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8,200 | Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's awareness but that is believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a hallmark of early psychology. In one of the first psychology experiments conducted in the United States, C.S. Peirce and Joseph Jastrow found in 1884 that resear... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,201 | The concept of unconscious processes has remained important in psychology. Cognitive psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention. According to the model, much information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain stimuli, limited by their nature and number, make their way t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,202 | The automaticity model of John Bargh and others involves the ideas of automaticity and unconscious processing in our understanding of social behavior, although there has been dispute with regard to replication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,203 | Some experimental data suggest that the brain begins to consider taking actions before the mind becomes aware of them. The influence of unconscious forces on people's choices bears on the philosophical question of free will. John Bargh, Daniel Wegner, and Ellen Langer describe free will as an illusion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,204 | Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the term "motivation" to refer to intention, in a se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,205 | Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations in animals. Humans seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—though theoretically these could be explained as resulting from desires for belonging, positive self-image, self-consistency, truth, love, and control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,206 | Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. Researchers have found that eating, for example, depends not only on the organism's fundamental need for homeostasis—an important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and cost. Abst... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,207 | Developmental psychology refers to the scientific study of how and why the thought processes, emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives. Some credit Charles Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the rubric of developmental psychology, having published in 1877 a short pap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,208 | Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods. For example, they make observations of children in natural settings such as preschools and engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scien... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,209 | All researched psychological traits are influenced by both genes and environment, to varying degrees. These two sources of influence are often confounded in observational research of individuals and families. An example of this confounding can be shown in the transmission of depression from a depressed mother to her of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,210 | Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to disentangle this confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior. Traditionally the research has involved twin studies and adoption studies, two designs where genetic and environmental influences can be partial... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,211 | The availability of microarray molecular genetic or genome sequencing technologies allows researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether individual genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and psychopathology through methods including genome-wide association st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,212 | Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,213 | Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the examinations for the Chinese civil service. Written exams began during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The syste... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,214 | When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an inventor of modern mental testing (also known as "psychometrics"). James McKeen Cattell, a student of Wundt and Galton, brought the idea of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,215 | Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by psychologist Robert Yerkes in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational psychologists for large-scale employee testing and selection of military personnel. Mental testing also became popular in the U.S., where it was applied t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,216 | Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies. Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure, consistency of results, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing population outcomes, and, ideally, effective prediction of behavior ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,217 | The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically include people who have graduat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,218 | Credit for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to Lightner Witmer, who established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist was Morton Prince, an early advocate for the establishment of psychology as a clinical and academic discipline. In the first part of the twe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,219 | Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of community mental health facilities. Some in the clinical psychology community adopted behavioral therapy, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model that used behaviorist learning t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,220 | Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977, National Institute of Mental Health director Bertram Brown described this shift as a source of "intense competition and role confusion." Graduate programs issuing doctorates in clinical psychology emerged in the 1950s and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,221 | Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This subspecialty is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of "disaster psychology" (see crisis intervention) involves professionals... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,222 | The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Fou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,223 | Diagnosis in clinical psychology usually follows the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM). The study of mental illnesses is called abnormal psychology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,224 | Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychologists can be found in preschools, schools of all levels including post secondary institu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,225 | School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,226 | Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology involves research and practices that apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals' work-lives. In the field's beginnings, industrialists brought the nascent field of psychology to bear on the study of scientific management techniques for imp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,227 | The name industrial and organizational psychology emerged in the 1960s. In 1973, it became enshrined in the name of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Division 14 of the American Psychological Association. One goal of the discipline is to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psych... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,228 | Organizational behavior (OB) is an allied field involved in the study of human behavior within organizations. One way to differentiate I/O psychology from OB is to note that I/O psychologists train in university psychology departments and OB specialists, in business schools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,229 | One role for psychologists in the military has been to evaluate and counsel soldiers and other personnel. In the U.S., this function began during World War I, when Robert Yerkes established the School of Military Psychology at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia. The school provided psychological training for military staff. To... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,230 | Psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological warfare. Psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers and civilians. This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it originates from a source other than the Army. The CIA's M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,231 | An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the research of Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark. These two African American psychologists studied segregation's adverse psychological impact on Black children. Their research findings played a role in the desegregation case "Brown v. Board of Educ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,232 | The impact of psychology on social change includes the discipline's broad influence on teaching and learning. Research has shown that compared to the "whole word" or "whole language" approach, the phonics approach to reading instruction is more efficacious. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,233 | Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One aspect of health psychology is the psychoeducation of patients: instructing them in how to follow a medical regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on patient compliance. Psychologists in the field of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,234 | Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research to improve the health and well-being of employees. Some work as external consultants hired by organizations to solve specific problems, whereas others are full-time employees of the organization. Applications include conducting surveys ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,235 | Interventions that improve climates are a way to address accidents and violence. Interventions that reduce stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it can help in areas where stress is an important component. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,236 | Industrial psychology became interested in worker fatigue during World War I, when government ministers in Britain were concerned about the impact of fatigue on workers in munitions factories but not other types of factories. In the U. K. some interest in worker well-being emerged with the efforts of Charles Samuel Mye... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,237 | As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century, the field of occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged. OHP is a branch of psychology that is interdisciplinary. OHP is concerned with the health and safety of workers. OHP addresses topic areas such as the impact of occupational stre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,238 | Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Although the field makes abundant use of randomized and controlled experiments in laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range of short-term phenomena. Some psychologists rely on less rigorously controlled, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,239 | Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than quantitative research, some psychologists conduct qualitative research. This type of research can involve interviews, questionnaires, and first-hand observation. While hypothesis testing is rare, virtually impossible, in qualitative research, quali... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,240 | A true experiment with random assignment of research participants (sometimes called subjects) to rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal relationships. When there are large numbers of research participants, the random assignment (also called random allocation) of those participants to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,241 | A quasi-experiment refers to a situation in which there are rival conditions under study but random assignment to the different conditions is not possible. Investigators must work with preexisting groups of people. Researchers can use common sense to consider how much the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's vali... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,242 | Experimental researchers typically use a statistical hypothesis testing model which involves making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data collected are consistent with the predictions. These predictions are likely to originate from one or more abstract scientific hypotheses abou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,243 | Surveys are used in psychology for the purpose of measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, and checking the validity of experimental manipulations (checking research participants' perception of the condition they were assigned to). Psychologists have commonly used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,244 | Observational studies are commonly conducted in psychology. In cross-sectional observational studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The goal of many cross-sectional studies is the assess the extent factors are correlated with each other. By contrast, in longitudinal studies psychologists collect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,245 | Exploratory data analysis refers to a variety of practices that researchers use to reduce a great many variables to a small number overarching factors. In Peirce's three modes of inference, exploratory data analysis corresponds to abduction. Meta-analysis is the technique research psychologists use to integrate results... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,246 | A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the electroencephalogram (EEG), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain. Hans Berger, the first researcher to use EEG on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,247 | Newer functional neuroimaging techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. These technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create representations of the brain with widespread appe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,248 | Interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information about brain–mind interactions. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,249 | Computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate behavior. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,250 | Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, and rats and other rode... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,251 | Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates. It is closel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,252 | Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand observation can help describe events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,253 | Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identified five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers sometimes aim to enri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,254 | Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct naturalistic observation of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,255 | Program evaluation involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their effectiveness. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know the extent which the programs they are funding, imple... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,256 | Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science itself. The field of metascience has revealed problems in psychological research. Some psychological research has suffered from bias, problematic reproducibility, and misuse of statistics. These findings have led to calls for reform from wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,257 | In 1959, statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying possible publication bias. Similarly, Fanelli (2010) found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,258 | A replication crisis in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field have not been replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing fraudulent results. Systematic efforts, including efforts by the Reproducibility Project of the Center for Open Science, to assess the extent of the problem found... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,259 | Focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important findings. In response to concerns about publication bias and data dredging (conducting a large number of statistical tests on a great many variables but restricting reporting to the results that were statistically si... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,260 | Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Psychologist and statistician Jacob Cohen wrote in 1994 that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with practical importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts. Some psychologists have responded with an incre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,261 | In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological Association journals were about U.S. populations when U.S. citizens are only 5% of the world's population. He complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be universal and generalizing research findings to the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,262 | Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices. Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence. Practices such as "facilitated commu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,263 | Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are today considered unethical and in violation of established codes (the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report). The American Psychological Association has advanced a set of ethical principles ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,264 | The most important contemporary standards include informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health es... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,265 | Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights (e.g., voluntary nature of participation in the research, privacy) and well-being (e.g., minimizing distress) of research participants. University ethics committees evaluate proposed research to ensure that researchers protect the rights and well-be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,266 | The ethics code of the American Psychological Association originated in 1951 as "Ethical Standards of Psychologists". This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states. It has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In 1989, the APA revised its policies on advertising and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,267 | Some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid sexual relations with them. Another important principle is informed consent, the idea that a patient or research subject must understand an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,268 | Research on other animals is also governed by university ethics committees. Research on nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics committee of the researcher's home institution. Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22921 |
8,269 | The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's second-oldest university in continuous operation. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,270 | The university is made up of thirty-nine semi-autonomous constituent colleges, five permanent private halls, and a range of academic departments which are organised into four divisions. All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,271 | Oxford operates the world's oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system nationwide. In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2019, the university had a total income of £2.45 billion, of which £624.8 million was from research grants and contracts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,272 | Oxford has educated a wide range of notable alumni, including 30 prime ministers of the United Kingdom and many heads of state and government around the world. 73 Nobel Prize laureates, 4 Fields Medalists, and 6 Turing Award winners have studied, worked, or held visiting fellowships at the University of Oxford, while i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,273 | The University of Oxford's foundation date is unknown. It is known that teaching at Oxford existed in some form as early as 1096, but it is unclear when the university came into being. The scholar Theobald of Étampes lectured at Oxford in the early 1100s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,274 | It grew quickly from 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris. The historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188, and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, and the masters were ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,275 | After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, later forming the University of Cambridge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,276 | The students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two 'nations', representing the North ("northerners" or "Boreales", who included the English people from north of the River Trent and the Scots) and the South ("southerners" or "Australes", who included English people from south of the Trent, t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,277 | In 1333–1334, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire, was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London; thus, Oxford and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,278 | The new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,279 | With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, settling especially at the University of Douai. The method of teaching at Oxford was transformed from the medieval scholastic method to Renaissance education, although ins... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,280 | In 1636, William Laud, the chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury, codified the university's statutes. These, to a large extent, remained its governing regulations until the mid-19th century. Laud was also responsible for the granting of a charter securing privileges for the University Press, and he made significant c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,281 | The university was a centre of the Royalist party during the English Civil War (1642–1649), while the town favoured the opposing Parliamentarian cause. From the mid-18th century onwards, however, the university took little part in political conflicts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,282 | Wadham College, founded in 1610, was the undergraduate college of Sir Christopher Wren. Wren was part of a brilliant group of experimental scientists at Oxford in the 1650s, the Oxford Philosophical Club, which included Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. This group held regular meetings at Wadham under the guidance of the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,283 | Before reforms in the early 19th century, the curriculum at Oxford was notoriously narrow and impractical. Sir Spencer Walpole, a historian of contemporary Britain and a senior government official, had not attended any university. He said, "Few medical men, few solicitors, few persons intended for commerce or trade, ev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,284 | Out of the students who matriculated in 1840, 65% were sons of professionals (34% were Anglican ministers). After graduation, 87% became professionals (59% as Anglican clergy). Out of the students who matriculated in 1870, 59% were sons of professionals (25% were Anglican ministers). After graduation, 87% became profes... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,285 | M. C. Curthoys and H. S. Jones argue that the rise of organised sport was one of the most remarkable and distinctive features of the history of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was carried over from the athleticism prevalent at the public schools such as Eton, Winch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,286 | All students, regardless of their chosen area of study, were required to spend (at least) their first year preparing for a first-year examination that was heavily focused on classical languages. Science students found this particularly burdensome and supported a separate science degree with Greek language study removed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,287 | At the start of 1914, the university housed about 3,000 undergraduates and about 100 postgraduate students. During the First World War, many undergraduates and fellows joined the armed forces. By 1918 virtually all fellows were in uniform, and the student population in residence was reduced to 12 per cent of the pre-wa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,288 | Two parliamentary commissions in 1852 issued recommendations for Oxford and Cambridge. Archibald Campbell Tait, former headmaster of Rugby School, was a key member of the Oxford Commission; he wanted Oxford to follow the German and Scottish model in which the professorship was paramount. The commission's report envisio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,289 | The system of separate honour schools for different subjects began in 1802, with Mathematics and Literae Humaniores. Schools of "Natural Sciences" and "Law, and Modern History" were added in 1853. By 1872, the last of these had split into "Jurisprudence" and "Modern History". Theology became the sixth honour school. In... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,290 | The mid-19th century saw the impact of the Oxford Movement (1833–1845), led among others by the future Cardinal John Henry Newman. The influence of the reformed model of German universities reached Oxford via key scholars such as Edward Bouverie Pusey, Benjamin Jowett and Max Müller. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,291 | Administrative reforms during the 19th century included the replacement of oral examinations with written entrance tests, greater tolerance for religious dissent, and the establishment of four women's colleges. Privy Council decisions in the 20th century (e.g. the abolition of compulsory daily worship, dissociation of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,292 | The University of Oxford began to award doctorates for research in the first third of the 20th century. The first Oxford DPhil in mathematics was awarded in 1921. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,293 | The mid-20th century saw many distinguished continental scholars, displaced by Nazism and communism, relocating to Oxford. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,294 | The list of distinguished scholars at the University of Oxford is long and includes many who have made major contributions to politics, the sciences, medicine, and literature. As of October 2022, 73 Nobel laureates and more than 50 world leaders have been affiliated with the University of Oxford. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,295 | The university passed a statute in 1875 allowing examinations for women at roughly undergraduate level; for a brief period in the early 1900s, this allowed the "steamboat ladies" to receive "ad eundem" degrees from the University of Dublin. In June 1878, the "Association for the Education of Women" (AEW) was formed, ai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,296 | These first three societies for women were followed by St Hugh's (1886) and St Hilda's (1893). All of these colleges later became coeducational, starting with Lady Margaret Hall and St Anne's in 1979, and finishing with St Hilda's, which began to accept male students in 2008. In the early 20th century, Oxford and Cambr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,297 | On 7 October 1920 women became eligible for admission as full members of the university and were given the right to take degrees. In 1927 the university's dons created a quota that limited the number of female students to a quarter that of men, a ruling which was not abolished until 1957. However, during this period Ox... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,298 | In 1974, Brasenose, Jesus, Wadham, Hertford and St Catherine's became the first previously all-male colleges to admit women. The majority of men's colleges accepted their first female students in 1979, with Christ Church following in 1980, and Oriel becoming the last men's college to admit women in 1985. Most of Oxford... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
8,299 | In June 2017, Oxford announced that starting the following academic year, history students may choose to sit a take-home exam in some courses, with the intention that this will equalise rates of firsts awarded to women and men at Oxford. That same summer, maths and computer science tests were extended by 15 minutes, in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31797 |
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