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8,100 | Emirates is at odds with Rolls-Royce over shortfalls in fuel savings from the Trent 900s, and could switch its order for 36 A380s to the smaller A350. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,101 | The A350 could also replace its provisional order for 40 Boeing 787-10s, placed in 2017, as engine margins on the 787 are insufficient for the hot Dubai weather. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,102 | On 14 February 2019, Emirates decided to cancel its order for 39 planes, opting to replace them with A350s and A330neos. Airbus stated that this cancellation would bring the A380's production to an end when the last unfilled orders are delivered in 2021. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,103 | On 21 March 2019, All Nippon Airways received its first of three A380s painted with the Sea Turtle livery. Called the ANA Blue, this A380 will be used for 3 flights a week, going from Tokyo to Honolulu and back. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,104 | In October 2021, Emirates announced it would receive its final three A380s to be delivered with the last aircraft in December 2021, thus ending production of the A380. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,105 | There were 239 aircraft (of 251 delivered) in service with 16 operators , with Emirates being the largest operator with 120 A380s in its fleet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,106 | The global A380 fleet has zero fatalities and no hull loss accidents , but was involved in two notable incidents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=181173 |
8,107 | Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the cycles of yin and yang and formed into objects and lives. Yin is the receptive and yang the active pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,108 | Taiji or Tai chi () is a Chinese cosmological term for the "Supreme Ultimate" state of undifferentiated absolute and infinite potential, the oneness before duality, from which yin and yang originate. It can be compared with the old "wuji" (, "without pole"). In the cosmology pertaining to yin and yang, the material ene... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,109 | The notion of duality can be found in many areas, such as Communities of Practice. The term "dualistic-monism" or dialectical monism has been coined in an attempt to express this fruitful paradox of simultaneous unity and duality. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary (rather than opposing) forces that intera... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,110 | In Taoist metaphysics, distinctions between good and bad, along with other dichotomous moral judgments, are perceptual, not real; so, the duality of yin and yang is an indivisible whole. In the ethics of Confucianism on the other hand, most notably in the philosophy of Dong Zhongshu ( 2nd century BC), a moral dimension... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,111 | These Chinese terms "yīn" "dark side" and "yáng" "white side" are linguistically analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, pronunciations and etymology, meanings, topography, and loanwords. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,112 | The Chinese characters and for the words "yīn" and "yáng" are both classified as Phono-semantic characters, combining the semantic component "mound; hill" radical (graphical variant of ) with the phonetic components "jīn" (and the added semantic component "yún" "pictographic: cloud") and "yáng" . In the latter, "yáng" ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,113 | The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of is usually the level first tone "yīn" "shady; cloudy" or sometimes the falling fourth tone "yìn" "to shelter; shade" while "sunny" is always pronounced with rising second tone "yáng". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,114 | Sinologists and historical linguists have reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciations from data in the (7th century CE) "Qieyun" rhyme dictionary and later rhyme tables, which was subsequently used to reconstruct Old Chinese phonology from rhymes in the (11th–7th centuries BCE) "Shijing" and phonological components of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,115 | "Yin" < *"ʔəm" compares with Burmese "ʔum" "overcast; cloudy", Adi "muk-jum" "shade", and Lepcha "so'yǔm" "shade"; and is probably cognate with Chinese "àn" < *"ʔə̂mʔ" "dim; gloomy" and "qīn" < *"khəm" "blanket". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,116 | "Yang" < *"laŋ" compares with Lepcha "a-lóŋ" "reflecting light", Burmese "laŋ" "be bright" and "ə-laŋ" "light"; and is perhaps cognate with Chinese "chāng" < *"k-hlaŋ" "prosperous; bright" (compare areal words like Tai "plaŋ" "bright" & Proto-Viet-Muong "hlaŋ"). To this word-family, Unger (Hao-ku, 1986:34) also include... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,117 | John DeFrancis's "ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary" gives the following translation equivalents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,118 | Yin 陰 or 阴 — Noun: ① [philosophy] female/passive/negative principle in nature, ② Surname; Bound morpheme: ① the moon, ② shaded orientation, ③ covert; concealed; hidden, ④ vagina, ⑤ penis, ⑥ of the netherworld, ⑦ negative, ⑧ north side of a hill, ⑨ south bank of a river, ⑩ reverse side of a stele, ⑪ in intaglio; Stative... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,119 | Yang 陽 or 阳 — Bound morpheme: ① [Chinese philosophy] male/active/positive principle in nature, ② the sun, ③ male genitals, ④ in relief, ⑤ open; overt, ⑥ belonging to this world, ⑦ [linguistics] masculine, ⑧ south side of a hill, ⑨ north bank of a river | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,120 | The compound "yinyang" means "yin and yang; opposites; ancient Chinese astronomy; occult arts; astrologer; geomancer; etc." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,121 | The sinologist Rolf Stein etymologically translates Chinese "yin" "shady side (of a mountain)" and "yang" "sunny side (of a mountain)" with the uncommon English geographic terms "ubac" "shady side of a mountain" and "adret" "sunny side of a mountain" (which are of French origin). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,122 | Many Chinese place names or toponyms contain the word "yang" "sunny side" and a few contain "yin" "shady side". In China, as elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, sunlight comes predominantly from the south, and thus the south face of a mountain or the north bank of a river will receive more direct sunlight than the op... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,123 | "Yang" refers to the "south side of a hill" in Hengyang , which is south of Mount Heng in Hunan province, and to the "north bank of a river" in Luoyang , which is located north of the Luo River in Henan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,124 | Similarly, "yin" refers to "north side of a hill" in Huayin , which is north of Mount Hua in Shaanxi province. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,125 | In Japan, the characters are used in western Honshu to delineate the north-side San'in region from the south-side San'yō region , separated by the Chūgoku Mountains . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,126 | a. In Chinese philosophy, the feminine or negative principle (characterized by dark, wetness, cold, passivity, disintegration, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also "attrib". or as "adj"., and "transf".... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,127 | b. "Comb"., as yin-yang, the combination or fusion of the two cosmic forces; freq. attrib., esp. as yin-yang symbol, a circle divided by an S-shaped line into a dark and a light segment, representing respectively "yin" and "yang", each containing a 'seed' of the other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,128 | a. In Chinese philosophy, the masculine or positive principle (characterized by light, warmth, dryness, activity, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also "attrib." or as "adj." Cf. yin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,129 | For the earliest recorded "yin and yang" usages, the "OED" cites 1671 for "yin" and "yang", 1850 for "yin-yang", and 1959 for "yang-yin". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,130 | In English, "yang-yin" (like "ying-yang") occasionally occurs as a mistake or typographical error for the Chinese loanword "yin-yang"— yet they are not equivalents. Chinese does have some "yangyin" collocations, such as (lit. "foreign silver") "silver coin/dollar", but not even the most comprehensive dictionaries (e.g.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,131 | Similarly, the usual pattern among Chinese binomial compounds is for positive A and negative B, where the A word is dominant or privileged over B, for example, "tiandi" "heaven and earth" and "nannü" "men and women". "Yinyang" meaning "dark and light; female and male; moon and sun", however, is an exception. Scholars h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,132 | Joseph Needham discusses yin and yang together with Five Elements as part of the School of Naturalists. He says that it would be proper to begin with yin and yang before Five Elements because the former: "lay, as it were, at a deeper level in Nature, and were the most ultimate principles of which the ancient Chinese co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,133 | Yin and yang is a concept originated in ancient Chinese philosophy that describes how obviously opposite or contrary forces may actually be complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world, and how they may give rise to each other as they interrelate to one another. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,134 | In Daoist philosophy, dark and light, yin and yang, arrive in the "Tao Te Ching" at chapter 42. It becomes sensible from an initial quiescence or emptiness (wuji, sometimes symbolized by an empty circle), and continues moving until quiescence is reached again. For instance, dropping a stone in a calm pool of water wil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,135 | It is impossible to talk about yin or yang without some reference to the opposite, since yin and yang are bound together as parts of a mutual whole (for example, there cannot be the bottom of the foot without the top). A way to illustrate this idea is to postulate the notion of a race with only women or only men; this ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,136 | Yin is the black side, and yang is the white side. The relationship between yin and yang is often described in terms of sunlight playing over a mountain and a valley. Yin (literally the 'shady place' or 'north slope') is the dark area occluded by the mountain's bulk, while yang (literally the "sunny place' or "south sl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,137 | Yin is characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive; and is associated with water, earth, the moon, negativity, femininity, shadows/darkness, destruction, and night time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,138 | Yang, by contrast, is fast, hard, solid, focused, hot/warm, dry, and active; and is associated with fire, sky/air, the sun, positivity, masculinity, glowing/light, creation, and daytime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,139 | Yin and yang also applies to the human body. In traditional Chinese medicine good health is directly related to the balance between yin and yang qualities within oneself. If yin and yang become unbalanced, one of the qualities is considered deficient or has vacuity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,140 | In the "I Ching", originally a divination manual of the Western Zhou period (c. 1000–750 BC) based on Chinese Astronomy, yin and yang are represented by broken and solid lines: yin is broken () and yang is solid (). These are then combined into trigrams, which are more yang ("e.g." ) or more yin ("e.g." ) depending on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,141 | The principle of yin and yang is represented by the "Taijitu" (literally "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate"). The term is commonly used to mean the simple "divided circle" form, but may refer to any of several schematic diagrams representing these principles, such as the swastika, common to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jaini... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,142 | In this symbol the two teardrops swirl to represent the conversion of yin to yang and yang to yin. This is seen when a ball is thrown into the air with a yang velocity then converts to a yin velocity to fall back to earth. The two teardrops are opposite in direction to each other to show that as one increases the other... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,143 | T'ai chi ch'uan or Taijiquan (), a form of martial art, is often described as the principles of yin and yang applied to the human body and an animal body. Wu Jianquan, a famous Chinese martial arts teacher, described Taijiquan as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144804 |
8,144 | Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emerg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,145 | A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a psychologist. Some psychologists can also be classified as behavioral or cognitive scientists. Some psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior. Others explore the physiological and ne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,146 | Psychologists are involved in research on perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. Psychologists' interests extend to interpersonal relationships, psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas within social psychology... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,147 | While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity. By many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit society. Many psychologists are involved in some kind of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,148 | The word "psychology" derives from the Greek word "psyche", for spirit or soul. The latter part of the word "psychology" derives from -λογία "-logia", which refers to "study" or "research". The Latin word "psychologia" was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, "Psichiologia de rati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,149 | In 1890, William James defined "psychology" as "the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions." This definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. However, this meaning was contested, notably by radical behaviorists such as John B. Watson, who in 1913 asserted that the discipline is a "na... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,150 | The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders. Historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his "De Anima" treatise... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,151 | In China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused thinking and acting. It frames the universe in term of a division... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,152 | Influenced by Hinduism, Indian philosophy explored distinctions in types of awareness. A central idea of the "Upanishads" and other Vedic texts that formed the foundations of Hinduism was the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their eternal, unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines and Buddhism... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,153 | Psychology was of interest to Enlightenment thinkers in Europe. In Germany, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum. He suggested that the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,154 | Philosopher John Stuart Mill believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact. Mill proposed a "mental chemistry" in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity. Gustav Fechner began conducting psychophysics research in Leipzig i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,155 | The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a researcher at the University of Berlin, was another 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting. In the early twentieth century, Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt K... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,156 | Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up laboratories. G. Stanley Hall, an American who studied with Wundt, founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at Johns Hopkins University. Hall, in turn, trained Yujiro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,157 | Another student of Wundt, the Englishman Edward Titchener, created the psychology program at Cornell University and advanced "structuralist" psychology. The idea behind structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of introspection. William James, John Dewey, and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,158 | A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the University of Buenos Aires. In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with Ivan Sechenov's 1873 essay, "W... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,159 | One of the earliest psychology societies was "La Société de Psychologie Physiologique" in France, which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of Psychology sponsored by the International Union of Psychological Science took place in Paris, in August 1889, amidst the World's Fair celeb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,160 | American psychology gained status upon the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing committee headed by Robert Yerkes administered mental tests ("Army Alpha" and "Army Beta") to almost 1.8 million soldiers. Subsequently, the Rockefeller family, via the Social Science Research Council, began to provide funding for beha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,161 | During World War II and the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established themselves as leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new Office of Strategic Services intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright reported that university researchers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,162 | In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, which was subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military during Nazi Germany. Under the direction of Hermann Göring's cousin Matthias Göring, the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute was renamed the Göring Institute. Freudian ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,163 | After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists, because of their Nazi affiliation, were discredited. Alexander Mitscherlich founded a prominent applied psychoanalysis journal called "Psyche". With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, Mitscherlich established the first clinical psychosomati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,164 | After the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks promoted psychology as a way to engineer the "New Man" of socialism. Consequently, university psychology departments trained large numbers of students in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made available for those students at schools, workplaces, cultu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,165 | Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of Psychological Testing (1930) and the Ch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,166 | In 1920, Édouard Claparède and Pierre Bovet created a new applied psychology organization called the International Congress of Psychotechnics Applied to Vocational Guidance, later called the International Congress of Psychotechnics and then the International Association of Applied Psychology. The IAAP is considered the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,167 | The International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) is the world federation of national psychological societies. The IUPsyS was founded in 1951 under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO). Psychology departments have since proliferated around the world, base... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,168 | IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15 others exist. The American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest. Its membership has increased from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 in the present day. The APA includes 54 divisions, which since 1960 have steadily proliferated to include more ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,169 | The Interamerican Psychological Society, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology across the Western Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and ha had 1,000 members in year 2000. The European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,170 | In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent themselves as a "psychologist." The APA defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral degree in psychology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,171 | Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from parapsychology, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity (including the interest of scholars such as William James). Some people considered parapsychology to be part of "psychology." Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism were ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,172 | As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking agreement on the type of overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,173 | Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,174 | Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and therefore an important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, involves the application of biological principles to the study of physiological and genetic mechanisms underlying behavior in humans and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,175 | The contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on the physical basis of behavior. Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often relying on rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie behaviors involved in learning, memory, and fear responses. Cognitive neuroscientists, by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,176 | Evolutionary psychology approaches thought and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective. This perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to find out how human psychological traits are evolved adaptati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,177 | The history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism. The idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world conquest by Europeans. Carl von Linnaeus's four-fold classification of humans classifies Europeans as intelligent and severe, Am... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,178 | A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal behavior is learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the mechanisms involved in learning apply to humans and non-human animals. Behavioral researchers have developed a treatment known as behavior modification, whi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,179 | Clark L. Hull, Edwin Guthrie, and others did much to help behaviorism become a widely used paradigm. A new method of "instrumental" or "operant" conditioning added the concepts of reinforcement and punishment to the model of behavior change. Radical behaviorists avoided discussing the inner workings of the mind, especi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,180 | Noam Chomsky published an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that behaviorist principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of language acquisition and language use. The review, which was scathing, did much to reduce the status of behaviorism within psychology. Martin Seligm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,181 | The Association for Behavior Analysis International was founded in 1974 and by 2003 had members from 42 countries. The field has gained a foothold in Latin America and Japan. Applied behavior analysis is the term used for the application of the principles of operant conditioning to change socially significant behavior ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,182 | Cognitive psychology involves the study of mental processes, including perception, attention, language comprehension and production, memory, and problem solving. Researchers in the field of cognitive psychology are sometimes called cognitivists. They rely on an information processing model of mental functioning. Cognit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,183 | Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary cognitive science. Some called this development the cognitive revolution because ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,184 | Albert Bandura helped along the transition in psychology from behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Bandura and other social learning theorists advanced the idea of vicarious learning. In other words, they advanced the view that a child can learn by observing his or her social environment and not necessarily from having... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,185 | Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental representations. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena to the structure and function of the brain. The rise of computer science, cybernetics, a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,186 | A popular and representative topic in this area is cognitive bias, or irrational thought. Psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a sizeable catalogue of biases which recur frequently in human thought. The availability heuristic, for example, is the tendency to overestimate the importance of someth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,187 | Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,188 | On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, and computational neuroscience. The discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as wel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,189 | Social psychology is concerned with how behaviors, thoughts, feelings, and the social environment influence human interactions. Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion) and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,190 | Psychoanalysis refers to the theories and therapeutic techniques applied to the unconscious mind and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques inform treatments for mental disorders. Psychoanalysis originated in the 1890s, most prominently with the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud's psychoanalytic theory w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,191 | Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers who diverged from Freud include Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, Freud's daughter Anna Freud, and Harry Stack Sullivan. These individuals ensured that psychoanal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,192 | Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper sharply criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline, whereas Eysenck advanced the view that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of the 20... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,193 | Humanistic psychology, which has been influenced by existentialism and phenomenology, stresses free will and self-actualization. It emerged in the 1950s as a movement within academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The humanistic approach seeks to view the whole person, not just fragment... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,194 | Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific study. Positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people who are currently healthy. In 2010, "Clinical Psychological Review" published a special issue devoted to positive psychologi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,195 | Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total orientation towards the world. Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism, behaviorism, and other methods that objectify the individual. In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, psychoanaly... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,196 | Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections upon his own internment. He created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a "will to meaning" (in one's life), as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,197 | Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of thought. Each theory carries different assumptions about such features as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,198 | Since the 1980s, the Big Five (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) emerged as an important trait theory of personality. Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and a version of dimensional assessment has been included in the DSM-V. However... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,199 | An early example of personality assessment was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, constructed during World War I. The popular, although psychometrically inadequate, Myers–Briggs Type Indicator was developed to assess individuals' "personality types" according to the personality theories of Carl Jung. The Minnesota Mult... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
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