod's "Works and Days" (lines 109–201) lists different ages of man named after metals like gold, silver, bronze and iron to account for successive ages of humanity. The Iron Age was closely related with R... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,717 | An example of the importance of iron's symbolic role may be found in the German Campaign of 1813. Frederick William III commissioned then the first Iron Cross as military decoration. Berlin iron jewellery reached its peak production between 1813 and 1815, when the Prussian royal family urged citizens to donate gold and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,718 | For a few limited purposes when it is needed, pure iron is produced in the laboratory in small quantities by reducing the pure oxide or hydroxide with hydrogen, or forming iron pentacarbonyl and heating it to 250 °C so that it decomposes to form pure iron powder. Another method is electrolysis of ferrous chloride onto ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,719 | Nowadays, the industrial production of iron or steel consists of two main stages. In the first stage, iron ore is reduced with coke in a blast furnace, and the molten metal is separated from gross impurities such as silicate minerals. This stage yields an alloy—pig iron—that contains relatively large amounts of carbon.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,720 | The blast furnace is loaded with iron ores, usually hematite or magnetite , along with coke (coal that has been separately baked to remove volatile components) and flux (limestone or dolomite). "Blasts" of air pre-heated to 900 °C (sometimes with oxygen enrichment) is blown through the mixture, in sufficient amount to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,721 | This reaction raises the temperature to about 2000 °C. The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore to metallic iron | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,722 | The flux removes silicaceous minerals in the ore, which would otherwise clog the furnace: The heat of the furnace decomposes the carbonates to calcium oxide, which reacts with any excess silica to form a slag composed of calcium silicate or other products. At the furnace's temperature, the metal and the slag are both m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,723 | The pig iron produced by the blast furnace process contains up to 4–5% carbon (by mass), with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese. This high level of carbon makes it relatively weak and brittle. Reducing the amount of carbon to 0.002–2.1% produces steel, which may be up t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,724 | Steel products often undergo various heat treatments after they are forged to shape. Annealing consists of heating them to 700–800 °C for several hours and then gradual cooling. It makes the steel softer and more workable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,725 | Owing to environmental concerns, alternative methods of processing iron have been developed. "Direct iron reduction" reduces iron ore to a ferrous lump called "sponge" iron or "direct" iron that is suitable for steelmaking. Two main reactions comprise the direct reduction process: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,726 | Ignition of a mixture of aluminium powder and iron oxide yields metallic iron via the thermite reaction: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,727 | Alternatively pig iron may be made into steel (with up to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially pure iron). Various processes have been used for this, including finery forges, puddling furnaces, Bessemer converters, open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, and electric arc furnaces. In all cases, the objec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,728 | Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for over 90% of worldwide metal production. Its low cost and high strength often make it the material of choice material to withstand stress or transmit forces, such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, rails, automobiles, ship hulls, concrete re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,729 | The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys are extremely relevant to their structural applications. Those properties can be evaluated in various ways, including the Brinell test, the Rockwell test and the Vickers hardness test. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,730 | The properties of pure iron are often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. However, the mechanical properties of iron are significantly affected by the sample's purity: pure, single crystals of iron are actually softer than aluminium, and the purest industrially produced iron (99.99%) has a hardness of 2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,731 | An increase in the carbon content will cause a significant increase in the hardness and tensile strength of iron. Maximum hardness of 65 R is achieved with a 0.6% carbon content, although the alloy has low tensile strength. Because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,732 | α-Iron is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than 0.021% by mass at 910 °C). Austenite (γ-iron) is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1146 °C). This form of iron is used in the type of stainless steel used f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,733 | Commercially available iron is classified based on purity and the abundance of additives. Pig iron has 3.5–4.5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Pig iron is not a saleable product, but rather an intermediate step in the production of cast iron and steel. The re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,734 | "White" cast irons contain their carbon in the form of cementite, or iron carbide (FeC). This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken iron carbide, a very p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,735 | In gray iron the carbon exists as separate, fine flakes of graphite, and also renders the material brittle due to the sharp edged flakes of graphite that produce stress concentration sites within the material. A newer variant of gray iron, referred to as ductile iron, is specially treated with trace amounts of magnesiu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,736 | Wrought iron contains less than 0.25% carbon but large amounts of slag that give it a fibrous characteristic. It is a tough, malleable product, but not as fusible as pig iron. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterized by the presence of fine fibers of slag entrapped within the metal. Wroug... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,737 | Mild steel corrodes more readily than wrought iron, but is cheaper and more widely available. Carbon steel contains 2.0% carbon or less, with small amounts of manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nicke... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,738 | Alloys with high purity elemental makeups (such as alloys of electrolytic iron) have specifically enhanced properties such as ductility, tensile strength, toughness, fatigue strength, heat resistance, and corrosion resistance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,739 | Apart from traditional applications, iron is also used for protection from ionizing radiation. Although it is lighter than another traditional protection material, lead, it is much stronger mechanically. The attenuation of radiation as a function of energy is shown in the graph. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,740 | The main disadvantage of iron and steel is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly from rust if not protected in some way, a cost amounting to over 1% of the world's economy. Painting, galvanization, passivation, plastic coating and bluing are all used to protect iron from rust by excluding water and oxyge... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,741 | The electrolyte is usually iron(II) sulfate in urban areas (formed when atmospheric sulfur dioxide attacks iron), and salt particles in the atmosphere in seaside areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,742 | Although the dominant use of iron is in metallurgy, iron compounds are also pervasive in industry. Iron catalysts are traditionally used in the Haber–Bosch process for the production of ammonia and the Fischer–Tropsch process for conversion of carbon monoxide to hydrocarbons for fuels and lubricants. Powdered iron in a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,743 | Iron(III) oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding large iron parts (like rails) and purifying ores. Iron(III) oxide and oxyhydroxide are used as reddish and ocher pigments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,744 | Iron(III) chloride finds use in water purification and sewage treatment, in the dyeing of cloth, as a coloring agent in paints, as an additive in animal feed, and as an etchant for copper in the manufacture of printed circuit boards. It can also be dissolved in alcohol to form tincture of iron, which is used as a medic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,745 | Iron(II) sulfate is used as a precursor to other iron compounds. It is also used to reduce chromate in cement. It is used to fortify foods and treat iron deficiency anemia. Iron(III) sulfate is used in settling minute sewage particles in tank water. Iron(II) chloride is used as a reducing flocculating agent, in the for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,746 | Iron is required for life. The iron–sulfur clusters are pervasive and include nitrogenase, the enzymes responsible for biological nitrogen fixation. Iron-containing proteins participate in transport, storage and used of oxygen. Iron proteins are involved in electron transfer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,747 | Examples of iron-containing proteins in higher organisms include hemoglobin, cytochrome (see high-valent iron), and catalase. The average adult human contains about 0.005% body weight of iron, or about four grams, of which three quarters is in hemoglobin – a level that remains constant despite only about one milligram ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,748 | Iron acquisition poses a problem for aerobic organisms because ferric iron is poorly soluble near neutral pH. Thus, these organisms have developed means to absorb iron as complexes, sometimes taking up ferrous iron before oxidising it back to ferric iron. In particular, bacteria have evolved very high-affinity sequeste... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,749 | After uptake in human cells, iron storage is precisely regulated. A major component of this regulation is the protein transferrin, which binds iron ions absorbed from the duodenum and carries it in the blood to cells. Transferrin contains Fe in the middle of a distorted octahedron, bonded to one nitrogen, three oxygens... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,750 | The most commonly known and studied bioinorganic iron compounds (biological iron molecules) are the heme proteins: examples are hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochrome P450. These compounds participate in transporting gases, building enzymes, and transferring electrons. Metalloproteins are a group of proteins with metal ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,751 | Hemoglobin is an oxygen carrier that occurs in red blood cells and contributes their color, transporting oxygen in the arteries from the lungs to the muscles where it is transferred to myoglobin, which stores it until it is needed for the metabolic oxidation of glucose, generating energy. Here the hemoglobin binds to c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,752 | When deoxyhemoglobin picks up an oxygen molecule, this histidine residue moves away and returns once the oxygen is securely attached to form a hydrogen bond with it. This results in the Fe ion switching to a low-spin configuration, resulting in a 20% decrease in ionic radius so that now it can fit into the porphyrin ri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,753 | Carbon monoxide and phosphorus trifluoride are poisonous to humans because they bind to hemoglobin similarly to oxygen, but with much more strength, so that oxygen can no longer be transported throughout the body. Hemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide is known as carboxyhemoglobin. This effect also plays a minor role in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,754 | Although the heme proteins are the most important class of iron-containing proteins, the iron–sulfur proteins are also very important, being involved in electron transfer, which is possible since iron can exist stably in either the +2 or +3 oxidation states. These have one, two, four, or eight iron atoms that are each ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,755 | The ability of sea mussels to maintain their grip on rocks in the ocean is facilitated by their use of organometallic iron-based bonds in their protein-rich cuticles. Based on synthetic replicas, the presence of iron in these structures increased elastic modulus 770 times, tensile strength 58 times, and toughness 92 ti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,756 | Iron is pervasive, but particularly rich sources of dietary iron include red meat, oysters, lentils, beans, poultry, fish, leaf vegetables, watercress, tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and blackstrap molasses. Bread and breakfast cereals are sometimes specifically fortified with iron. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,757 | Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron(II) fumarate, although iron(II) sulfate is cheaper and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, or reduced iron, despite being absorbed at only one-third to two-thirds the efficiency (relative to iron sulfate), is often added to foods such as breakfast cereal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,758 | The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for iron in 2001. The current EAR for iron for women ages 14–18 is 7.9 mg/day, 8.1 for ages 19–50 and 5.0 thereafter (post menopause). For men the EAR is 6.0 mg/day for ages 19 and up. The RDA is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,759 | The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women the PRI is 13 mg/day ages 15–17 years, 16 mg/day for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,760 | Infants may require iron supplements if they are bottle-fed cow's milk. Frequent blood donors are at risk of low iron levels and are often advised to supplement their iron intake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,761 | For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For iron labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 18 mg, and remained unchanged at 18 mg. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,762 | Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world. When loss of iron is not adequately compensated by adequate dietary iron intake, a state of latent iron deficiency occurs, which over time leads to iron-deficiency anemia if left untreated, which is characterised by an insufficient number of red bl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,763 | Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no regulated physiological means of excreting iron. Only small amounts of iron are lost daily due to mucosal and skin epithelial cell sloughing, so control of iron levels is primarily accomplished by regulating uptake. Regulation of iron uptake is impaired i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,764 | Overdoses of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of free iron in the blood. High blood levels of free ferrous iron react with peroxides to produce highly reactive free radicals that can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Iron toxicity occurs when the cell contains free iron, which general... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,765 | The medical management of iron toxicity is complicated, and can include use of a specific chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,766 | Some research has suggested that low thalamic iron levels may play a role in the pathophysiology of ADHD. Some researchers have found that iron supplementation can be effective especially in the inattentive subtype of the disorder. One study also showed that iron may be able to decrease the risk of cardiovascular event... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,767 | Some researchers in the 2000s suggested a link between low levels of iron in the blood and ADHD. A 2012 study found no such correlation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,768 | The role of iron in cancer defense can be described as a "double-edged sword" because of its pervasive presence in non-pathological processes. People having chemotherapy may develop iron deficiency and anemia, for which intravenous iron therapy is used to restore iron levels. Iron overload, which may occur from high co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,769 | Iron plays an essential role in marine systems and can act as a limiting nutrient for planktonic activity. Because of this, too much of a decrease in iron may lead to a decrease in growth rates in phytoplanktonic organisms such as diatoms. Iron can also be oxidized by marine microbes under conditions that are high in i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,770 | Iron can enter marine systems through adjoining rivers and directly from the atmosphere. Once iron enters the ocean, it can be distributed throughout the water column through ocean mixing and through recycling on the cellular level. In the arctic, sea ice plays a major role in the store and distribution of iron in the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14734 |
22,771 | A polymath (, , "having learned much"; , "universal human") is an individual whose knowledge spans a substantial number of subjects, known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,772 | In Western Europe, the first work to use the term polymathy in its title () was published in 1603 by Johann von Wowern, a Hamburg philosopher. Von Wowern defined polymathy as "knowledge of various matters, drawn from all kinds of studies ... ranging freely through all the fields of the disciplines, as far as the human ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,773 | The earliest recorded use of the term in the English language is from 1624, in the second edition of "The Anatomy of Melancholy" by Robert Burton; the form "polymathist" is slightly older, first appearing in the "Diatribae upon the first part of the late History of Tithes" of Richard Montagu in 1621. Use in English of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,774 | Polymaths include the great scholars and thinkers of the Renaissance and Enlightenment, who excelled at several fields in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and the arts. In the Italian Renaissance, the idea of the polymath was allegedly expressed by Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), a polymath himself, in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,775 | Embodying a basic tenet of Renaissance humanism that humans are limitless in their capacity for development, the concept led to the notion that people should embrace all knowledge and develop their capacities as fully as possible. This is expressed in the term Renaissance man, often applied to the gifted people of that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,776 | The term "Renaissance man" was first recorded in written English in the early 20th century. It is used to refer to great thinkers living before, during, or after the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,777 | The idea of a universal education was essential to achieving polymath ability, hence the word university was used to describe a seat of learning. However, the original Latin word refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc". At this time, un... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,778 | When someone is called a "Renaissance man" today, it is meant that rather than simply having broad interests or superficial knowledge in several fields, the individual possesses a more profound knowledge and a proficiency, or even an expertise, in at least some of those fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,779 | Some dictionaries use the term "Renaissance man" to describe someone with many interests or talents, while others give a meaning restricted to the Renaissance and more closely related to Renaissance ideals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,780 | Robert Root-Bernstein is considered the principal responsible for rekindling interest in polymathy in the scientific community. His works emphasize the contrast between the polymath and two other types: the specialist and the dilettante. The specialist demonstrates depth but lacks breadth of knowledge. The dilettante d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,781 | A key point in the work of Root-Bernstein and colleagues is the argument in favor of the universality of the creative process. That is, although creative products, such as a painting, a mathematical model or a poem, can be domain-specific, at the level of the creative process, the mental tools that lead to the generati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,782 | Root-Bernstein and colleagues' research is an important counterpoint to the claim by some psychologists that creativity is a domain-specific phenomenon. Through their research, Root-Bernstein and colleagues conclude that there are certain comprehensive thinking skills and tools that cross the barrier of different domai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,783 | Finally, his studies suggest that understanding polymathy and learning from polymathic exemplars can help structure a new model of education that better promotes creativity and innovation: "we must focus education on principles, methods, and skills that will serve them [students] in learning and creating across many di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,784 | Peter Burke, Professor Emeritus of Cultural History and Fellow of Emmanuel College at Cambridge, discussed the theme of polymathy in some of his works. He has presented a comprehensive historical overview of the ascension and decline of the polymath as, what he calls, an "intellectual species". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,785 | He observes that in ancient and medieval times, scholars did not have to specialize. However, from the 17th century on, the rapid rise of new knowledge in the Western world—both from the systematic investigation of the natural world and from the flow of information coming from other parts of the world—was making it inc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,786 | Given this change in the intellectual climate, it has since then been more common to find "passive polymaths", who consume knowledge in various domains but make their reputation in one single discipline, than "proper polymaths", who—through a feat of "intellectual heroism"—manage to make serious contributions to severa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,787 | However, Burke warns that in the age of specialization, polymathic people are more necessary than ever, both for synthesis—to paint the big picture—and for analysis. He says: "It takes a polymath to 'mind the gap' and draw attention to the knowledges that may otherwise disappear into the spaces between disciplines, as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,788 | Finally, he suggests that governments and universities should nurture a habitat in which this "endangered species" can survive, offering students and scholars the possibility of interdisciplinary work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,789 | James C. Kaufman, from the Neag School of Education at the University of Connecticut, and Ronald A. Beghetto, from the same university, investigated the possibility that everyone could have the potential for polymathy as well as the issue of the domain-generality or domain-specificity of creativity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,790 | Based on their earlier four-c model of creativity, Beghetto and Kaufman proposed a typology of polymathy, ranging from the ubiquitous mini-c polymathy to the eminent but rare Big-C polymathy, as well as a model with some requirements for a person (polymath or not) to be able to reach the highest levels of creative acco... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,791 | Regarding the interplay of polymathy and education, they suggest that rather than asking whether every student has multicreative potential, educators might more actively nurture the multicreative potential of their students. As an example, the authors cite that teachers should encourage students to make connections acr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,792 | Bharath Sriraman, of the University of Montana, also investigated the role of polymathy in education. He poses that an ideal education should nurture talent in the classroom and enable individuals to pursue multiple fields of research and appreciate both the aesthetic and structural/scientific connections between mathe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,793 | In 2009, Sriraman published a paper reporting a 3-year study with 120 pre-service mathematics teachers and derived several implications for mathematics pre-service education as well as interdisciplinary education. He utilized a hermeneutic-phenomenological approach to recreate the emotions, voices and struggles of stud... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,794 | Michael Araki is a professor at Universidade Federal Fluminense in Brazil. He sought to formalize in a general model how the development of polymathy takes place. His Developmental Model of Polymathy (DMP) is presented in a 2018 article with two main objectives: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,795 | Regarding the definition of the term polymathy, the researcher, through an analysis of the extant literature, concluded that although there are a multitude of perspectives on polymathy, most of them ascertain that polymathy entails three core elements: breadth, depth and integration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,796 | Breadth refers to comprehensiveness, extension and diversity of knowledge. It is contrasted with the idea of narrowness, specialization, and the restriction of one's expertise to a limited domain. The possession of comprehensive knowledge at very disparate areas is a hallmark of the greatest polymaths. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,797 | Depth refers to the vertical accumulation of knowledge and the degree of elaboration or sophistication of one's sets of one's conceptual network. Like Robert Root-Bernstein, Araki uses the concept of dilettancy as a contrast to the idea of profound learning that polymathy entails. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,798 | Integration, although not explicit in most definitions of polymathy, is also a core component of polymathy according to the author. Integration involves the capacity of connecting, articulating, concatenating or synthesizing different conceptual networks, which in non-polymathic persons might be segregated. In addition... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
22,799 | Finally, the author also suggests that, via a psychoeconomic approach, polymathy can be seen as a "life project". That is, depending on a person's temperament, endowments, personality, social situation and opportunities (or lack thereof), the project of a polymathic self-formation may present itself to the person as mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25121 |
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