doc_id int32 18 2.25M | text stringlengths 245 2.96k | source stringlengths 38 44 | __index_level_0__ int64 18 2.25M |
|---|---|---|---|
1,343,192 | Species concepts are the subject of debate in the field of molecular ecology. Since the beginning of taxonomy, scientists have wanted to standardize and perfect the way species are defined. There are many species concepts that dictate how ecologists determine a good species. The most commonly used concept is the biological species concept which defines a species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Mayr, 1942). This concept is not always useful, particularly when it comes to hybrids. Other species concepts include phylogenetic species concept which describes a species as the smallest identifiable monophyletic group of organisms within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent. This concept defines species on the identifiable. It would also suggest that until two identifiable groups actually produce offspring, they remain separate species. In 1999, John Avise and Glenn Johns suggested a standardized method for defining species based on past speciation and measuring biological classifications as time dependent. Their method used temporal banding to make genus, family and order based on how many tens of millions of years ago the speciation event that resulted in each species took place. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1720640 | 1,342,456 |
1,006,097 | In the figure below, human germ cells are able to differentiate into the specific organs and tissues they become later on in life. Germ cells are able to migrate to their final locations to rearrange themselves and some organs are made of two germ layers; one for the outside, the other for the inside. The endoderm cells become the internal linings of organisms, such as the stomach, colon, small intestine, liver, and pancreas of the digestive system and the lungs. The mesoderm gives rise to other tissues not formed by the ectoderm, such as the heart, muscles, bones, blood, dermis of the skin, bone marrow, and the urogenital system. This germ layer is more specific for species, as it is the distinguishing layer of the three that can identify evolutionarily higher life-forms (e.g., bilateral organisms like humans) from lower-life forms (with radial symmetry). Lastly, the ectoderm is the outer layer of cells that become the epidermis and hair while being the precursor to the mammary glands, central nervous system, and the peripheral nervous systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22469 | 1,005,578 |
2,073,206 | To accomplish this goal a group of scientists (Lara Kallander, Donna Huryn, Ellie Cantor, Rebecca Ruck, Margaret Faul and Mary Watson) founded the non-profit Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry (EWOC) Conferences in 2019. The volunteer-run EWOC conferences allow women leaders to present their scientific research and also allows the participants to hear career stories of how eminent women in the field of organic chemistry have developed their careers and the challenges they have faced – and overcome – along the way. The meeting consists of both science and career topics to provide support and guidance for the next generation of women chemists, as well as provide opportunities for professionals to learn up-to-date science, network and share experiences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63929468 | 2,072,015 |
1,102,410 | As part of its Applications Technology Satellites program in the 1960s, NASA sought to field test the direct broadcast of television programs to terrestrial receivers via satellite and shortlisted India, Brazil and the People's Republic of China as potential sites to stage the test. The country which would receive these broadcasts would have to be large enough and also close to the equator for testing a direct-broadcast satellite. While the communist regime of China was not recognized at the time by the U.S., Brazil was also ruled out as its population was concentrated in the cities, affecting the outreach of the broadcast across the country. As a consequence, India emerged as the only suitable candidate; however, its strained relationship with the U.S. prevented the U.S. government from directly asking for its assistance, preferring India to make the first request for assistance for its own nascent space program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8248653 | 1,101,849 |
1,704,672 | Under certain conditions for some electrochemical cells, especially if they use an aqueous electrolyte, hydrogen ions can be converted into hydrogen atoms and H molecules. In the extreme case, bubbles of hydrogen gas might appear at one of the electrodes. If such a layer of hydrogen or even H gas bubbles appear on the positive plate of a battery, they interfere with the chemical action of the cell. An electrode covered with gases is said to be "polarized". Polarization in galvanic cells causes the voltage and thus current to be reduced, especially if the bubbles cover a large fraction of a plate. Depolarizers are substances which are intended to remove the hydrogen, and therefore, they help to keep the voltage at a high level. However, this concept is outdated, since if enough depolarizer is present, it will react directly in most cases by getting electrons from the positive plate of the galvanic cell, i.e. there will be no relevant amount of hydrogen gas present. Therefore, the original concept of polarization does not apply to most batteries, and the depolarizer does not react with hydrogen as H. Still, the term is used today, however, in most cases, it might be replaced with oxidizing agent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11543712 | 1,703,716 |
204,472 | In 2019, Georg Pichler of "Der Standard", and other news sources, quoted Edward Snowden saying on Twitter, "If I were configuring a smartphone today, I'd use Daniel Micay's GrapheneOS as the base operating system." In discussing why services should not force users to install proprietary apps, Lennart Mühlenmeier of netzpolitik.org suggested GrapheneOS as an alternative to Apple or Google. "Svět Mobilně" and "Webtekno" repeated the suggestions that GrapheneOS is a good security- and privacy-oriented replacement for standard Android. In a detailed review of GrapheneOS for Golem.de, Moritz Tremmel and Sebastian Grüner said they were able to use GrapheneOS similarly to other Android, but enjoying more freedom from Google, without noticing differences from "additional memory protection, but that's the way it should be." They concluded GrapheneOS cannot change how "Android devices become garbage after three years at the latest", but "It can better secure the devices during their remaining life while protecting privacy." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61269744 | 204,367 |
1,269,555 | Due to their processing capabilities and flexibility, CNN processors have been used and prototyped for novel field applications such as flame analysis for monitoring combustion at a waste incinerator, mine-detection using infrared imagery, calorimeter cluster peak for high energy physics, anomaly detection in potential field maps for geophysics, laser dot detection, metal inspection for detecting manufacturing defects, and seismic horizon picking. They have also been used to perform biometric functions such as fingerprint recognition, vein feature extraction, face tracking, and generating visual stimuli via emergent patterns to gauge perceptual resonances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2506529 | 1,268,864 |
927,380 | Numerous human pathogenic viruses in circulation are encased in lipid bilayers, and they infect their target cells by causing the viral envelope and cell membrane to fuse. Although there are effective vaccines against some of these viruses, there is no preventative or curative medicine for the majority of them. In most cases, the known vaccines operate by inducing antibodies that prevent the pathogen from entering cells. This happens in the case of enveloped viruses when the antibodies bind to the viral envelope proteins. The membrane fusion event that triggers viral entrance is caused by the viral fusion protein. Many enveloped viruses only have one protein visible on the surface of the particle, which is required for both mediating adhesion to the cell surface and for the subsequent membrane fusion process. To create potentially protective vaccines for human pathogenic enveloped viruses for which there is currently no vaccine, it is essential to comprehend how antibodies interact with viral envelope proteins, particularly with the fusion protein, and how antibodies neutralize viruses. Enveloped viruses enter cells by joining a cellular membrane to their lipid bilayer membrane. Priming by proteolytic processing, either of the fusion protein or of a companion protein, is necessary for the majority of viral fusion proteins. The priming stage then gets the fusion protein ready for triggering by the processes that go along with attachment and uptake, which frequently happens during transport of the fusion protein to the cell surface but may also happen extracellularly. So far, structural studies have revealed two kinds of viral fusion proteins. These proteins are believed to catalyze the same mechanism in both situations, resulting in the fusing of two bilayers. In other words, these proteins operate as enzymes, which while having various structural variations catalyze the same chemical reaction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4450311 | 926,893 |
1,787,975 | Wiersma and Irmis (2018) found "Akainacephalus" to be within a southern Laramidian clade containing "Nodocephalosaurus" that is nested within Asian taxa rather than other Laramidian taxa and suggested that this clade was a separate biogeographic dispersal event from Asia independent from the main radiation of Laramidian ankylosaurids. The discovery indicates a strong case for provincialism between dinosaur populations in Northern and Southern Laramidia. Furthermore, the discovery of "Akainacephalus" also indicates at least two faunal migrations between Asia and North America, created when dropping sea levels allowed migrations between the continents via the Beringian Land Bridge during or earlier than the Campanian stage. However, Park "et al." (2019) found both Akainacephalus and Nodocephalosaurus to be basal to "Saichania", "Talarurus", "Tarchia" and "Zaraapelta", which suggests that a migration occurred before the Cenomanian stage and that ankylosaurines dispersed at least twice from Asia to Western North America. Frauenfelder "et al." (2022) recovered "Akainacephalus" as sister taxon to two clades, with one of the clades consisting of "Tsagantegia", "Nodocephalosaurus" and "Talarurus" while the other consists of more deeply nested taxa such as "Saichania", "Pinacosaurus", "Scolosaurus", "Anodontosaurus", "Euoplocephalus" and "Ankylosaurus". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57941007 | 1,786,969 |
387,845 | Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience or opportunity sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population is selected because it is readily available and convenient. It may be through meeting the person or including a person in the sample when one meets them or chosen by finding them through technological means such as the internet or through phone. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough. For example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that they could interview would be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey were to be conducted at different times of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing. Several important considerations for researchers using convenience samples include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=160361 | 387,650 |
1,533,386 | After the return of peace, Washington selected him as his family physician. At this period he lost four out of his six children by scarlatina, which prevailed in a violent form. In consequence of the illness of Mrs. Bard, he withdrew from business for a year, devoting himself to her. In 1784, he returned to the city. Having formed the purpose to retire from business, in 1798, he moved to his seat in the neighborhood of his father at Hyde Park. But, when the yellow fever appeared, he resolutely returned to his post. By his fearless exposure of himself he took the disease; but, nursed by his wife, he recovered. The remaining 23 years of his life were spent in happy retirement, surrounded by his children and grandchildren. In 1813, he was appointed President of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20560519 | 1,532,518 |
1,022,070 | Both genes and hormones affect the formation of human brains before birth, as well as the behavior of adult individuals. Several genes that code for differences between male and female brains have been identified. In the human brain, a difference between sexes was observed in the transcription of the PCDH11X/Y gene pair, a pair unique to "Homo sapiens". It has been argued that the Y chromosome is primarily responsible for males being more susceptible to mental illnesses. Several psychological studies contradict this however, as it has been found that female patients are actually more than twice as likely as male patients to be susceptible to depressive episodes and generalized anxiety, and additionally that progesterone levels in females actually stall the body's ability to turn off stressor hormones resulting in female subjects entering depressive episodes at even lower levels of stress than male subjects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3315213 | 1,021,541 |
878,853 | Owing to too many components in catalytic reforming process feedstock, untraceable reactions and the high temperature range, the design and simulation of catalytic reformer reactors is accompanied by complexities. The lumping technique is used extensively for reducing complexities so that the lumps and reaction pathways that properly describe the reforming system and kinetic rate parameters do not depend on feedstock composition. In one of the recent works, naphtha is considered in terms of 17 hydrocarbon fractions with 15 reactions in which C to C hydrocarbons are specified as light paraffins and the C to C naphtha cuts are characterized as isoparaffins, normal paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics. Reactions in catalytic naphtha reforming are elementary and Hougen-Watson Langmuir-Hinshelwood type reaction rate expressions are used to describe the rate of each reaction. Rate equations of this type explicitly account for the interaction of chemical species with catalyst and contain denominators in which terms characteristic of the adsorption of reacting species are presented. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1816156 | 878,390 |
1,348,795 | This formula provides good fits of data collected in the Barro Colorado tropical forest from 1990 to 2000. From the best fit one can estimate formula_71 ~ 3500 years with a broad uncertainty due to the relative short time interval of the sample. This parameter can be interpreted as the relaxation time of the system, i.e. the time the system needs to recover from a perturbation of species distribution. In the same framework, the estimated mean species lifetime is very close to the fitted temporal scale formula_71. This suggests that the neutral assumption could correspond to a scenario in which species originate and become extinct on the same timescales of fluctuations of the whole ecosystem. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=635546 | 1,348,053 |
1,519,148 | Additional experiments examined how well the FMARS crewmembers could work with an “Earth-based” remote science team. In one example, the remote science team used aerial images to select ten regions of scientific interest for the FMARS crew to explore and analyze. This experiment helped researchers determine more efficient methods of scouting and investigating locations of interest under the communications limitations of a crewed mission to Mars. A study performed on the FMARS crew of July 2009 examined the psychological difficulties faced by crewmembers (especially the effects of isolation from family, conflicts among crewmembers, and diet) as well as the positive effects of problem-solving and exploration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41370720 | 1,518,290 |
1,081,244 | The feeding habits of ornithomimids have been controversial. In 2001 Norell "et al." reported a specimen of "Gallimimus" (IGM 100/1133) and one of "Ornithomimus" (RTMP 95.110.1). These two fossil skulls had soft tissue preservation, and both had keratinous beaks with vertical grooves extending ventrally from the bony upper mandible. These structures are reminiscent of the lamellae seen in ducks, in which they function to strain small edible items like plants, forams, mollusks, and ostracods from the water. The authors further noted that ornithomimids were abundant in mesic environments, and rarer in more arid environments, suggesting that they may have depended on waterborne sources of food, possibly filter feeding. They noted that primitive ornithomimids had well developed teeth, while derived forms were edentulous and probably could not feed on large animals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4261532 | 1,080,688 |
870,733 | In the late 1980s, Arthur Ashkin and Joseph M. Dziedzic demonstrated the first application of the technology to the biological sciences, using it to trap an individual tobacco mosaic virus and "Escherichia coli" bacterium. Throughout the 1990s and afterwards, researchers like Carlos Bustamante, James Spudich, and Steven Block pioneered the use of optical trap force spectroscopy to characterize molecular-scale biological motors. These molecular motors are ubiquitous in biology, and are responsible for locomotion and mechanical action within the cell. Optical traps allowed these biophysicists to observe the forces and dynamics of nanoscale motors at the single-molecule level; optical trap force-spectroscopy has since led to greater understanding of the stochastic nature of these force-generating molecules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=299901 | 870,273 |
174,479 | On 16 August 1984, the first model of the type, known as the "ATR 42–200", conducted its maiden flight from Toulouse Airport, France. During September 1985, both the French Directorate General for Civil Aviation (DGCA) and the Italian Italian Civil Aviation Authority awarded type certification for the type, clearing it to commence operational service. On 3 December 1985, the first production aircraft, designated as the "ATR 42-300", was delivered to French launch customer Air Littoral; the first revenue service was performed later that same month. During January 1986, already confident of the ATR 42's success and of the demand for an enlarged version of the aircraft, ATR announced that the launch of a programme to develop such an aircraft, which was designated as the ATR 72 to reflect its increased passenger capacity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=250004 | 174,388 |
1,489,516 | In humans, BCATs are homodimers composed of two domains, a small subunit (residues 1-170) and a large subunit (residues 182-365). These subunits are connected by a short, looping connecting region (residues 171-181). Both subunits consist of four alpha-helices and a beta-pleated sheet. Structural studies of human branched-chain amino acid aminotransferases (hBCAT) revealed that the peptide bonds in both isoforms are all "trans" except for the bond between residues Gly338-Pro339. The active site of the enzyme lies in the interface between the two domains. Like other transaminase enzymes (as well as many enzymes of other classes), BCATs require the cofactor pyridoxal-5'-phosphate(PLP) for activity. PLP has been found to change the conformation of aminotransferase enzymes, locking the conformation of the enzyme via a Schiff base (imine) linkage in a reaction between a lysine residue of the enzyme and the carbonyl group of the cofactor. This conformational change allows the substrates to bind to the active site pocket of the enzymes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11393958 | 1,488,677 |
512,366 | On 27 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council voted to assist the South Koreans in resisting the invasion of their nation by North Korea. President Harry S. Truman authorized General Douglas MacArthur (commander of the US occupying forces in Japan) to commit units to the battle. MacArthur ordered General George E. Stratemeyer, CIC of the Far Eastern Air Force (FEAF) to attack attacking North Korean forces between the front lines and the 38th parallel. At that time, the 22 B-29s of the 19th Bombardment Group stationed at Andersen Field on Guam were the only aircraft capable of hitting the Korean peninsula, and this unit was ordered to move to Kadena air base on Okinawa and begin attacks on North Korea. These raids began on 28 June. On 29 June, clearance was given for B-29 attacks on airfields in North Korea. The B-29s were frequently diverted into tactical attacks against advancing North Korean troops. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2513120 | 512,100 |
1,712,059 | His tasks included finding experts to examine and report on his collections from the voyage. Darwin proposed to edit these reports, writing his own forewords and notes, and used his contacts to lobby for government sponsorship of publication of these findings as a large book. When a Treasury grant of £1,000 was allocated at the end of August 1837, Darwin stretched the project to include the geology book that he had conceived in April 1832 at the first landfall in the voyage. He selected Smith, Elder & Co. as the publisher, and gave them unrealistic commitments on the timing of providing the text and illustrations. He assured the Treasury that the work would be good value, as the publisher would only require a small commission profit, and he himself would have no profit. From October he planned what became the multi-volume "Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle" on his collections, and began writing about the geology of volcanic islands. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21185695 | 1,711,094 |
170,316 | A steel battery box contains the cells connected in series to gain the desired voltage (1.2 V per cell nominal). Cells are usually made of a light and durable polyamide (nylon), with multiple nickel-cadmium plates welded together for each electrode inside. A separator or liner made of silicone rubber acts as an insulator and a gas barrier between the electrodes. Cells are flooded with an electrolyte of 30% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). The specific gravity of the electrolyte does not indicate if the battery is discharged or fully charged but changes mainly with evaporation of water. The top of the cell contains a space for excess electrolyte and a pressure release vent. Large nickel-plated copper studs and thick interconnecting links assure minimum equivalent series resistance for the battery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186614 | 170,226 |
409,054 | The Tu-4 first flew on 19 May 1947 and was flown by test pilot Nikolai Rybko. Serial production started immediately, and the type entered large-scale service in 1949. Entry into service of the Tu-4 threw the USAF into a panic since the Tu-4 possessed sufficient range to attack Chicago or Los Angeles on a one-way mission, and that may have informed the maneuvers and air combat practice conducted by US and British air forces in 1948 involving fleets of B-29s. The tests were conducted by the RAF Central Fighter Establishment and co-operative US B-29 groups and involved demonstration of recommended methods of attack against B-29/Tu 4-type bombers using RAF Gloster Meteor and de Havilland Vampire jet fighters. The Soviets developed four different midair refueling systems to extend the bomber's range, but these were fitted to only a few aircraft, and only a small number of the final design were installed on operational aircraft before the Tu-4 was superseded by the Tu-16. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=562289 | 408,853 |
1,079,622 | informality limited the usefulness of the architecture description. A more rigorous way for describing SAs was required. Quoting Allen and Garlan (1997), "while these [box-and-line] descriptions may provide useful documentation, the current level of informality limits their usefulness. Since it is generally imprecise what is meant by such architectural descriptions, it may be impossible to analyze an architecture for consistency or determine non-trivial properties of it. Moreover, there is no way to check that a system implementation is faithful to its architectural design." A similar conclusion is drawn in Perry and Wolf (1992), which reports that: "Aside from providing clear and precise documentation, the primary purpose of specifications is to provide automated analysis of the documents and to expose various kinds of problems that would otherwise go undetected." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1799268 | 1,079,067 |
1,500,789 | In line with its mission, NRGI supports civil society organizations, government institutions, private sector enterprises, and the media with technical advice, advocacy, applied research, policy analysis, and capacity development with regard to natural resource governance. Key tools developed in that context include for example the Resource Governance Index, a repository of resource contracts, and the Natural Resource Charter Benchmarking Framework. Research and resources from NRGI have been featured by international media such as "The Guardian", "BBC World Service," "Financial Times," "Foreign Policy" and "Washington Post" as well as national media in the concerned countries, including "The Guardian Nigeria", "B&FT Online", "The Citizen", "La Silla Vacia", "La República (Peru)," and "Jeune Afrique". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56617071 | 1,499,943 |
1,760,728 | The Classification Results (CLR) File Format has been developed to exchange the results of manual gating and algorithmic classification approaches in a standard way in order to be able to report and process the classification. CLR is based in the commonly supported CSV file format with columns corresponding to different classes and cell values containing the probability of an event being a member of a particular class. These are captured as values between 0 and 1. Simplicity of the format and its compatibility with common spreadsheet tools have been the major requirements driving the design of the specification. Although it was originally designed for the field of flow cytometry, it is applicable in any domain that needs to capture either fuzzy or unambiguous classifications of virtually any kinds of objects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41282920 | 1,759,735 |
759,697 | In 2003, the government of Canada created a four-year project called the Forest 2020 Plantation Development and Assessment Initiative, which involved planting 6000 ha of fast-growing forests on non-forested lands countrywide. These plantations were used to analyze how afforestation can help to increase carbon sequestration and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while also considering the economic and investment attractiveness of afforestation. The results of the initiative showed that although there is not enough available land in Canada to completely offset the country's GHG emissions, afforestation can be useful mitigation technique for meeting GHG emission goals, especially until permanent, more advanced carbon storage technology becomes available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1968338 | 759,291 |
1,989,729 | Teller was heading the Robotics, Vision, and Sensor Networks group at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, conducting robotics and artificial intelligence research on developing robots with situational awareness. His work involved, in particular, creating various assistive technology robots and devices for people with disabilities. Teller's robotics projects included "a robotic, voice-controlled wheelchair, a wearable device for visually-impaired people that provides them with information about their surroundings, a self-driving car and an unmanned forklift". He also worked on developing technology for reducing the danger of first responders being hit by the passing vehicles while stopped to deal with highway accidents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18365452 | 1,988,587 |
936,918 | At one time brushless DC electric motors used reed switches to sense the rotor's position relative to the field poles. This allowed switching transistors to act as a commutator, but without the contact problems, wear and electrical noise of a traditional DC commutator. The motor design could also be "inverted", placing permanent magnets onto the rotor and switching the field through the external, fixed coils. This avoided the need for any rubbing contact to provide power to the rotor. Such motors were used in low-power long-service-life items, such as computer cooling fans and disk drives. As cheap Hall effect sensors became available, they replaced the reed switches and gave even longer service lifetimes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=317969 | 936,422 |
1,250,043 | NGC 1097 is also a Seyfert galaxy. Deep photographs revealed four narrow optical jets that appear to emanate from the nucleus. These have been interpreted as manifestations of the (currently weak) active nucleus. Subsequent analysis of the brightest jet's radio-to-X-ray spectral energy distribution were able to rule out synchrotron and thermal free-free emission. The optical jets are in fact composed of stars. The failure to detect atomic hydrogen gas in the jets (under the assumption that they were an example of tidal tails) using deep 21 cm HI imaging with the Very Large Array radio telescope and numerical simulations led to the current interpretation that the jets are actually the shattered remains of a cannibalized dwarf galaxy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3719646 | 1,249,367 |
1,542,476 | Murray achieved a 1st class honours degree in chemistry followed by PhD from the University of Birmingham. From 1960 to 1964 he was a researcher at J. Murray Luck's laboratory at Stanford University and from 1964 to 1967 he was a researcher at Fred Sanger's laboratory at Cambridge University. In 1967, he was appointed lecturer at the University of Edinburgh and in 1976 he became Head of Molecular Biology. In 1984 he was appointed Biogen Professor of Molecular Biology, a post which he retained until his retirement. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1979, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1989 and awarded the RSE Royal Medal in 2000 with the citation "For their outstanding contribution to the development of Biotechnology, both nationally and internationally, through his development of what is now known as recombinant DNA technology." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9088666 | 1,541,603 |
1,637,541 | Formerly the Morioka Agricultural High School, the Historical Museum for Agricultural Education is located within the Iwate University Campus. Constructed in 1912 and completed in December of the same year, the Historical Museum for Agricultural Education is one of the few buildings still surviving as a central facility of a national professional college established in the Meiji era. It has been preserved well with little alteration and was designated as an Important Cultural Property on July 12, 1994. The Guardroom and Old Main Gate were also given the same designation at the same time. A large-scale renovation took place around that time and the Historical Museum was restored to its original state. Polan Plaza, which houses a sundial, was built to the northeast of the Hall in the corner that connects to the Faculty of Agriculture building. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15695684 | 1,636,616 |
619,812 | Biogeochemical cycling of elements is an essential component of lithotrophs within microbial environments. For example, in the carbon cycle, there are certain bacteria classified as photolithoautotrophs that generate organic carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide. Certain chemolithoautotrophic bacteria can also produce organic carbon, some even in the absence of light. Similar to plants, these microbes provide a usable form of energy for organisms to consume. On the contrary, there are lithotrophs that have the ability to ferment, implying their ability to convert organic carbon into another usable form. Lithotrophs play an important role in the biological aspect of the iron cycle. These organisms can use iron as either an electron donor, Fe(II) --> Fe(III), or as an electron acceptor, Fe (III) --> Fe(II). Another example is the cycling of nitrogen. Many lithotrophic bacteria play a role in reducing inorganic nitrogen (nitrogen gas) to organic nitrogen (ammonium) in a process called nitrogen fixation. Likewise, there are many lithotrophic bacteria that also convert ammonium into nitrogen gas in a process called denitrification. Carbon and nitrogen are important nutrients, essential for metabolic processes, and can sometimes be the limiting factor that affects organismal growth and development. Thus, lithotrophs are key players in both providing and removing these important resource. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3525665 | 619,497 |
1,820,742 | America's first successful flight was in 1903, but amazingly, five years would pass before the first fatal aviation accident. Since then, safety has been an important concern. In 1926, the Civil Aeronautics Act marshaled the talents of the medical profession to certify that all aviators are physically fit to fly. In August 1958, the Federal Aviation Act, which created an independent federal agency, was passed. As part of the organizational changes that followed the FAA Act of 1958, an Office of the Civil Air Surgeon was established. On 31 October 1959 plans were announced to create the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute (CARI) which was established in 1961. A new CARI building was opened at the Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33498707 | 1,819,705 |
438,510 | To augment the oldest wings, NASA has launched two pairs and is set to launch one more pair of large-scale versions of the Roll Out Solar Array aboard three SpaceX Dragon 2 cargo launches from early June 2021 to early June 2023, SpaceX CRS-22, CRS-26 and CRS-28. These arrays are intended to be deployed along the central part of the wings up to two thirds of its length. Work to install iROSA's support brackets on the truss mast cans holding the Solar Array Wings was initiated by the crew members of Expedition 64 in late February 2021. After the first pair of arrays were delivered in early June, a spacewalk on 16 June by Shane Kimbrough and Thomas Pesquet of Expedition 65 to place one iROSA on the 2B power channel and mast can of the P6 truss ended early due to technical difficulties with the array's deployment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7044083 | 438,296 |
1,714,137 | Lavoisier was the first to conclude by experiment that the Law of Conservation of Mass applied to chemical change. His hypothesis was that the mass of the reactants would be the same as the mass of the products in a chemical reaction. He experimented on vinous fermentation, determining the amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon in sugar. Weighing a quantity of sugar, he added yeast and water in measured amounts, allowing the mixture to ferment. Lavoisier then measured the mass of the carbonic acid gas and water that were given off during fermentation and weighed the residual liquor, the components of which were then separated and analyzed to determine their elementary composition. In this way he controlled a couple of potential confounding factors. He was able to capture the carbonic acid gas and water vapor that were given off during fermentation so that his final measurements would be as accurate as possible. Lavoisier concluded that the total mass of the reactants was equal to the mass of the final product and residue. Moreover, he showed that the total mass of each constituent element before and after the chemical change remained the same. Similarly, he demonstrated via experimentation that the mass of products of combustion is equal to the mass of the reacting ingredients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36920393 | 1,713,171 |
95,096 | Anchoring the traditional campus gateway at the eastern end of the Oval is the 1989 Wexner Center for the Arts. Designed by architects Peter Eisenman of New York and Richard Trott of Columbus, the center was funded in large part by Ohio State alumnus Leslie Wexner's gift of $25 million in the 1980s. The center was founded to encompass all aspects of visual and performing arts with a focus on new commissions and artist residencies. Part of its design was to pay tribute to the armory that formerly had the same location. Its groundbreaking deconstructivist architecture has resulted in it being lauded as one of the most important buildings of its generation. Its design has also been criticized as proving less than ideal for many of the art installations it has attempted to display. The centerpiece of the Wexner Center's permanent collection is Picasso's "Nude on a Black Armchair", which was purchased by alumnus Leslie Wexner at auction for $45 million. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22217 | 95,055 |
1,985,893 | Beet leafhoppers are polyphagous generalists which means that they are able to feed on various different types of host (biology) plants. The fact that these insects migrate during the spring and summer time to cultivated fields also means that they show a lot of variation in their host plant choices by season: feeding on desert weeds in the winter and feeding on cultivated fields in the summer. They also show incredible variation in food choices between populations in different states, and these choices may change depending on host plant diversity, availability, defenses, etc. In one study on host plant preferences of beet leafhoppers from California and New Mexico, researchers found that beet leafhoppers from California preferred to feed on sugar beet plants while those from New Mexico preferred to feed on kochia, Russian thistle and redwood pigweed plants. The study also found differences in short term and long term feeding preferences where both kinds of leaf hoppers initially settled on beet plants (when observed over a period of 2 days) and later moved to their preferred choices (when observed over 20 days). Despite these differences, both species chose beet plants for laying eggs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11207780 | 1,984,752 |
374,055 | Drones are the colony's male bees. Since they do not have ovipositors, they do not have stingers. Drone honey bees do not forage for nectar or pollen. The primary purpose of a drone is to fertilize a new queen. Many drones mate with a given queen in flight; each dies immediately after mating, since the process of insemination requires a lethally convulsive effort. Drone honey bees are haploid (single, unpaired chromosomes) in their genetic structure, and are descended only from their mother (the queen). In temperate regions, drones are generally expelled from the hive before winter, dying of cold and starvation since they cannot forage, produce honey or care for themselves. Given their larger size (1.5 times that of worker bees), inside the hive it is believed that drones may play a significant role in thermoregulation. Drones are typically located near the center of hive clusters for unclear reasons. It is postulated that it is to maintain sperm viability, which may be compromised at cooler temperatures. Another possible explanation is that a more central location allows drones to contribute to warmth, since at temperatures below their ability to contribute declines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18214141 | 373,860 |
236,335 | The usage of the term in sports arose during the 1961 baseball season in which Roger Maris of the New York Yankees was threatening to break Babe Ruth's 34-year-old single-season home run record. Ruth had amassed 60 home runs in a season with only 154 games, but Maris was playing the first season in the American League's newly expanded 162-game season. Baseball Commissioner Ford Frick, a friend of Ruth's during the legendary slugger's lifetime, held a press conference to announce his "ruling" that should Maris take longer than 154 games both records would be acknowledged by Major League Baseball, but that some "distinctive mark" [his term] be placed next to Maris', which should be listed alongside Ruth's achievement in the "record books". The asterisk as such a mark was suggested at that time by New York Daily News sportswriter Dick Young, not Frick. The reality, however, was that MLB actually had no direct control over any record books until many years later, and it all was merely a suggestion on Frick's part. Within a few years the controversy died down and all prominent baseball record keepers listed Maris as the single-season record holder. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59152 | 236,216 |
1,775,497 | A study by van Hateren and Ruderman in 1998 used ICA to analyze video-sequences and compared how a computer analyzed the independent components of the image to data for visual processing obtained from a cat in DeAngelis et al. 1993. The researchers described the independent components obtained from a video sequence as the "basic building blocks of a signal", with the independent component filter (ICF) measuring "how strongly each building block is present". They hypothesized that if simple cells are organized to pick out the "underlying structure" of images over time then cells should act like the independent component filters. They found that the ICFs determined by the computer were similar to the "receptive fields" that were observed in actual neurons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5198024 | 1,774,500 |
2,143,214 | In 2008 a peer-reviewed study of 26 websites included in the VSN list by April 2007 noted "the transparency of financing, the lack of links to the pharmaceutical industry, the transparency of site management and responsibility and the proven scientific quality and constant updating of contents" of its assessed resources, unlike websites critical of vaccination. 84.6% of sites recorded contact details, 73.1% noted which data protection procedure they used and that the data would not be sold or forwarded to third parties. Most sites used English. About one in five provided contact details of vaccination centres and 63.6% of sites were targeted at the general public and health care professionals. 84.6% of sites were quoted as having information on side effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65137159 | 2,141,983 |
647,949 | Polymers are high molecular mass compounds formed by polymerization of monomers. The simple reactive molecule from which the repeating structural units of a polymer are derived is called a monomer. A polymer can be described in many ways: its degree of polymerisation, molar mass distribution, tacticity, copolymer distribution, the degree of branching, by its end-groups, crosslinks, crystallinity and thermal properties such as its glass transition temperature and melting temperature. Polymers in solution have special characteristics with respect to solubility, viscosity, and gelation. Illustrative of the quantitative aspects of polymer chemistry, particular attention is paid to the number-average and weight-average molecular weights formula_1 and formula_2, respectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=656965 | 647,609 |
138,577 | (using) the Earth itself as the medium for conducting the currents, thus dispensing with wires and all other artificial conductors ... a machine which, to explain its operation in plain language, resembled a pump in its action, drawing electricity from the Earth and driving it back into the same at an enormous rate, thus creating ripples or disturbances which, spreading through the Earth as through a wire, could be detected at great distances by carefully attuned receiving circuits. In this manner I was able to transmit to a distance, not only feeble effects for the purposes of signaling, but considerable amounts of energy, and later discoveries I made convinced me that I shall ultimately succeed in conveying power without wires, for industrial purposes, with high economy, and to any distance, however great. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=196508 | 138,521 |
203,813 | A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents recalled public information about crime and sentencing. This type of information is incomplete because the news media present a highly selective and non-representative selection of crime, focusing on the violent and extreme, rather than the ordinary. This makes most people think that judges are too lenient. But, when asked to choose the punishments, the sentences given by students were equal to or less severe than those given by judges. In other words, the availability heuristic made people believe that judges and jurors were too lenient in the courtroom, but the participants gave similar sentences when placed in the position of the judge, suggesting that the information they recalled was not correct. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403396 | 203,708 |
1,615,368 | Signal film from all of the three recording sources was developed at a ground processing facility. At that point, the optical appearance of the SAR data on the film in no way resembled an image of the terrain illuminated by the radar. Instead, it appeared visually nearly like noise, except that it was striated lengthwise of the film. Each striation represented a different radar range and contained long sequences of overlapping radar-return signals from many (literally thousands) of terrain points at that range. Further data- processing was needed to separate those signals from each other and to create, from each of the many distributed signal contributions, one spot of the proper intensity at each image point corresponding to a terrain point. At that time, the only technique available for the job was a high-quality optical data-processor (the Precision Optical Processor, or POP) that had been developed specifically for both airborne and orbiting SAR systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27644336 | 1,614,462 |
2,144,777 | FA-DLBCL most commonly develops within immunologically sequestered sites such as body cavities (e.g. pseudocysts) and foreign bodies (e.g. artificial heart valves) where fibrin, a breakdown product of the blood clotting factor, fibrinogen, has deposited. It is almost always discovered as an incidental finding in specimens taken from these sites when they are examined for reasons not directly related to the FA-DLBCL infiltrates. As reviewed in a publication of 2019, the disorder has been diagnoses in 47 individuals who are predominantly elderly males; it is almost uniformly amenable to various treatments and takes a benign course. However, the disease, when occurring within vascular or cardiac sites, does have a risk of being complicated by the development of embolisms due to the dislodgement of blood clots that travel through the vascular system to cause, e.g. strokes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63408853 | 2,143,546 |
1,041,763 | Elevated serum GPI levels have been used as a prognostic biomarker for colorectal, breast, lung, kidney, gastrointestinal, and other cancers. As AMF, GPI is attributed with regulating cell migration during invasion and metastasis. One study showed that the external layers of breast tumor spheroids (BTS) secrete GPI, which induces epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, and metastasis in BTS. The GPI inhibitors ERI4P and 6PG were found to block metastasis of BTS but not BTS glycolysis or fibroblast viability. In addition, GPI is secreted exclusively by tumor cells and not normal cells. For these reasons, GPI inhibitors may be a safer, more targeted approach for anti-cancer therapy. GPI also participates in a positive feedback loop with HER2, a major breast cancer therapeutic target, as GPI enhances HER2 expression and HER2 overexpression enhances GPI expression, and so on. As a result, GPI activity likely confers resistance in breast cancer cells against HER2-based therapies using Herceptin/Trastuzumab, and should be considered as an additional target when treating patients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1936865 | 1,041,220 |
1,695,232 | In 2012 Scherr invented a new term, integrated landscape management, to describe her ideas for developing entire regions, not at just a farm or plot level. Integrated landscape management is a way of managing sustainable landscapes by bringing together multiple stakeholders with different land use objectives. The integrated approach claims to go beyond other approaches which focus on users of the land independently of each other, despite needing some of the same resources. It is promoted by the conservation NGOs Worldwide Fund for Nature, Global Canopy Programme, The Nature Conservancy, The Sustainable Trade Initiative, and EcoAgriculture Partners. Promoters claim that integrated landscape management will maximise collaboration in planning, policy development and action regarding the interdependent Sustainable Development Goals. It was defined by four elements in 2013: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10325700 | 1,694,281 |
318,731 | Some controversy exists with regard to credit for development of the Metropolis algorithm. Metropolis, who was familiar with the computational aspects of the method, had coined the term "Monte Carlo" in an earlier article with Stanisław Ulam, and led the group in the Theoretical Division that designed and built the MANIAC I computer used in the experiments in 1952. However, prior to 2003 there was no detailed account of the algorithm's development. Shortly before his death, Marshall Rosenbluth attended a 2003 conference at LANL marking the 50th anniversary of the 1953 publication. At this conference, Rosenbluth described the algorithm and its development in a presentation titled "Genesis of the Monte Carlo Algorithm for Statistical Mechanics". Further historical clarification is made by Gubernatis in a 2005 journal article recounting the 50th anniversary conference. Rosenbluth makes it clear that he and his wife Arianna did the work, and that Metropolis played no role in the development other than providing computer time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56107 | 318,560 |
834,070 | On 24 June 2021, Champlain Towers South, a 12-story condominium building in Surfside, Florida partially collapsed, causing dozens of injuries and 98 deaths. The collapse was captured on video. One person was rescued from the rubble, and about 35 people were rescued on 24 June from the uncollapsed portion of the building. Long-term degradation of reinforced concrete-support structures in the underground parking garage, due to water penetration and corrosion of the reinforcing steel, has been considered as a factor in—or the cause of—the collapse. The issues had been reported in 2018 and noted as "much worse" in April 2021. A$15 million program of remedial works had been approved at the time of the collapse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36337411 | 833,621 |
1,970,729 | The management of grassland frequently reaches into the socioeconomic sphere, in China and elsewhere, touching on matters of regional planning and the sedentarization of nomadic people and pastoralists. The sedentarization of nomadic herders ("dingju youmumin") should not be confused with the term 'ecological resettlement' ("shengtai yimin"), that has often been used interchangeably. In a policy document of the National Development and Reform Commission (NDCR), it was stated that: "By settling nomads one can improve their production and living standards, and promote economic growth and social development of the ethnic regions, in order to […] expel social unrest, and maintain ethnic unity and stability of the border areas". This example shows that aside from nature conservation and environmental protection, grassland policies often simultaneously serve wider interests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54261346 | 1,969,595 |
1,332,405 | A star is considered to be at zero age (protostellar) when it is assumed to have a homogeneous composition and to be just beginning to derive most of its luminosity from nuclear reactions (so neglecting the period of contraction from a cloud of gas and dust). To obtain the SSM, a one solar mass () stellar model at zero age is evolved numerically to the age of the Sun. The abundance of elements in the zero age solar model is estimated from primordial meteorites. Along with this abundance information, a reasonable guess at the zero-age luminosity (such as the present-day Sun's luminosity) is then converted by an iterative procedure into the correct value for the model, and the temperature, pressure and density throughout the model calculated by solving the equations of stellar structure numerically assuming the star to be in a steady state. The model is then evolved numerically up to the age of the Sun. Any discrepancy from the measured values of the Sun's luminosity, surface abundances, etc. can then be used to refine the model. For example, since the Sun formed, some of the helium and heavy elements have settled out of the photosphere by diffusion. As a result, the Solar photosphere now contains about 87% as much helium and heavy elements as the protostellar photosphere had; the protostellar Solar photosphere was 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% metals. A measure of heavy-element settling by diffusion is required for a more accurate model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5894781 | 1,331,676 |
351,105 | A statistic called "ρ" that is linearly related to "U" and widely used in studies of categorization (discrimination learning involving concepts), and elsewhere, is calculated by dividing "U" by its maximum value for the given sample sizes, which is simply . "ρ" is thus a non-parametric measure of the overlap between two distributions; it can take values between 0 and 1, and it is an estimate of , where "X" and "Y" are randomly chosen observations from the two distributions. Both extreme values represent complete separation of the distributions, while a "ρ" of 0.5 represents complete overlap. The usefulness of the "ρ" statistic can be seen in the case of the odd example used above, where two distributions that were significantly different on a Mann–Whitney "U" test nonetheless had nearly identical medians: the ρ value in this case is approximately 0.723 in favour of the hares, correctly reflecting the fact that even though the median tortoise beat the median hare, the hares collectively did better than the tortoises collectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=433164 | 350,922 |
947,159 | The most promising and widespread non-invasive thermometric techniques in a biotech context are based on the analysis of magnetic resonance images, computerized tomography images and echotomography. These techniques allow monitoring temperature within tissues without introducing a sensing element. In the field of reactive flows (e.g., combustion, plasmas), laser induced fluorescence (LIF), CARS, and laser absorption spectroscopy have been exploited to measure temperature inside engines, gas-turbines, shock-tubes, synthesis reactors etc. The capability of such optical-based techniques include rapid measurement (down to nanosecond timescales), notwithstanding the ability to "not" perturb the subject of measurement (e.g., the flame, shock-heated gases). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2343811 | 946,656 |
495,713 | Because of the dual, conflicting roles of local defence vessel and ocean-going escort, "Bathurst"s based in Australia were under two different controllers for the first part of the Pacific War; operationally under the US Navy's Naval Commander South West Pacific Area Forces (COMSOUWESTPAC), and administratively under the Naval Officer In Charge (NOIC) of the ship's homeport. Following multiple incidents where a ship would be assigned to two different tasks simultaneously; conflicts between local needs, escort schedules, and maintenance requirements; and protests from the NOIC in Fremantle and Darwin, the Australian-based corvettes were placed completely under NOIC control in May 1942. Instead of directly assigning ships to convoys, COMSOUWESTPAC would indicate that ships would be needed from a particular port for escort duties, leaving the NOIC of that port free to allocate available ships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=464266 | 495,457 |
981,870 | In February 2009, the Research Council of Norway assigned The Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology to host the Research Centre on Zero Emission Buildings (ZEB), which is one of eight new national Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME). The main objective of the FME-centres is to contribute to the development of good technologies for environmentally friendly energy and to raise the level of Norwegian expertise in this area. In addition, they should help to generate new industrial activity and new jobs. Over the next eight years, the FME-Centre ZEB will develop competitive products and solutions for existing and new buildings that will lead to market penetration of zero emission buildings related to their production, operation and demolition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4211531 | 981,358 |
708,100 | One study that demonstrates this effect was conducted in 1984 by Smith and Rothkopf. In this experiment, subjects were sorted into three groups to test retention and learning. "Each group was taught the same 8 hour statistics class, but one group was taught the class in one day, the next over the course of four days in one room, and the last was taught the class over the course of four days in different rooms. The subjects were tested five days later in a completely new setting. The results of the experiment were that taking the class over a period of four days was much more effective than taking it in one single mass. Interestingly, the group that took the course over four days and in different rooms performed the best in the final retention test out of all the groups." This shows that spacing out study sessions and studying in different environments helps with retention as it provides time for the brain to consolidate the information without being interrupted by new information. The benefits of spacing were also demonstrated in an earlier study by Reder and Anderson (1982) which yielded similar results, confirming the spacing effect’s relevance and effects on learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21312297 | 707,731 |
910,498 | The mathematization of economics began in earnest in the 19th century. Most of the economic analysis of the time was what would later be called classical economics. Subjects were discussed and dispensed with through algebraic means, but calculus was not used. More importantly, until Johann Heinrich von Thünen's "The Isolated State" in 1826, economists did not develop explicit and abstract models for behavior in order to apply the tools of mathematics. Thünen's model of farmland use represents the first example of marginal analysis. Thünen's work was largely theoretical, but he also mined empirical data in order to attempt to support his generalizations. In comparison to his contemporaries, Thünen built economic models and tools, rather than applying previous tools to new problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18967255 | 910,019 |
481,853 | In 1986, Mordechai Vanunu, a former technician at Dimona, fled to the United Kingdom and revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program and explained the purposes of each building, also revealing a top-secret underground facility directly below the installation. The Mossad, Israel's secret service, sent a female agent named Cheryl Bentov (née Hanin) who lured Vanunu to Italy, where he was arrested by Mossad agents and smuggled to Israel aboard a freighter. An Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of treason and espionage, and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment. At the time of Vanunu's arrest, "The Times" reported that Israel had material for approximately 20 hydrogen bombs and 200 fission bombs by 1986. In the spring of 2004, Vanunu was released from prison, and placed under several strict restrictions, such as the denial of a passport, freedom of movement limitations and restrictions on communications with the press. Since his release, he has been rearrested and charged multiple times for violations of the terms of his release. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5168261 | 481,609 |
1,789,856 | The selfless contributions of people like Dr. Curtis Hanson, who proposed this program and subsequently served 24 years as the Orthopaedic Residency Program chief, created a rich heritage for the medical community in Kalamazoo. Given the success of the ortho residency and a shared desire to strengthen graduate medical education in Kalamazoo, in 1973 both hospitals agreed to form a joint venture, non-profit organization devoted to medical education: the Southwestern Michigan Area Health Education Center (SMAHEC). SMAHEC's corporate structure was not conducive to responding to national changes in health care. In 1989, the organization restructured, with the College of Human Medicine at Michigan State University added as a corporate partner, and reemerged under a new name: Michigan State University Kalamazoo Center for Medical Studies (MSU/KCMS) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40473374 | 1,788,850 |
532,635 | Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT) is a software engineering methodology for describing systems as a hierarchy of functions, a diagrammatic notation for constructing a sketch for a software application. It offers building blocks to represent entities and activities, and a variety of arrows to relate boxes. These boxes and arrows have an associated informal semantics. SADT can be used as a functional analysis tool of a given process, using successive levels of details. The SADT method allows to define user needs for IT developments, which is used in industrial Information Systems, but also to explain and to present an activity’s manufacturing processes, procedures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19433066 | 532,356 |
1,043,529 | The van Genuchten parameters (formula_7 and formula_9) can be determined through field or laboratory testing. One of the methods is the instantaneous profile method, where water content formula_13 (or effective saturation formula_14) are determined for a series of suction pressure measurements formula_15. Due to the non-linearity of the equation, numerical techniques such as the non-linear least-squares method can be used to solve the van Genuchten parameters. The accuracy of the estimated parameters will depend on the quality of the acquired dataset (formula_13 and formula_15). When water retention curves are fitted with non-linear least squares, structural overestimation or underestimation can occur. In these cases, the representation of water retention curves can be improved in terms of accuracy and uncertainty by applying Gaussian Process regression to the residuals that are obtained after non-linear least-squares. This is mostly due to the correlation between the datapoints, which is accounted for with Gaussian Process regression through the kernel function. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3423123 | 1,042,985 |
1,854,437 | This differs from other forms of indirect defense in that the fungi live within the plant cells and directly alter their physiology. In contrast, other biotic defenses such as predators or parasites of the herbivores consuming a plant are normally attracted by volatile organic compounds (known as semiochemicals) released following damage or by food rewards and shelter produced by the plant. These defenders vary in the time spent with the plant: from long enough to oviposit to remaining there for numerous generations, as in the ant-acacia mutualism. Endophytic fungi tend to live with the plant over its entire life. The endophytic fungi grow in the intercellular spaces of the plants, parallel to the leaves and stems, as elongated and thinly-dispersed branched hyphae. The fungal hyphae penetrates the host plant's embryo and grows along the seeds to infect the new plants that will grow from the seeds, which is a process of transmission that is known as vertical transmission. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31533830 | 1,853,371 |
108,308 | There are several mechanisms which may explain the relationship between obesity and decreased vitamin B status. Vitamin B is a major dietary methyl donor, involved in the one-carbon cycle of metabolism and a recent genome-wide association (GWA) analysis showed that increased DNA methylation is associated with increased BMI in adults, consequently a deficiency of vitamin B may disrupt DNA methylation and increase non- communicable disease risk. Vitamin B is also a co-enzyme which converts methylmalonyl- CoA to succinyl-CoA in the one carbon cycle. If this reaction cannot occur, methylmalonyl- CoA levels elevate, inhibiting the rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid oxidation (CPT1 – carnitine palmitoyl transferase), leading to lipogenesis and insulin resistance. Further to this, reduced vitamin B concentrations in the obese population is thought to result from repetitive short-term restrictive diets and increased vitamin B requirements secondary to increased growth and body surface area. It has also been hypothesised that low vitamin B concentrations in obese individuals are a result of wrong feeding habits, where individuals consume a diet low in micronutrient density. Finally, vitamin B is involved in the production of red blood cells, and vitamin B deficiency can result in anemia, which causes fatigue and the lack of motivation to exercise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12742560 | 108,263 |
372,699 | Although ∆-THC functions similarly to Δ-THC in many ways, it appears to be only two-thirds as psychoactive. This may be because it binds differently to CB1, the cannabinoid receptor that regulates much of THC’s mind-altering effect. ∆-THC may cause increased heart rate, reddening of the eyes, dizziness, dryness of the mouth and throat, paresthesia, tinnitus, increased body awareness, weakness, muscle tension or tremor, reduced motor coordination, fatigue, sleepiness, changes in visual perception, altered visual imagery, enhancement of colors or contrasts, time distortion, changes in auditory perception, euphoria, tranquility, relaxation, racing thoughts, dreamy introspective states, or difficulty in thinking, speaking, reading, or remembering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65807046 | 372,504 |
1,687,862 | On 9 July, "Novara" led a force which included "87 F" and two "Kaiman"-class torpedo boats in another night raid on the Otranto Barrage which resulted in the sinking of two drifters. The following day, "75 T" exchanged fire with four enemy warships. On 31 July, the Italian submarine stranded on rocks in the Bay of Fiume. The Austro-Hungarians attempted to salvage her, but she sank while under tow. One of the ships involved in her attempted salvage was "50 E", which was unsuccessfully attacked by the Italian submarine during the operation. On the night of 1/2 August, the "Huszár"-class destroyers and "Wildfang" conducted a shore bombardment of Molfetta on the southern Adriatic coast of Italy, covered by the cruiser , "80 T" and "85 F". On the return trip they exchanged fire at extreme range with four Italian destroyers that were trying to intercept them. A further group of Allied vessels led by the Italian protected cruiser and HMS "Liverpool", accompanied by four destroyers and six torpedo boats. The Austro-Hungarian submarine unsuccessfully engaged "Nino Bixio", and the Austro-Hungarian force withdrew before the cruisers closed to gun range. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46387997 | 1,686,916 |
1,815,597 | Assistive devices are any machines or equipment used to level the playing field in a mixed-ability competition, or to allow someone the opportunity to participate that could not do so without its benefit. Good examples of assistive devices are swimming pool lifts that lower non-ambulatory swimmers into a pool, and standing frames that allow wheelchair users to stand up while playing ball. Many municipal governments in the U.S. use adaptive recreation as a way to meet the requirements of the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA), specifically its section dealing with public services. Governments are required by ADA law to provide reasonable accommodation to people with disabilities in order to allow them participation in sports and recreation programs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3718054 | 1,814,563 |
909,760 | On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag fire occurred and Diels was the main interrogator of the principal accused, Marinus van der Lubbe. He told Hitler he thought that the fire was set by this single man. However, Hitler was convinced it was the Communists. Diels attracted the attention of political rivals, including SS chief Heinrich Himmler and his deputy, Reinhard Heydrich. In 1933 and 1934, Himmler and Heydrich took over the political police of state after state. Soon only Prussia was left outside their control. Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to effectively counteract the power of the "Sturmabteilung" (SA), Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934. Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia. Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SS Security Service ("Sicherheitsdienst," SD). Effectively smeared, but with Göring's aid, Diels narrowly avoided execution during the Night of the Long Knives in the summer of 1934, fleeing his post for five weeks. Thereafter, he was briefly Deputy Police President of Berlin before being appointed "Regierungspräsident" (administrative president) of the local government of Cologne in 1934. Diels was then appointed administrative president of Hannover in 1936. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=200742 | 909,281 |
723,253 | Wilson, in 2003, assigned "Rajasaurus" to the subfamily Carnotaurinae, being more closely related to abelisaurids like "Majungasaurus" and the South American "Carnotaurus" than to African abelisaurids–as Africa, he believed, had separated from Gondwana first, and South America, India, and Madagascar were connected via Antarctica–on the basis of several similarities such as the presence of a sagittal crest, neck vertebrae with two air pockets, the configuration of the nasal bones, a fleshy growth ("excrescence") on the frontal bone, and a thick skull roof. However, if this were the case, then African abelisaurids would display endemism and not "Rajasaurus". In 2008, palaeontologist Matthew Carrano created the subfamily Brachyrostra for South American abelisaurids as a sister taxon to Carnotaurinae, with the abelisaurids migrating through the Gondwanan continents via small land connections as they broke apart until they were completely separated in the Middle Cretaceous. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1407252 | 722,873 |
660,295 | Mann has been organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences 'Frontiers of Science' and has served as a committee member or advisor for other National Academy of Sciences panels. He served as editor for the "Journal of Climate" and has been a member of numerous international and U.S. scientific advisory panels and steering groups. By 2010 he was the lead author or co-author of over 90 scientific publications, the majority of which had appeared in leading peer-reviewed scientific journals: as of 2016, his biographical sketch stated that he was author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications. Between 1999 and 2010 he served as principal or co-principal investigator on five research projects funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and four more funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). He was also co-investigator on other projects funded by the NOAA, NSF, Department of Energy, United States Agency for International Development, and the Office of Naval Research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=345811 | 659,950 |
1,853,413 | Galena is the official state mineral of Missouri and lead mining began in the 1720s in Madison County, spearheaded by French miners. The state is the leading extractor of lead in the U.S., both from galena and sphalerite. The minerals are sourced from Mississippi Valley Type deposits, deposited through hydrothermal activity. The Old Lead Belt and Tri-State Area were mined significantly before World War II, with new deposits found since in the southeast. The new deposit is known as the Viburnum Trend and spans Iron County and Reynolds County, with secondary production of copper, cadmium and silver, housed in the Bonneterre Dolomite between 600 and 1500 feet deep. During the late Cambrian, stromatalite beds shielded carbonates forming below and created a permeable interface for mineralization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58628104 | 1,852,351 |
964,170 | In 2002, a collection of positive characterizations summarizing what the embodiment thesis entails for cognition were offered. Margaret Wilson argues that the general outlook of embodied cognition "displays an interesting co-variation of multiple observations and houses a number of different claims: (1) cognition is situated; (2) cognition is time-pressured; (3) we off-load cognitive work onto the environment; (4) the environment is part of the cognitive system; (5) cognition is for action; (6) offline cognition is bodily-based". According to Wilson, the first three and the fifth claim appear to be at least partially true, while the fourth claim is deeply problematic in that all things that have an impact on the elements of a system are not necessarily considered part of the system. The sixth claim has received the least attention in the literature on embodied cognition, yet it might be the most significant of the six claims as it shows how certain human cognitive capabilities, that previously were thought to be highly abstract, now appear to be leaning towards an embodied approach for their explanation. Wilson also describes at least five main (abstract) categories that combine both sensory and motor skills (or sensorimotor functions). The first three are working memory, episodic memory, and implicit memory; the fourth is mental imagery, and finally, the fifth concerns reasoning and problem—solving. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33034640 | 963,661 |
7,636 | Social science is the study of human behavior and functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programs such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26700 | 7,633 |
760,060 | During the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis, Russian special forces used an unidentified gas (thought to be 3-methylfentanyl or another fentanyl variant dissolved in halothane gas) in an attempt to induce sleep in both hostages and terrorists. Many of the hostages and terrorists (including all of the suicide bombers) were anesthetized, but some terrorists donned gas masks and thus were able to avoid the effects of the gas. Because the agent used was a potent Fentanyl derivative (a synthetic opioid), it causes respiratory depression and ultimately respiratory failure if administered in high enough dosages. The central nervous system effects, such as anesthesia and respiratory depression could have been reversed by an opioid antagonist such as naloxone, which is stocked by hospitals and most ambulances. However, because the Russian authorities did not release any information regarding what type of agent was used, medical professionals were unaware that an opioid had been used during the rescue attempt and thus were unable to administer the antidote which could have saved most hostages. Approximately 700 hostages were rescued, while 130 died from exposure to the gas. All the terrorists were ultimately killed by Russian forces through some combination of gas exposure and gunfire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=146808 | 759,654 |
218,208 | Finally, on 1 March 1922, the University College, Johannesburg, was granted full university status after being incorporated as the University of the Witwatersrand. The Johannesburg municipality donated a site in Milner Park, north-west of Braamfontein, to the new institution as its campus and construction began the same year, on 4 October. The first Chancellor of the new university was Prince Arthur of Connaught and the first Principal (a position that would be merged with that of Vice-Chancellor in 1948) was Professor Jan Hofmeyr. Hofmeyr set the tone of the university's subsequent opposition to apartheid when, during his inaugural address as Principal he declared, while discussing the nature of a university and its desired function in a democracy, that universities "should know no distinctions of class, wealth, race or creed". True to Hofmeyr's words, from the outset Wits was an open university with a policy of non-discrimination on racial or any other grounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=320467 | 218,100 |
1,112,359 | Most fern species (with a few exceptions, namely the Salvineales) are homosporous and lack sex chromosomes. Lacking genetic information coding for separate sexes, every fern spore has the capacity to become a male, female, or hermaphroditic gametophyte depending on the environment. In many fern species, including "Ceratopteris richardii", environmental sex determination is linked to breeding systems. Fern gametophytes exhibit a wide variety of breed systems which can be divided into outcrossing and inbreeding. To promote outcrossing, female gametophytes release a chemical pheromone known as Antheridiogen which controls the sex of nearby developing gametophytes. Antheridiogen secreted by females promotes the development of nearby asexual gametophytes into males. This is adaptive because inducing maleness increases the probability of outcrossing as males provide sperm for the females rather than the females becoming hermaphroditic (or bisexual) and self-fertilizing. However, if no fertilization occurs, the female gametophyte can still become hermaphroditic and self-fertilize if the conditions are conducive to growth, ultimately resulting in inbreeding depression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11204265 | 1,111,793 |
861,827 | In Bangladesh, Cambodia, and Indonesia, there is a diagnostic treatment for latent tuberculosis in children below 5 years of age. The IGRA approach (Interferon Gamma Release Assay) is used in these countries. IGRA testing and diagnosis are whole blood cell tests where fresh blood samples are mixed with antigens and controls. A person infected with tuberculosis will have interferon-gammas in the blood stream when mixed with the antigen. It is a highly accurate but expensive test and is technologically complex for immuno-compromised patients. These developing countries were unable to get rid of tuberculosis effectively because the national health policies did not cover screening and testing for tuberculosis. There were also no programs in place to educate citizens and provide training for healthcare workers. Without the mobilization of sufficient resources and the backing of sustainable government funding, these developing countries failed to adequately provide the treatment and resources necessary to combat tuberculosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1330683 | 861,368 |
666,754 | Plants possess the ability to sense gravity in several ways, one of which is through statoliths. Statoliths are dense amyloplasts, organelles that synthesize and store starch involved in the perception of gravity by the plant (gravitropism), that collect in specialized cells called statocytes. Statocytes are located in the starch parenchyma cells near vascular tissues in the shoots and in the columella in the caps of the roots. These specialized amyloplasts are denser than the cytoplasm and can sediment according to the gravity vector. The statoliths are enmeshed in a web of actin and it is thought that their sedimentation transmits the gravitropic signal by activating mechanosensitive channels. The gravitropic signal then leads to the reorientation of auxin efflux carriers and subsequent redistribution of auxin streams in the root cap and root as a whole. Auxin moves toward higher concentrations on the bottom side of the root and suppresses elongation. The asymmetric distribution of auxin leads to differential growth of the root tissues, causing the root to curve and follow the gravity stimuli. Statoliths are also found in the endodermic layer of the hypocotyl, stem, and inflorescence stock. The redistribution of auxin causes increased growth on the lower side of the shoot so that it orients in a direction opposite that of the gravity stimuli. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1460958 | 666,406 |
197,327 | A wide variety of different sectors uses products containing 2,4-D to kill weeds and unwanted vegetation. In agriculture, it was the first herbicide found to be capable of selectively killing weeds but not crops. It has been used since 1945 to control broad-leafed weeds in pastures, orchards, and cereal crops such as corn, oats, rice, and wheat. Cereals, in particular, have excellent tolerance to 2,4-D when it is applied before planting. 2,4-D is the cheapest way for farmers to control winter annual weeds by spraying in the fall, often at the lowest recommended rate. This is particularly effective before planting beans, peas, lentils, and chickpeas. The estimated use of 2,4-D in US agriculture is mapped by the US Geological Survey. In 2019, the latest date for which figures are available, this reached annually. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33084611 | 197,226 |
924,408 | AIP has an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. The dominance pattern is a result of partial deficiencies from the heme biosynthesis enzymes, hydroxymethylbilane synthase (HMBS; EC 2.5.1.61). Due to the rarity of this disease it is difficult to estimate the prevalence of AIP and the inclusion criteria differs widely among studies causing varying statistics. AIP has a low penetrance when considering the general population, but within families the penetrance increases. This is indicative of another interaction affecting the inheritance pattern. It is speculated that this pattern is due to AIP propensity caused by the inheritance of an additional gene mutation, HMBS, in addition to other genetic and environmental influences. There have been 421 HMBS mutations that have been linked to AIP. This suggests that AIP inheritance instead follows an oligogenic or polygenic inheritance pattern. Research shows that HMBS mutations are estimated to occur in approximately 1 in 1700 caucasians (there is not enough data in other populations) while AIP symptoms are shown to be present in approximately 1 in 200,000 caucasians. It can be inferred that the penetrance of AIP is approximately 1% of the HMBS heterozygous community, concluding that there are other factors needed to induce AIP symptoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2788395 | 923,922 |
149,642 | In the 1950s, Calder concentrated more on producing monumental sculptures (his "agrandissements" period), and public commissions increasingly came his way in the 1960s. Notable examples are ".125" (1957) for JFK Airport in New York, "Spirale" (1958) for UNESCO in Paris, and "Trois disques", commissioned for Expo 67 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Calder's largest sculpture, at 25.7 meters high, was "El Sol Rojo", constructed outside the Estadio Azteca for the 1968 Summer Olympics "Cultural Olympiad" events in Mexico City. Many of his public artworks were commissioned by renowned architects; for example, I.M. Pei commissioned "La Grande Voile", a 25-ton, 40-foot high stabile sculpture for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1966. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=213216 | 149,574 |
1,931,036 | The outbreak of World War II interrupted the activities of War College only for several months. Order of the Supreme Commander of 11 November 1940, resumed its activities initially in London (United Kingdom) and later in Scotland. To the War College in Exile were appointed officers – in ranks of lieutenants and captains. Students were also the Czechoslovak army officers. The purpose of education was to prepare personnel to serve in the brigade and division staffs of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. The program and methods of education were similar to those from the period War College in Warsaw. School received establishment to the exercises, instructions and other normative documents from the British armed forces, allowing joint operations. School staff were officers of the Polish Commander of Staff. The activities of the War College in Exile was halted in July 1946. After the World War II, traditions of higher military education were continued in the Poland. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1948704 | 1,929,928 |
944,957 | In 1974, the factory team ran Howden Ganley until he left, having signed with Maki as their number-one driver. Then March ran Hans-Joachim Stuck in a Jägermeister-sponsored car and Vittorio Brambilla in a Beta Tools-sponsored car. Both drivers were exuberant and occasionally quick, but proved expensive in terms of accident damage. BMW was starting to exert pressure on March to quit F1 and concentrate on F2. Patrick Depailler took the F2 championship in an Elf-sponsored March-BMW, the marque's last title for several years as the Elf sponsorship programme and (in 1976) the arrival of Renault engines turned the formula into a French benefit. Some discontent arose in the March customer ranks in F2 since the works appeared after the first couple of F2 races with cars that differed significantly from the customer vehicles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1347020 | 944,455 |
1,671,930 | The history of testing, inspection and certification services spans back several centuries. In the late 19th century, following the advent of the industrial revolution and the considerable risks involved with high-pressure steam boilers, specialized institutions emerged across Europe which carried out periodical inspections of such vessels to assess their overall condition as a precautionary measure to avoid large and often deadly damages. Likewise, several of today's leading TIC companies started as classification societies in the 18th and 19th century to provide information to shipping underwriters on the condition of ships and equipment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56319253 | 1,670,989 |
1,331,374 | The "English School" derived from work by Cliff Jones on the aspects of VDM not specifically related to language definition and compiler design (Jones 1980, 1990). It stresses modelling persistent state through the use of data types constructed from a rich collection of base types. Functionality is typically described through operations which may have side-effects on the state and which are mostly specified implicitly using a precondition and postcondition. The "Danish School" (Bjørner "et al." 1982) has tended to stress a constructive approach with explicit operational specification used to a greater extent. Work in the Danish school led to the first European validated Ada compiler. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=140583 | 1,330,645 |
410,780 | The physico-theological proof of God's existence is supposed to be based on "a posteriori" sensed experience of nature and not on mere " a priori" abstract concepts. It observes that the objects in the world have been intentionally arranged with great wisdom. The fitness of this arrangement could never have occurred randomly, without purpose. The world must have been caused by an intelligent power. The unity of the relation between all of the parts of the world leads us to infer that there is only one cause of everything. That one cause is a perfect, mighty, wise, and self-sufficient Being. This physico-theology does not, however, prove with certainty the existence of God. For this, we need something absolutely necessary that consequently has all-embracing reality, but this is the Cosmological Proof, which concludes that an all-encompassing real Being has absolutely necessary existence. All three proofs can be reduced to the Ontological Proof, which tried to make an objective reality out of a subjective concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=347543 | 410,578 |
1,502,903 | Urban climatology came about as a methodology for studying the results of industrialization and urbanization. Constructing cities changes the physical environment and alters energy, moisture, and motion regimes near the surface. Most of these alterations can be traced to causal factors such as air pollution; anthropogenic sources of heat; surface waterproofing; thermal properties of the surface materials; and morphology of the surface and its specific three-dimensional geometry—building spacing, height, orientation, vegetative layering, and the overall dimensions and geography of these elements. Other factors are relief, proximity to water bodies, size of the city, population density, and land-use distributions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2803548 | 1,502,057 |
1,049,092 | The following table is modelled on Ebrey's "Estate and Family Management in the Later Han as Seen in the Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People" (1974). Ebrey writes: "... the same item was often bought and sold at different times of the year. The rationale for this is very clearly financial: items were bought when the price was low and sold when it was high." The specific amounts for each commodity traded are not listed, yet the timing of sale and purchase during the year is the most valuable information for historians. Missing from Cui Shi's list are important items which his family certainly bought and sold at specific times of the year, such as salt, iron farm tools and kitchen utensils, paper and ink (the papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun in 105 AD), as well as luxury items of silk and exotic foods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21423531 | 1,048,547 |
726,391 | The cytoplasmic sleeve is a fluid-filled space enclosed by the plasmalemma and is a continuous extension of the cytosol. Trafficking of molecules and ions through plasmodesmata occurs through this space. Smaller molecules (e.g. sugars and amino acids) and ions can easily pass through plasmodesmata by diffusion without the need for additional chemical energy. Larger molecules, including proteins (for example green fluorescent protein) and RNA, can also pass through the cytoplasmic sleeve diffusively. Plasmodesmatal transport of some larger molecules is facilitated by mechanisms that are currently unknown. One mechanism of regulation of the permeability of plasmodesmata is the accumulation of the polysaccharide callose around the neck region to form a collar, thereby reducing the diameter of the pore available for transport of substances. Through dilation, active gating or structural remodeling the permeability of the plasmodesmata is increased. This increase in plasmodesmata pore permeability allows for larger molecules, or macromolecules, such as signaling molecules, transcription factors and RNA-protein complexes to be transported to various cellular compartments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1814677 | 726,010 |
1,925,708 | Avian reovirus can be transmitted both vertically and horizontally. Egg transmission has been observed after experimental infection, however the rate of transmission is very low. Congenitally infected chicks are assumed to act as a nucleus of infection for the rest of the hatch due to their high probability of becoming infected through the fecal-oral route or through the respiratory tract. Infection may also enter through the exposure of broken skin of the feet or legs of the chickens, where it then can become established in the hock joints. Once the infection has entered the body, avian reovirus can survive in the tissues of chickens for many weeks. Resistance to reovirus infections in chickens is directly related to age. Chicks that are infected one day after birth are more prone to experimentally synthesized tenosynovitis/arthritis than those that were infected at two weeks or older. Chicks that were infected a day after birth also displayed a development of more severe joint lesions and higher intestinal virus titers than those who were infected at two weeks of age. Infectious agents, which increase the pathogenicity of reovirus in the joints of chicken, include "Mycoplasma synoviae", "Staphylococcus aureus", infectious bursal disease virus, and chicken anemia virus. Avian reoviruses are also typically resistant to certain disinfectants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32762262 | 1,924,604 |
962,465 | Isaac Newton's formulation of a gravitational force law requires that each particle with mass respond instantaneously to every other particle with mass irrespective of the distance between them. In modern terms, Newtonian gravitation is described by the Poisson equation, according to which, when the mass distribution of a system changes, its gravitational field instantaneously adjusts. Therefore, the theory assumes the speed of gravity to be infinite. This assumption was adequate to account for all phenomena with the observational accuracy of that time. It was not until the 19th century that an anomaly in astronomical observations which could not be reconciled with the Newtonian gravitational model of instantaneous action was noted: the French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier determined in 1859 that the elliptical orbit of Mercury precesses at a significantly different rate from that predicted by Newtonian theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13478488 | 961,956 |
1,984,523 | Armstrong pursued further studies under Hermann Kolbe at Leipzig, earning a PhD in 1869 for work on "acids of sulfur." He returned to London and worked under Augustus Matthiessen in the medical school of St Bartholomew's Hospital, in charge of chemistry classes for students taking the London degree. A permanent appointment in 1879 at City and Guilds of London Institute, now also a part of Imperial College, followed. At age 36, Armstrong became Professor of Chemistry at yet another Imperial College precursor, the Central Institution in 1884. It was here that he established a three-year diploma course in chemical engineering, "seeing the need for a more scientific attitude of mind among British industrialists" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4603732 | 1,983,384 |
453,275 | A more straightforward but technically advanced definition using class field theory, constructs automorphic forms and their correspondent functions as embeddings of Galois groups to their underlying global field extensions. In this formulation, automorphic forms are certain finite invariants, mapping from the idele class group under the Artin reciprocity law. Herein, the analytical structure of its L-function allows for generalizations with various algebro-geometric properties; and the resultant Langlands program. To oversimplify, automorphic forms in this general perspective, are analytic functionals quantifying the invariance of number fields in a most abstract sense, therefore indicating the 'primitivity' of their fundamental structure. Allowing a powerful mathematical tool for analyzing the invariant constructs of virtually any numerical structure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=782146 | 453,054 |
1,062,913 | Life aboard the space station is distinct from terrestrial life in some very interesting ways. Astronauts commonly "float" objects to one another; for example they will give a clipboard an initial nudge and it will coast to its receiver across the room. In fact, an astronaut can become so accustomed to this habit that they forget that it doesn't work anymore when they return to Earth. The diet of ISS spacefarers is a combination of participating nations' space food. Each astronaut selects a personalized menu before flight. Many food choices reflect the cultural differences of the astronauts, such as bacon and eggs vs. fish products for breakfast (for the US and Russia, respectively). More recently such delicacies as Japanense beef curry, kimchi, and swordfish (Riviera style) have been featured on the orbiting outpost. As much of ISS food is dehydrated or sealed in pouches MRE-style, astronauts are quite excited to get relatively fresh food from shuttle and Progress resupply missions. Food is stored in packages that facilitate eating in microgravity by | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23516569 | 1,062,359 |
1,492,969 | A superintelligent AI with access to the Internet could hack into other computer systems and copy itself like a computer virus. Less obviously, even if the AI only had access to its own computer operating system, it could attempt to send coded messages to a human sympathizer via its hardware, for instance by manipulating its cooling fans. In response, Professor Roman Yampolskiy takes inspiration from the field of computer security and proposes that a boxed AI could, like a potential virus, be run inside a "virtual machine" that limits access to its own networking and operating system hardware. An additional safeguard, completely unnecessary for potential viruses but possibly useful for a superintelligent AI, would be to place the computer in a Faraday cage; otherwise, it might be able to transmit radio signals to local radio receivers by shuffling the electrons in its internal circuits in appropriate patterns. The main disadvantage of implementing physical containment is that it reduces the functionality of the AI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31641770 | 1,492,130 |
1,070,388 | Cauliflower mosaic virus possesses a number of mechanisms that allow it to counteract host plant cell defenses. While the pregenomic 35S RNA is responsible for genome replication by reverse transcriptase, it also contains a non-coding 600 base pair leader sequence that serves as an important mRNA for the production of factors involved in viral counter-defense. A number of hosts of CaMV possess small RNA-based viral silencing mechanisms that serve to limit viral infection. The products of the aforementioned 600-bp sequence are viral small RNAs (vsRNA) of 21, 22, and 24 nucleotides in length that serve as decoys, binding and inactivating effectors of host silencing machinery, such as Argonaute 1 (AGO1). As proof-of-principle, experimental overexpression of these vsRNAs allows for increased viral accumulation in infected plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=551284 | 1,069,834 |
1,521,589 | The very first generation computational phantoms were developed to address the need to better assess organ doses from internally deposited radioactive materials in workers and patients. Until the late 1950s, the ICRP still used very simple models. In these calculations, each organ of the body was assumed to be represented as a sphere with an "effective radius". The radionuclide of interest was assumed to be located at the center of the sphere and the "effective absorbed energy" was calculated for each organ. Phantoms such as the Shepp-Logan Phantom were used as models of a human head in the development and testing of image reconstruction algorithms. However, scientists attempted to model individual organs of the body and ultimately the entire human body in a realistic manner, the efforts of which led to stylized anthropomorphic phantoms that resemble the human anatomy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31787413 | 1,520,728 |
371,037 | Automatic digital modulation recognition in intelligent communication systems is one of the most important issues in software-defined radio and cognitive radio. According to incremental expanse of intelligent receivers, automatic modulation recognition becomes a challenging topic in telecommunication systems and computer engineering. Such systems have many civil and military applications. Moreover, blind recognition of modulation type is an important problem in commercial systems, especially in software-defined radio. Usually in such systems, there are some extra information for system configuration, but considering blind approaches in intelligent receivers, we can reduce information overload and increase transmission performance. Obviously, with no knowledge of the transmitted data and many unknown parameters at the receiver, such as the signal power, carrier frequency and phase offsets, timing information, etc., blind identification of the modulation is made fairly difficult. This becomes even more challenging in real-world scenarios with multipath fading, frequency-selective and time-varying channels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20637 | 370,843 |
112,924 | Summative assessments are more common in classrooms and are usually set up to be more easily graded, as they take the form of tests or projects with specific grading schemes. One huge benefit of tech-based testing is the option to give students immediate feedback on their answers. When students get these responses, they are able to know how they are doing in the class which can help push them to improve or give them confidence that they are doing well. Technology also allows for different kinds of summative assessment, such as digital presentations, videos, or anything else the teacher/students may come up with, which allows different learners to show what they learned more effectively. Teachers can also use technology to post graded assessments online so students to have a better idea of what a good project is. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1944675 | 112,879 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.