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Two Sides of the Moon ( 1975 )
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= CryoSat @-@ 2 =
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CryoSat @-@ 2 is a European Space Agency environmental research satellite which was launched in April 2010 . It provides scientists with data about the polar ice caps and tracks changes in the thickness of the ice with a resolution of about 1 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 1 ⁄ 2 in ) .
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CryoSat @-@ 2 was built as a replacement for CryoSat @-@ 1 , whose Rokot carrier rocket was unable to achieve orbit . Compared to its predecessor , CryoSat @-@ 2 features software upgrades , greater battery capacity and an updated instrument package . Its main instrument is an interferometric radar range @-@ finder wi... |
CryoSat @-@ 2 is operated as part of the CryoSat programme to study the Earth 's polar ice caps , which is itself part of the Living Planet programme . The CryoSat @-@ 2 spacecraft was constructed by EADS Astrium , and was launched by ISC Kosmotras , using a Dnepr @-@ 1 carrier rocket , on 8 April 2010 . On 22 October... |
= = Background = =
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The initial proposal for the CryoSat programme was submitted as part of a call for proposals in July 1998 for Earth Explorer missions as part of the European Space Agency 's Living Planet programme . It was selected for further studies in 1999 , and following completion of a feasibility study the mission was authorise... |
Construction of the original spacecraft was completed in August 2004 . Following testing the spacecraft was shipped to the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in August 2005 , and arrived on 1 September . The launch occurred from Site 133 / 3 on 8 October , however due to a missing command in the rocket 's flight control system , the... |
Due to the importance of the CryoSat mission for understanding global warming and reductions in polar ice caps , a replacement satellite was proposed . The development of CryoSat @-@ 2 was authorised in February 2006 , less than five months after the failure .
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= = Development = =
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Like its predecessor , CryoSat @-@ 2 was constructed by EADS Astrium , with its main instrument being built by Thales Alenia Space . Construction and testing of the spacecraft 's primary instrument was completed by February 2008 , when it was shipped for integration with the rest of the spacecraft . In August 2009 , t... |
CryoSat @-@ 2 is an almost @-@ identical copy of the original spacecraft , however modifications were made including the addition of a backup radar altimeter . In total , 85 improvements were made to the spacecraft when it was rebuilt .
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= = Supporting Measurements : CRYOVEX = =
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It was clear from the beginning of the CryoSat programme that an extensive series of measurements would be needed , both to understand interaction of the radar waves with the surface of the ice caps and to relate the measured freeboard of floating sea ice with its thickness . This latter , in particular , would have t... |
Following the announcement that CryoSat @-@ 2 would be built the CRYOVEX programme was extended . Experiments were conducted in Antarctica to determine how snow could affect its readings , and to provide data for calibrating the satellite . In January 2007 the European Space Agency issued a request for proposals for f... |
= = Final preparations = =
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When it was approved in February 2006 , the launch of CryoSat @-@ 2 was planned for March 2009 . It was originally planned that like its predecessor it would be launched by a Rokot , however due to a lack of available launches a Dnepr @-@ 1 rocket was selected instead . ISC Kosmotras were contracted to perform the lau... |
The Dnepr rocket assigned to launch CryoSat @-@ 2 arrived at the Baikonur Cosmodrome by train on 29 December 2009 . On 12 January 2010 , the first two stages of the rocket were loaded into the launch canister , and the canister was prepared for transportation to the launch site . On 14 January , it was rolled out to S... |
Following the completion of its construction , CryoSat @-@ 2 was placed into storage to await launch . In January 2010 , the spacecraft was removed from storage , and shipped to Baikonur for launch . It departed Munich Franz Josef Strauss Airport aboard an Antonov An @-@ 124 aircraft on 12 January , and arrived at Bai... |
During final testing , engineers detected that the spacecraft 's X band ( NATO H / I / J bands ) communications antenna was transmitting only a tiny fraction of the power that it should . Thermal imaging showed that the waveguide to the antenna , deep inside the spacecraft , was very hot . Clearly that was where the m... |
On 4 February , the CryoSat @-@ 2 spacecraft was fuelled for launch . Then on 10 February it was attached to the payload adaptor , and encapsulated in the payload fairing , to form a unit known as the Space Head Module . This was transported to the launch pad by means of a vehicle known as the crocodile , and installe... |
= = Launch = =
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When the spacecraft was installed atop the Dnepr , launch was scheduled to occur on 25 February , at 13 : 57 UTC . Prior to this , a practice countdown was scheduled for 19 February . Several hours before the practice was scheduled to begin ISC Kosmotras announced that the launch had been delayed , and as a result the... |
Following the delay , the Space Head Module was removed from the rocket , and returned to its integration building on 22 February . Whilst it was in the integration building , daily inspections were made to ensure that the spacecraft was still functioning normally . Once the fuel issue had been resolved , the launch w... |
CryoSat @-@ 2 was launched at 13 : 57 : 04 UTC on 8 April 2010 . Following a successful launch , CryoSat @-@ 2 separated from the upper stage of the Dnepr into a low Earth orbit . The first signals from the satellite were detected by a ground station at the Broglio Space Centre in Malindi , Kenya , seventeen minutes a... |
= = Mission = =
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CryoSat @-@ 2 's mission is to study the Earth 's polar ice caps , measuring , and looking for variation in , the thickness of the ice . Its mission is identical to that of the original CryoSat .
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The primary instruments aboard CryoSat @-@ 2 are SIRAL @-@ 2 , the SAR / Interferometric Radar Altimeters ; which uses radar to determine and monitor the spacecraft 's altitude in order to measure the elevation of the ice . Unlike the original CryoSat , two SIRAL instruments are installed aboard CryoSat @-@ 2 , with o... |
A second instrument , Doppler Orbit and Radio Positioning Integration by Satellite , or DORIS , is used to calculate precisely the spacecraft 's orbit . An array of retroreflectors are also carried aboard the spacecraft , and allow measurements to be made from the ground to verify the orbital data provided by DORIS . ... |
Following launch , CryoSat @-@ 2 was placed into a low Earth orbit with a perigee of 720 kilometres ( 450 mi ) , an apogee of 732 kilometres ( 455 mi ) , 92 degrees of inclination and an orbital period of 99 @.@ 2 minutes . It had a mass at launch of 750 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) , and is expected to operate for at l... |
Launch and Early Orbit Phase operations were completed in the morning of 11 April 2010 , and SIRAL @-@ 2 was activated later the same day . At 14 : 40 UTC , the spacecraft returned its first scientific data . Initial data on ice thickness was presented by the mission 's Lead Investigator , Duncan Wingham , at the 2010... |
The exploitation phase of the mission started on the 26 October 2010 under the responsibility of Tommaso Parrinello who is currently the Mission Manager .
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= = Results = =
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Data from CryoSat @-@ 2 has shown 25 @,@ 000 seamounts , with more to come as data is interpreted .
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= German cruiser Admiral Scheer =
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Admiral Scheer was a Deutschland @-@ class heavy cruiser ( often termed a pocket battleship ) which served with the Kriegsmarine of Nazi Germany during World War II . The vessel was named after Admiral Reinhard Scheer , German commander in the Battle of Jutland . She was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in ... |
The ship was nominally under the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limitation on warship size imposed by the Treaty of Versailles , though with a full load displacement of 15 @,@ 180 long tons ( 15 @,@ 420 t ) , she significantly exceeded it . Armed with six 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns in two triple gun turrets , Admiral... |
Admiral Scheer saw heavy service with the German Navy , including a deployment to Spain during the Spanish Civil War , where she bombarded the port of Almería . Her first operation during World War II was a commerce raiding operation into the southern Atlantic Ocean ; she also made a brief foray into the Indian Ocean ... |
= = Design = =
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Admiral Scheer was 186 meters ( 610 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 34 m ( 70 @.@ 0 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 25 m ( 23 @.@ 8 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 13 @,@ 660 t ( 13 @,@ 440 long tons ; 15 @,@ 060 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 15 @,@ 180 long tons ( 15 @,@ 420 t... |
Admiral Scheer 's primary armament was six 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in two triple gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The ship carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns in single turrets grouped amidships . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery origi... |
The ship also carried a pair of quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo launchers placed on her stern . The ship was equipped with two Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Admiral Scheer 's armored belt was 60 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in... |
= = Service history = =
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Admiral Scheer was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . Naval rearmament was not popular with the Social Democrats and the Communists in the German Reichstag , so it was not until 1931 that a bill was passed to build a second Panzerschiff . The money for Panzerschiff B , w... |
At her commissioning in November 1934 , Admiral Scheer was placed under the command of Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Wilhelm Marschall . The ship spent the remainder of 1934 conducting sea trials and training her crew . In 1935 , she had a new catapult and landing sail system to operate her Arado seaplanes on heavy seas ins... |
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
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Admiral Scheer 's first overseas deployment began in July 1936 when she was sent to Spain to evacuate German civilians caught in the midst of the Spanish Civil War . From 8 August 1936 she served together with her sister ship Deutschland on non @-@ intervention patrols off the Republican @-@ held coast of Spain . She ... |
= = = World War II = = =
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At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Admiral Scheer remained at anchor in the Schillig roadstead outside Wilhelmshaven , along with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . On 4 September , two groups of five Bristol Blenheim bombers attacked the ships . The first group surprised the anti @-@ aircraft gunners... |
Admiral Scheer underwent a refit while her sister ships set out on commerce raiding operations in the Atlantic . Admiral Scheer was modified during the early months of 1940 , including the installation of a new , raked clipper bow . The heavy command tower was replaced with a lighter structure , and she was reclassifi... |
= = = = Atlantic sortie = = = =
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Admiral Scheer sailed in October 1940 on her first combat sortie . On the night of 31 October she slipped through the Denmark Strait and broke into the open Atlantic . Her B @-@ Dienst radio intercept equipment identified the convoy HX @-@ 84 , sailing from Halifax Nova Scotia . Admiral Scheer 's Arado seaplanes locat... |
On 18 December , Admiral Scheer encountered and sank the refrigerator ship Duquesa , of some 8 @,@ 651 long tons ( 8 @,@ 790 t ) displacement . The ship sent off a distress signal , which the German raider deliberately allowed , to draw British naval forces to the area . Krancke wanted to lure British warships to the ... |
Between 26 December and 7 January , Admiral Scheer rendezvoused with the supply ships Nordmark and Eurofeld , the auxiliary cruiser Thor , and the prizes Duquesa and Storstad . The raiders transferred some 600 prisoners to Storstad while they refueled from Nordmark and Eurofeld . Between 18 and 20 January Admiral Sche... |
On 14 February , Admiral Scheer rendezvoused with the auxiliary cruiser Atlantis and the supply ship Tannenfels about 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) east of Madagascar . The raiders resupplied from Tannenfels and exchanged information on Allied merchant traffic in the area , parting company on 17 Februa... |
The British cruiser HMS Glasgow , which was patrolling in the area , received both messages from Admiral Scheer 's victims . Glasgow launched reconnaissance aircraft that spotted Admiral Scheer on 22 February . Vice Admiral Ralph Leatham , the commander of the East Indies Station , deployed the carrier Hermes and crui... |
Admiral Scheer then sailed northwards , breaking through the Denmark Strait on 26 – 27 March and evading the cruisers Fiji and Nigeria . She reached Bergen , Norway on 30 March , where she spent a day in the Grimstadfjord . A destroyer escort joined the ship for the voyage to Kiel , which they reached on 1 April . In ... |
= = = = Deployment to Norway = = = =
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On 21 February 1942 , Admiral Scheer , the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , and the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z25 , Z7 Hermann Schoemann , and Z14 Friedrich Ihn steamed to Norway . After stopping briefly in Grimstadfjord , the ships proceeded on to Trondheim . On 23 February , the British submarine T... |
In August 1942 , she conducted Operation Wunderland , a sortie into the Kara Sea to interdict Soviet shipping and attack targets of opportunity . The length of the mission and the distances involved precluded a destroyer escort for the operation ; three destroyers would escort Admiral Scheer until they reached Novaya ... |
The operational plan called for strict radio silence to ensure surprise could be maintained . This required Meendsen @-@ Bohlken to have total tactical and operational control of his ship ; shore @-@ based commands would be unable to direct the mission . On 16 August , Admiral Scheer and her destroyer escort left Narv... |
On 23 October Admiral Scheer , Tirpitz and the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , Z23 , Z28 , and Z29 left Bogen Bay and proceeded to Trondheim . There , Tirpitz stopped for repairs , while Admiral Scheer and Z28 continued on to Germany . Fregattenkapitän Ernst Gruber served as the ship 's acting ... |
= = = = Return to the Baltic = = = =
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KzS Ernst @-@ Ludwig Thienemann , the ship 's final commander , took command of Admiral Scheer in April 1944 . On 22 November 1944 , Admiral Scheer , the destroyers Z25 and Z35 , and the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla relieved the cruiser Prinz Eugen and several destroyers supporting German forces fighting the Soviets on t... |
In early February 1945 , Admiral Scheer stood off Samland with several torpedo boats in support of German forces fighting Soviet advances . On 9 February , the ships began shelling Soviet positions . Between 18 and 24 February , German forces launched a local counterattack ; Admiral Scheer and the torpedo boats provid... |
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