doc_id
int32 18
2.25M
| text
stringlengths 245
2.96k
| source
stringlengths 38
44
| __index_level_0__
int64 18
2.25M
|
|---|---|---|---|
557,342
|
Many now believe stress to be the most significant factor for the onset of depression. As discussed above, hippocampal cells are sensitive to stress which can lead to decreased neurogenesis. This area is being considered more frequently when examining the causes and treatments of depression. Studies have shown that removing the adrenal gland in rats caused increased neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus. The adrenal gland is responsible for producing cortisol in response to a stressor, a substance that when produced in chronic amounts causes the down regulation of serotonin receptors and suppresses the birth of neurons. It was shown in the same study that administration of corticosterone to normal animals suppressed neurogenesis, the opposite effect. The most typical class of antidepressants administered for this disease are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and their efficacy may be explained by neurogenesis. In a normal brain, an increase in serotonin causes suppression of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) through connection to the hippocampus. It directly acts on the paraventricular nucleus to decrease CRH release and down regulate norepinephrine functioning in the locus coeruleus. Because CRH is being repressed, the decrease in neurogenesis that is associated with elevated levels of it is also being reversed. This allows for the production of more brain cells, in particular at the 5-HT1a receptor in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus which has been shown to improve symptoms of depression. It normally takes neurons approximately three to six weeks to mature, which is approximately the same amount of time it takes for SSRIs to take effect. This correlation strengthens the hypothesis that SSRIs act through neurogenesis to decrease the symptoms of depression. Some neuroscientists have expressed skepticism that neurogenesis is functionally significant, given that a tiny number of nascent neurons are actually integrated into existing neural circuitry. However, a recent study used the irradiation of nascent hippocampal neurons in non-human primates (NHP) to demonstrate that neurogenesis is required for antidepressant efficacy.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=740746
| 557,053
|
1,479,806
|
In the same year, studies relatedly identified a 98 kb region of the chromosome the four class III genes (that express C4A, C4B, C2, and factor B) are closely linked, which does not allow for cross-overs to occur. Using protein variants visualized by electrophoresis, the four structural genes were located between HLA-B and HLA-D. More specifically, they verified the proposed molecular map in which the gene order went from factor B, C4B, C4A, and C2 with C2 nearest to HLA-B. In another study, Law et al. then continued to delve deeper, this time comparing the properties of both the C4A and C4B, both of which are substantial players in the human immunity system. Through methods that include incubation, different pH levels, and treatment with methylamine, they had biochemically illustrated the different reactivities of the C4 genes. More specifically, the C4B has shown to react much more efficiently and effectively despite the 7 kb difference between C4A and C4B. In whole serum, C4B alleles performed at a rate several fold greater during hemolytic activity, in direct comparison with C4A alleles. Biochemically, they also found that C4A reacted more steadily with an antibody’s amino acid side chains and antigens that are amino groups, while C4B reacted better with carbohydrate hydroxyl groups. Thus, upon analysis of the varying reactivities, they proposed that the exceptional polymorphism of C4 genes may bring about some biological advantages (i.e. complement activation with a more extensive range of Ab-Ag complexes formed upon infections). Though at this point in time, the genomic and derived amino acid sequence of either C4A or C4B had yet to be determined.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9693587
| 1,478,972
|
963,212
|
In developing a theory to explain the ice ages, Arrhenius, in 1896, was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) will increase Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. These calculations led him to conclude that human-caused CO emissions, from fossil-fuel burning and other combustion processes, are large enough to cause global warming. This conclusion has been extensively tested, winning a place at the core of modern climate science. Arrhenius, in this work, built upon the prior work of other famous scientists, including Joseph Fourier, John Tyndall and Claude Pouillet. Arrhenius wanted to determine whether greenhouse gases could contribute to the explanation of the temperature variation between glacial and inter-glacial periods. Arrhenius used infrared observations of the moon – by Frank Washington Very and Samuel Pierpont Langley at the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh – to calculate how much of infrared (heat) radiation is captured by CO and water (HO) vapour in Earth's atmosphere. Using 'Stefan's law' (better known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law), he formulated what he referred to as a 'rule'.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36586
| 962,703
|
1,209,923
|
After the publication of Chomsky's "Syntactic Structures", the nature of linguistic research began to change, especially at MIT and elsewhere in the linguistic community where TGG had a favorable reception. Morris Halle, a student of Roman Jacobson and a colleague of Chomsky at MIT's Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), was a strong supporter of Chomsky's ideas of TGG. At first Halle worked on a generative phonology of Russian and published his work in 1959. From 1956 until 1968, together with Chomsky (and also with Fred Lukoff initially), Halle developed a new theory of phonology called generative phonology. Their collaboration culminated with the publication of "The Sound Pattern of English" in 1968. Robert Lees, a linguist of the traditional structuralist school, went to MIT in 1956 to work in the mechanical translation project at RLE, but became convinced by Chomsky's TGG approach and went on to publish, in 1960, probably the very first book of a linguistic analysis based on TGG entitled "The Grammar of English Nominalizations". This work was preceded by Lees's doctoral thesis on the same topic, for which he was given a Ph.D. in electrical engineering. Lees was technically the first student of the new TGG paradigm. Edward S. Klima, a graduate of the Masters program from Harvard and hired by Chomsky at RLE in 1957, produced pioneering TGG-based work on negation. In 1959, Chomsky wrote a critical review of B. F. Skinner's "Verbal Behavior" (1957) in the journal "Language", in which he emphasized on the fundamentally human characteristic of verbal creativity, which is present even in very young children, and rejected the behaviorist way of describing language in ambiguous terms such as "stimulus," "response," "habit," "conditioning," and "reinforcement."
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24400467
| 1,209,276
|
174,198
|
Speaking to "El País", researcher Alfonso Valencia said "The most important thing that this advance leaves us is knowing that this problem has a solution, that it is possible to solve it... We only know the result. Google does not provide the software and this is the frustrating part of the achievement because it will not directly benefit science." Nevertheless, as much as Google and DeepMind do release may help other teams develop similar AI systems, an "indirect" benefit. In late 2019 DeepMind released much of the code of the first version of AlphaFold as open source; but only when work was well underway on the much more radical AlphaFold 2. Another option it could take might be to make AlphaFold 2 structure prediction available as an online black-box subscription service. Convergence for a single sequence has been estimated to require on the order of $10,000 worth of wholesale compute time. But this would deny researchers access to the internal states of the system, the chance to learn more qualitatively what gives rise to AlphaFold 2's success, and the potential for new algorithms that could be lighter and more efficient yet still achieve such results. Fears of potential for a lack of transparency by DeepMind have been contrasted with five decades of heavy public investment into the open Protein Data Bank and then also into open DNA sequence repositories, without which the data to train AlphaFold 2 would not have existed.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59766171
| 174,107
|
1,278,254
|
Small cohort studies have shown that individuals with cerebellar disorders recover coordination and have lower SARA scores regardless of stage or severity of their ataxia before therapy when they are regularly participating in physiotherapy or exergaming over individuals who are not. These studies suggest that multidomain physical therapy, more focused coordinative training, and exergaming routines all produced improvements in SARA scores equivalent to at least one year of normal progression, 2.2 points or more on average, over the course of several weeks. While these results are promising, larger scale studies may be necessary to validate these results. Overall, physical therapy for individuals with ataxia has modest evidence supporting its efficaciousness, but current practice uses custom treatments without a standard decision making procedure between clinics, which limits the ability to reproducibly assess the quality of routines in literature. Among the earliest developed neurorehabilitation practices is Frenkel exercises, which was developed by Heinrich Frenkel in the mid nineteenth century; these exercises were drawn from contemporary physical medicine and rehabilitation techniques, called medical gymnastics, and from everyday activities, like standing up from a chair, to find exercises which are closely related to the pathology of ataxia and rely on slow practice and on the individuals perseverance to relearn key motor skills, replacing lost proprioception with visual feedback. There are exercises for lower limbs, like extending the legs, and upper limbs, like placing pegs in boards, and depending on the severity of the ataxia can be performed laying down, sitting, or standing up. All exercises often start with simple movements and become progressively more difficult to emulate real world movements affected by the disorder.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54421246
| 1,277,561
|
1,197,051
|
After the establishment of the Union, the first South African government was formed by the South African Party (SAP) which won 67 of the 121 parliamentary seats available in the 1910 election. Led by the former Boer veteran Louis Botha, the SAP pursued a reconciliatory relationship with Britain, was favourable to South Africa being a self-governing Dominion within the Empire, and was generally supported by moderates from both ethnicities (Afrikaner and English speakers). In the immediate years before the First World War, South Africa routinely used force to suppress both black and white labour unrest, particularly in the economically vital mining industry. As Minister of Mines, Jan Smuts in July 1913 deployed troops to quell a strike of over 18,000 white workers. After requesting Police, Mounted Riflemen, and even British garrison forces, the strike escalated into a wider industrial riot and then a quasi-uprising against the Government. With increased violence and deaths being reported in Johannesburg, martial law was declared after public property was destroyed and troops responded with live fire. More than 20 people were killed and fears were so great that it was thought that Johannesburg, and critical mining infrastructure, would be completely destroyed. Botha and Smuts hurried from Pretoria to negotiate with the strikers directly, and although Smuts despised the agreement that stated workers grievances would be investigated and those dismissed would be reinstated, he eventually signed after being informed that government troops were beginning to lose control. Later in 1913, the South African Mounted Rifles were again deployed to persuade Mahatma Gandhi into calling off an Indian led strike in Natal. When another general strike occurred the following year in January 1914, Smuts, who was determined not to concede again, crushed the walkout with over 10,000 troops, with the use machine guns and artillery.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66447390
| 1,196,411
|
1,815,964
|
In the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade), there was a period of transition within the iSchool. There was a general realization that the field was changing and that the business model was changing. With the advent of the Web and search engines there were changes in how information was being gathered and consumed. There would be more of a demand for "Information Technology Professionals" rather than Librarians. During this time, there was a lot of funding going to the Human Computer Interaction Lab at the University and with the perceived growth of technology the lab was moved into the South wing of Hornbake Library where the iSchool was located. This move caused some tension as the iSchool's teaching library was disbanded and in its place faculty offices and research facilities were set up to accommodate the growth of the school. There was a fight to keep the iSchool's library - there were protests and petitions but none were fruitful and the library was removed from Hornbake. There was a recognized opportunity to train professionals for the corporate world and so when Dearstyne took over he helped lead the school as it introduced the new MIM program. Some faculty felt like the school was abandoning its "ontology" and abandoning libraries as an institution. There wasn't necessarily resistance to the MIM but rather to a second master's program in general. The question, "not will it be" but "what will it be" defined the debates. Despite initial concerns, the school has seen a steady rise in acceptance and interest. 2007 was a record year for the MIM program in number of students (149). In 2009 U.S. News & World Report recognized Maryland’s iSchool as one of the top information schools in the country, ranking it 10th among all public universities
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13618147
| 1,814,930
|
1,628,269
|
In 1959, University President Elmer Ellis proposed a research reactor, understanding that the many fields of research to benefit from nuclear science "are a part of the University of Missouri's educational responsibilities to our youth and to all our citizens". The MURR began operation October 13, 1966, about one mile (1.6 km) southwest of the university's main campus and the city's main business district. The reactor building was designed by Cornelius L.T. Gabler and Associates of Detroit, Michigan.The architectural style is mid-century modern. The supplier of construction services was General Electric. In 1970, MURR scientist Dr. George Leddicotte gave the first courtroom testimony on murder trial evidence using neutron activation analysis. Four years later MURR began operating at 10 MW, making it the highest powered U.S. university reactor. Ir-192 was first produced at MURR for fighting breast cancer in 1976. The first small angle neutron scattering (SANS) spectrometer in the U.S. was installed in 1980. In 1986 the first experiments were performed that led to developing Quadramet and TheraSphere, which were later approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for helping fight against bone and liver cancer respectively.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10400448
| 1,627,350
|
1,117,109
|
The Marienthal study attracted the attention of the Rockefeller Foundation, leading to a two-year traveling fellowship to the United States. From 1933 to 1935, Lazarsfeld worked with the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and toured the United States, making contacts and visiting the few universities that had programs related to empirical social science research. It was during this time that Lazarsfeld met Luther Fry at the University of Rochester (which resulted in the inspiration for the research done in "Personal Influence", written some twenty years later) and Robert S. Lynd, who had written the "Middletown" study. Lynd would come to play a central role in helping Lazarsfeld emigrate to the United States, and would recommend him for the directorships of the Newark Center and the Princeton Office of Radio Research. Lazarsfeld contacted the Psychological Corporation, a non-profit organization devoted to bringing the techniques of applied psychology to business, and proposed a number of projects that were rejected as not having enough commercial value or being too involved. He also helped John Jenkins, an applied psychologist at Cornell University, translate an introduction to statistics Lazarsfeld had written for his students in Vienna ("Say It With Figures"). Finally, he pursued research into the ideas presented in the widely read "The Art of Asking Why" (1935), which explained Lazarsfeld's concept of "reason analysis".
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=427665
| 1,116,536
|
1,184,598
|
Then Bellingshausen started to systematically study social and economic aspects of life in New South Wales colony. Barratt noticed that Bellingshausen's lengthy and informative notes published in the "Dvukratnyh izyskanijah" were based on observations and extracts made by half a dozen of his subordinates. Collected statistic data, including market price order, has the importance of a primary source. There is some evidence that doctor Stein who measured atmospheric pressure and geodesist Hockley shared information with Russian sailors and professor Simonov. Painter Mikhailov depicted landscapes and portraits of aborigines. From the scientific point of view, botanic observations were especially notable – "Herbarium" on "Vostok" included no less than 25 types of South Walles endemism. The crew gave to governor Macquarie and captain of the harbour John Piper some saccharum officinarum, sprouted coconuts and taro from Tahiti and Fiji islands, for plant breeding. In Australia, educated Russian officers were mostly attracted by its "exotic", which was not surprising, since they visited this place the first and the last time in their lives. For instance, the crew took 84 birds on board, first of all, parrots (including cockatoo and loriinae), they also had pet kangaroo. By October 30, all repair works on "Vostok" were finished, and the boarding of supplies was completed. The next day the observatory and the forge were lifted aboard. On the last day, the crew took aboard sheep and 46 pigs for a tough Antarctic raid. The outgoing Russian division was escorted by a royal salute from ships and coastal batteries.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40880361
| 1,183,970
|
2,113,110
|
Rutenbar received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in computer engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1979 and 1984, respectively. He joined the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) in 1984. At CMU, his research group developed a wide range of novel CAD tools to optimize, synthesize, and perform geometric layout on analog and mixed-signal integrated circuits. In 1998, he cofounded Neolinear, Inc. to commercialize these tools. He served as Neolinear’s Chief Scientist until its acquisition by Cadence Design Systems in 2004. In 2001, he was the founding director of a large, multi-university research center – the Center for Circuit & Systems Solutions (C2S2) -- funded by the US semiconductor industry and US Defense Advanced Projects Research Agency (DARPA) to address challenges arising from the end of Moore’s Law scaling. He served as Director of C2S2 from 2001 to 2009. Also while at CMU, his "In Silico Vox" project developed novel hardware platforms for very fast, energy efficient speech recognition. In 2006, he cofounded the Silicon Vox Corporation to commercialize these ideas. The company was renamed Voci Technologies in 2010, and it focuses on high-performance solutions for enterprise-scale voice analytics.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42279896
| 2,111,895
|
546,944
|
Compared to electrical stimulation that utilizes brief, high-voltage electric shock to activate neurons, which can potentially activate pain fibers, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was developed by Baker in 1985. TMS uses a magnetic wire above the scalp, which carries a sharp and high current pulse. A time variant magnetic field is induced perpendicular to the coil due to the applied pulse which consequently generates an electric field based on Maxwell's law. The electric field provides the necessary current for a non-invasive and much less painful stimulation. There are two TMS devices called single pulse TMS and repetitive pulse TMS (rTMS) while the latter has greater effect but potential to cause seizure. TMS can be used for therapy particularly in psychiatry, as a tool to measure central motor conduction and a research tool to study different aspects of human brain physiology such as motor function, vision, and language. The rTMS method has been used to treat epilepsy with rates of 8–25 Hz for 10 seconds. The other therapeutic uses of rTMS include parkinson diseases, dystonia and mood diseases. Also, TMS can be used to determine the contribution of cortical networks to specific cognitive functions by disrupting activity in the focal brain region. Early, inconclusive, results have been obtained in recovery from coma (persistent vegetative state) by Pape et al. (2009).
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29803004
| 546,658
|
96,747
|
The primary break rate of sparking Tesla coils is slow compared to the resonant frequency of the resonator-topload assembly. When the switch closes, energy is transferred from the primary LC circuit to the resonator where the voltage rings up over a short period of time up culminating in the electrical discharge. In a spark gap Tesla coil, the primary-to-secondary energy transfer process happens repetitively at typical pulsing rates of 50–500 times per second, depending on the frequency of the input line voltage. At these rates, previously-formed leader channels do not get a chance to fully cool down between pulses. So, on successive pulses, newer discharges can build upon the hot pathways left by their predecessors. This causes incremental growth of the leader from one pulse to the next, lengthening the entire discharge on each successive pulse. Repetitive pulsing causes the discharges to grow until the average energy available from the Tesla coil during each pulse balances the average energy being lost in the discharges (mostly as heat). At this point, dynamic equilibrium is reached, and the discharges have reached their maximum length for the Tesla coil's output power level. The unique combination of a rising high-voltage radio frequency envelope and repetitive pulsing seem to be ideally suited to creating long, branching discharges that are considerably longer than would be otherwise expected by output voltage considerations alone. High-voltage, low-energy discharges create filamentary multibranched discharges which are purplish-blue in colour. High-voltage, high-energy discharges create thicker discharges with fewer branches, are pale and luminous, almost white, and are much longer than low-energy discharges, because of increased ionisation. A strong smell of ozone and nitrogen oxides will occur in the area. The important factors for maximum discharge length appear to be voltage, energy, and still air of low to moderate humidity. There are comparatively few scientific studies about the initiation and growth of pulsed lower-frequency RF discharges, so some aspects of Tesla coil air discharges are not as well understood when compared to DC, power-frequency AC, HV impulse, and lightning discharges.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39113
| 96,706
|
2,238,648
|
"Haaniella gintingi" is a medium-sized, very slender "Haaniella" species with few spines. The females, which are long, vary greatly in color and markings. Their basic color ranges from beige to light to dark brown and can appear somewhat orange or pink. A fine dull green stripe runs along the lateral margins of the mesonotum. In addition to darker triangles, which occur primarily in the nocturnal coloration, large, completely white areas can also appear on patterns, for example on the entire pro- and mesonotum and the anterior and posterior segments of the abdomen. Occasionally there is a narrow, dark longitudinal stripe, which can run down the center of the upper body to the end of the abdomen. While on the upper side of the thorax and abdomen, except for two posterio-median mesonotal spines between the base of the forewings, there are hardly any spines worth mentioning, there are clear spines on the mostly light to medium brown legs and on the head. On the underside of the body there are a few small thorns at regular intervals. On the femurs of the legs, in addition to spines, there is also an enlarged and triangular tooth. On the head, the anterior coronals are particularly striking, forming greatly enlarged, comb-like, swollen, mostly tridentate structures. On the posterior margin of the head there are two strong lateral coronals, which are slightly smaller than the posterior coronals (see also acanthotaxy of Heteropterygini). The forewings, which are designed as tegmina, reach up to a good half of the second abdominal segment, are brownish on top and are sometimes patterned. Their front outer edges are edged in a thinning line of apple green. The underside of the tegmina is red. The hind wings (alae) are translucent dark gray with black veins to completely black. All abdominal tergites are smooth above. From the second to the fourth tergite they become progressively broader, the fourth being the broadest and having almost semicircular curved margins. The segments five to seven are significantly narrower and have only slightly rounded side edges. The abdomen ends in a secondary ovipositor. Its ventral subgenital plate ends bluntly. The dorsal part of the ovipositor, which is called the supraanal plate or epiproct, is significantly longer than the ventral part and ends in a two-pronged tip.<br>
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71967345
| 2,237,377
|
199,743
|
By the 1960s, the United States military was developing the swing-wing F-111 project as a follow-on to the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, a fast low-level fighter-bomber designed in the 1950s with an internal bay for a nuclear weapon. There had been some interest in the TSR-2 from Australia for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), but in 1963, the RAAF chose to buy the F-111 instead, having been offered a better price and delivery schedule by the American manufacturer. Nonetheless, the RAAF had to wait 10 years before the F-111 was ready to enter service, by which time the anticipated programme cost had tripled. The RAF was also asked to consider the F-111 as an alternative cost-saving measure. In response to suggestions of cancellation, BAC employees held a protest march, and the new Labour government, which had come to power in 1964, issued strong denials. However, at two Cabinet meetings held on 1 April 1965, it was decided to cancel the TSR-2 on the grounds of projected cost, and instead to obtain an option agreement to acquire up to 110 F-111 aircraft with no immediate commitment to buy. This decision was announced in the budget speech of 6 April 1965. The maiden flight of the second development batch aircraft, "XR220", was due on the day of the announcement, but following an accident in conveying the airframe to Boscombe Down, coupled with the announcement of the project cancellation, it never happened. Ultimately, only the first prototype, "XR219", ever took to the air. A week later, the Chancellor defended the decision in a debate in the House of Commons, saying that the F-111 would prove cheaper.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=225702
| 199,640
|
1,450,639
|
Gautam Desiraju was born 21 August 1952 in Madras, India. He had his schooling in Cathedral and John Connon Boys School in Bombay and obtained his BSc (1972) from St. Xavier's College, Bombay. He obtained his PhD (1976) from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where he worked under the supervision of David Y. Curtin and Iain C. Paul. He worked between 1976 and 1978 in the Research Laboratories of Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, NY. From 1978 to 1979 he was a research fellow in the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. He joined the University of Hyderabad in 1979 as a lecturer and was promoted as reader in 1984 and professor in 1990. He spent a year (1988–1989) in the CR&D department of DuPont in Wilmington as a visiting scientist. After 30 years in the University of Hyderabad, he joined the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore in 2009. He is a member of the editorial advisory boards of Angewandte Chemie, Chemical Communications and the Journal of the American Chemical Society. He is a past president of the International Union of Crystallography during 2011–2014. He was the chair of the first Gordon Research Conference in Crystal Engineering, 2010 and is now a member of the Vice Chancellor's Strategic Advisory Council of the University of Petroleum & Energy Studies (UPES) Dehradun, as well as a member of the Academic Council of Rishihood University Sonepat. He is a recipient of an honorary doctorate degree of the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina, the Rayalaseema University, Kurnool and of the Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi. He organized, in August 2017, the 24th Congress and General Assembly of the International Union of Crystallography in Hyderabad. He was awarded the Acharya P. C. Ray Medal (2015) of the University of Calcutta for innovation in science and technology, the ISA Medal (2018) for Science of the University of Bologna and the van der Waals Prize (2023) by ICNI, Strasbourg.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19943389
| 1,449,822
|
546,224
|
The demands of combat during World War II led to changes in the composition of Army units. The success of German mechanised units during the invasions of Poland and France convinced Australian defence planners that the Army required armoured units, and these began to be raised in 1941 when the 1st Armoured Division was formed. The two Militia cavalry divisions were first motorised and then converted into armoured divisions in 1942 and the 3rd Army Tank Brigade was formed to provide support to the infantry. These large armoured units were not suitable for jungle warfare, however, and most were disbanded during 1943 and 1944. Conditions in the South West Pacific also led the Army to convert its six combat divisions to jungle divisions in early 1943 and 1944, reducing the authorised strength of the division by about 4,000 men. Each infantry battalion shed around 100 personnel as various support elements such as the anti-aircraft and carrier platoons were removed and consolidated at divisional level. The amount of heavy weapons and vehicles was also reduced, but the conditions that the organisation was designed for did not recur and it proved only moderately successful. As a result, the divisions were strengthened for their 1944–45 campaigns by returning the artillery and anti-tank units that had been removed. The creation of the jungle divisions represented the first time in the Australian Army's history that it had adopted an organisation specifically for the conditions in which its forces would fight. Previously force structure had been heavily influenced by the British Army, and the decision to adopt an organisation to suit local conditions reflected a growing maturity and independence. Yet it also resulted in the adoption of a two-tier force structure, as formations that were not designated for jungle warfare remained on the previous scales of equipment and manning. Ultimately, while their structure was better suited to operations in Australia, they were no longer able to be used against the Japanese. As a result, the burden of the fighting increasingly fell on those formations that had been re-organised, while the remainder of the Army was relegated to garrison duties.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22738876
| 545,938
|
818,448
|
While the cause of FMD remains unclear, current theory suggests that there may be a genetic predisposition as case reports have identified clusters of the disease and prevalence among twins. In fact, according to the Cleveland Clinic approximately 10% of cases appear to be inherited and often coexists with other genetic abnormalities that affect the blood vessels. Approximately 10% of patients with FMD have an affected family member. A study conducted from the patient registry at Michigan Cardiovascular Outcomes Research and Reporting Program (MCORRP) at the University of Michigan Health System reported a high prevalence of a family history of stroke (53.5%), aneurysm (23.5%), and sudden death (19.8%). Even though FMD is a non-atherosclerotic disease family histories of hypertension and hyperlipidemia were also common among those diagnosed with FMD. It is believed that the cause of FMD is not a single identifier such as genetics but has multiple underlying factors. Theories of hormonal influence, mechanical stress from trauma and stress to the artery walls, and also the effect of loss of oxygen supply to the blood vessel wall caused by fibrous lesions. It has been suggested that environmental factors, such as smoking and estrogen, may play a role in addition to genetic factors, however concerns for safety associated with exogenous female hormones in FMD remain theorectical.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4350672
| 818,009
|
1,396,242
|
Regardless of the underlying condition, the loss of intestinal function does not necessarily necessitate a transplant. Several conditions, such as necrotizing enterocolitis or volvulus, may be adequately resolved by other surgical and nonsurgical treatments, especially if SBS never develops. An individual can obtain nutrients intravenously through PN, bypassing food consumption entirely and its subsequent digestion. Long-term survival with SBS and without PN is possible with enteral nutrition, but this is inadequate for many patients as it depends on the remaining intestine's ability to adapt and increase its absorptive capacity. Although more complicated and expensive to perform, any person may receive PN. Although PN can meet all energy, fluid, and nutrient needs and can be performed at home, quality of life can be significantly decreased. On average, PN takes 10 to 16 hours to administer but can take up to 24. Over this time frame, daily life can be significantly hindered as a consequence of attachment to the IV pump. Over long periods of time, PN can lead to numerous health conditions, including severe dehydration, catheter-related infections, and liver disease. PN-associated liver disease strikes up to 50% of patients within 5–7 years, correlated with a mortality rate of 2–50%.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46300441
| 1,395,471
|
175,649
|
Tandy had 11 million customers that might buy a microcomputer, but it would be much more expensive than the median price of a Radio Shack product, and a great risk for the very conservative company. Executives feared losing money as Sears did with Cartrivision, and many opposed the project; one executive told French, "Don't waste my time—we can't sell computers." As the popularity of CB radio—at one point comprising more than 20% of Radio Shack's sales—declined, however, the company sought new products. In December 1976 French and Leininger received official approval for the project but were told to emphasize cost savings; for example, leaving out lowercase characters saved US$1.50 in components and reduced the retail price by . The original retail price required manufacturing cost of ; the first design had a membrane keyboard and no video monitor. Leininger persuaded Roach and French to include a better keyboard; it, a monitor, datacassette storage, and other features required a higher retail price to provide Tandy's typical profit margin. In February 1977 they showed their prototype, running a simple tax-accounting program, to Charles Tandy, head of Tandy Corporation. The program quickly crashed as the computer's implementation of Tiny BASIC could not handle the figure that Tandy typed in as his salary, and the two men added support for floating-point math to its Level I BASIC to prevent a recurrence. The project was formally approved on 2 February 1977; Tandy revealed that he had already leaked the computer's existence to the press. When first inspecting the prototype, he remarked that even if it did not sell, the project could be worthy if only for the publicity it might generate.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30747
| 175,557
|
1,396,321
|
Bagian worked as a process engineer for the 3M Company in Bristol, Pennsylvania, in 1973, and later as a mechanical engineer at the U.S. Naval Air Test Center at Patuxent River, Maryland, from 1976 to 1978, and at the same time, pursued studies for his medical degree. Upon graduating from Thomas Jefferson University in 1977, Bagian completed one year of general surgery residency with the Geisinger Medical Center in Danville, Pennsylvania. He subsequently went to work as a flight surgeon and research medical officer at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1978, while concurrently completing studies at the USAF School of Aerospace Medicine in San Antonio, Texas where he graduated first in his flight surgeons class. He was completing a residency in anesthesiology at the University of Pennsylvania when notified of his selection by NASA for the astronaut candidate program. Bagian received his Professional Engineers Certification in 1986 and was board-certified in aerospace medicine by the American College of Preventive Medicine in 1987. Since 1981, Bagian has been active in the mountain rescue community and has served as a member of the Denali Medical Research Project on Mount McKinley. He has been a snow-and-ice rescue techniques instructor on Mount Hood during this period. Bagian is a colonel in the U.S. Air Force Reserve and is the pararescue flight surgeon for the 939th Air Rescue Wing. He is a USAF-qualified freefall parachutist, holds a private pilot's license and has logged over 1,500 hours flying time in propeller and jet aircraft, helicopters, and gliders.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=596595
| 1,395,550
|
1,612,313
|
Traditional religion attributed the origin of life to deities who created the natural world. "Spontaneous generation", the first naturalistic theory of abiogenesis, goes back to Aristotle and ancient Greek philosophy, and continued to have support in Western scholarship until the 19th century. The theory held that "lower" animals are generated by decaying organic substances. Aristotle stated that, for example, aphids arise from dew on plants, flies from putrid matter, mice from dirty hay, and crocodiles from rotting sunken logs. The basic idea was that life was continuously created as a result of chance events. In the 17th century, people began to question spontaneous generation, in works like Thomas Browne's "Pseudodoxia Epidemica". His contemporary, Alexander Ross, erroneously rebutted him. In 1665, Robert Hooke published the first drawings of a microorganism. In 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek drew and described microorganisms, probably protozoa and bacteria. Many felt their existence supported spontaneous generation, since they seemed too simplistic for sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction: cell division had not yet been observed. Van Leeuwenhoek disagreed with spontaneous generation, and by the 1680s convinced himself, using experiments ranging from sealed and open meat incubation and the close study of insect reproduction, that the theory was incorrect. In 1668 Francesco Redi showed that no maggots appeared in meat when flies were prevented from laying eggs. In 1768, Lazzaro Spallanzani demonstrated that microbes were present in the air, and could be killed by boiling. In 1861, Louis Pasteur's experiments demonstrated that organisms such as bacteria and fungi do not spontaneously appear in sterile, nutrient-rich media, but could only appear by invasion from without.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69625765
| 1,611,408
|
747,656
|
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) 2 and 3 were started (to provide flight control hydraulic pressure). The 160-second twin-engine OMS de-orbit burn took place during the 36th orbit over the southern Indian Ocean and changed the orbital parameters from to . This ensured atmospheric capture of the spacecraft close enough to the planned landing site to have sufficient energy for a controlled glide landing, but not so close that energy would have to be dissipated at a rate exceeding its structural capability. Young then slowly pitched "Columbia" up to the wings level nose high entry attitude. Both crew members armed their ejection seats during this pitch around. Nearly half an hour later APU 1 was started as planned. Shortly afterwards, "Columbia" entered an approximately 21-minute long communications blackout. This was due to a combination of ionisation (16 minutes) and lack of ground station coverage between Guam and Buckhorn Tracking Station at Dryden Flight Research Facility. Entry Interface (EI) was reached over the eastern Pacific Ocean from the landing site at a speed of around . EI is merely an arbitrarily defined geodetic altitude of employed by NASA for the purposes of trajectory computations and mission planning. Above this altitude, the spacecraft is considered to be outside the "sensable atmosphere".
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177543
| 747,260
|
710,578
|
The University of Texas continued to host the event from 1982 to 1984 as the popularity and number of participants grew. In these subsequent years, UT moved the Formula SAE competition to other parking areas that included elevation changes and driveway aprons that forced the use of functioning suspensions. The event became international in 1982 with the entry of Universidad La Salle team from Mexico City. The significant rules changes for 1982 were: 1) a displacement limit of 600 cc (300 cc for Wankels), but the 1 inch diameter restrictor rule was retained, 2) a requirement for 4-wheel independent suspension (Mini-Indy did not have any suspension rules), and 3) the addition of a temporary “B&S” class of vehicles that were originally designed for Mini-Baja, had to retain the 8 hp Briggs & Stratton engine, and did not need to comply with the 4-wheel independent suspension rule. Formula SAE continued to be an international competition when the team from Universidad La Salle returned. With the only engine restrictions being a displacement limit of 600 cc and a 1-inch maximum diameter for the intake, creativity flourished. Also in 1983, the temporary B&S class was eliminated, the University of Texas at Austin entered the first composite Formula SAE vehicle and Marquette University entered the first turbocharged engine. The rules allowed a Formula SAE car to compete for two years in recognition of the effort required to build and test a quality car. This also allowed students the experience of re-engineering and improving on design elements that did not work. The rules for 1984 specifically allowed turbochargers, superchargers, and use of nitrous oxide but the engine had to breathe through a 25.4 mm exit bore of the carburetor casting (1984 was well before electronic fuel injection). Engine intake restrictors were later tightened as cars became faster year over year as knowledge was passed on within and between teams. Also, a 65-100 inch wheelbase rule was promulgated, as was a rule requiring all vehicles to have a “body that resembles a formula car”. The Formula SAE field had grown to eleven cars in 1984, so the University of Texas at Austin decided that the competition had matured sufficiently that it was safe to pass it on to other hosts.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=278148
| 710,207
|
1,363,276
|
Technological analysis is sometimes applied in decision-making often related to investments, policy-decisions and public spending. They can be done by a variety of organization-types such as for-profit companies, non-profit think tanks, research institutes, public platforms and government agencies and evaluate established, emerging and potential future technologies on a variety of measures and metrics – all of which are related to ideals and goals such as minimal global greenhouse gas emissions – such as life-cycle-sustainability, openness, performance, control,<ref name="10.2478/ceer-2018-0008"></ref> financial costs, resource costs, health impacts and more. Results are sometimes published as public reports or as scientific peer-reviewed studies. Based on such reports standardization can enable interventions or efforts which balance competition and cooperation and improve sustainability, reduce waste and redundancy, or accelerate innovation. They can also be used for the creation of standardized system designs that integrate a variety of technologies as their components. Other applications include risk assessment and research of defense applications. They can also be used or created for determining the hypothetical or existing optimal solution/s and to identify challenges, innovation directions and applications. Technological analysis can encompass or overlap with analysis of infrastructures and non-technological products.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53635793
| 1,362,523
|
954,984
|
After Bacon's retirement from the Planning Commission in 1970, he served as vice president for the private planning firm Mondev U.S.A., was an adjunct professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and at the University of Pennsylvania, from 1950 to 1987, and narrated "Understanding Cities", an award-winning series of documentary films describing the history and development of Rome under Pope Sixtus V, Paris under Georges-Eugène Haussmann, Regency London under John Nash, American cities, and cities in the future post-oil era. He vociferously but unsuccessfully opposed the development of skyscrapers in Center City Philadelphia taller than Philadelphia City Hall, which until 1984 set the informal height limit for downtown at the hat of the statue of William Penn. That custom, known as the "Gentlemen's agreement", was broken by developer Willard G. Rouse III's One Liberty Place. "The New York Times" correctly noted Bacon's opposition to the project, but it was incorrect in saying that "in opposing the skyscraper One Liberty Place, Mr. Bacon refused to attend the tower's 1986 groundbreaking and stopped speaking to his friend Willard G. Rouse III, who built it. 'I think it's very, very destructive that he and he alone has chosen to destroy a historical tradition that set a very fine and disciplined form for the city,' Mr. Bacon said at the time." Bacon was present at the groundbreaking, which took place in May 1985. Of course, Rouse was not capable of single-handedly changing the custom, even if it was not formally legal. Rouse's enormous project had the support of Mayor W. Wilson Goode, Philadelphia City Council, and the City Planning Commission, which was forced by the announcement of Rouse's plan to admit that it had no up-to-date plan of its own for the future of Philadelphia's downtown.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2499291
| 954,479
|
1,894,497
|
Missouri did not have much difficulty in Mike Anderson's first three games as head coach, defeating North Carolina A&T, Army and Stetson to capture the John Thompson Foundation Classic title. The Tigers, who did not play a road game until December, began 9-0, facing mostly inferior opponents. However, MU did actually defeat two eventual NCAA tournament squads during this stretch. On November 19, the Tigers overcome a modest five-point deficit in the second half to defeat Davidson, a team that wound up with a 13-seed in March. Freshman Stephen Curry, a future First-Team All-American and NBA Draft pick in 2009, played for the Wildcats and scored 16 points. A few weeks later on November 30, Missouri routed the University of Arkansas 86-64 in a nationally televised game. The Razorbacks—the program that employed Anderson for 17 seasons as an assistant and later hired him as head coach in 2011—turned the ball over 24 times, giving Anderson's frenetic style of play a signature win for the first time in Columbia. Due to one of the more significant snowfalls in mid-Missouri history, only 5,428 fans attended the game. The athletic department allowed the fans to fill the lower bowl, though, to compensate for a storm that forced MU to cancel classes the next day.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438663
| 1,893,413
|
702,187
|
The next major revolution came in the late 1990s, which saw the rise of 3D computer graphics and optical discs in fifth generation consoles. The implications for RPGs were enormous—longer, more involved quests, better audio, and full-motion video. This was clearly demonstrated in 1997 by the phenomenal success of "Final Fantasy VII", which is considered one of the most influential games of all time, akin to that of "Star Wars" in the movie industry. With a record-breaking production budget of around $45 million, the ambitious scope of "Final Fantasy VII" raised the possibilities for the genre, with its more expansive world to explore, much longer quest, more numerous sidequests, dozens of minigames, and much higher production values. The latter includes innovations such as the use of 3D characters on pre-rendered backgrounds, battles viewed from multiple different angles rather than a single angle, and for the first time full-motion CGI video seamlessly blended into the gameplay, effectively integrated throughout the game. Gameplay innovations included the materia system, which allowed a considerable amount of customization and flexibility through materia that can be combined in many different ways and exchanged between characters at any time, and the limit breaks, special attacks that can be performed after a character's limit meter fills up by taking hits from opponents. The materia system is similar to, but more sophisticated than, the slotted item system in "Diablo II" (2000). "Final Fantasy VII" continues to be listed among the best games of all time, for its highly polished gameplay, high playability, lavish production, well-developed characters, intricate storyline, and an emotionally engaging narrative that is much darker and sophisticated than most other RPGs. The game's storytelling and character development was considered a major narrative jump forward for video games and was often compared to films and novels at the time.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32408675
| 701,820
|
628,505
|
On 13 April 2007, the Department of Science, Technology and Education of the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture hosted the Asian regional workshop on adaptation to climate change organized by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Climate change will affect Asian countries in different but consistently negative ways. Temperate regions will experience changes in boreal forest cover, while vanishing mountain glaciers will cause problems such as water shortages and increased risks of glacial lake flooding. Coastal zones are under increasing risk from sea level rises as well as pollution and overexploitation of natural resources. In 2006 in China storms, floods, heat and drought killed more than 2,700 people; effects ranged from drought in the southwest of China, which were the worst since records began to be kept in the late nineteenth century, to floods and typhoons in central and southeastern China. The weather events in China in 2006 were seen to be a prelude to weather patterns likely to become more common due to global warming. Topics discussed by representatives of Asian countries and developed countries, international organizations and nongovernmental organizations, included vulnerability assessments, implementing adaptation actions in various sectors of the economy and in specific geographical areas, such as coastal and mountainous regions.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13556279
| 628,170
|
144,719
|
In 1888, Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg working from the 1885 Balmer formula noticed that the atomic numbers of the noble gases was equal to doubled sums of squares of simple numbers: 2 = 2·1, 10 = 2(1 + 2), 18 = 2(1 + 2 + 2), 36 = 2(1 + 2 + 2 + 3), 54 = 2(1 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3), 86 = 2(1 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 4). This finding was accepted as an explanation of the fixed lengths of periods and led to repositioning of the noble gases from the left edge of the table, in group 0, to the right, in group VIII. Unwillingness of the noble gases to engage in chemical reaction was explained in the alluded stability of closed noble gas electron configurations; from this notion emerged the octet rule originally referred to as Abegg’s Rule of 1904. Among the notable works that established the importance of the periodicity of eight were the valence bond theory, published in 1916 by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis and the octet theory of chemical bonding, published in 1919 by American chemist Irving Langmuir. The chemists' approach during the period of the Old Quantum Theory (1913 to 1925) was incorporated into the understanding of the electron shells and orbitals under current quantum mechanics. A real pioneer who gave us the foundation for our current model of electrons is Irving Langmuir. In his 1919 paper, he postulated the existence of "cells", which we now call orbitals, which could each only contain two electrons, and these were arranged in "equidistant layers" which we now call shells. He made an exception for the first shell to only contain two electrons. These postulates were introduced on the basis of Rydberg's rule which Niels Bohr had used not in chemistry, but in physics, to apply to the orbits of electrons around the nucleus. In the Langmuir paper, he introduced the rule as 2N where N was a positive integer.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=619795
| 144,661
|
2,013,290
|
In vitro experimentation provides great insight and knowledge to characterize the potential of sonosensitizer behavior in vivo. In addition, SDT has shown success through its low intensity allowing increased plasma membrane permeability without cell death. Sonosensitizers have also been used in vitro in applications with different cell lines and to further understand the mechanism of action for cell death. It is currently understood that PDT and SDT have similar mechanisms for free radical generation for inducing apoptosis and necrosis. However, each cell line is unique and can cause cell death with different efficacy. Some examples of in vitro work include initial studies that were performed by Yumita et al., 1989 who used haematoprophyrin and SDT for mouse sarcoma 180 and rat ascites hepatoma (AH) that showed a relationship between dosage and ultrasound, and microbubbles causing cavitation leading to cell damage without the use of drugs. This study also emphasized the difference in efficacy between cell lines through SDT 180 having less lysis compared to AH-130 cells. Another study by Hachimine et al. emphasized efficacy between cell lines by examining seven different cancers with 17 cell lines total under the use of DCPH-P-NA(I). This study revealed that the stomach and lung cancer lines of MKN-28 and LU65A respectively had the highest survival rate, but the stomach and lung cancer lines of RERFLC-KJ and MKN-45 respectively had the lowest survival rates. Another study by Honda et al., with U937 and K562 showed that sonication increases the intracellular calcium ion levels and decreases GSH concentration respectively. This increased concentration of calcium plays a significant role in cell death through DNA fragmentation and mitochondrial membrane disruption. While a decreased concentration of GSH plays a significant role in allowing the formation of more free radicals. A study by Umemura et al., found that ATX-70 versus hematoporphyrin has increased cytotoxic activity. Current research typically focuses on using tumor xenograft models to determine the effect of SDT on target cells and delivery efficacy.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36264089
| 2,012,132
|
1,801,320
|
In 1970, AVA was first licensed by the USPHS for protection against cutaneous anthrax to a state-owned facility operated by the Michigan Department of Public Health. In 1973, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) first published standards for making, using and storing AVA. In the mid-1980s, the FDA approved it specifically for two limited preventive indications: 1) individuals who may come in contact with animal products or high-risk persons such as veterinarians and others handling potentially infected animals; and 2) individuals engaged in diagnostic or investigational activities involving anthrax spores. In 1985, the FDA published a Proposed Rule for a specific product review of the AVA, stating that the vaccine's "efficacy against inhalation anthrax is not well documented" (a statement quoted controversially many years later). For many years, AVA was a little known product considered to be safe for pre-exposure use in the US in at-risk veterinarians, laboratory workers, livestock handlers, and textile plant workers who process animal hair. In 1990, the State of Michigan changed the name of its original production plant facility to the Michigan Biologic Products Institute (MBPI) as it gave up state ownership and converted it to a private entity. The same year (as later revealed) MBPI changed both the fermenters and the filters used in manufacturing AVA without notifying the FDA, thus reportedly causing a 100 fold increase in the PA levels present in vaccine lots.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37488149
| 1,800,311
|
1,121,244
|
Daubechies gave the Gauss Lecture of the German Mathematical Society in 2015. The Simons Foundation, a private foundation based in New York City that funds research in mathematics and the basic sciences, gave Daubechies the Math + X Investigator award, which provides money to professors at American and Canadian universities to encourage new partnerships between mathematicians and researchers in other fields of science. She was the one to suggest to Simons that the foundation should fund better mechanisms for interpreting existing data, rather than new research. Also in 2015, Daubechies was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for "contributions to the mathematics and applications of wavelets". In 2018, Daubechies won the William Benter Prize in Applied Mathematics from City University of Hong Kong (CityU). She is the first woman to be the recipient of the award. Prize officials cited the pioneering work of Daubechies in wavelet theory and her "exceptional contributions to a wide spectrum of scientific and mathematical subjects" and noted that "her work in enabling the mobile smartphone revolution is truly symbolic of the era". Also in 2018, Daubechies was awarded the Fudan-Zhongzhi Science Award ($440,000) for her work on wavelets. She is part of the 2019 class of fellows of the Association for Women in Mathematics. Daubechies was named the North American Laureate of 2019 L'Oréal-UNESCO International Award For Women in Science. Since 1998, the annual worldwide award recognizes five outstanding women in chemistry, physics, materials science, mathematics, and computer science. In 2019, Daubechies was chosen (for North America) along with Najat Aoun Saliba (Africa and Arab States), Maki Kawai (Asia Pacific), Karen Hallberg (Latin America), and Claire Voisin (Europe). Also in 2019, she became a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1430989
| 1,120,670
|
742,512
|
Single cell imaging experiments have shown ERK to be activated in stochastic bursts in the presence of EGF. Furthermore, the pathway has been shown to encode the strength of signaling inputs though frequency modulated pulses of its activity. Using live cell FRET biosensors, cells induced with different concentrations of EGF illicit activity bursts of different frequency, where higher levels of EGF resulted in more frequent bursts of ERK activity. To figure out how S phase entry can be affected by sporadic pulses of ERK activity at low EGF concentrations, they used MCF-10A cells co-expressing EKAR-EV and RFP-geminin and identified the pulses of ERK activity with the scoring and then align this ERK activity profiles with time of GFP-geminin induction. They found that longer periods of ERK activity stimulate S phase entry, as suggested by increased pulse length. To understand the dynamics of EGFR-ERK pathway, specifically how is the frequency and amplitude modulated, they applied the EGFR inhibitor gefitinib or the highly selective MAPK/ERK kinase (MEK) inhibitor PD0325901 (PD). Two inhibitors yield actually a little bit different result: gefitinib, at intermediate concentration, would induce pulsatory behavior and also bimodal shift, which is not observed with PD. They further combine EGF and PD together and draw the conclusion that the frequency of ERK activities is modulated by quantitative variation while the amplitude is modulated by MEK activity’s change. Lastly they turned to Fra-1, one of downstream effectors of ERK pathway, as it’s technically challenging to estimate ERK activities directly. To understand how the integrated ERK pathway output (which should be independent of either frequency or amplitude) affect the proliferation rate, they used the combination of a wide range of EGF and PD concentrations and find that there’s actually an inverted “L” shape single curvilinear relationship, which suggests that at low levels of ERK pathway output, small changes in signal intensity correspond to large changes in proliferative rate, while large changes in signal intensity near the high end of the dynamic range have little impact on proliferation. The fluctuation of ERK signaling highlights potential issues with current therapeutic approaches, providing new perspective in terms of thinking about drug targeting in the ERK pathway in cancer.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5618682
| 742,119
|
1,744,074
|
ASMS also offers an academic summer camp for students entering the 6th through 9th grades. The Adventures In Math and Science summer program is typically held in June and enrolls roughly 1,000 students over the course of three weeks. Students from across Alabama can enroll in classes that are taught by ASMS instructors. Courses include: 3D Printing and Design; ACT Prep; All About Animals – Inside and Out; Apps for Smart Devices; Basic Geometry with Computers; CSI: Fun Forensics; Discovering the Alabama Outdoors; Drones and Race cars; Environmental Science; Estuaries: Where Rivers Meet the Sea; Exploring Inner Space; Game Design with Unity 3D; Geology of Minecraft; Invertebrate Zoology; Labs of Doom; Land, Sea, and Air: Basic Navigation, Buoyancy, and Energy of Propulsion; Learning Linux using the Raspberry Pi; Marine Biology; Meteorology; Phun Physics; Python Programming with Raspberry Pi; Robotics; Rocketry; and Studying Nature-Field Biology. The camp offers a residential program as well as a day-school program. AIMS runs for three week-long sessions. Each AIMS student takes three courses of their choice per week each weekday with a weekend interim period at a local waterpark for students staying more than one week. Admissions to AIMS is highly competitive. More than 50 percent of incoming, full-time students have attended the AIMS summer program. AIMS is made possible from the ASMSEA. ASMSEA stands for ASMS Educational Association and has hosted the many different camps available. The association decides which camps to host the cost and many other details involved. It has around 15 board members, but anyone can vote for a new program.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=633666
| 1,743,090
|
345,517
|
The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options to update WWII Liberty ships, and heavy-duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 the "John Sergeant" was lengthened and equipped with a General Electric HD gas turbine with exhaust-gas regeneration, reduction gearing and a variable-pitch propeller. It operated for 9,700 hours using residual fuel (Bunker C) for 7,000 hours. Fuel efficiency was on a par with steam propulsion at per hour, and power output was higher than expected at due to the ambient temperature of the North Sea route being lower than the design temperature of the gas turbine. This gave the ship a speed capability of 18 knots, up from 11 knots with the original power plant, and well in excess of the 15 knot targeted. The ship made its first transatlantic crossing with an average speed of 16.8 knots, in spite of some rough weather along the way. Suitable Bunker C fuel was only available at limited ports because the quality of the fuel was of a critical nature. The fuel oil also had to be treated on board to reduce contaminants and this was a labor-intensive process that was not suitable for automation at the time. Ultimately, the variable-pitch propeller, which was of a new and untested design, ended the trial, as three consecutive annual inspections revealed stress-cracking. This did not reflect poorly on the marine-propulsion gas-turbine concept though, and the trial was a success overall. The success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels. The "John Sergeant" was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58664
| 345,336
|
1,928,771
|
Use of external airway adjuncts, namely the OPA and NPA. Manual and mechanical airway suctioning. Dislodging of foreign body airway obstructions through heimlich maneuver and visible finger sweeps. Airway positioning using head-tilt chin-lift and jaw-thrust maneuvers. BLS cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Automated external defibrillation using the AED. Application of up to 100% oxygen therapy via non-rebreather mask or nasal cannula. Positive-pressure ventilation using a bag valve mask device. Use of body substance isolation, assessing and maintaining scene safety, assessing level of responsiveness, including Glasgow coma scale. Controlling external bleeding through application of direct pressure, elevation, hemostatic dressings, and tourniquets. Application of occlusive dressings, bulky dressings, et cetera. Obtaining medical histories, physical, and neurological assessments. Documentation of medical situations. Obtaining and subjective interpretation of vital signs including blood pressure, blood-oxygen saturation (SpO2), heart rate, respirations, eye and skin signs, and lung sounds through auscultation. Eye irrigation. Application of soft and rigid splints to all body parts, and assessing distal neurovascular functions. Initiation and application of triage. Reducing a posterior sternoclavicular dislocation. Relieving pressure from a subungual hematoma. Maintaining manual, in-line stabilization of the spine, including long spine board immobilization and application of a cervical collar. Seated spinal immobilization, including use of the kendrick extrication device. Application of a traction splint. Assisting in the uncomplicated delivery of an infant, including managing conditions such as nuchal cord, prolapsed cord, and breech delivery. Recognizing and providing supportive care to common medical ailments including medical shock, anaphylaxis, diabetic emergencies, environmental emergencies, cardiac emergencies, et cetera. Assisting patients in administration of certain patient-provided, already-prescribed medications including an albuterol metered-dose inhaler, epinephrine autoinjector, and nitroglycerin. Assisting administration of certain over-the-counter drugs to patients, including aspirin to patients suspected of AMI, oral glucose to hypoglycemic patients, and activated charcoal to patients having ingested poisonous substances.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2471678
| 1,927,666
|
1,138,536
|
Possibly being one of the most famous physicians of the 17th and 18th centuries, Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) approached phenomena in medicine with a scientific process of observation and experiments. He is most famous for recreating the Andrea Vesalius book of human anatomy. Boerhaave featured human beings participating in daily activities but with a transparency to them so that their organs could be seen. His fascination with chemistry led him to model the human body in terms of its chemistry in the flows and interactions of the different phases including solids, liquids and gases. In his work, he narrowed down the causes of diseases to a substance called "acid humour," which would affect flow of blood causing unbalance and detrimental chemical reactions, eventually causing malfunctioning of the human body. In a different example, it is documented that Boerhaave observed a certain "medullary oil" existed inside of bones which was very important for creating the "heat and vital motion" disturbances that could lead to an ill state of the body. A certain accumulation of a fluid in these joints of the body would lead to disastrous stagnancy which would be characterized eventually by gangrenous or unhealthy tissue where this occurred. This medical state was coined as "imposthumation." Boerhaave is, perhaps, most well known in the realm of iatrochemistry for his discussions and understanding of the nervous system. Historians believe that Boerhaave's understanding of the human body and mechanisms in relation to the nervous and physical anatomy came from his personal interactions with soldiers in wars between the Dutch and Spanish. Through his understanding of the human body and chemistry he was able to develop a medicine for physical injuries. Boerhaave attributed fevers to the body's response to a stressful situation or shock, similar to the way that chemical reactions produce heat, in which the body encountered an unexpected onset of heat or freezing temperatures.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2419633
| 1,137,943
|
56,861
|
For the first episode's opening sequence, Phillips mistakenly assumed that Burnham's mission with Book was a courier mission and designed a leather coat for Martin-Green to wear. The producers corrected her that it was actually a Starfleet mission but asked her to keep the coat and just make it "cleaner" and Starfleet-appropriate. Martin-Green loved wearing the coat and felt it showed Burnham's "boldness" now that she is captain, while Phillips noted that it was now available to use as a uniform-variant for all Starfleet officers on the series. The Kelpien costumes on Kaminar were designed to be more organic than the Starfleet uniforms, but Phillips still wanted them to be sleek to match the aesthetic of the 32nd century. Saru wears a special pin on his chest to represent that he is a councilmember on Kaminar, and prop master Mario Moreira explained that the pin was designed to reflect Kaminar's two cultures which have united since the earlier seasons: a central stone represents the obelisks of the Ba'ul people, surrounded by flowing lines that evoke the Kelpiens' movements and the seaweed that they collect. The props department questioned whether Saru should continue to wear this pin once he returns to his Starfleet uniform but realized that there was precedent for this in the cultural sash worn by Worf in "The Next Generation". Zora and Gray play a Trill board game in "Stormy Weather" that was designed by Moreira's team to be a futuristic version of chess. He said there were many discussions about the design and rules for the game. For the casino in "All In", writer Sean Cochran used his father's knowledge as a gambling expert along with a hired consultant to help inform what details were needed on set. The props team played all of the card games before filming, reverse-engineered from the desired results, to ensure that the cards could be played in the correct order by the actors during filming. The set for the casino was a re-dressing of the space station set from the first episode.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63388083
| 56,837
|
1,680,917
|
Yuste's interest in neuroscience arose early, inspired by books like Santiago Ramón y Cajal's "Los Tónicos de la Voluntad: Reglas y consejos sobre investigación científica" ) ("The Tonics of the Will: Rules and Advice on Scientific Research") and supported by his parents. He studied medicine at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and its Fundación Jiménez Díaz Hospital (1982-1987). Finding the treatment and understanding of mental diseases as "primitive", Yuste decided that instead of practicing medicine he would work on laying the scientific basis for future treatments through basic biological research. He worked for two summers (1985/86) in the laboratory of the Nobel laureate Sydney Brenner at the University of Cambridge, but the budget cuts of Margaret Thatcher's government made him look for PhD opportunities in the United States. In 1987 he was admitted to Rockefeller University and joined the group of Nobel laureate Torsten Wiesel, working with Lawrence C. Katz. There he developed the calcium imaging technique to measure and monitor the activity of neuronal populations. The technique is based on the fact that when an electric signal depolarizes a neuron, its calcium channels are activated, thus allowing Ca ions to enter the cell. If one brings a calcium-sensitive dye into neurons in the brain, one can detect under the microscope when a neuron is active. The technique is detailed in Yuste's doctoral thesis "Optical studies of calcium dynamics in developing neocortical neurons" (1992), which was directed by Wiesel and Katz. It has since become one of the technical pillars of neurobiology.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56451610
| 1,679,974
|
2,061,502
|
Only six months after his arrival in London, in late summer 1725, Joseph boarded a ship for the Gulf of Mexico. The South Sea Company traded there in slaves and goods under the Asiento agreement; the trade agreement allowed the company to send one ship of a limited size each year to sell goods in the fairs of Vera Cruz and Portobelo, but the company was stretching the agreement to send TWO ships, both loaded to the gunwales with goods. One ship would remain offshore while the other would sell its own cargo at the Fair, return to sea to be restocked by the first and again return to land to sell that second cargo. In 1725 the two ships were the "Prince Frederick", under Captain Williams, and the "Spotswood", under Captain Bradly; Joseph writes of going aboard a ship with £300,000 of goods and 250 men, but it isn't yet clear which of the two ships he was in. The South Sea Company had no difficulty in selling its goods, which were much in demand for their quality; but the Spanish government, faced with policing vast territories with inadequate forces, was not so keen and, in protest, seized the "Prince Frederick", detaining her in the Gulf for several years while a complex international dispute played out. During his time in Vera Cruz Joseph observed and described a partial eclipse of the sun and was unable, because of overcast skies, to observe a predicted eclipse of the moon. He established the latitude of Vera Cruz as 19° 12'N and its longitude as 97° 30'W to within 1° of its actual position (but the site of Vera Cruz has been changed more than once in its existence because of disease generated by surrounding swamps and forest); this was done decades before the development of Harrison's chronometer which facilitated the establishment of longitude by providing accurate timekeeping. These observations, sponsored by Halley, are recorded as "Astronomical Observation Made at Vera Cruz" in the "Transactions" of the Royal Society, but the astronomical dates in the "Transaction" need to be corrected for the calendar shift in September 1752. By our calendar now the eclipse of the Sun viewed in Vera Cruz occurred on 22 March 1727 (NS).
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30866164
| 2,060,314
|
2,170,872
|
The most promising therapy to make use of targeting the T-cell through its receptor is the class of monoclonal antibodies specific for CD3. The CD3 chains compose the signaling arm of the TCR, translating the strength of binding affinity of the TCR/peptide-MHC complex to downstream cytoplasmic signals. Initial studies involving αCD3 as a therapy used Fc receptor(FCR)-binding monoclonal antibodies, which proved to be very efficacious. A short, 5-day course of FcR-binding, anti-CD3 antibody treatment was able to re-establish peripheral tolerance in animal models of autoimmune disease, thereby completely reversing disease. The mechanism of action caused systemic depletion of T-cells from the blood and sites of inflammation. While effective, the FcR-binding antibodies deliver strong stimulatory signals to the T-cell, leading to activation-induced-cell-death, and largely depleting T-cells from the periphery and site of inflammation. This effect was transient, and mice were able to mount normal immune responses to exogenous antigens within weeks of treatment. However, treatment with FcR-binding anti-CD3 antibody such as OKT3 induced strong stimulation of T-cells, leading to T-cell cytokine release, which resulted in a number of symptoms when administered to patients. In lieu of this, a mutant version of the antibody was developed that lacked the ability to bind FcR. This mutant form of the anti-CD3 acts by only delivering a partial signal to the T-cell, leading to inactivation, deletion, and anergy induction. Results from a clinical trial in 2000 showed that treatment with the modified form of anti-CD3 preserved islet function in new-onset Type 1 diabetics. Data from follow up studies suggest that anti-CD3 antibody treatment caused not only anergy induction and transient depletion of T cells, but an increase in CD4+ and CD8+ Foxp3+Tregs. While promising, islet function gradually decreased over time in human patients treated with anti-CD3 antibodies, and data suggest that the mitogenic capabilities of anti-CD3 antibodies may overcome their therapeutic utility. Although current clinical trials are ongoing to improve the efficacy of anti-CD3 antibody treatment, alternative targets within the TCR may provide a better therapeutic T cell target.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28353188
| 2,169,634
|
2,012,712
|
Advancing to the quarterfinals, Georgetown faced the No. 4 seed, Cincinnati, the following day. A dramatic narrative of the game was the duel underneath the baskets between the teams′ two senior "big men," Henry Sims and Cincinnati forward Yancy Gates. The first half was close, although Georgetown pulled away in the final five minutes to lead 30–24 at halftime. In the second half, an 8-0 Georgetown run extended the Hoyas′ lead to 49–38, but the Bearcats responded with an 11–3 run that cut Georgetown's lead to 52–49 with 3:53 remaining in regulation. Gates scored over Sims on a layup with 1:56 remaining to narrow the gap to 52–51, then tipped in a miss by Cincinnati junior guard Cashmere Wright to give the Bearcats their first lead of the second half at 53–52 with 37 seconds left. After Cincinnati senior guard Dion Dixon sank the first of two free throws to extend his team's lead to 54-52 but missed his second shot, Otto Porter grabbed the rebound and scored on a jumper with four seconds remaining to tie the game at 54-54 and force overtime. In overtime, Cincinnati staked itself to a 62–60 lead on a Dixon free throw with 20 seconds left, but Henry Sims, finding himself at the top of the key with the ball and with time running out, drove in toward the basket and made a layup at the buzzer to force a second overtime with the score tied 62-62. The teams traded baskets in the second overtime, and Sims tied it with a two-point jumper at 70–70 with 29 seconds to play, but Wright countered with a jumper 20 seconds later to give the Bearcats a 72–70 advantage. On the next possession, Sims missed a three-point attempt from way out of range at the buzzer, and Cincinnati won 72-70 despite shooting 2-for-21 (9.5%) in three-pointers. Sims led the Hoyas with a double-double (22 points and 15 rebounds), while Otto Porter added 14 points and grabbed seven rebounds, Jason Clark scored 12 points, and Hollis Thompson finished with 10. It was the first multiple-overtime game for the Hoyas since January 24, 2006, and the first one in the Big East tournament since Syracuse beat Connecticut in six overtimes in the 2009 quarterfinals. The Bearcats advanced to upset Syracuse in the semifinals and then to the championship game, where they lost to Louisville.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33673923
| 2,011,555
|
430,080
|
In the interest of creating the possibility of longer duration space flight, NASA has invested in the research and application of preventative space medicine, not only for medically preventable pathologies but trauma as well. Although trauma constitutes more of a life-threatening situation, medically preventable pathologies pose more of a threat to astronauts. "The involved crewmember is endangered because of mission stress and the lack of complete treatment capabilities on board the spacecraft, which could result in the manifestation of more severe symptoms than those usually associated with the same disease in the terrestrial environment. Also, the situation is potentially hazardous for the other crewmembers because the small, closed, ecological system of the spacecraft is conducive to disease transmission. Even if the disease is not transmitted, the safety of the other crewmembers may be jeopardized by the loss of the capabilities of the crewmember who is ill. Such an occurrence will be more serious and potentially hazardous as the durations of crewed missions increase and as operational procedures become more complex. Not only do the health and safety of the crewmembers become critical, but the probability of mission success is lessened if the illness occurs during flight. Aborting a mission to return an ill crewmember before mission goals are completed is costly and potentially dangerous." Treatment of trauma may involve surgery in zero-gravity, which is a challenging proposition given the need for blood sample containment. Diagnosis and monitoring of crew members is a particularly vital need. NASA tested the rHEALTH ONE to advance this capability for on-orbit, travel to Moon and Mars. This capability is mapped to Risk of Adverse Health Outcomes and Decrements in Performance Due to Medical Conditions that occur in Mission, as well as Long Term Health Outcomes Due to Mission Exposures. Without an approach to perform onboard medical monitoring, loss of crew members may jeopardize long duration missions.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5607447
| 429,868
|
867,027
|
The UDC was developed by the Belgian bibliographers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine at the end of the 19th century. In 1895, they created the Universal Bibliographic Repertory ("Répertoire Bibliographique Universel") (RBU) which was intended to become a comprehensive classified index to all published information. The idea that the RBU should take the form of a card catalogue came from the young American zoologist Herbert Haviland Field, who was at the time himself setting up a bibliographical agency in Zurich, the Concilium Bibliographicum. A means of arranging the entries would be needed, and Otlet, having heard of the Dewey Decimal Classification, wrote to Melvil Dewey and obtained permission to translate it into French. The idea outgrew the plan of mere translation, and a number of radical innovations were made, adapting the purely enumerative classification (in which all the subjects envisaged are already listed and coded) into one which allows for synthesis (that is, the construction of compound numbers to denote interrelated subjects that could never be exhaustively foreseen); various possible relations between subjects were identified, and symbols assigned to represent them. In its first edition in French ""Manuel du Répertoire bibliographique universel"" (1905), the UDC already included many features that were revolutionary in the context of knowledge classifications: tables of generally applicable (aspect-free) concepts—called common auxiliary tables; a series of special auxiliary tables with specific but re-usable attributes in a particular field of knowledge; an expressive notational system with connecting symbols and syntax rules to enable coordination of subjects and the creation of a documentation language proper.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32129
| 866,567
|
10,703
|
In December 2006, the Center for Naval Analyses (CNA) released a report on U.S. small arms in combat. The CNA conducted surveys on 2,608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the previous 12 months. Only troops who fired their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate. 917 troops were armed with M4 Carbines, making up 35% of the survey. 89% of M4 users reported they were satisfied with the weapon. 90% were satisfied with handling qualities such as handguards, size, and weight. M4 users had the highest levels of satisfaction with weapon performance, including 94% with accuracy, 92% with range, and 93% with rate of fire. Only 19% of M4 users reported a stoppage, and 82% of those that experienced a stoppage said it had little impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and re-engage their target. The lowest rated weapon was the M9, and the M249 had the highest rate of stoppages. 53% of the M4 users never experienced failures of their magazines to feed. 81% did not need their rifles repaired while in theater. 80% were confident in the M4's reliability, defined as confidence their weapon will fire without malfunction, and 83% were confident in its durability, defined as confidence their weapon will not break or need repair. Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their own maintenance. 54% of M4 users offered recommendations for improvements. 20% of requests were for greater bullet lethality, and 10% were for better quality magazines, as well as other minor recommendations. Only 75% of M16 users were satisfied with it, and some expressed their desire to be issued the M4. Some issues from this report have been addressed with the issuing of the improved STANAG magazine in March 2009, and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round in June 2010.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=321957
| 10,698
|
704,316
|
DEHP is the most common phthalate plasticizer in medical devices such as intravenous tubing and bags, IV catheters, nasogastric tubes, dialysis bags and tubing, blood bags and transfusion tubing, and air tubes. DEHP makes these plastics softer and more flexible and was first introduced in the 1940s in blood bags. For this reason, concern has been expressed about leachates of DEHP transported into the patient, especially for those requiring extensive infusions or those who are at the highest risk of developmental abnormalities, e.g. newborns in intensive care nursery settings, hemophiliacs, kidney dialysis patients, neonates, premature babies, lactating, and pregnant women. According to the European Commission Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER), exposure to DEHP may exceed the tolerable daily intake in some specific population groups, namely people exposed through medical procedures such as kidney dialysis. The American Academy of Pediatrics has advocated not to use medical devices that can leach DEHP into patients and, instead, to resort to DEHP-free alternatives. In July 2002, the U.S. FDA issued a Public Health Notification on DEHP, stating in part, "We recommend considering such alternatives when these high-risk procedures are to be performed on male neonates, pregnant women who are carrying male fetuses, and peripubertal males" noting that the alternatives were to look for non-DEHP exposure solutions; they mention a database of alternatives. The CBC documentary "The Disappearing Male" raised concerns about sexual development in male fetal development, miscarriage), and as a cause of dramatically lower sperm counts in men. A review article in 2010 in the "Journal of Transfusion Medicine" showed a consensus that the benefits of a lifesaving treatments with these devices far outweigh the risks of DEHP leaching out of these devices. Although more research is needed to develop alternatives to DEHP that gives the same benefits of being soft and flexible, which are required for most medical procedures. If a procedure requires one of these devices and if patient is at high risk to suffer from DEHP then a DEHP alternative should be considered if medically safe.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3003614
| 703,948
|
402,693
|
Photometric mapping of Charon's surface shows a latitudinal trend in albedo, with a bright equatorial band and darker poles. The north polar region is dominated by a very large dark area informally dubbed "Mordor" by the "New Horizons" team. The favored explanation for this feature is that it is formed by condensation of gases that escaped from Pluto's atmosphere. In winter, the temperature is −258 °C, and these gases, which include nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane, condense into their solid forms; when these ices are subjected to solar radiation, they chemically react to form various reddish tholins. Later, when the area is again heated by the Sun as Charon's seasons change, the temperature at the pole rises to −213 °C, resulting in the volatiles sublimating and escaping Charon, leaving only the tholins behind. Over millions of years, the residual tholin builds up thick layers, obscuring the icy crust. In addition to Mordor, "New Horizons" found evidence of extensive past geology that suggests that Charon is probably differentiated; in particular, the southern hemisphere has fewer craters than the northern and is considerably less rugged, suggesting that a massive resurfacing event—perhaps prompted by the partial or complete freezing of an internal ocean—occurred at some point in the past and removed many of the earlier craters.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52838
| 402,493
|
270,919
|
Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brain structure developed by the German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large number of functional "organs", each responsible for particular human mental abilities and dispositions – hope, love, spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre Flourens (1794–1867), who conducted ablation studies (on chickens) which purported to demonstrate little or no cerebral localization of function. Although Gall had been a serious (if misguided) researcher, his theory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology, which soon spawned, especially in Britain, a thriving industry of independent practitioners. In the hands of Scottish religious leader George Combe (1788–1858) (whose book "The Constitution of Man" was one of the best-sellers of the century), phrenology became strongly associated with political reform movements and egalitarian principles (see, e.g., Shapin, 1975; but also see van Wyhe, 2004). Spurzheim soon spread phrenology to America as well, where itinerant practical phrenologists assessed the mental well-being of willing customers (see Sokal, 2001; Thompson 2021).
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1573230
| 270,772
|
2,112,934
|
An important biogeochemical consequence of SSA are their role as cloud condensation nuclei. These are particles that provide the surfaces necessary for water vapor to condensate below supersaturation conditions. The freezing of organic matter in these aerosols promotes the formation of clouds in warmer and drier environments than where they would otherwise form, especially at high latitudes such as the North Atlantic Ocean. Organic matter in these aerosols help nucleation of water droplets at these regions, yet plenty of unknowns remain, such as what fraction contain ice-freezing organic materials, and from what biological sources. Nevertheless, the role of phytoplankton blooms as a source of enhanced ice nucleating particles has been confirmed in laboratory experiments, implying the important role of these aerosols in cloud radiative forcing. Primary marine aerosols created through bubble-bursting emission have been measured in the North Atlantic during spring 2008 by the International Chemistry Experiment in the Arctic Lower Troposphere (ICEALOT). This research cruise measured clean, or background, areas and found them to be mostly composed of primary marine aerosols containing hydroxyl (58% ±13) and alkene (21% ±9) functional groups, indicating the importance of chemical compounds in the air with biological origin. Nonetheless, the small temporal scale of these measurements, plus the inability to determine the exact source of these particles, justifies the scientific need for a better understanding of aerosols over this region.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62264747
| 2,111,719
|
760,736
|
In 2020, the university track-and-field head coach David Scott-Thomas was given a lifetime ban by Athletics Canada for violating its code of conduct. The Globe and Mail reported that Scott-Thomas had an alleged sexual relationship with an underage student athlete dating back to 2002-2004 (of consenting age, but unlawful with a person in a position of trust or authority) and he was also accused by multiple students of having fostered a toxic sporting culture for many years. The university faced heavy criticism over its handling of the scandal when the reporting revealed that the administration had been aware of the allegations since 2006, but did little to address them and continued to employ the coach. It was reported that the university quietly ended its relationship with Scott-Thomas and assistant coach Guyson Kuruneri in December 2019 after The Globe and Mail presented the university with the allegations against both Scott-Thomas and the administration's handling of the 2006 and more recent complaints, and requested an interview with the school administrators. More than 200 faculty and staff wrote a letter to the university president demanding transparency and an independent review. In the letter, they categorized the content of The Globe and Mail report as "evidence of the worst kind of abuse of power" and indicated that "high-level administrators at the time may have participated in willfully ignoring and minimizing this abuse." In 2021, a group of alumni from the university track and field program wrote an open letter expressing concerns that "the systems that enabled the health and well-being of many athletes to be harmed by individuals in positions of power are still in place," and urging the university "to undertake an independent, comprehensive, and transparent investigation to determine how its existing policies failed to protect student-athletes from an abusive environment."
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9181362
| 760,330
|
1,326,310
|
In the year 1975, timoprazole was found to inhibit acid secretion irrespective of stimulus, extracellular or intracellular. Studies on timoprazole revealed enlargement of the thyroid gland due to inhibition of iodine uptake as well as atrophy of the thymus gland. A literature search showed that some substituted mercapto-benzimidazoles had no effect on iodine uptake and introduction of such substituents into timoprazole resulted in an elimination of the toxic effects, without reducing the antisecretory effect. A derivative of timoprazole, omeprazole, was discovered in 1979, and was the first of a new class of drug that control acid secretion in the stomach, a proton pump inhibitor (PPI). Addition of 5-methoxy-substitution to the benzimidazole moiety of omeprazole was also made and gave the compound much more stability at neutral pH. In 1980, an Investigational New Drug (IND) application was filed and omeprazole was taken into Phase III human trials in 1982. A new approach for the treatment of acid-related diseases was introduced, and omeprazole was quickly shown to be clinically superior to the histamine H receptor antagonists, and was launched in 1988 as Losec in Europe, and in 1990 as Prilosec in the United States. In 1996, Losec became the world's biggest ever selling pharmaceutical, and by 2004 over 800 million patients had been treated with the drug worldwide. During the 1980s, about 40 other companies entered the PPIs area, but few achieved market success: Takeda with lansoprazole, Byk Gulden (now Nycomed) with pantoprazole, and Eisai with rabeprazole, all of which were analogues of omeprazole.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29482459
| 1,325,583
|
2,076,297
|
The second phase of German Expressionism was the group "Der Blaue Reiter", founded in Munich in 1911, where a number of artists were grouped together who rather than a common stylistic stamp shared a certain vision of art, in which the creative freedom of the artist and the personal and subjective expression of his works prevailed. Its main exponent in graphic art was Vasili Kandinsky, a Russian artist initiated in the "Jugendstil" and who, since 1908, was evolving towards abstraction, in paintings where the importance of the work resided in the form and color, creating pictorial planes by confrontation of colors. He practiced mainly woodcut and lithography, generally colored. One of his first works was the poster for the 1st Exhibition of the Phalanx in 1901, an association of artists he had founded in Munich. It was followed by woodcuts such as "The Singer" (1903), "Farewell" (1903) and "The Night" (1903). Between 1908 and 1912 he wrote several lyrical texts that he published accompanied by woodcuts ("Sonidos", 1913). In 1909 he also made the woodcut series "Poemas sin palabras" and "Xilografías". In 1911 he wrote and edited "De lo espititual en el arte", a theoretical book that he accompanied with woodcut illustrations, already close to abstraction. Between the end of 1915 and the beginning of 1916 he produced in Stockholm a series of etchings of grotesque tone, which he exhibited at the Gummeson Gallery. During his stay in Russia, until 1921, he continued with this technique. Back in Germany, where he taught at the Bauhaus, he made the series "Small worlds" (1922), consisting of twelve prints (lithographs, woodcuts and etchings) that emulate his pictorial universe. He also theorized about printmaking in "Point and Line on the Plane" (1926), where he postulated that each of the three main graphic techniques has specific characteristics both formally and sociologically.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=72166508
| 2,075,099
|
1,515,845
|
Thanks to the increased interest in extremophiles the revolutionary technique of PCR was pioneered and brought the field of DNA study to the next level. Following this trend scientists in both biotech and industry want to push farther and find new ways to impact the scientific community. One way that is currently being studied is the production of plastics by halophilic extremophiles so that modern day oil-based plastics can become a thing of the past. This would bring biodegradable plastics to the world market, which in the long run is proposed as a way to help fight the world's garbage problem. Another advancement that scientists hope to make using these organisms is to increase the degradation of landfills around the world using methanogenic species that thrive on the organic compounds found there. Not only would this reduce waste, but the methane produced is hoped to be collected and used as an energy source. One other interesting future development lies in the field of medicine. Some biotechnical labs are looking into using extremophiles engineered to produce portions of viruses on their surface to elicit immune system responses. This would help train immune memory and antibody response to defend the body in case said virus ever attacks. While this is just a handful of examples there are many more advancements and developments being worked on using extremophiles in hopes of creating a better future.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59675902
| 1,514,993
|
1,622,538
|
According to the original National Network for Manufacturing Innovation proposal, it would consist of up to 45 linked institutes with unique research concentrations to serve as regional manufacturing innovation hubs with spokes that link to project locations as seen represented by the various linked activities across the network. Each institute would be independently run by a nonprofit organization and form a public-private partnership designed to leverage existing resources and promote collaboration and co-investment between industry, universities and government agencies. The network is designed to address the inconsistency in U.S economic and innovation policy in that federal research and development (R&D) investments and tax incentives are not matched by corresponding incentives to encourage the domestic manufacture of the technologies and products that arise from this R&D. The goal of the institutes is to develop, showcase and reduce risks sufficiently so that commercial companies can commercialize new products and processes for domestic production, as well as to train a manufacturing workforce at all skill levels to enhance domestic manufacturing capabilities. Institute activities include connecting proven basic research to additional problem solving that ranges from basic to applied research and demonstration projects that reduce the cost and risk of commercializing new technologies or that solve generic industrial problems, education and training, development of methodologies and practices for supply-chain integration, and engagement with small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39696460
| 1,621,622
|
513,723
|
In reviewing a few points from the military history of the 20th century, within roughly a decade of the first flight of an airplane, aircraft were having an occasionally decisive effect on the battlefield. Within four decades, a nation—Great Britain—secured its national survival through air warfare. By the midst of the Second World War, three-dimensional attack (from above and below the surface) had become the primary means of sinking both vessels at sea and destroying the combat capability of armies on land. In fact, for the United States, this trend of inflicting losses and material destruction primarily through air attack continued after the second world war for Korea, Vietnam, the Gulf, Bosnia, and other, lesser, conflicts. In particular, air attack directed against land forces has been especially powerful in blunting and destroying opponents on the offensive, whether in older experience—such as confronting Rommel in the Western Desert, or Nazi armored forces trying to split the Normandy invasion at Mortain, or at the Bulge (where German commanders credited Allied fighter attacks on fuel trucks and supplies as being the decisive factor in halting their drive), in the opening and closing stages of the Korean War, and confronting the 1972 North Vietnamese Spring Invasion—or, more recently, in destroying the Khafji offensive of Saddam Hussein in 1991. NATO's reliance upon air power in the Yugoslav Wars was not surprising because from the very earliest days, the NATO alliance saw air power as the linchpin of Western military strength and the necessary offset to the Warsaw Pact's huge military forces.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=598620
| 513,457
|
1,742,879
|
In 1854, Darwin began to work full-time on the origin of species. He examined orchids and counted how often one or both pollinia (pollen masses) had been removed from their flowers, indicating that they had been visited by insects. He experimented with insect pollination to investigate whether, by cross-fertilising field crops such as Fabaceae, they would yield more vigorous offspring, and published letters about his inconclusive results in "The Gardeners' Chronicle" in 1857 and 1858. He next applied Sprengel's methods to empirical research on orchids. Despite delays caused by recurring illness, he made progress on writing his planned "Big Book" on evolution, but when Alfred Russel Wallace's letter prompted joint publication of both of their theories of natural selection in 1858, Darwin quickly wrote "On the Origin of Species" as an abstract of his theory, published on 22 November 1859. In this book, he gave credence to Sprengel's ideas on the advantages of "intercrossing", and noted: "Many of our orchidaceous plants absolutely require the visits of moths to remove their pollen masses and thus to fertilise them". He introduced his new concept, the process of coevolution, describing the co-adaptation of bumblebees and red clover, and speculating "how a flower and a bee might slowly become, either simultaneously or one after the other, modified and adapted in the most perfect manner to each other, by the continued preservation of individuals presenting mutual and slightly favourable deviations of structure". This was a theme he developed in his orchid book.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21436165
| 1,741,895
|
1,472,893
|
Improving energy balance status, often through behavioral change, is the recommended means for restoring HPO function, and this commonly requires the adoption of behaviors which promote weight gain. Avoidance of chronic stressors and modification of the stress-response with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may also help in cases of FHA associated with significant stress. For while the obvious solution to this problem appears to be a natural return to menses through restoration of energy balance and reduction in external stressors, the fact that FHA often presents in women who suffer from patterns of disordered eating and display concerns about body image and/or athletic performance, increased caloric consumption and decreased physical activity may be rejected. In this population, where success in sport is highly emphasized, decreasing training intensity is typically not an option. Parents and legal guardians should be made aware of the long-term risk factors for osteoporosis and infertility which underlie this condition when deciding on a treatment plan. A multi-disciplinary team approach in management that includes a medical doctor, dietitian, and a psychiatrist or psychologist to provide psychological support is recommended.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15738568
| 1,472,062
|
1,042,876
|
John Slough of the University of Washington documented in 2004 and 2006 results of NASA Institute of Advanced Concepts (NIAC) funded research, development and experimentation for a more efficient method to generate the static magnetic dipole for a magnetic sail using a design called the Plasma magnet (PM). The design used a pair of small perpendicularly oriented coils powered by an alternating current to generate a Rotating magnetic field (RMF) operating a frequency too fast for positively charged ions to react, but slow enough to force electrons into co-rotation with the RMF without creating excessive collisions. This system created a large current disc composed of electrons captured from the plasma wind within a static disk of captured positive ions. The reports predicted substantial improvements in terms of reduced coil size (and hence mass) and markedly lower power requirements for significant thrust. An important factor in these predictions was a hypothesized 1/r magnetic field falloff rate as assumed for M2P2. In 2022 a spaceflight trial dubbed Jupiter Observing Velocity Experiment (JOVE) proposed using a Plasma magnet based sail for a spacecraft named Wind Rider using the solar wind to accelerate away from a point near Earth and decelerate against the magnetosphere of Jupiter.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37845
| 1,042,333
|
1,782,587
|
The advent of Canada's confederation, presented the nation with the task of building a transcontinental railway. Railways were hesitant to build across the prairies, so an intensive immigration policy was implemented to encourage agricultural settlement. Agricultural science began developing many new styles of farming and strains of wheat and crops so that homesteading could become a successful venture. Upon arrival of immigrants to Saskatchewan at the end of the 19th century and beginning of 20th century, plant cultivation combined with pastoralism or ranching began. One major difference in the perspective of agriculture between the 19th and 20th century is that the hunter gatherer lifestyle was more of a subsistence lifestyle, and early homesteaders grew mainly subsistence crops which would feed their own family and livestock. Farming methods were developed at places such as Indian Head Experimental Farm, Rosthern Experimental Station, and Bell Farm. The Better Farming Train traveled around rural areas educating pioneer farmers. With population growth, advances in agricultural science, permanent settled lifestyle farmers started growing cash crops which would provide money giving an economic base for the family. The Dominion Land Act of 1872 offered pioneers an opportunity to prove up a quarter section of land (one hundred and sixty acres, a quarter square mile, 64 hectares). in Western Canada for a $10.00 filing fee. The industrial revolution modernized the farming industry as mechanized vehicles replaced the oxen ploughed land or the horse-drawn cart. Farms became much larger, and mechanized evolving towards industrial agriculture. See also History of Agriculture.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11332374
| 1,781,583
|
1,757,137
|
Thus, Chairman Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai decided on July 14, 1967 to start China's own crewed space program. China first crewed spacecraft was named "Shuguang-1" (曙光一号) in January 1968. China's Space Medical Institute (航天医学工程研究所) was founded on April 1, 1968, where space medical research were conducted. The Central Military Commission issued the order of starting the selection of astronauts among the People's Liberation Army Air Force pilots. The criteria of selection were: 1.59 to 1.74 meters high, 24 to 38 years of age, 55 to 70 kg and 300 hours of flight time. At the end of 1969, after two months of selection and after the screening of 1918 pilots, 215 primary candidates were selected. Then a second phase of screening based on flying techniques, psychological, physiological and general medical examination criteria left only 88 candidates remaining. Dedication to Chinese revolutionary political ideas were also a determinant factor. Nineteen astronauts were chosen when the screening process ended on March 15, 1971, including Lu Xiangxiao, Wang Zhiyue, Dong Xiaohai and Fang Guojun. During a conference in April 1971, it was decided that the spacecraft should follow the design of the two-person Gemini craft, and the program was deemed "Project 714" after the year and month of the conference. The astronauts were to begin training in November 1971, with the first mission planned for 1973. The Shuguang craft was developed for this purpose and was planned to be launched on the CZ-2A rocket.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12230438
| 1,756,146
|
1,799,669
|
In 1885, Wheeler returned to Milwaukee to teach German and physiology at a high school. At the time, George W. Peckham was the principal of the school, in which Wheeler and Peckham formed a close working relationship. Wheeler collaborated with some of Peckham's published papers by illustrating the palpi and epigynes of spiders, and by assisting him and his wife with their field work on wasps. Wheeler was also under the influence of C.O. Whitman and William Patten, who were embryologists at the Allis Lake Laboratory in Milwaukee. He was inspired by Patten to study insect embryology and did so for several years. During this time, Wheeler left the high school in 1887 and become a custodian at Milwaukee Public Museum, a position he held until 1890. He studied embryology at home and after work hours, in which he had set up a small laboratory. He left Milwaukee after leaving the museum to assist Whitman at Clark University, and, by 1892, secured a doctorate in philosophy; his dissertation was "Contribution to Insect Embryology". At the same time, Wheeler commenced his work on insects and published around 10 entomological papers, which presented himself as a candidate for the degree of Ph.D. After receiving a call from the University of Chicago, Whitman subsequently accepted their offer, followed by Wheeler who was appointed under him as instructor in embryology in 1892. He held this position until 1897, where he became the assistant professor in his chosen field. Before he began his duties at Chicago, Wheeler was given a year's absence, allowing him to study in Europe between 1893 and 1894. There, he first spent time at the Zoological Institute at the University of Würzburg as a student, and also at the Naples Zoological Station. Enamoured by the fauna of Naples, Wheeler studied the sex life of "Myzostoma", a subject he further studied at the Institut Zoologique at Liege, Belgium. His monograph on "Myzostoma" was published in 1897 by professor E. Van Beneden in the "Archives de Biologie".
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=330863
| 1,798,660
|
983,259
|
The Chinese practiced the oldest documented use of variolation, dating back to the fifteenth century. They implemented a method of "nasal insufflation" administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, up the nostrils. Various insufflation techniques have been recorded throughout the 16th and 17th centuries within China. According to such documentation, mild smallpox cases were selected as donors in order to prevent serious attack. The technique used scabs that had been left to dry out for some time. Fresh scabs were more likely to lead to a full-blown infection. Three or four scabs were ground into powder or mixed with a grain of musk and bound in cotton. Infected material was then packed into a pipe and puffed up the patient's nostril. The practice of variolation is believed to have been ritualized by the Chinese. The blowpipe used during the procedure was made of silver. The right nostril was used for boys and the left for girls. Variolated cases were treated as if they were as infectious as those who had acquired the disease naturally. These patients were subsequently kept apart from others until the rash had cleared. In the 18th century, the practice of using scabs from epidemic patients was seen as beneficial by some, but others were convinced of its danger; Emperor Kangxi, however, approved of it. Two reports on the Chinese practice were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China, and another by the physician Clopton Havers, but no action was taken.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34062507
| 982,745
|
371,943
|
Though the idea is controversial, some evidence suggests a link between aging and mitochondrial genome dysfunction. In essence, mutations in mtDNA upset a careful balance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and enzymatic ROS scavenging (by enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and others). However, some mutations that increase ROS production (e.g., by reducing antioxidant defenses) in worms increase, rather than decrease, their longevity. Also, naked mole rats, rodents about the size of mice, live about eight times longer than mice despite having reduced, compared to mice, antioxidant defenses and increased oxidative damage to biomolecules. Once, there was thought to be a positive feedback loop at work (a 'Vicious Cycle'); as mitochondrial DNA accumulates genetic damage caused by free radicals, the mitochondria lose function and leak free radicals into the cytosol. A decrease in mitochondrial function reduces overall metabolic efficiency. However, this concept was conclusively disproved when it was demonstrated that mice, which were genetically altered to accumulate mtDNA mutations at accelerated rate do age prematurely, but their tissues do not produce more ROS as predicted by the 'Vicious Cycle' hypothesis. Supporting a link between longevity and mitochondrial DNA, some studies have found correlations between biochemical properties of the mitochondrial DNA and the longevity of species. Extensive research is being conducted to further investigate this link and methods to combat aging. Presently, gene therapy and nutraceutical supplementation are popular areas of ongoing research. Bjelakovic et al. analyzed the results of 78 studies between 1977 and 2012, involving a total of 296,707 participants, and concluded that antioxidant supplements do not reduce all-cause mortality nor extend lifespan, while some of them, such as beta carotene, vitamin E, and higher doses of vitamin A, may actually increase mortality.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=89796
| 371,748
|
2,156,322
|
The center's biofilm research program was established in the 1980s with a focus on environmental bioengineering, interdisciplinary investigation, and industrial participation. Faculty expertise from civil/environmental engineering, mathematics, microbiology, chemical and biological engineering, chemistry and biochemistry, mechanical and industrial engineering, computer science, electrical engineering, and statistics contributes to hypothesis development and experimental design. The center conducts research that includes multiple scales of observation, from molecular to industrial field-scale, with projects that cover both fundamental and applied topics. CBE research teams have been part of numerous groundbreaking advances in biofilm science and technology including: quorum sensing, permeability (earth sciences), biomineralization, antimicrobial tolerance, viscoelasticity, detachment, standardized biofilm methods, chronic wounds, algae fuel, microbial corrosion, sulfate-reducing bacteria, and biofilm structure and function. CBE research has been published in high-profile peer-reviewed journals including: "Nature", "The Lancet", "Science", "JAMA", "PNAS", "EMBO Journal", "ISME Journal", "Nature Reviews Microbiology" and "Physical Review Letters". By 2021, CBE authors had published more than 1,340 peer-reviewed papers. More than 20 of the center's biofilm-related images have appeared on the covers of peer-reviewed journals. And since its inception in 2011, users from 40 countries and 50 states have downloaded 3,648 images from the CBE image library.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45523355
| 2,155,091
|
1,424,271
|
The pion rocket has been studied independently by Robert Frisbee and Ulrich Walter, with similar results. Pions, short for pi-mesons, are produced by proton-antiproton annihilation. The antihydrogen or the antiprotons extracted from it will be mixed with a mass of regular protons pumped into the magnetic confinement nozzle of a pion rocket engine, usually as part of hydrogen atoms. The resulting charged pions have a speed of 0.94"c" (i.e. formula_27 = 0.94), and a Lorentz factor formula_1 of 2.93 which extends their lifespan enough to travel 2.6 meters through the nozzle before decaying into muons. 60% of the pions will have either a negative, or a positive electric charge. 40% of the pions will be neutral. The neutral pions decay immediately into gamma rays. These can't be reflected by any known material at the energies involved, though they can undergo Compton scattering. They can be absorbed efficiently by a shield of tungsten placed between the pion rocket engine reaction volume and the crew modules and various electromagnets to protect them from the gamma rays. The consequent heating of the shield will make it radiate visible light, which could then be collimated to increase the rocket's specific impulse. The remaining heat will also require the shield to be refrigerated. The charged pions would travel in helical spirals around the axial electromagnetic field lines inside the nozzle and in this way the charged pions could be collimated into an exhaust jet moving at 0.94"c". In realistic matter/antimatter reactions, this jet only represents a fraction of the reaction's mass-energy: over 60% of it is lost as gamma-rays, collimation is not perfect, and some pions are not reflected backward by the nozzle. Thus, the effective exhaust speed for the entire reaction drops to just 0.58c. Alternate propulsion schemes include physical confinement of hydrogen atoms in an antiproton and pion-transparent beryllium reaction chamber with collimation of the reaction products achieved with a single external electromagnet; see Project Valkyrie.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=417815
| 1,423,469
|
1,721,302
|
The theory was influenced by the work of proponents of Social Medicine in the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Louis-René Villermé, Rudolf Virchow, Friedrich Engels, and Karl Marx; as well as by the more recent work of Social Production of Disease (SPD) theorists, including Sydenstricker, Goldberg, and Davey-Smith. The theory of Social Production of Disease (SPD) explains the way that capitalist societies of the 21st century tend to value consumption over production and wealth over the well-being of their citizens. The roots of SPD lie in the research and writings of Villerme, Virchow, and Engels, who discussed the poor working conditions and diseases of working class Europeans around the time of the Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century. In the U.S. in the 1930s, the statistician Sydenstrickker examined how poor living and working conditions could cause disease in impoverished populations, and used daily living data to determine proximal biological causes of these population-level disease distributions. Thereafter, both medicine and epidemiology were overtaken by biomedical and lifestyle theories of disease, which explained population level patterns as mere aggregates of events taking place at the cellular level within individuals. Social factors in epidemiology were largely ignored until Doyal, Navarro, and others proposed the theories of SPD and Political Economy of Health in the 1970s, and Krieger later integrated these theories into her writings on Ecosocial Theory (1994, 2011). As described by Doyal, SPD consists of the following key constructs: (1) The distribution of disease in a population will pattern along social, economic, and political lines in a given society. (2) The State is at least partly responsible for the health of its citizens. (3) Increases in life expectancy in developed countries have been at the expense of the health of less developed countries. (4) Societies valuing profit, consumption, capitalism, and wealth over the well-being of their people and environments will reflect these priorities in the unequal distribution of disease in the poor and disempowered classes.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38762727
| 1,720,332
|
2,060,143
|
As the apiary became a research laboratory, classroom and an extension service to the state, the demand increased for these services and thus it became necessary to maintain additional hives. It is for these reasons that, in 1913, Dr. Gates hired John L. Byard as superintendent of the apiary. Some of Byard's responsibilities included performing wax extractions, running the college's apicultural exhibit at fairs and maintaining the hive yard from day to day. He would continue to maintain the building, the equipment and the hives until his death in 1920; professors Henry T. Fernald and Arthur I. Bourne would continue his work until his successor arrived the following year. Gates had been promoted from an assistant to an associate professor in 1915, and had continued to work both as a lecturer and as the apiarist of the experimental station. From 1913 to 1914 he was made president of the National Beekeepers' Association, twice hosting conventions in Amherst concluding the college's winter and spring sessions of the college beekeeping school. However, in 1918 he left Amherst for a professorship at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph, leaving his former position open for the two years that followed. Gates' and Byard's duties would be taken up by several different people in the next decade. From 1921 to 1923 all beekeeping and apiology work at the Experimental Station was taken up by Professor Norman Phillips, who soon resigned for a job at a commercial apiary. He was replaced by Professor Morton H. Cassidy, an alumnus of the college, who stayed for 3 more years but ultimately had to resign due to his severe asthma. In 1926, a Mr. Clayton L. Farrar was made instructor of beekeeping. Farrar, a graduate of Kansas Agricultural College, also performed extensive work on several entomology projects as a research assistant before leaving in 1931 to work at a Federal laboratory.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31274932
| 2,058,957
|
436,847
|
Another issue that aerodynamic heating causes for aircraft design is the effect of high temperatures on common material properties. Common materials used in aircraft wing design, such as aluminum and steel, experience a decrease in strength as temperatures get extremely high. The Young's Modulus of the material, defined as the ratio between stress and strain experienced by the material, decreases as the temperature increases. Young's Modulus is critical in the selection of materials for wing, as a higher value lets the material resist the yield and shear stress caused by the lift and thermal loads. This is because Young's Modulus is an important factor in the equations for calculating the critical buckling load for axial members and the critical buckling shear stress for skin panels. If the Young's Modulus of the material decreases at high temperatures caused by aerodynamic heating, then the wing design will call for larger spars and thicker skin segments in order to account for this decrease in strength as the aircraft goes supersonic. There are some materials that retain their strength at the high temperatures that aerodynamic heating induces. For example, Inconel X-750 was used on parts of the airframe of the X-15, a North American aircraft that flew at hypersonic speeds in 1958. Titanium is another high-strength material, even at high temperatures, and is often used for wing frames of supersonic aircraft. The SR-71 used titanium skin panels painted black to reduce the temperature and corrugated to accommodate expansion. Another important design concept for early supersonic aircraft wings was using a small thickness-to-chord ratio, so that the speed of the flow over the airfoil does not increase too much from the free stream speed. As the flow is already supersonic, increasing the speed even more would not be beneficial for the wing structure. Reducing the thickness of the wing brings the top and bottom stringers closer together, reducing the total moment of inertia of the structure. This increases axial load in the stringers, and thus the area, and weight, of the stringers must be increased. Some designs for hypersonic missiles have used liquid cooling of the leading edges (usually the fuel en route to the engine). The Sprint missile's heat shield needed several design iterations for Mach 10 temperatures.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1711063
| 436,633
|
1,701,490
|
The mathematics and algorithm of the GOR method were based on an earlier series of studies by Robson and colleagues reported mainly in the "Journal of Molecular Biology" and "The Biochemical Journal". The latter describes the information theoretic expansions in terms of conditional information measures. The use of the word "simple" in the title of the GOR paper reflected the fact that the above earlier methods provided proofs and techniques somewhat daunting by being rather unfamiliar in protein science in the early 1970s; even Bayes methods were then unfamiliar and controversial. An important feature of these early studies, which survived in the GOR method, was the treatment of the sparse protein sequence data of the early 1970s by expected information measures. That is, expectations on a Bayesian basis considering the distribution of plausible information measure values given the actual frequencies (numbers of observations). The expectation measures resulting from integration over this and similar distributions may now be seen as composed of "incomplete" or extended zeta functions, e.g. z(s,observed frequency) − z(s, expected frequency) with incomplete zeta function z(s, n) = 1 + (1/2) + (1/3)+ (1/4) + …. +(1/"n"). The GOR method used s=1. Also, in the GOR method and the earlier methods, the measure for the contrary state to e.g. helix H, i.e. ~H, was subtracted from that for H, and similarly for beta sheet, turns, and coil or loop. Thus the method can be seen as employing a zeta function estimate of log predictive odds. An adjustable decision constant could also be applied, which thus implies a decision theory approach; the GOR method allowed the option to use decision constants to optimize predictions for different classes of protein. The expected information measure used as a basis for the information expansion was less important by the time of publication of the GOR method because protein sequence data became more plentiful, at least for the terms considered at that time. Then, for s=1, the expression z(s,observed frequency) − z(s,expected frequency) approaches the natural logarithm of (observed frequency / expected frequency) as frequencies increase. However, this measure (including use of other values of s) remains important in later more general applications with high-dimensional data, where data for more complex terms in the information expansion are inevitably sparse.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8732281
| 1,700,535
|
1,937,538
|
The numerical renormalization group is an inherently non-perturbative procedure, which was originally used to solve the Kondo model. The Kondo model is a simplified theoretical model which describes a system of magnetic spin-1/2 impurities which couple to metallic conduction electrons (e.g. iron impurities in gold). This problem is notoriously difficult to tackle theoretically, since perturbative techniques break down at low-energy. However, Wilson was able to prove for the first time using the numerical renormalization group that the ground state of the Kondo model is a singlet state. But perhaps more importantly, the notions of renormalization, fixed points, and renormalization group flow were introduced to the field of condensed matter theory — it is for this that Wilson won the Nobel Prize in 1982. The complete behaviour of the Kondo model, including both the high-temperature 'local moment' regime and the low-temperature 'strong coupling' regime are captured by the numerical renormalization group; an exponentially small energy scale T (not accessible from straight perturbation theory) was shown to govern all properties at low-energies, with all physical observables such as resistivity, thermodynamics, dynamics etc. exhibiting universal scaling. This is a characteristic feature of many problems in condensed matter physics, and is a central theme of quantum impurity physics in particular. In the original example of the Kondo model, the impurity local moment is completely screened below T by the conduction electrons via the celebrated Kondo effect; and one famous consequence is that such materials exhibit a resistivity minimum at low temperatures, contrary to expectations based purely on the standard phonon contribution, where the resistivity is predicted to decrease monotonically with temperature.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22426870
| 1,936,430
|
1,105,802
|
After this moment, it would not be easy for APC/SPBC to convince both potential sponsors and Australian authorities about financial guarantees. Even with the political guarantee of support from the three spheres of government and the visit of the then President of the IPC, the Canadian Robert Stedwart during the inspection visit they could be initially given. Time would pass and Finneran, uncertain of what was approaching, sent a series of correspondences to the then-Federal Sports Minister Ros Kelly,as a consequence of the results of that year's election, she had remained in office. In the first, he asked for political support from her and the state and federal authorities for his proposal. This was confirmed days later with the sending of letters of intent signed by them to the IPC meeting in Norway. On the second correspondence, sent at the date of April 19 of the same year, he sent copies of the financial statements of the APF, proving that the entity did not even have the money to maintain itself and the necessary financial conditions to guarantee the security of US$50.000 that would be deposited in the account of the IPC in case the city was eventually the winner of the process and sign the host city contract he also added to it the first estimated amount for the Games budget which would be AU$84 million and that he hoped that in addition to ticket sales, sponsorship quotas, licensed products, marketing and charity actions, the state and federal governments would contribute in a complement to this value.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=333674
| 1,105,239
|
87,312
|
The question of who first tried cowpox inoculation/vaccination cannot be answered with certainty. Most, but still limited, information is available for Benjamin Jesty, Peter Plett and John Fewster. In 1774 Jesty, a farmer of Yetminster in Dorset, observing that the two milkmaids living with his family were immune to smallpox, inoculated his family with cowpox to protect them from smallpox. He attracted a certain amount of local criticism and ridicule at the time then interest waned. Attention was later drawn to Jesty, and he was brought to London in 1802 by critics jealous of Jenner's prominence at a time when he was applying to Parliament for financial reward. During 1790–92 Peter Plett, a teacher from Holstein, reported limited results of cowpox inoculation to the Medical Faculty of the University of Kiel. However, the Faculty favoured variolation and took no action. John Fewster, a surgeon friend of Jenner's from nearby Thornbury, discussed the possibility of cowpox inoculation at meetings as early as 1765. He may have done some cowpox inoculations in 1796 at about the same time that Jenner vaccinated Phipps. However, Fewster, who had a flourishing variolation practice, may have considered this option but used smallpox instead. He thought vaccination offered no advantage over variolation, but maintained friendly contact with Jenner and certainly made no claim of priority for vaccination when critics attacked Jenner's reputation. It seems clear that the idea of using cowpox instead of smallpox for inoculation was considered, and actually tried in the late 18th century, and not just by the medical profession. Therefore, Jenner was not the first to try cowpox inoculation. However, he was the first to publish his evidence and distribute vaccine freely, provide information on selection of suitable material, and maintain it by arm-to-arm transfer. The authors of the official World Health Organization (WHO) account "Smallpox and its Eradication" assessing Jenner's role wrote:
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61088
| 87,277
|
1,017,991
|
Among the nine underground tests, which were carried between 1962 and 1969 and codenamed Anacostia (5.2 kilotons, 1962), Kennebec (<5 kilotons, 1963), Par (38 kilotons, 1964), Barbel (<20 kilotons, 1964), Tweed (<20 kilotons, 1965), Cyclamen (13 kilotons, 1966), Kankakee (20-200 kilotons, 1966), Vulcan (25 kilotons, 1966) and Hutch (20-200 kilotons, 1969), the last one was most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements. In the dependence on the atomic mass number, the yield showed a saw-tooth behavior with the lower values for odd isotopes, due to their higher fission rates. The major practical problem of the entire proposal, however, was collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast. Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 of the total amount and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude. Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 10 of the total charge. The amount of transuranium elements in this 500-kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0.4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test. This observation demonstrated the highly nonlinear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock. In order to accelerate sample collection after explosion, shafts were drilled at the site not after but before the test, so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter, through the shafts, to collecting volumes near the surface. This method was tried in the Anacostia and Kennebec tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material, but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling; whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short-lived isotopes, it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10822
| 1,017,467
|
463,818
|
In addition, there were many critics (with or without physical training) whose ideas were far outside the scientific mainstream. These critics were mostly people who had developed their ideas long before the publication of Einstein's version of relativity, and they tried to resolve in a straightforward manner some or all of the enigmas of the world. Therefore, Wazeck (who studied some German examples) gave to these "free researchers" the name "world riddle solver" ("Welträtsellöser", such as Arvid Reuterdahl, Hermann Fricke or Johann Heinrich Ziegler). Their views had quite different roots in monism, Lebensreform, or occultism. Their views were typically characterized by the fact that they practically rejected the entire terminology and the (primarily mathematical) methods of modern science. Their works were published by private publishers, or in popular and non-specialist journals. It was significant for many "free researchers" (especially the monists) to explain all phenomena by intuitive and illustrative mechanical (or electrical) models, which also found its expression in their defense of the aether. For this reason they objected to the abstractness and inscrutability of the relativity theory, which was considered a pure calculation method that cannot reveal the true reasons underlying the phenomena. The "free researchers" often used Mechanical explanations of gravitation, in which gravity is caused by some sort of "aether pressure" or "mass pressure from a distance". Such models were regarded as an illustrative alternative to the abstract mathematical theories of gravitation of both Newton and Einstein. The enormous self-confidence of the "free researchers" is noteworthy, since they not only believed themselves to have solved the great riddles of the world, but many also seemed to expect that they would rapidly convince the scientific community.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30694430
| 463,588
|
201,009
|
Per Georg Scheutz (1785–1873) was a Swedish lawyer, publicist and inventor who created the first working programmable difference engine with a printing unit. Martin Wiberg (1826–1905) was a prolific inventor who, among many things, created the first difference engine the size of the sewing machine that could calculate and print logarithmic tables. Johannes Rydberg (1854–1919) was a renowned physicist famous for the Rydberg formula and the Rydberg constant. Carl Charlier (1862–1934) was an internationally acclaimed astronomer who made important contributions to astronomy as well as statistics and was awarded the James Craig Watson Medal in 1924 and the Bruce Medal in 1933. Manne Siegbahn (1886–1978), a student of Rydberg, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1924 for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy. Oskar Klein (1894–1977) was an internationally renowned theoretical physicist famous for the Klein-Kaluza theory, the Klein-Gordon equation, and the Klein-Nishina formula. Pehr Edman (1916–1977) was a renowned biochemist who developed a method for sequencing proteins, known as the Edman degradation, and has been called the father of modern biochemistry. Hellmuth Hertz (1920–1990) developed the echocardiography together with Inge Edler (see above), and was also the first to develop the inkjet technology of printing. Lars Hörmander (1931–2012) is sometimes considered the foremost contributor to the modern theory of linear partial differential equations and received the Fields Medal in 1962 for his early work on equations with constant coefficients. Karl Johan Åström (1934–) is a notable control theorist, who in 1993 was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor for "fundamental contributions to theory and applications of adaptive control technology". Sven Mattisson (1955–) is an electrical engineer who was one of the developers of the Bluetooth technology.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17843
| 200,906
|
558,566
|
Airborne bacteria are emitted by most Earth surfaces (plants, oceans, land, and urban areas) to the atmosphere via a variety of mechanical processes such as aeolian soil erosion, sea spray production, or mechanical disturbances including anthropogenic activities. Due to their relatively small size (the median aerodynamic diameter of bacteria-containing particles is around 2–4 μm), these can then be transported upward by turbulent fluxes and carried by wind to long distances. As a consequence, bacteria are present in the air up to at least the lower stratosphere. Given that the atmosphere is a large conveyor belt that moves air over thousands of kilometers, microorganisms are disseminated globally. Airborne transport of microbes is therefore likely pervasive at the global scale, yet there have been only a limited number of studies that have looked at the spatial distribution of microbes across different geographical regions. One of the main difficulties is linked with the low microbial biomass associated with a high diversity existing in the atmosphere outdoor (~10–10 cells/m) thus requiring reliable sampling procedures and controls. Furthermore, the site location and its environmental specificities have to be accounted for to some extent by considering chemical and meteorological variables.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1676889
| 558,277
|
101,408
|
In June 2012, the case of H.K. Derryberry was reported, a blind 20-year-old man who could clearly recall every day of his life since the age of about 11. Derryberry had been born at 27 weeks, weighing just over and was in neonatal intensive care for 96 days. A severe brain hemorrhage was the likely cause of cerebral palsy, and his prematurity resulted in congenital blindness. He told researchers that his memories are rich in sensory and emotional details, regardless of whether they are from years ago or yesterday. About 90% of his memories are in the first person, compared with an average of 66% in the general population. Brandon Ally and his team, at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, conducted a series of tests with the subject, including a brain scan that was compared with 30 age-matched controls. His brain was smaller than average (probably a result of his premature birth at 27 weeks). His right amygdala, however, was 20% larger, with enhanced functional connectivity between the right amygdala and hippocampus and in other regions. In 2016, HK's remarkable life story was published by HarperCollins Christian Publishing in a book entitled "The Awakening of HK Derryberry: My Unlikely Friendship with the Boy Who Remembers Everything". It was written by his mentor Jim Bradford with the help of Andy Hardin.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4476769
| 101,363
|
1,621,261
|
With little money to spend, Burley played the markets and made two key free signings in Iñigo Idiakez and Grzegorz Rasiak. Idiakez was voted the club's Player of the Season and Rasiak finished top scorer (with 17 goals) as Derby confounded their form of the last 5 years to grab a fourth-placed finish in the newly rebranded Football League Championship and entrance into the 2004–05 play-offs. With a more settled side than he was previously allowed – Burley only used 24 players, 7 of whom were involved in 10 or less games – and a strong mix of academy graduates (Lee Grant, Pablo Mills, Tom Huddlestone, Marcus Tudgay) and inspired purchases (Rasiak, Idiakez, Tommy Smith) Derby enjoyed a splendid second half to the season, recording just 6 defeats in their final 24 fixtures, including a run of 1 defeat in 14, and equalled the club record for away wins in a season and setting a club record of 6 consecutive away victories. However, the club entered the play-offs without the presence of key duo Rasiak and Idiakez – both unavailable through injury – and a 2–0 defeat in the first leg away to Preston North End proved impossible to overturn in the second leg at Pride Park, which finished 0–0 in front of a crowd of over 31,000. Behind the scenes, circumstances were deteriorating, and Burley left his position, citing interference from football agent turned Director of Football Murdo Mackay, and the sale of Huddlestone, to Tottenham Hotspur, against his wishes. Financial circumstances were worsening as the debt spiralled to over £30m, despite Burley building success on the pitch without any transfer funds. A refinancing scheme was put in place which saw Pride Park sold to the "mysterious" Panama-based ABC Corporation and the club paying rent of £1m a year to play there, which local journalist Gerald Mortimer described as "an affront . . . to those who put everything into building (the ground)."
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33866257
| 1,620,346
|
1,952,055
|
RHESSI is intended to image at high resolution solar flares in X-rays and gamma rays. The X-rays and gamma rays covers an energy range of 3 keV-20 MeV with an energy resolution of about 1 keV and a spatial resolution of just a few seconds of arc. The imaging is accomplished by a tube containing nine pairs (one behind the other, spaced apart) of tungsten or molybdenum wire grids of width mounted parallel to the rotation axis of the tube pointing at the Sun. The tube rotates about its axis as the spacecraft spins at a rate of 15 rpm. During a rotation, a photon from any point on the Sun can either pass through a grid-pair or be blocked by one or other of the grids. This causes a modulation of the intensity of photons emanating from that point. The depth of modulation is zero for the photons arriving exactly along the spin axis and gradually increases to the off-axis photons. Behind each grid-pair is a cryogenic (75 K) germanium detector of 7.1 cm diameter and thickness. The output from each of the nine detectors, at any given energy, can be Fourier-analyzed to provide a full two-dimensional spatial spectrum of an extended source region on the Sun. The full spatial spectrum is possible because each wire grid pair has a different slit width, spacing and wire thickness. Data accumulaton is about 16 Gb during a 10-minutes rotation. The telemetry data was collected at Berkeley (California), Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), Virginia, Santiago, Chile and Weilheim, Germany. Science analysis of the data was involved close collaboration with many dedictated ground based and satellite based solar observatories. A secondary goal of RHESSI is to observe astronomical sources such as Crab Nebula.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1190663
| 1,950,934
|
1,801,327
|
In October 2000, a committee of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the US Congress to review AVA according to the best available evidence. It issued its study in March 2002. The IOM panel noted that human data on inhalational anthrax prevention is limited due to the natural low incidence of disease and that therefore animal model data are the best we are ever likely to have. Primates and rabbits were considered the best models for human disease. As regards vaccine effectiveness, "The committee finds that the available evidence from studies with humans and animals, coupled with reasonable assumptions of analogy, show that AVA as licensed is an effective vaccine for the protection of humans against anthrax, including inhalational anthrax, caused by all known or plausible engineered strains of "B. anthracis"." With regard to safety, "The committee found no evidence that people face an increased risk of experiencing life-threatening or permanently disabling adverse events immediately after receiving AVA, when compared with the general population. Nor did it find any convincing evidence that people face elevated risk of developing adverse health effects over the longer term, although data are limited in this regard (as they are for all vaccines)." Side effects of AVA were found to be "comparable to those observed with other vaccines regularly administered to adults". The committee concluded that AVA is "safe and efficacious" for pre-exposure prevention of inhalational anthrax. It also asserted that a new and improved anthrax vaccine might have greater assurance of consistency than AVA and recommended licensure of a new vaccine requiring fewer doses and producing fewer local reactions.<ref name="doi10.17226/10310"></ref>
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37488149
| 1,800,318
|
1,515,081
|
"... we are running out of systematic palaeontologists who have anything approaching synoptic knowledge of a major group of organisms ... Palaeontologists of the next century are unlikely to have the luxury of dealing at length with taxonomic problems ... Palaeontology will have to sustain its level of excitement without the aid of systematists, who have contributed so much to its success."This expertise deficiency cuts as deeply into those commercial industries that rely on accurate identifications (e.g., agriculture, biostratigraphy) as it does into a wide range of pure and applied research programmes (e.g., conservation, biological oceanography, climatology, ecology). It is also commonly, though informally, acknowledged that the technical, taxonomic literature of all organismal groups is littered with examples of inconsistent and incorrect identifications. This is due to a variety of factors, including taxonomists being insufficiently trained and skilled in making identifications (e.g., using different rules-of-thumb in recognizing the boundaries between similar groups), insufficiently detailed original group descriptions and/or illustrations, inadequate access to current monographs and well-curated collections and, of course, taxonomists having different opinions regarding group concepts. Peer review only weeds out the most obvious errors of commission or omission in this area, and then only when an author provides adequate representations (e.g., illustrations, recordings, and gene sequences) of the specimens in question.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9788270
| 1,514,230
|
1,018,051
|
Western Electric and Alaska Freightlines, with the help of the United States Army Transportation Research and Development Command (TRADCOM), contracted to have a pair of off-road overland trains, the TC-264 Sno-Buggy, designed specifically for Arctic conditions, to be built by LeTourneau Technologies, owned by R. G. LeTourneau. The TC-264 Sno-Buggy was the longest off-road vehicle ever built at the time, with its six cars (including the locomotive) measuring a total of . Each car was driven by four tall wheels and tires. The 24-wheel-drive was powered by two 400 horsepower Cummins diesel engines connected to a hub motor. It had a payload capacity of , and could traverse nearly any terrain. It had a very successful first season hauling freight to the DEW Line. Later, military and civilian airlifts, huge sealifts during the short summers, barges contributed to the distribution of vast cargoes along the length of the Line to build the permanent settlements needed at each site. Much of the job of carrying mountains of supplies to the northern sites fell to military and naval units. More than 3,000 United States Army Transportation Corps soldiers were given special training to prepare them for the job of unloading ships in the Arctic. They went with the convoys of United States Navy ships and they raced time during the few weeks the ice was open to land supplies at dozens of spots on the shores of the Arctic Ocean during the summers of 1955, 1956, and 1957.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=614142
| 1,017,527
|
1,215,332
|
"H. maculosa" has a very short life span with a large importance placed on reproduction. The average life span of a southern blue ringed octopus is around seven months. The octopus reaches sexual maturity at around four months old, at which time it focuses its last few months of life towards copulation and breeding. Both genders of this species are promiscuous, as they only have a limited set of gametes. The mating ritual of H. maculosa usually begins with the female initiating reproduction by changing color and posture. The male then mounts the female, inserts the hectocotylus under the mantle of the female, and releases the sperm into the female’s oviduct. For this type of octopus, there is approximately a two-month window in which a female acquires and stores sperm from multiple males. She then carries the eggs with her, as opposed to depositing them somewhere stationary. During this time period, the mother rarely moves unless disturbed. When she is forced to move, she uses only two arms for locomotion. The female also does not eat during this time period. Because of this, the mother dies shortly after the eggs have hatched. It is highly unlikely that the male or female would live beyond one year. This unusual octopus maternal care system seems to be an advanced evolutionary development of the species. While this may seem strange, females only reproduce once in their lifetime, so it is vital to them that their egg clutch survives. Once hatched, the H. maculosa grow very rapidly. The southern blue-ringed octopus also differs from other marine invertebrates in that there is no planktonic stage. The young begin hunting around one month of age- they are said to be venomous from birth, while their blue rings don’t appear until six weeks after hatching. It was found in a study by Morse and Zenger that as size of the octopus increased, so too did willingness to mate. Same-sex attempts at mating were frequently noted, which implies distinguishing between male and female is difficult even for the octopus. It is also possible females use some form of refined sense of smell to single out attractive mates.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4279570
| 1,214,680
|
606,315
|
Jose Rabasa, professor of Romance languages and Literatures at Harvard University, describes Columbus's journal as an accurate account of his journey, despite Columbus inaccurately reaching the East Indies. Rabasa characterizes Columbus's narrative of his discovery as picturesque and glorified, citing examples from Las Casas's translation like "pretty water," "stones with gold-covered spots," and "a good river." Rabasa indicates that Columbus composes his journal with a conqueror approach to exploration in order to convince Queen Isabella of the industrial potential of the new lands. Elvira Vilches, author and professor of Romance studies at Duke University, approaches Columbus's intentions for his journal in a purely religious light. Vilches considers the Diario as Columbus's proof that he successfully spread Christianity to the Americas and as Columbus's evidence that he should acquire more resources to conduct more voyages to the New World. Vilches contends that Columbus’s successful presentation of the contents of his journal and accompanied slaves from his first voyage commenced a chain of events. Vilches traces Columbus’s mass murder and elimination of Native Americans back to his promise to the Spanish royalty of finding enough gold to fund a Christian crusade in Jerusalem. Vilches argues that the journal’s documented New World potential directly led to the promise of gold which resulted in the massacre of innocent Taíno. Dona de Sanctis, the editor in chief of the "Italian American" magazine, defends Columbus's interactions with the Tainos through his Diario. She specifies that Columbus compliments the Native Americans' appearance and acumen upon first meeting them; she explains that Columbus's crew only retaliated with violence after the men Columbus left behind were killed off by the Tainos, and that Columbus's journal should serve as an important historical artifact emphasizing the significance of Columbus's accomplishments. However, according to the journals, Columbus, unable to prove the Taino actually perpetrated the massacre, took no action whatsoever against the Taino.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47594693
| 606,005
|
1,990,778
|
The historian and philosopher of science Ehud Lamm, on the book's reissue in 2010 for Darwin's bicentenary, writes that at almost 800 pages it was longer than the other "milestone" 1942 book on the modern synthesis, Ernst Mayr's "Systematics and the Origin of Species". Lamm calls it remarkable that both books were described as popular accounts at the time, and notes that Huxley states in his introduction that he was setting out to promote a "synthetic point of view" on Darwinian evolution. Huxley was not just trying to synthesise natural selection with Mendelian genetics "as the Modern Synthesis is often presented", writes Lamm, but to include also "genetics, developmental physiology, ecology, systematics, paleontology, cytology [cell biology], and mathematical analysis." Lamm notes that the book was successful, with revised editions in 1963 and 1974, both of which added lengthy introductions that attempted to bring the book "at least partly up to date", given what Lamm and Huxley agreed were very large changes in the field. The 1942 text however was "a more tolerant, pluralistic, view of evolution than we have come to expect in the wake of the "hardening of the synthesis" (as Stephen Gould so aptly put it), with plenty of coverage of two "rebels", the discoverer of chromosomal crossover, Cyril Darlington, and the "avowedly anti-neoDarwinian" mutationist Richard Goldschmidt. Lamm notes that Goldschmidt's ideas on "genome-wide upheavals" may after all not be far wrong, given the epigenetic changes that can be caused by environmental stress. Huxley agreed with Darlington that hybridization and the polyploidy it could cause could result in increased variation and speciation. Lamm notes, too, that Huxley anticipated evolutionary developmental biology's attention to embryonic development for understanding evolution. Finally, the review observes that "It has long been debated whether the so-called Modern Synthesis was overall a positive force in biology, or whether its lacunae [gaps] undermine its contributions" and notes that people (such as Massimo Pigliucci) have called for a renewed synthesis, though biologists differ about its direction.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4758816
| 1,989,635
|
827,896
|
Capacitors, including film types, designed for continuous operation at low-frequency (50 or 60 Hz) mains voltage, typically between line and neutral or line and ground for interference suppression, are required to meet standard safety ratings; e.g., X2 is designed to operate between line and neutral at 200-240 VAC, and Y2 between line and ground. These types are designed for reliability, and, in case of failure, to fail safely (open-, rather than short-circuit). A non-catastrophic failure mode in this application is due to the corona effect: the air enclosed in the winding element becomes ionized and consequently more conductive, allowing partial discharges on the metallized surface of the film, which causes local vaporization of the metallization. This occurs repeatedly, and can cause significant loss of capacitance (C-decay) over one or two years. International standard IEC60384-14 specifies a limit of 10% C-decay per 1,000 test hours (41 days of permanent connection). Some capacitors are designed to minimise this effect. One method, at the expense of increased size and cost, is for a capacitor operating at 200-240 VAC to consist internally of two parts in series, each at a voltage of 100-120 VAC, insufficient to cause ionisation. Manufacturers also adopt cheaper and smaller construction intended to avoid corona effect without series-connected sections, for example minimising enclosed air.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35034187
| 827,452
|
1,531,204
|
Theoretical physicist Rainer Sachs from the University of California, Berkeley, observed that "The Large-Scale Structure of Space–Time" was published within just a few years as "Gravitation and Cosmology" by Steven Weinberg and "Gravitation" by Charles Misner, Kip Thorne, and John Archibald Wheeler. He believed these three books can supplement each other and lead students to the forefront of research. Whereas Hawking and Ellis employ global analysis extensively but say relatively little about perturbative methods, the other two books neglect global analysis and cover in great detail perturbations. He believed Hawking and Ellis did a great job summarizing recent developments in the field (as of 1974) and that the intended audience is a doctoral student (or higher) with a strong mathematical background and prior exposure to general relativity. He argued that the core of the books consists of two chapters, Chapter 4 on the significance of spacetime curvature and Chapter 6 on causal structure, and that the most interesting application is the penultimate chapter on black holes. He noted that mathematical arguments are at times difficult to follow and suggested "Techniques of Differential Topology in Relativity" by Roger Penrose for reference. He also noticed a small number of errors, though none affect the general conclusions drawn by the authors. He thought that this book is a "model" presentation on the interplay between mathematics and physics that could become highly influential in the future.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67229
| 1,530,338
|
492,182
|
The first three Corporal battalions were activated in March 1952 with an Engineer-User launch program beginning in January 1953. In the same year the Corporal II system was sold to the United Kingdom. The extremely ambitious original goal of the Corporal program was to have 16 battalions of missiles deployed by July 1954. Two batteries of Corporal I had been organized and equipped by July 1954. The 259th Corporal Battalion deployed to Europe in February 1955. It was followed by other units and by 1960 there were six battalions in Germany, two in Italy and four in the United States. Live-fire training for Germany-based US forces took place at Fort Bliss but later the British Royal Artillery Guided Weapons Range on the Scottish island of South Uist in the Outer Hebrides was used. Missiles were fired toward designated target coordinates in the Atlantic Ocean. Radar on Hirta (the main island of the St Kilda archipelago of Scotland) identified missile landing points. Frequently, Soviet spy ship 'fishing trawlers' would intrude into the target area. The UK adoption of the Corporal resulted in the islet of Rockall being incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1955, the last addition to the UK, to prevent its use by Soviet observers: the UK Minister of Defence Harold Macmillan was concerned that, were they to do so, the Soviets might discover how to jam Corporal guidance and tracking radio signals.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1956534
| 491,928
|
347,664
|
University graduates include over 110 state and federal legislators, 70 federal judges, and numerous state supreme court justices, government officials, and ambassadors. Notable alumni include former acting United States Attorney General Sally Yates, Ertharin Cousin who was named to the "TIME" 100 most influential people in the world list, John Archibald Campbell, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice, and President Pro Tempore of the U.S. Senate Richard B. Russell Jr. Twenty-five University of Georgia alumni have become state governors, including six of the last seven Governors of Georgia: George Busbee, Joe Frank Harris, Zell Miller, Roy Barnes, Sonny Perdue, and Brian Kemp. Miller also served as United States Senator as did several other UGA alumni including Johnny Isakson, and Saxby Chambliss. Examples of some other alumni who served in high levels of government included Randy Evans, an ambassador, a member of Dentons international law firm U.S. board of directors, and former general counsel to Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, Abdul Karim al-Iryani, the former prime minister of Yemen, Lloyd D. Brown, an Army major general who commanded the 28th Infantry Division in World War II, William Tapley Bennett Jr. an ambassador including serving as Ambassador to the United Nations Security Council and as the United States Permanent Representative to NATO, Eugene E. Habiger, an Air Force four-star general who served as Commander-in-Chief of the United States Strategic Command from 1996 to 1998, Chee Soon Juan, a neuropsychologist, research fellow at universities including the University of Chicago, a politician, and leader of the Singapore Democratic Party, and Phil Gramm, an economist and U.S. Senator from Texas.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=378232
| 347,483
|
333,132
|
The Economic and Risk Analysis Division (DERA) was created in September 2009 to integrate financial economics and rigorous data analytics into the core mission of the SEC. The Division is involved across the entire range of SEC activities, including policy-making, rule-making, enforcement, and examination. As the agency's "think tank," DERA relies on a variety of academic disciplines, quantitative and non-quantitative approaches, and knowledge of market institutions and practices to help the Commission approach complex matters in a fresh light. DERA also assists in the commission's efforts to identify, analyze, and respond to risks and trends, including those associated with new financial products and strategies. Through the range and nature of its activities, DERA serves the critical function of promoting collaborative efforts throughout the agency and breaking through silos that might otherwise limit the impact of the agency's institutional expertise. The Division's activities include providing detailed, high-quality economic and statistical analyses, and specific subject-matter expertise to the Commission and other Divisions/Offices and developing customized, analytic tools and analyses to proactively detect market risks indicative of possible violations of the Federal securities laws. Using data, DERA staff create analytic programs designed to detect patterns identifying risks, enabling Commission divisions and offices to deploy scarce resources targeting possible misconduct. DERA also houses the commission's Chief Economist.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55097
| 332,954
|
34,448
|
While drawing inspiration from the defense in the Battle of Peleliu, Kuribayashi designed a defense that broke with Japanese military doctrine. Rather than establishing his defenses on the beach to face the landings directly, he created strong mutually-supporting defenses in depth by using static and heavy weapons such as heavy machine guns and artillery. Takeichi Nishi's armored tanks were to be used as camouflaged artillery positions. Because the tunnel linking the mountain to the main forces was never completed, Kuribayashi organized the southern area of the island in and around Mount Suribachi as a semi-independent sector, with his main defensive zone built up in the north. The expected American naval and air bombardment further prompted the creation of an extensive system of tunnels that connected the prepared positions so that a pillbox that had been cleared could be reoccupied. This network of bunkers and pillboxes favored the defense. For instance, the Nano Bunker (Southern Area Islands Naval Air HQ), which was east of Airfield Number 2, had enough food, water, and ammunition for the Japanese to hold out for three months. The bunker was 90 feet deep and had tunnels running in various directions. Approximately five hundred 55-gallon drums filled with water, kerosene, and fuel oil for generators were inside the complex. Gasoline-powered generators allowed for radios and lighting to be operated underground.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60027
| 34,436
|
1,845,007
|
In 1954 Womersley left BTM and joined a research team, led by Donald McDonald at St Bartholomew's Hospital, who were studying blood flow in arteries. This change seems to have been a temporary arrangement to 'fill in time whilst awaiting completion of arrangements to come to WADC' (the Wright Air Development Center, Dayton, Ohio, USA). His collaboration with McDonald may have been prompted by his eldest daughter, Barbara, who was studying medicine at St Bartholomew's. Whatever the reason, this move led to a new and highly productive period in his research, as he applied mathematical and computational techniques to the analysis of blood flow and hemodynamics. Most notably in 1955 he published an article which described a dimensionless parameter (α) which characterised the nature of unsteady flow; subsequently this has been called the Womersley number. In July 1955, as planned, he moved to WADC to take a post as acting chief of the Analysis Section, System Dynamics Branch Aeronautical Research Laboratory. In 1956, he was promoted to Supervisory Mathematician and then Supervisory Aeronautical Research Engineer (Flight Systems), although he continued to publish on mathematical aspects of blood flow until his early death in 1958. His 1957 monograph on 'An elastic tube theory of pulse transmission and oscillatory flow in mammalian arteries' is widely regarded as a major influence in the field. In 1957 he returned to Britain for treatment of cancer. He underwent a number of operations in London and returned to Ohio in 1957, but never fully recovered and died at Ohio State University Hospital, Columbus, on 7 March 1958.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25679436
| 1,843,952
|
479,983
|
The Joseon government also subsidized the agricultural industry and land reclamation projects to increase food production – the growing of rice, barley, buckwheat, beans, ginseng, cotton and potatoes. Accompanying the agriculturally based prosperity came with the increased use of irrigation and a modern monetary economy was beginning to emerge. From the late sixteenth to the early seventeenth century, invasions from Japan and China wiped out the command system and forced Joseon Korea to transition to a market economy. Markets premature very slowly and grain markets in agricultural regions of Joseon Korea were less integrated compared to early modern China and Japan. The Joseon bureaucracy was tarnished entirely and began started to receive taxes in commodity money — rice and cotton textiles — and eventually began to mint copper coins and lifted trade restrictions. One famous international trade port during the Joseon era was Pyongnam, where medieval Korean merchants offered brocades, jewelries, ginseng, silk, and porcelain, which were renowned worldwide. In the 17th century, relatively advanced technology brought improvements to domestic Korean made handicrafts as privately operated handicraft factories replaced government operated factories which spearheaded the production of more advanced and higher quality goods and services for sale. The increase in mercantile activities contributed to the rise of commercial farming, which transformed rural Joseon life. Coin currency circulated bridging the gap between rural life and the city economies.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16234875
| 479,741
|
141,472
|
Seth MacFarlane had met Druyan through Tyson at the 2008 kickoff event for the Science & Entertainment Exchange, a new Los Angeles office of the National Academy of Sciences, designed to connect Hollywood writers and directors with scientists. A year later, at a 2009 lunch in New York City with Tyson, MacFarlane learned of their interest to re-create "Cosmos". He was influenced by "Cosmos" as a child, believing that "Cosmos" served to "[bridge] the gap between the academic community and the general public". At the time MacFarlane told Tyson, "I'm at a point in my career where I have some disposable income ... and I'd like to spend it on something worthwhile." MacFarlane had considered the reduction of effort for space travel in recent decades to be part of "our culture of lethargy". MacFarlane, who has several series on the Fox network, was able to bring Druyan to meet the heads of Fox programming, Peter Rice and Kevin Reilly, and helped secure the greenlighting of the show. MacFarlane admits that he is "the least essential person in this equation" and the effort is a departure from work he's done before, but considers this to be "very comfortable territory for me personally". He and Druyan have become close friends, and Druyan stated that she believed that Sagan and MacFarlane would have been "kindred spirits" with their respective "protean talents". In June 2012, MacFarlane provided funding to allow about 800 boxes of Sagan's personal notes and correspondences to be donated to the Library of Congress.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35777337
| 141,414
|
1,083,246
|
British pilots who tested a captured Bf 109 E-3 liked the engine and throttle response, the docile and responsive handling and stall characteristics at low speeds, but criticised the high-speed handling characteristics (in part due to the automatic wing slats opening), poorer turning circle (850 ft as opposed to 680 ft for the Spitfire), and greater control forces required at speed (in part because of rudder pedal position and a lack of trim tabs). In August 1940, comparative trials were held at the "Erprobungsstelle Rechlin" central Luftwaffe air test facility, with the leading Luftwaffe ace Werner Mölders being one of the participants. The tests concluded that the Bf 109 had superior level and climb speed to the Spitfire and Hurricane at all altitudes, but also noted the significantly smaller turning circle of the British fighters (more than one British pilots combat reports bear this out, having used the tighter turning circle of their aircraft to get into firing position, or conversely used it to get out of the way of a 109). It was advised not to engage in turning dogfights unless the performance advantage of the Bf 109 could be used to full effect. The roll rate of the Bf 109 was deemed superior, as was its stability on target approach. Mölders himself called the Spitfire "miserable as a fighting aircraft", due to its two-pitch propeller and the inability of its carburettor to handle negative "g"-forces. His complaint regarding the propeller was that with one setting selected the pilot was at risk of over-revving and stressing the engine, but conversely, selecting the other setting meant the aircraft could not run at its best (a situation roughly analogous to a car having too much of a gap between transmission ratios) In the political climate of the times there was often a considerable amount of propaganda written into such reports by both sides or the information quickly become outdated; for example, as a result of a crash programme, all Spitfires and Hurricanes were retrofitted with either Rotol or Hamilton Standard constant-speed propellers by 16 August 1940.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24239523
| 1,082,689
|
349,379
|
Louis Kahn (1901–74) was another American architect who moved away from the Mies van der Rohe model of the glass box, and other dogmas of the prevailing international style. He borrowed from a wide variety of styles, and idioms, including neoclassicism. He was a professor of architecture at Yale University from 1947 to 1957, where his students included Eero Saarinen. From 1957 until his death he was a professor of architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. His work and ideas influenced Philip Johnson, Minoru Yamasaki, and Edward Durell Stone as they moved toward a more neoclassical style. Unlike Mies, he did not try to make his buildings look light; he constructed mainly with concrete and brick, and made his buildings look monumental and solid. He drew from a wide variety of different sources; the towers of Richards Medical Research Laboratories were inspired by the architecture of the Renaissance towns he had seen in Italy as a resident architect at the American Academy in Rome in 1950. Notable buildings by Kahn in the United States include the First Unitarian Church of Rochester, New York (1962); and the Kimball Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas (1966–72). Following the example of Le Corbusier and his design of the government buildings in Chandigarh, the capital city of the Haryana & Punjab State of India, Kahn designed the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly Building) in Dhaka, Bangladesh (1962–74), when that country won independence from Pakistan. It was Kahn's last work.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=315927
| 349,196
|
152,657
|
The Neotropical realm was affected by the fact that South America had been isolated as an island continent for many millions of years, and had a wide range of fauna found nowhere else, although many of them became extinct during the Great American Interchange about 3 million years ago, such as the "Sparassodonta" family. Those that survived the interchange included the ground sloths, glyptodonts, litopterns, pampatheres, phorusrhacids (terror birds) and notoungulates; all managed to extend their range to North America. In the Pleistocene, South America remained largely unglaciated except for increased mountain glaciation in the Andes, which had a two-fold effect- there was a faunal divide between the Andes, and the colder, arid interior resulted in the advance of temperate lowland woodland, tropical savanna and desert at the expense of rainforest. Within these open environments, megafauna diversity was extremely dense, with over 40 genera recorded from the Guerrero member of Luján Formation alone. Ultimately, by the mid-Holocene, all the preeminent genera of megafauna became extinct- the last specimens of "Doedicurus" and "Toxodon" have been dated to 4,555 BCE and 3,000 BCE respectively. Their smaller relatives remain, including anteaters, tree sloths, armadillos; New World marsupials: opossums, shrew opossums, and the monito del monte (actually more related to Australian marsupials). Intense human habitation was established circa 11,000 BCE, however partly disputed evidence of pre-clovis habitation occurs since 46,000 BCE and 20,000 BCE, such as at the Serra da Capivara National Park (Brazil) and Monte Verde (Chile) sites. Today the largest land mammals remaining in South America are the wild camels of the "Lamini" group, such as the guanacos and vicuñas, and the genus "Tapirus", of which Baird's tapir can reach up to 400 kg. Other notable surviving large fauna are peccaries, marsh deer ("Capreolinae"), giant anteaters, spectacled bears, maned wolves, pumas, ocelots, jaguars, rheas, emerald tree boas, boa constrictors, anacondas, American crocodiles, caimans, and giant rodents such as capybaras.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18783051
| 152,589
|
1,023,624
|
The third area discussed in "Animal Chemistry" was fermentation and putrefaction. Liebig proposed chemical explanations for processes such as eremacausis (organic decomposition), describing the rearrangement of atoms as a result of unstable "affinities" reacting to external causes such as air or already decaying substances. Liebig identified the blood as the site of the body's "chemical factory", where he believed processes of synthesis and degradation took place. He presented a view of disease in terms of chemical process, in which healthy blood could be attacked by external contagia; secreting organs sought to transform and excrete such substances; and failure to do so could lead to their elimination through the skin, lungs, and other organs, potentially spreading contagion. Again, although the world was much more complicated than his theory, and many of his individual ideas were later proved wrong, Liebig managed to synthesize existing knowledge in a way that had significant implications for doctors, sanitarians, and social reformers. The English medical journal "The Lancet" reviewed Liebig's work and translated his chemical lectures as part of its mission to establish a new era of medicine. Liebig's ideas stimulated significant medical research, led to the development of better techniques for testing experimental models of metabolism, and pointed to chemistry as fundamental to the understanding of health and disease.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16024
| 1,023,091
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.