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sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | it nabs just the hydrogen , then both of these electrons that are in this pair , that are in this bond i should say , go back to the oxygen to form , essentially you could think of this as a pair of electrons attached to that oxygen . then that gives the oxygen license to allow these two electrons to form a bond with t... | why does n't two or three phosphate groups pop off to form something like an ap or adenosine molecule ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | and you can imagine maybe this thing breaks off and it could be viewed as a proton , or you could view this as a positive charged molecule , but either way this is the reaction that we just depicted . you have atp being , hydrolysis takes place . you 're left with adp , you 're left with a phosphate , a released phosph... | i came across few questions on atp and gtp hydrolysis in my exams which one has powerful molecular energy in the cell 1- atp hydrolysis move component from cytoplasmic to nucleus 2- gtp hydrolysis move component from cytoplasmic to nucleus 3- atp hydrolysis move component from nucleus to cytoplasmic 4- gtp hydrolysis m... |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | that 's what i 'm going to do in this video . let 's start with our atp molecule , and let 's throw some water in there , h2o . let 's say this is water right here , oxygen with two hydrogens . | how does atp react with water ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | it 's going to look like this . double bond to that oxygen . you have this oxygen right over here . | if phosphorus wants six bonds , should n't the addition of the bond from the oxygen from the water molecule make its ideal octet ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | you have atp being , hydrolysis takes place . you 're left with adp , you 're left with a phosphate , a released phosphate molecule , and then you 're left with a positive charge . you could either view this as kind of a proton or the proton attaches and forms a hydronium ion right over here . | why then does the phosphate break off to form a lone phosphate group , which still just has five bonds , when it could remain in its ideal octet ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | i 'll do the two pairs of oxygen that are n't in bonds right over here , in the outermost shell . actually let me draw one more water molecule right over here . there 's multiple way that you could actually depict this right over here . | where does the water come from ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | energy come for bonding adp with p ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | let 's start with our atp molecule , and let 's throw some water in there , h2o . let 's say this is water right here , oxygen with two hydrogens . i 'll do the two pairs of oxygen that are n't in bonds right over here , in the outermost shell . | so basically , the two water molecules form hydronium and hydroxide ions and the hydroxide bonds with the triphosphate ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | it 's going to look like this . double bond to that oxygen . you have this oxygen right over here . | why is energy released when the bond is broken in this case , but absorbed when we talk about enthalpy and chemical bonds being broken ? |
sal : in the previous video we talked about how an atp molecule can , in the presence of water , hydrolysis will take place , and one of the phosphoryl groups could be plunked off , and how that would release energy because these electrons are going to be able to go into a lower energy state . you could imagine that th... | then that gives the oxygen license to allow these two electrons to form a bond with the phosphorous . the phosphorous is n't in the mood to form six bonds , it 's already got five , and this is a fairly uncomfortable situation for it . that allows these two electrons right over here to go , these two electrons to go to... | how come phosphorus can only make six bonds ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | up here , we have the upper esophageal sphincter . esophageal sphincter . and so , just to reiterate , a sphincter is just a circular localization of muscle , so just a bunch of muscle that sits in a ring right here , that makes sure that it 's closed unless we tell that muscle to relax so we can pass food along . | if the sphincter muscles does n't allow food to move back then how do we vomit ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | there 's a sheet of muscle that lines the connection between the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity . so you can imagine that you have a thoracic cavity above , things that would sit here would be your lungs and your heart . and then below , and i 'll draw that right here , you have an abdominal cavity . | can somebody please provide a simpler explanation of why we have heart burn ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | up here , we have the upper esophageal sphincter . esophageal sphincter . and so , just to reiterate , a sphincter is just a circular localization of muscle , so just a bunch of muscle that sits in a ring right here , that makes sure that it 's closed unless we tell that muscle to relax so we can pass food along . | does breathing affect whether the `` sphincter '' is open or closed ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | and the diaphragm is actually lower esophageal sphincter because it just sits there holding the esophagus in place . and that 's why over time , we can have what 's called a hiatal hernia . the esophagus can move upward and downward through this lower esophageal sphincter and we 'll have gastric acid from the stomach r... | also , when a hiatal hernia ( ) forms , does it affect whether this `` sphincter '' is open or closed , and this is why gastric acid can reflux up into the esophagus and cause heartburn ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | so it 's under our voluntary control . skeletal muscle . and so that 's 1/3 , i 'll say the top 1/3 of the esophagus . | is the heart the only structure in our bodies that is made of cardiac muscle ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | the esophagus can move upward and downward through this lower esophageal sphincter and we 'll have gastric acid from the stomach reflux upward and give us heartburn , or gastroesophageal reflux disease , g.r.d . so that 's why we have heartburn but rodents or horses do n't . rodents and horses actually have their own t... | is it possible to reduce or eliminate heartburn by simply strengthening the abdominal muscles ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | well , we actually have a sheet that kind of sits right here . there 's a sheet of muscle that lines the connection between the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity . so you can imagine that you have a thoracic cavity above , things that would sit here would be your lungs and your heart . | what is the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | when it moves downward , the lungs inflate with air . so the diaphragm sits here and it actually makes a ring around this lower esophageal sphincter . and the diaphragm is actually lower esophageal sphincter because it just sits there holding the esophagus in place . | how does the heart pump and makes noise when it pumps ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | and that 's why over time , we can have what 's called a hiatal hernia . the esophagus can move upward and downward through this lower esophageal sphincter and we 'll have gastric acid from the stomach reflux upward and give us heartburn , or gastroesophageal reflux disease , g.r.d . so that 's why we have heartburn bu... | does n't the esophagus have `` muscles '' that will contract and relax to move the bolus down to the stomach ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | and then below , and i 'll draw that right here , you have an abdominal cavity . so the abdominal cavity that 's gon na have most of the gi tract . and this muscle that we have , that sits here , that 's going to be the diaphragm . | can you explain the swallowing reflex that is associated with the esophagus and the gi tract ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | up here , we have the upper esophageal sphincter . esophageal sphincter . and so , just to reiterate , a sphincter is just a circular localization of muscle , so just a bunch of muscle that sits in a ring right here , that makes sure that it 's closed unless we tell that muscle to relax so we can pass food along . | what is the difference between a valve and a sphincter ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | when it moves downward , the lungs inflate with air . so the diaphragm sits here and it actually makes a ring around this lower esophageal sphincter . and the diaphragm is actually lower esophageal sphincter because it just sits there holding the esophagus in place . | if the lower sphincter of the oesophagus is actually the diaphragm , then is the contraction of the diaphragm during exhalation is what that induces vomiting ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | : after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . | so ... ..when we get sick , our esophagus sphincters will open and allow food with any virus out ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | up here , we have the upper esophageal sphincter . esophageal sphincter . and so , just to reiterate , a sphincter is just a circular localization of muscle , so just a bunch of muscle that sits in a ring right here , that makes sure that it 's closed unless we tell that muscle to relax so we can pass food along . | then why have we evolved not to have lower esophageal sphincter ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | peristalsis , and this is going to be an important term for the discussion of the rest of the gi tract . peristalsis is just the wave-like propulsion of food . wave-like propulsion . | how does food pipe pass through the diaphragm ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | and then smooth entirely for the last 1/3 . and that 's how our esophagus works , as well . | i read somewhere that people also have esophagus cancer ... ..how does that happen ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | skeletal muscle . and so that 's 1/3 , i 'll say the top 1/3 of the esophagus . in the middle right here , we actually have a mix . | i got confused when he started breaking the esophagus into 3 different `` one thirds '' ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | there 's a sheet of muscle that lines the connection between the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity . so you can imagine that you have a thoracic cavity above , things that would sit here would be your lungs and your heart . and then below , and i 'll draw that right here , you have an abdominal cavity . | in the picture , where do the lungs and heart sit ? |
: after the food is swallowed , it leaves the mouth and then goes next to the esophagus . so , let 's focus on that . and just to make sure , we all know kind of how far the esophagus goes , i 'm gon na draw in some lines right here , to show where it starts up here , and then it ends right about there . and kind of w... | so it 's composed primarily of skeletal muscle . skeletal muscle , so it 's under voluntary control . and down here , i 'll draw a squiggly line , we have the lower esophageal sphincter . | sir said that the skeletal part of esophagus is in our control ... how ? |
ablation studies , or experimental ablation , describes the method of deliberately destroying brain tissue or making brain lesions , so a wound or an injury , in order to observe the changes that this might have on an animal 's behavior . so for lesion studies , we 're studying brain function by purposefully destroyin... | another type of neurochemical lesion is created by a chemical called oxidopamine , or 6-hydroxydopamine . and this is a really useful chemical that selectively destroys dopaminergic neurons as well noradrenergic neurons , or neurons that release domamine and norepinephrine or adrenaline . so imagine you have a presynap... | why does cooling down neurons not kill the neurons ? |
ablation studies , or experimental ablation , describes the method of deliberately destroying brain tissue or making brain lesions , so a wound or an injury , in order to observe the changes that this might have on an animal 's behavior . so for lesion studies , we 're studying brain function by purposefully destroyin... | because you can really only use it for removing structures on the surface of the brain . also , scientists are n't always interested in actually removing brain tissue . instead , they 're usually more interested in destroying the brain tissue in place , because usually this winds up being a lot less invasive . | would n't a researcher also be damaging other areas of the brain while passing through if they 're trying to insert an electrode or chemicals into a deeper area of the brain ? |
ablation studies , or experimental ablation , describes the method of deliberately destroying brain tissue or making brain lesions , so a wound or an injury , in order to observe the changes that this might have on an animal 's behavior . so for lesion studies , we 're studying brain function by purposefully destroyin... | and the main idea here is that the functions that can no longer be performed after the damage are the ones that were controlled by those damaged regions . and i know i 've used a human brain to illustrate this , but i want to state right up front that this type of research is not done with humans . it is only done with... | how do they know whether their effects are a result of their experimental desires rather than the damage done to other areas as the electrode or chemicals are inserted into the brain ? |
ablation studies , or experimental ablation , describes the method of deliberately destroying brain tissue or making brain lesions , so a wound or an injury , in order to observe the changes that this might have on an animal 's behavior . so for lesion studies , we 're studying brain function by purposefully destroyin... | another type of neurochemical lesion is created by a chemical called oxidopamine , or 6-hydroxydopamine . and this is a really useful chemical that selectively destroys dopaminergic neurons as well noradrenergic neurons , or neurons that release domamine and norepinephrine or adrenaline . so imagine you have a presynap... | does our brain have stem cells that are capable of regenerating neurons ? |
ablation studies , or experimental ablation , describes the method of deliberately destroying brain tissue or making brain lesions , so a wound or an injury , in order to observe the changes that this might have on an animal 's behavior . so for lesion studies , we 're studying brain function by purposefully destroyin... | and so oxidopamine is also taken up by the reuptake channels . and then it kills those cells . and this is extremely useful , because it gives us a lot of control . | if not , are we capable of extracting stem cells from umbilical cords , or any other methodology , to make this possible ? |
ablation studies , or experimental ablation , describes the method of deliberately destroying brain tissue or making brain lesions , so a wound or an injury , in order to observe the changes that this might have on an animal 's behavior . so for lesion studies , we 're studying brain function by purposefully destroyin... | because you can really only use it for removing structures on the surface of the brain . also , scientists are n't always interested in actually removing brain tissue . instead , they 're usually more interested in destroying the brain tissue in place , because usually this winds up being a lot less invasive . | so how can we make any inferences about damage to these areas in human brains if rat brains do n't have the same areas ? |
( piano playing ) beth harris : so , let 's talk about mannerist . the mannerist style and how it appears in portrait painting . david drogin : okay . beth : so , this is by bronzino ? david : this is a painting by bronzino . this is called a portrait of a young man from around 1540 . we do n't know exactly who it is a... | beth : it 's so weird because we kind of look down at it . we think people are insincere . david : we have a different take on it , certainly . | how were mannerist paintings received by the people of the time ? |
( piano playing ) beth harris : so , let 's talk about mannerist . the mannerist style and how it appears in portrait painting . david drogin : okay . beth : so , this is by bronzino ? david : this is a painting by bronzino . this is called a portrait of a young man from around 1540 . we do n't know exactly who it is a... | approximately the same date and also here in new york city . this is at the frick collection . beth : his fingers , those elongated boneless fingers are also very typical of mannerism . | the second portrait at the frick , is there not an obvious phallic image - the sword hilt strategically placed ? |
( piano playing ) beth harris : so , let 's talk about mannerist . the mannerist style and how it appears in portrait painting . david drogin : okay . beth : so , this is by bronzino ? david : this is a painting by bronzino . this is called a portrait of a young man from around 1540 . we do n't know exactly who it is a... | david : this is a painting by bronzino . this is called a portrait of a young man from around 1540 . we do n't know exactly who it is and therefore it has that title and it 's located in new york city at the metropolitan museum of art . | who is the man 's name ? |
( piano playing ) beth harris : so , let 's talk about mannerist . the mannerist style and how it appears in portrait painting . david drogin : okay . beth : so , this is by bronzino ? david : this is a painting by bronzino . this is called a portrait of a young man from around 1540 . we do n't know exactly who it is a... | david : but at the time , especially in the medici circles of this period , obviously artificiality was a goal of proper social behavior in elite circles . your identity was something that was to be performed . you presented yourself to be seen in a certain way . | perhaps the identity of his lover ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | and here we 're dealing with the population . we have n't thought about sampling yet . the square root of the population variance , what do we call this thing right over here ? | how do you know if you need to divide by n or n-1 ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | so we 're going to use mu . so what is the arithmetic mean here ? well , we just have to add all of these data points up and divide by 5 . | is there a difference between the arithmetic mean and the average ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | so you might be saying , sal , what do we call this thing that we just did ? the square root of the variance . and here we 're dealing with the population . | is 'var ' the short form of variance ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what does population standard deviation mean ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | the reason why we do it this way is it has neat statistical properties as we try to build on it . but that 's the population standard deviation , which gives us nice units -- meters . in the next video , we 'll think about the sample standard deviation . | so in this example the standard deviation is 0.562 meters , does that mean that the 5.5 meters of the original data set is a bit of an outlier since it 's not within the standard deviation of the mean ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | then , we will divide by the number of data points we have . and we get 0.316 . or if we want to write it , this is going to be 0.316 . | every car caries 0.316 sq m. from the mean ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what does standard deviation measure ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what is the difference between mean absolute deviation and standard deviation ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | and a big hint -- this comes out of just even the notation for variance . and it 's this sigma symbol squared . so why do n't we just take the square root of our variance ? | is standard deviation sigma squared or just sigma ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | do n't you use mean standard deviation to find the variance ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | and then , square them . and then , take the mean of those two squared distances . so let 's do that . | why do n't we just take the absolute value of the average distance each number is away from the mean ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what is the difference of standard deviation and mean absolute deviation ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what would be the purpose of getting a variance if we could get the standard deviation instead ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | does addition and subtraction affect standard deviation ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what are the correct values of the mean and the standard deviation ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . | do smokers develop a higher incidence of lung cancer than people who are nonsmokers or never smokers ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | when i visualize it , i visualize dispersion or how varied they are in terms of meters , not meters squared . so what could we do ? and a big hint -- this comes out of just even the notation for variance . | how could the concept of variance be usefull in real life ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . in general , the larger this value , that means that the data is more varied from the population mean . | can we use the concepts of variance and standard deviation to calculate how much the data are generally dispersed from a certain point ( not the center ) for example , lets say i was interested in the length of the second car ( l2 ) so can i input the value ( l2 ) in place of the mean an get a measurement of how disper... |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . | which depositor creates donuts with a more consistent weight ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | and here we 're dealing with the population . we have n't thought about sampling yet . the square root of the population variance , what do we call this thing right over here ? | what are the nice properties that sd has while mad does n't ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what 's the benefit of going through all that complex calculations to find the standard deviation when we can apply mad ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what is better as estimation set of data - standard deviation or variance ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | so the units here are going to be square meters . and so you might say , hey . that 's kind of a weird unit if we 're trying to visualize or think about how dispersed we are from the mean . | 0 , did sal say `` mu '' or `` u '' or what ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | what is the difference between standard deviation and mean absolute deviation ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | is there any situation where it is better to use the mean absolute difference rather than standard deviation ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | so we 're going to do that for the population . so we 're going to use mu . so what is the arithmetic mean here ? | for example , 2 sal says `` we 're going to use 'mu ' '' what 's 'mu ' ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | i 'm using that yellow a little bit too much . this is the population standard deviation . it is a measure of how much the data is varying from the mean . | can we say that standard deviation is the root mean square of the following values ? |
let 's say that you 're curious about studying the dimensions of the cars that happen to sit in the parking lot . and so you measure their lengths . let 's just make the computation simple . let 's say that there are five cars in the parking lot . the entire size of the population that we care about is 5 . and you go a... | so we 're going to use mu . so what is the arithmetic mean here ? well , we just have to add all of these data points up and divide by 5 . | what does the purple symbol mean ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so let me draw those in . sodium channels . and there 's so many of them . | why would n't the ca2+ channels open when the potential in the cell reaches the threshold potential for ca2+ channels ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so now that our cell is in positive territory , actually let me write in positive 20 or so , our potassium voltage-gated channels open up . so these voltage-gated channels open up . and you can guess what 's going to happen . | why ca2+ channels wait until later when cellular potential reaches the threshold the second time to open ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so let me draw those in . sodium channels . and there 's so many of them . | can you explain the difference between the t-type and l-type calcium channels ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and let 's draw that over here . so you have these calcium voltage-gated channel that allow calcium to come it . so you 've got calcium coming in , potassium leaving . now think about what will happen in this situation . | could you please explain the physiologic effect of calcium administration in cases of hyperkalemia ( high serum potassium ) .. what changes in action potentials does calcium do ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . | are the cardiac myocytes the same thing as cardiac muscle cells ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so i 'm going to draw for you the heart cycle , and specifically the cycle of an individual cell . this is what one cell is going to kind of go through over time . and the heart cycle , or the cycle for a cell , a heart cell , is going to be measured in millivolts . we 're going to use millivolts to think about this . | i know we are talking about just one cell , but are the voltage differentials all simultaneous for the millions and millions of heart cells ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | now what will happened to our membrane potential ? well it was negative 90 , but now that we 've got some positive ions sitting inside of our cell , our cell becomes a little bit more positive , right ? so it goes up to , let 's say , here . | are the potentials just for the individual ions or the sum of the positive and negative charge differences between the intracellular ad extra-cellular environment ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and the membrane potential stays kind of around the same . and so it can just write something similar , something like positive 5 . just so we 're clear , these are also voltage-gated calcium channels . | are these voltages similar to the voltages created by the transfer of electrons in redox reactions ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so compare that to how the action potential goes in the pacemaker cells , where it 's much slower . this fast action potential is a result of those really , really amazingly quick voltage-gated sodium channels . | or is this voltage potential different ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and what happens is that the calcium channels actually close just as suddenly as they opened . so now you do n't have any more calcium coming in . and if calcium was the only thing that was keeping this membrane potential going flat -- you know , i said that the potassium makes it want to go down , but the calcium was ... | because calcium has a higher absolute value compared o k+ , should n't the cell be depolarizing , no matter how slowly ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so let me draw those in . sodium channels . and there 's so many of them . | does it mean that some sodium ions can still enter the cell even without the voltage-gated sodium channels ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | but close to it , if not for the fact that these voltage-gated channels actually close down . so these sodium channels are voltage-gated . and they will actually close down just as quickly as they opened up . | what are voltage gated channels ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and i 'm putting them really just as benchmarks just so you can kind of keep track of where things would like to be . so calcium would like to be at 123 millivolts . sodium at 67 . | if a person did n't have calcium , what would the heart do ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | when it gets to that point , we call that stage 0 . and then on the other side of stage 0 you have stage 1 , 2 , and 3 . so stage 1 is that point when just the potassium channels first open up , the voltage-gated ones . | i hope im correct in assuming that at stage 1 , 2 , and 3 , the potassium is actually entering the cell as apposed to leaving it ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so now that our cell is in positive territory , actually let me write in positive 20 or so , our potassium voltage-gated channels open up . so these voltage-gated channels open up . and you can guess what 's going to happen . | in previous video you said no ion voltage gated channel will reopen until the whole process and repolarization occur but now k channels are open again ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | you get kind of a flatline . so because both events are happening , both potassium leaving the cell and calcium entering the cell , you get this kind of flatline . and the membrane potential stays kind of around the same . | but if all the potassium left the cell during the repolarisation phase then where does the potassium inside the cell come from ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so this stuff starts leaking through the gap junctions , right ? now what will happened to our membrane potential ? well it was negative 90 , but now that we 've got some positive ions sitting inside of our cell , our cell becomes a little bit more positive , right ? | why does the membrane potential move downwards ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and what that means is that if these were the only ions moving through , then sodium would like to keep things positive . and potassium , on the other hand , would like to make the membrane potential negative . so this scale is actually the scale for the membrane potential . | if the negative potential-ed potassium is moving out of the cell why does it not gain membrane potential ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and because stage 0 is happening so rapidly , because this is so fast , we actually call this a fast action potential . so compare that to how the action potential goes in the pacemaker cells , where it 's much slower . this fast action potential is a result of those really , really amazingly quick voltage-gated sodium... | why is the intrinsic rate of the av node slower than the sa node ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and what that means is that if these were the only ions moving through , then sodium would like to keep things positive . and potassium , on the other hand , would like to make the membrane potential negative . so this scale is actually the scale for the membrane potential . | how does potassium keep the membrane potential negative if it is a positively charged ion ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so now that our cell is in positive territory , actually let me write in positive 20 or so , our potassium voltage-gated channels open up . so these voltage-gated channels open up . and you can guess what 's going to happen . | voltage gated means when the sa sends an electrical impulse , the na channels will open ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so this is going to be the way that potassium 's going to flow . and it 's going to leave behind a negative membrane potential , right ? and let 's say potassium is the main ion for this cell , which it is . | why is it that when na or ca enter the cell the action potential goes towards the resting potential of na or ca , respectively , yet k seems to be the opposite that it needs to leave the cell in order to go towards the resting potential of k ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so this is kind of the last stage , where those potassium channels are going back down . and those voltage-gated potassium channels also close at this point . so finally , they close down as well . | also , would n't potassium flow back into the cell at some point ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | well , if the sodium channels are n't gushing the sodium inwards and potassium is leaking outwards , now you 're going to have a downwards repolarization . so now potassium is causing the membrane potential to go back down . and let 's say it gets to about positive 5 . | so if potassium leaks out during phase 4 to cause the mv to increase , how does potassium leaking out cause it to decrease in phase 1 and 3 bring it back negative ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so now that our cell is in positive territory , actually let me write in positive 20 or so , our potassium voltage-gated channels open up . so these voltage-gated channels open up . and you can guess what 's going to happen . | cardiac myocyte calcium voltage gated channels open at around +5mv , while pacemaker cells calcium voltage gate channels open at around -40mv ( from previous video - action potential in pacemaker cells ) , why is this so ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and because stage 0 is happening so rapidly , because this is so fast , we actually call this a fast action potential . so compare that to how the action potential goes in the pacemaker cells , where it 's much slower . this fast action potential is a result of those really , really amazingly quick voltage-gated sodium... | why is there a need for action potential in cardiac myocytes while the action potential which travels through t tubules is enough to cause muscle contraction ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | but close to it , if not for the fact that these voltage-gated channels actually close down . so these sodium channels are voltage-gated . and they will actually close down just as quickly as they opened up . | if so , should they not have opened in phase 0 when the voltage initially reached ( and then surpassed ) that same voltage ( ~ +5mv ) ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . | are the values such as +20mv or +5mv arbitrary ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so let me draw those in . sodium channels . and there 's so many of them . | is the increase in ca due to the sarcoplasmic reticulum in phase 2 of the action potential or from the l-type ca channels ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . | do myocytes contract as soon as the electrical impulse reaches them ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | and this is the key idea , right ? i do n't want to forget that this is potassium . so you still have potassium in the same over here . | why does n't ca+2 come in during the initial depolarization ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | this is what one cell is going to kind of go through over time . and the heart cycle , or the cycle for a cell , a heart cell , is going to be measured in millivolts . we 're going to use millivolts to think about this . | if the cycle keep repeating , wo n't the cell eventually run out of potassium ? |
let 's figure out how a heart squeezes , exactly . and to do that , we have to actually get down to the cellular level . we have to think about the heart muscle cells . so we call them cardiac myocytes . these are the cells within the heart muscle . and these are the cells that actually do that squeezing . so if you ac... | so we have , let 's say , a potassium channel right here . we know the potassium likes to leave cells . so this is going to be the way that potassium 's going to flow . | when do the k gets into the cells ? |
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