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4,200 | Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly; this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,201 | Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software. If software is faulty, it can delete a person's work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called "bugs" which are often discovered during alpha and beta testing. Software is often also a victim to wha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,202 | Many bugs are discovered and fixed through software testing. However, software testing rarely—if ever—eliminates every bug; some programmers say that "every program has at least one more bug" (Lubarsky's Law). In the waterfall method of software development, separate testing teams are typically employed, but in newer a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,203 | The software's license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment, and in the case of free software licenses, also grants other rights such as the right to make copies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,204 | Open-source software comes with a free software license, granting the recipient the rights to modify and redistribute the software. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,205 | Software patents, like other types of patents, are theoretically supposed to give an inventor an exclusive, time-limited license for a "detailed idea (e.g. an algorithm) on how to implement" a piece of software, or a component of a piece of software. Ideas for useful things that software could "do", and user "requireme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,206 | Software patents are controversial in the software industry with many people holding different views about them. One of the sources of controversy is that the aforementioned split between initial ideas and patent does not seem to be honored in practice by patent lawyers—for example the patent for aspect-oriented progra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,207 | Design and implementation of software vary depending on the complexity of the software. For instance, the design and creation of Microsoft Word took much more time than designing and developing Microsoft Notepad because the former has much more basic functionality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,208 | Software is usually developed in integrated development environments (IDE) like Eclipse, IntelliJ and Microsoft Visual Studio that can simplify the process and compile the software. As noted in a different section, software is usually created on top of existing software and the application programming interface (API) t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,209 | Data structures such as hash tables, arrays, and binary trees, and algorithms such as quicksort, can be useful for creating software. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,210 | Computer software has special economic characteristics that make its design, creation, and distribution different from most other economic goods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,211 | A person who creates software is called a programmer, software engineer or software developer, terms that all have a similar meaning. More informal terms for programmer also exist such as "coder" and "hacker"although use of the latter word may cause confusion, because it is more often used to mean someone who illegally... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5309 |
4,212 | The Northrop (later Northrop Grumman) B-2 Spirit, also known as the Stealth Bomber, is an American heavy strategic bomber, featuring low-observable stealth technology designed to penetrate dense anti-aircraft defenses. A subsonic flying wing with a crew of two, the plane was designed by Northrop, later Northrop Grumman... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,213 | Development began under the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) project during the Carter administration, which cancelled the Mach 2-capable B-1A bomber in part because the ATB showed such promise. But development difficulties delayed progress and drove costs up. Ultimately, the program produced 21 B-2s at an average cost... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,214 | The project's considerable capital and operating costs made it controversial in the U.S. Congress even before the winding-down of the Cold War dramatically reduced the need for a stealthy aircraft designed to strike deep in Soviet territory. Consequently, in the late 1980s and 1990s lawmakers shrank the planned purchas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,215 | As of 2022, twenty B-2s are in service with the United States Air Force. (One was destroyed in a 2008 crash.) The Air Force plans to operate them until 2032, when the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider is to replace them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,216 | The B-2 can perform attack missions up to ; it has an unrefueled range of more than and can fly more than with one midair refueling. It entered service in 1997 as the second aircraft designed with advanced stealth technology, after the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attack aircraft. Primarily designed as a nuclear bomber, th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,217 | By the mid-1970s, military aircraft designers had learned of a new method to avoid missiles and interceptors, known today as "stealth". The concept was to build an aircraft with an airframe that deflected or absorbed radar signals so that little was reflected back to the radar unit. An aircraft having radar stealth cha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,218 | In 1974, DARPA requested information from U.S. aviation firms about the largest radar cross-section of an aircraft that would remain effectively invisible to radars. Initially, Northrop and McDonnell Douglas were selected for further development. Lockheed had experience in this field due to developing the Lockheed A-12... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,219 | Plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when DARPA started the Experimental Survivability Testbed (XST) project. Northrop and Lockheed were awarded contracts in the first round of testing. Lockheed received the sole award for the second test round in April 1976 leading to the Have Blue program and eventually th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,220 | By 1976, these programs had progressed to a position in which a long-range strategic stealth bomber appeared viable. President Carter became aware of these developments during 1977, and it appears to have been one of the major reasons the B-1 was canceled. Further studies were ordered in early 1978, by which point the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,221 | The Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) program began in 1979. Full development of the black project followed, and was funded under the code name "Aurora". After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was narrowed to the Northrop/Boeing and Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study cont... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,222 | The Northrop team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981. The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redes... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,223 | During its design and development, the Northrop B-2 program was a "black" project requiring a secret clearance for all program personnel before its revelation to the public. Unlike the Lockheed F-117 program, which was also a black project (the type of military project which very few people knew even existed while it w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,224 | For the manufacturing, a former Ford automobile assembly plant in Pico Rivera, California, was acquired and heavily rebuilt; the plant's employees were sworn to complete secrecy regarding their work. To avoid the possibility of suspicion, components were typically purchased through front companies, military officials w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,225 | In 1984, a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh, was arrested for attempting to sell classified information to the Soviet Union; the information was taken from Northrop's Pico Rivera, California factory. Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released on parole in 2001. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,226 | The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988 at United States Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. This viewing was heavily restricted, and guests were not allowed to see the rear of the B-2. However, "Aviation Week" editors found that there were no airspace restrictions above... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,227 | In October 2005, Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested for selling B-2 related classified information to China. Gowadia was convicted and sentenced to 32 years in prison for his actions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,228 | A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s, but was later reduced to 75. By the early 1990s the Soviet Union dissolved, effectively eliminating the Spirit's primary Cold War mission. Under budgetary pressures and Congressional opposition, in his 1992 State of the Union Address, President George H. W. Bu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,229 | The program was the subject of public controversy for its cost to American taxpayers. In 1996, the General Accounting Office (GAO) disclosed that the USAF's B-2 bombers "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis", costing over three times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually) a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,230 | The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million in 1997 dollars (equivalent to US$ million in 2021), based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48 billion. The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed in GAO re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,231 | The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars (equivalent to US$ billion in 2021). This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion per aircraft. The B-2 may cost up to $135,000 per flight hour to oper... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,232 | In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to end the project. Opposition in committee and in Congress was mostly broad and bipartisan, with Congressmen Ron... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,233 | The escalating cost of the B-2 program and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar were among factors that drove opposition to continue the program. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, some... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,234 | In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including later Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a U.S. Senator, representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H. W. Bush called for the c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,235 | Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional aircraft would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and its Director of Nat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,236 | In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Services Committee and National Security Committee, Congressman Ron Dellums (D-CA), a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers to the existing 21 airc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,237 | A number of upgrade packages have been applied to the B-2. In July 2008, the B-2's onboard computing architecture was extensively redesigned; it now incorporates a new integrated processing unit (IPU) that communicates with systems throughout the aircraft via a newly installed fiber optic network; a new version of the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,238 | On 29 December 2008, USAF officials awarded a US$468 million contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radars. Changing the radar's frequency was required as the United States Department of Commerce had sold that radio spectrum to another operator. In July 2009, it was reported that the B-2 had successf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,239 | In July 2010, political analyst Rebecca Grant speculated that when the B-2 becomes unable to reliably penetrate enemy defenses, the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II may take on its strike/interdiction mission, carrying B61 nuclear bombs as a tactical bomber. However, in March 2012, the Pentagon announced that a $2 bil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,240 | It was reported in 2011 that the Pentagon was evaluating an unmanned stealth bomber, characterized as a "mini-B-2", as a potential replacement in the near future. In 2012, USAF Chief of Staff General Norton Schwartz stated the B-2's 1980s-era stealth technologies would make it less survivable in future contested airspa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,241 | In 2013, the USAF contracted for the Defensive Management System Modernization program to replace the antenna system and other electronics to increase the B-2's frequency awareness. The Common Very Low Frequency Receiver upgrade will allow the B-2s to use the same very low frequency transmissions as the "Ohio"-class su... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,242 | In 1998, a Congressional panel advised the USAF to refocus resources away from continued B-2 production and instead begin development of a new bomber, either a new build or a variant of the B-2. In its 1999 bomber roadmap the USAF eschewed the panel's recommendations, believing its current bomber fleet could be maintai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,243 | Although the USAF previously planned to operate the B-2 to 2058, the FY 2019 budget moved up its retirement to "no later than 2032". It also moved retirement of the B-1 to 2036 while extending the B-52's service life into the 2050s, due to the latter's lower maintenance costs, versatile conventional payload, and abilit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,244 | The B-2 Spirit was developed to take over the USAF's vital penetration missions, able to travel deep into enemy territory to deploy ordnance which could include nuclear weapons. The B-2 is a flying wing aircraft, meaning that it has no fuselage or tail. It has significant advantages over previous bombers due to its ble... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,245 | The development and construction of the B-2 required pioneering use of computer-aided design and manufacturing technologies, due to its complex flight characteristics and design requirements to maintain very low visibility to multiple means of detection. The B-2 bears a resemblance to earlier Northrop aircraft; the YB-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,246 | Approximately 80 pilots fly the B-2. Each aircraft has a crew of two, a pilot in the left seat and mission commander in the right, and has provisions for a third crew member if needed. For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew of five. The B-2 is highly automated, and one crew member can sleep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,247 | The B-2, in the envisaged Cold War scenario, was to perform deep-penetrating nuclear strike missions, making use of its stealthy capabilities to avoid detection and interception throughout missions. There are two internal bomb bays in which munitions are stored either on a rotary launcher or two bomb-racks; the carriag... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,248 | It was decided, in light of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, to equip the B-2 for conventional precision attacks as well as for the strategic role of nuclear-strike. The B-2 features a sophisticated GPS-Aided Targeting System (GATS) that uses the aircraft's APQ-181 synthetic aperture radar to map out targets prior ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,249 | The B-2 has various conventional weapons in its arsenal, able to equip Mark 82 and Mark 84 bombs, CBU-87 Combined Effects Munitions, GATOR mines, and the CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon. In July 2009, Northrop Grumman reported the B-2 was compatible with the equipment necessary to deploy the Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,250 | To make the B-2 more effective than previous bombers, many advanced and modern avionics systems were integrated into its design; these have been modified and improved following a switch to conventional warfare missions. One system is the low probability of intercept AN/APQ-181 multi-mode radar, a fully digital navigati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,251 | For safety and fault-detection purposes, an on-board test system is linked with the majority of avionics on the B-2 to continuously monitor the performance and status of thousands of components and consumables; it also provides post-mission servicing instructions for ground crews. In 2008, many of the 136 standalone di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,252 | In addition to periodic software upgrades and the introduction of new radar-absorbent materials across the fleet, the B-2 has had several major upgrades to its avionics and combat systems. For battlefield communications, both Link-16 and a high frequency satellite link have been installed, compatibility with various ne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,253 | To address the inherent flight instability of a flying wing aircraft, the B-2 uses a complex quadruplex computer-controlled fly-by-wire flight control system that can automatically manipulate flight surfaces and settings without direct pilot inputs to maintain aircraft stability. The flight computer receives informatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,254 | Northrop had investigated several means of applying directional control that would infringe on the aircraft's radar profile as little as possible, eventually settling on a combination of split brake-rudders and differential thrust. Engine thrust became a key element of the B-2's aerodynamic design process early on; thr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,255 | The B-2's low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics enable the undetected penetration of sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses and to attack even heavily defended targets. This stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures (multi-spectral camouflage) to evade the various... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,256 | To reduce optical visibility during daylight flights, the B-2 is painted in an anti-reflective paint. The undersides are dark because it flies at high altitudes (), and at that altitude a dark grey painting blends well into the sky. It is speculated to have an upward-facing light sensor which alerts the pilot to increa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,257 | Reportedly, the B-2 has a radar cross-section (RCS) of about . The bomber does not always fly stealthily; when nearing air defenses pilots "stealth up" the B-2, a maneuver whose details are secret. The aircraft is stealthy, except briefly when the bomb bay opens. The B-2's clean, low-drag flying wing configuration not ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,258 | RCS reduction as a result of shape had already been observed on the Royal Air Force's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber, and the USAF's F-117 Nighthawk. The F-117 used flat surfaces (faceting technique) for controlling radar returns as during its development (see Lockheed Have Blue) in the early 1970s, technology only allow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,259 | Some analysts claim infra-red search and track systems (IRSTs) can be deployed against stealth aircraft, because any aircraft surface heats up due to air friction and with a two channel IRST is a (4.3 µm absorption maxima) detection possible, through difference comparing between the low and high channel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,260 | Burying engines deep inside the fuselage also minimizes the thermal visibility or infrared signature of the exhaust. At the engine intake, cold air from the boundary layer below the main inlet enters the fuselage (boundary layer suction, first tested on the Northrop X-21) and is mixed with hot exhaust air just before t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,261 | According to the Huygens–Fresnel principle, even a very flat plate would still reflect radar waves, though much less than when a signal is bouncing at a right angle. Additional reduction in its radar signature was achieved by the use of various radar-absorbent materials (RAM) to absorb and neutralize radar beams. The m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,262 | The B-2 is assembled with unusually tight engineering tolerances to avoid leaks as they could increase its radar signature. Innovations such as alternate high frequency material (AHFM) and automated material application methods were also incorporated to improve the aircraft's radar-absorbent properties and reduce maint... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,263 | B-2s are supported by portable, environmentally-controlled hangars called B-2 Shelter Systems (B2SS). The hangars are built by American Spaceframe Fabricators Inc. and cost approximately US$5 million apiece. The need for specialized hangars arose in 1998 when it was found that B-2s passing through Andersen Air Force Ba... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,264 | The first operational aircraft, christened "Spirit of Missouri", was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993. The B-2 reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 1 January 1997. Depot maintenance for the B-2 is accomplished by USAF contractor support and managed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,265 | The B-2's combat debut was in 1999, during the Kosovo War. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected Serbian bombing targets in the first eight weeks of U.S. involvement in the War. During this war, six B-2s flew non-stop to Yugoslavia from their home base in Missouri and back, totaling 30 hours. Although the b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,266 | The B-2 saw service in Afghanistan, striking ground targets in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. With aerial refueling support, the B-2 flew one of its longest missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri to Afghanistan and back. B-2s would be stationed in the Middle East as a part of a US military bu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,267 | The B-2's combat use preceded a USAF declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003. The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,268 | During the Iraq War, B-2s operated from Diego Garcia and an undisclosed "forward operating location". Other sorties in Iraq have launched from Whiteman AFB. the longest combat mission has been 44.3 hours. "Forward operating locations" have been previously designated as Andersen Air Force Base in Guam and RAF Fairford i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,269 | In response to organizational issues and high-profile mistakes made within the USAF, all of the B-2s, along with the nuclear-capable B-52s and the USAF's intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), were transferred to the newly formed Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 February 2010. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,270 | In March 2011, B-2s were the first U.S. aircraft into action in Operation Odyssey Dawn, the UN mandated enforcement of the Libyan no-fly zone. Three B-2s dropped 40 bombs on a Libyan airfield in support of the UN no-fly zone. The B-2s flew directly from the U.S. mainland across the Atlantic Ocean to Libya; a B-2 was re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,271 | In August 2011, "The New Yorker" reported that prior to the May 2011 U.S. Special Operations raid into Abbottabad, Pakistan that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden, U.S. officials had considered an airstrike by one or more B-2s as an alternative; the use of a bunker busting bomb was rejected due to potential dama... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,272 | On 28 March 2013, two B-2s flew a round trip of from Whiteman Air Force base in Missouri to South Korea, dropping dummy ordnance on the Jik Do target range. The mission, part of the annual South Korean–United States military exercises, was the first time that B-2s overflew the Korean peninsula. Tensions between the Kor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,273 | On 18 January 2017, two B-2s attacked an ISIS training camp southwest of Sirte, Libya, killing around 85 militants. The B-2s together dropped 108 precision-guided Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) bombs. These strikes were followed by an MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle firing Hellfire missiles. Each B-2 flew a 33... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,274 | On 23 February 2008, B-2 "AV-12" "Spirit of Kansas" crashed on the runway shortly after takeoff from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. "Spirit of Kansas" had been operated by the 393rd Bomb Squadron, 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, and had logged 5,176 flight hours. The two-person crew ejected safely... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,275 | In February 2010, another serious incident involving a B-2 occurred at Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The aircraft involved was AV-11 "Spirit of Washington". The aircraft was severely damaged by fire while on the ground and underwent 18 months of repairs to enable it to fly back to the mainland U.S. for more comprehe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,276 | On the night of 13–14 September 2021, the B-2 "Spirit of Georgia" made an emergency landing at Whiteman AFB. The aircraft landed and went off the runway into the grass and came to rest on its left side. The cause was later determined to be faulty landing gear springs and "microcracking" in hydraulic connections on the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,277 | On 10 December 2022, an in-flight malfunction aboard a B-2A bomber forced an emergency landing at Whiteman AFB. No personnel, including the flight crew, sustained injuries during the incident; there was a post-crash fire that was quickly put out. As of mid-December 2022 there are no reports of what caused the malfuncti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,278 | No operational B-2s have been retired by the Air Force to be put on display. B-2s have made occasional appearances on ground display at various air shows. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,279 | B-2 test article (s/n AT-1000), the second of two built without engines or instruments and used for static testing, was placed on display in 2004 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio. The test article passed all structural testing requirements before the airframe failed. The museum's ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4396 |
4,280 | Maslow's hierarchy of needs is an idea in psychology proposed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in the journal "Psychological Review". Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,281 | Moreover, the hierarchy of needs is used to study how humans intrinsically partake in behavioral motivation. Maslow used the terms "physiological", "safety", "belonging and love", "social needs" or "esteem", "self-actualization" and "" to describe the pattern through which human needs and motivations generally move. Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,282 | Although widely used and researched, Maslow's hierarchy of needs lacks conclusive supporting evidence and the validity of the theory remains contested in academia. One criticism of the original theory which has been revised into newer versions of the theory, was that the original hierarchy states that a lower level mus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,283 | Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization and transcendence at the top. In other words, the idea is that individuals' most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to achieve higher-le... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,284 | The most fundamental four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency needs" are not met – except for the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,285 | The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative," "general," and "primarily." Instead o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,286 | Physiological needs are the base of the hierarchy. These needs are the biological component for human survival. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, physiological needs are factored into internal motivation. According to Maslow's theory, humans are compelled to satisfy physiological needs first to pursue higher le... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,287 | These physiological needs must be met for the human body to remain in homeostasis. Air, for example, is a physiological need; a human being requires air more urgently than higher-level needs, such as a sense of social belonging. Physiological needs are critical to "...meet the very basic essentials of life ..." This al... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,288 | Once a person's physiological needs are satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc. and/or in the absence of economic safety – (due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities) thes... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,289 | After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. According to Maslow, humans possess an effective need for a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless of whether these groups are large or small; being a pa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,290 | Mental health can be a huge factor when it comes to an individual's needs and development. When an individual's needs are not met, it can cause depression during adolescence. When an individual grows up in a higher-income family, it is much more likely that they will have a lower rate of depression. This is because all... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,291 | This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure. In contrast, for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for belonging; and for others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,292 | Esteem is the respect, and admiration of a person, but also "... self-respect and respect from others." Most people need stable esteem, meaning that which is soundly based on real capacity or achievement. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect from others and ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,293 | Esteem comes from day-to-day experiences, that provide a learning opportunity that allows us to discover ourselves. This is incredibly important for children, which is why giving them "... the opportunity to discover they are competent and capable learners" is crucial. To boost this, adults must provide opportunities f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,294 | After esteem needs cognitive needs come next in the hierarchy of needs. People have cognitive needs such as creativity, foresight, curiosity, and meaning. Individuals who enjoy activities that require deliberation and brainstorming have a greater need for cognition. Individuals who are unmotivated to participate in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,295 | After reaching one's cognitive needs it would progress to aesthetic needs, to beautify one's life. This would consist of having the ability to appreciate the beauty within the world around one's self, on a day-to-day basis. According to Maslow's theories, to progress toward Self-Actualization, humans require beautiful ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,296 | "What a man can be, he must be." This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to the realization of one's full potential. Maslow describes this as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. People may have a strong, par... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,297 | Maslow later subdivided the triangle's top to include self-transcendence, also known as spiritual needs. Spiritual needs differ from other types of needs in that they can be met on multiple levels. When this need is met, it produces feelings of integrity and raises things to a higher plane of existence. In his later ye... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,298 | Maslow's hierarchy of needs was created as Maslow "studied and observed monkeys [...] noticing their unusual pattern of behavior that addressed priorities based on individual needs." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
4,299 | Some indigenous academics have speculated that his theories, including the hierarchy, may have been influenced by the teachings and philosophy of the Blackfeet tribe, where he spent several weeks doing fieldwork in 1938; however, while this idea has gained attention on social media, there is no evidence to suggest he b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163131 |
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