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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant .
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a equivalence b % c is equivalent to a = c*k + b for some integer k.how can we use equals to ( = ) here ?
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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 .
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can this same idea be used when finding the inverse of a matrix with mod 26 for example ?
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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) .
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what is the general format to find modular inverse ?
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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) .
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does a number only have one unique modular inverse ?
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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) .
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how can i prove that there is not more than one possible modular inverse ?
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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) .
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modular inverse of 121 mod 26 = ?
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what is an inverse ? recall that a number multiplied by its inverse equals 1 . from basic arithmetic we know that : the inverse of a number a is 1/a since a * 1/a = 1 e.g . the inverse of 5 is 1/5 * all real numbers other than 0 have an inverse multiplying a number by the inverse of a is equivalent to dividing by a e.g . 10/5 is the same as 10* 1/5 what is a modular inverse ? in modular arithmetic we do not have a division operation . however , we do have modular inverses . the modular inverse of a ( mod c ) is a^-1 ( a * a^-1 ) ≡ 1 ( mod c ) or equivalently ( a * a^-1 ) mod c = 1 only the numbers coprime to c ( numbers that share no prime factors with c ) have a modular inverse ( mod c ) how to find a modular inverse a naive method of finding a modular inverse for a ( mod c ) is : step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 note that the term b mod c can only have an integer value 0 through c-1 , so testing larger values for b is redundant . example : a=3 c=7 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1**** 3 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 1 ≡ 3 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 2 ≡ 6 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 3 ≡ 9 ≡ 2 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 4 ≡ 12 ≡ 5 ( mod 7 ) 3 * 5 ≡ 15 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 1 ( mod 7 ) & lt ; -- -- -- found inverse ! 3 * 6 ≡ 18 ( mod 7 ) ≡ 4 ( mod 7 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes __a * b mod c = 1__ 5 is the modular inverse of 3 mod 7 since 5*3 mod 7 = 1 simple ! let 's do one more example where we do n't find an inverse . example : a=2 c=6 step 1 . calculate a * b mod c for b values 0 through c-1 2 * 0 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 1 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 2 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 3 ≡ 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 4 ≡ 8 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 ) 2 * 5 ≡ 10 ≡ 4 ( mod 6 ) step 2 . the modular inverse of a mod c is the b value that makes a * b mod c = 1 no value of b makes a * b mod c = 1 . therefore , a has no modular inverse ( mod 6 ) . this is because 2 is not coprime to 6 ( they share the prime factor 2 ) . this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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this method seems slow ... there is a much faster method for finding the inverse of a ( mod c ) that we will discuss in the next articles on the extended euclidean algorithm . first , let 's do some exercises !
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where is the extended euclidean alrgorithm page ?
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background multivariable functions derivatives integration graphs are not the only way if you have a single-variable function , like the one below , it 's common to visualize it using a graph . $ f ( x ) = -\dfrac { 1 } { 2 } x^2 +2x+3 $ however , it 's important to remember that graphs are not the same thing as functions . this might seem obvious , but graphs are so useful for representing single-variable functions that people often hold on to the idea of graphs a little too tightly as they shift focus to multivariable functions . for example , do you remember the derivative ? at some point you may have seen the formal definition , which looks like this : $ \begin { align } \quad f ' ( x ) = \lim_ { h \to 0 } \dfrac { f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } { h } \quad \leftarrow \small { \gray { \text { formal definition of the derivative . } } } \end { align } $ be honest , though , how often did you actually think about this limit while doing exercises , learning how to compute derivatives , and interpreting the meaning of derivatives ? it 's much simpler to think of the derivative as representing the slope of the graph of $ f $ . and there 's nothing wrong with that ! at least , for single-variable calculus there 's not . in multivariable calculus , we will not always visualize functions with graphs . as a result , when we extend the idea of a derivative , you can not always think about it as a slope . but that does n't mean we wo n't visualize it ! it 's just that the visualization might be somewhat different at times . and , in the same way , the understanding of an integral as computing the signed area under a curve is so useful that students in single-variable calculus rarely think about it differently . why would you ? do n't fix what is n't broken , right ? mastering multivariable calculus requires the flexibility to think of functions differently—still visually , but differently . it also requires incorporating fundamental notions like derivatives and integration into those new ways of thinking . for example , the derivative is fundamentally asking how the output of a function changes as you slightly tweak its input . if a function has a multidimensional output , interpreting this as `` slope '' does n't really make sense . instead , you might have to visualize how a small change to the input influences each coordinate of the output . similarly , integration is fundamentally adding up a bunch of tiny little values—well , infinitely many infinitely tiny values—but this does not always mean area . in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend . graphs have the benefit of showing both the input space and the output space at once , but as a result , they are highly limited by dimension . for this reason , they are only really useful for single-variable functions and multivariable functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . contour maps . contour maps only show the input space and are useful for functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . parametric curves/surfaces . parametric curves and surfaces only show the output space and are used for functions whose output space has more dimensions than the input space . vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations . these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely . with each new topic and definition that you learn , a good way to test your understanding is to see if you can make sense of it in the context of functions that you visualize in each of these different ways . for example , the derivative indicates slope in the context of graphs , but the multivariable version of a derivative might mean something entirely different for parametric functions , vector fields , and contour maps .
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five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend .
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would one input and multiple outputs be considered a multivariable function ?
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background multivariable functions derivatives integration graphs are not the only way if you have a single-variable function , like the one below , it 's common to visualize it using a graph . $ f ( x ) = -\dfrac { 1 } { 2 } x^2 +2x+3 $ however , it 's important to remember that graphs are not the same thing as functions . this might seem obvious , but graphs are so useful for representing single-variable functions that people often hold on to the idea of graphs a little too tightly as they shift focus to multivariable functions . for example , do you remember the derivative ? at some point you may have seen the formal definition , which looks like this : $ \begin { align } \quad f ' ( x ) = \lim_ { h \to 0 } \dfrac { f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } { h } \quad \leftarrow \small { \gray { \text { formal definition of the derivative . } } } \end { align } $ be honest , though , how often did you actually think about this limit while doing exercises , learning how to compute derivatives , and interpreting the meaning of derivatives ? it 's much simpler to think of the derivative as representing the slope of the graph of $ f $ . and there 's nothing wrong with that ! at least , for single-variable calculus there 's not . in multivariable calculus , we will not always visualize functions with graphs . as a result , when we extend the idea of a derivative , you can not always think about it as a slope . but that does n't mean we wo n't visualize it ! it 's just that the visualization might be somewhat different at times . and , in the same way , the understanding of an integral as computing the signed area under a curve is so useful that students in single-variable calculus rarely think about it differently . why would you ? do n't fix what is n't broken , right ? mastering multivariable calculus requires the flexibility to think of functions differently—still visually , but differently . it also requires incorporating fundamental notions like derivatives and integration into those new ways of thinking . for example , the derivative is fundamentally asking how the output of a function changes as you slightly tweak its input . if a function has a multidimensional output , interpreting this as `` slope '' does n't really make sense . instead , you might have to visualize how a small change to the input influences each coordinate of the output . similarly , integration is fundamentally adding up a bunch of tiny little values—well , infinitely many infinitely tiny values—but this does not always mean area . in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend . graphs have the benefit of showing both the input space and the output space at once , but as a result , they are highly limited by dimension . for this reason , they are only really useful for single-variable functions and multivariable functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . contour maps . contour maps only show the input space and are useful for functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . parametric curves/surfaces . parametric curves and surfaces only show the output space and are used for functions whose output space has more dimensions than the input space . vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations . these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely . with each new topic and definition that you learn , a good way to test your understanding is to see if you can make sense of it in the context of functions that you visualize in each of these different ways . for example , the derivative indicates slope in the context of graphs , but the multivariable version of a derivative might mean something entirely different for parametric functions , vector fields , and contour maps .
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vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields .
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can someone name some examples of the different dimensions of output and input ?
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background multivariable functions derivatives integration graphs are not the only way if you have a single-variable function , like the one below , it 's common to visualize it using a graph . $ f ( x ) = -\dfrac { 1 } { 2 } x^2 +2x+3 $ however , it 's important to remember that graphs are not the same thing as functions . this might seem obvious , but graphs are so useful for representing single-variable functions that people often hold on to the idea of graphs a little too tightly as they shift focus to multivariable functions . for example , do you remember the derivative ? at some point you may have seen the formal definition , which looks like this : $ \begin { align } \quad f ' ( x ) = \lim_ { h \to 0 } \dfrac { f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } { h } \quad \leftarrow \small { \gray { \text { formal definition of the derivative . } } } \end { align } $ be honest , though , how often did you actually think about this limit while doing exercises , learning how to compute derivatives , and interpreting the meaning of derivatives ? it 's much simpler to think of the derivative as representing the slope of the graph of $ f $ . and there 's nothing wrong with that ! at least , for single-variable calculus there 's not . in multivariable calculus , we will not always visualize functions with graphs . as a result , when we extend the idea of a derivative , you can not always think about it as a slope . but that does n't mean we wo n't visualize it ! it 's just that the visualization might be somewhat different at times . and , in the same way , the understanding of an integral as computing the signed area under a curve is so useful that students in single-variable calculus rarely think about it differently . why would you ? do n't fix what is n't broken , right ? mastering multivariable calculus requires the flexibility to think of functions differently—still visually , but differently . it also requires incorporating fundamental notions like derivatives and integration into those new ways of thinking . for example , the derivative is fundamentally asking how the output of a function changes as you slightly tweak its input . if a function has a multidimensional output , interpreting this as `` slope '' does n't really make sense . instead , you might have to visualize how a small change to the input influences each coordinate of the output . similarly , integration is fundamentally adding up a bunch of tiny little values—well , infinitely many infinitely tiny values—but this does not always mean area . in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend . graphs have the benefit of showing both the input space and the output space at once , but as a result , they are highly limited by dimension . for this reason , they are only really useful for single-variable functions and multivariable functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . contour maps . contour maps only show the input space and are useful for functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . parametric curves/surfaces . parametric curves and surfaces only show the output space and are used for functions whose output space has more dimensions than the input space . vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations . these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely . with each new topic and definition that you learn , a good way to test your understanding is to see if you can make sense of it in the context of functions that you visualize in each of these different ways . for example , the derivative indicates slope in the context of graphs , but the multivariable version of a derivative might mean something entirely different for parametric functions , vector fields , and contour maps .
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in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one .
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what are other examples of ways to visualize functions ?
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background multivariable functions derivatives integration graphs are not the only way if you have a single-variable function , like the one below , it 's common to visualize it using a graph . $ f ( x ) = -\dfrac { 1 } { 2 } x^2 +2x+3 $ however , it 's important to remember that graphs are not the same thing as functions . this might seem obvious , but graphs are so useful for representing single-variable functions that people often hold on to the idea of graphs a little too tightly as they shift focus to multivariable functions . for example , do you remember the derivative ? at some point you may have seen the formal definition , which looks like this : $ \begin { align } \quad f ' ( x ) = \lim_ { h \to 0 } \dfrac { f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } { h } \quad \leftarrow \small { \gray { \text { formal definition of the derivative . } } } \end { align } $ be honest , though , how often did you actually think about this limit while doing exercises , learning how to compute derivatives , and interpreting the meaning of derivatives ? it 's much simpler to think of the derivative as representing the slope of the graph of $ f $ . and there 's nothing wrong with that ! at least , for single-variable calculus there 's not . in multivariable calculus , we will not always visualize functions with graphs . as a result , when we extend the idea of a derivative , you can not always think about it as a slope . but that does n't mean we wo n't visualize it ! it 's just that the visualization might be somewhat different at times . and , in the same way , the understanding of an integral as computing the signed area under a curve is so useful that students in single-variable calculus rarely think about it differently . why would you ? do n't fix what is n't broken , right ? mastering multivariable calculus requires the flexibility to think of functions differently—still visually , but differently . it also requires incorporating fundamental notions like derivatives and integration into those new ways of thinking . for example , the derivative is fundamentally asking how the output of a function changes as you slightly tweak its input . if a function has a multidimensional output , interpreting this as `` slope '' does n't really make sense . instead , you might have to visualize how a small change to the input influences each coordinate of the output . similarly , integration is fundamentally adding up a bunch of tiny little values—well , infinitely many infinitely tiny values—but this does not always mean area . in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend . graphs have the benefit of showing both the input space and the output space at once , but as a result , they are highly limited by dimension . for this reason , they are only really useful for single-variable functions and multivariable functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . contour maps . contour maps only show the input space and are useful for functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . parametric curves/surfaces . parametric curves and surfaces only show the output space and are used for functions whose output space has more dimensions than the input space . vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations . these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely . with each new topic and definition that you learn , a good way to test your understanding is to see if you can make sense of it in the context of functions that you visualize in each of these different ways . for example , the derivative indicates slope in the context of graphs , but the multivariable version of a derivative might mean something entirely different for parametric functions , vector fields , and contour maps .
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in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one .
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what will be the best visualization tool for above five different visualizations ?
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background multivariable functions derivatives integration graphs are not the only way if you have a single-variable function , like the one below , it 's common to visualize it using a graph . $ f ( x ) = -\dfrac { 1 } { 2 } x^2 +2x+3 $ however , it 's important to remember that graphs are not the same thing as functions . this might seem obvious , but graphs are so useful for representing single-variable functions that people often hold on to the idea of graphs a little too tightly as they shift focus to multivariable functions . for example , do you remember the derivative ? at some point you may have seen the formal definition , which looks like this : $ \begin { align } \quad f ' ( x ) = \lim_ { h \to 0 } \dfrac { f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } { h } \quad \leftarrow \small { \gray { \text { formal definition of the derivative . } } } \end { align } $ be honest , though , how often did you actually think about this limit while doing exercises , learning how to compute derivatives , and interpreting the meaning of derivatives ? it 's much simpler to think of the derivative as representing the slope of the graph of $ f $ . and there 's nothing wrong with that ! at least , for single-variable calculus there 's not . in multivariable calculus , we will not always visualize functions with graphs . as a result , when we extend the idea of a derivative , you can not always think about it as a slope . but that does n't mean we wo n't visualize it ! it 's just that the visualization might be somewhat different at times . and , in the same way , the understanding of an integral as computing the signed area under a curve is so useful that students in single-variable calculus rarely think about it differently . why would you ? do n't fix what is n't broken , right ? mastering multivariable calculus requires the flexibility to think of functions differently—still visually , but differently . it also requires incorporating fundamental notions like derivatives and integration into those new ways of thinking . for example , the derivative is fundamentally asking how the output of a function changes as you slightly tweak its input . if a function has a multidimensional output , interpreting this as `` slope '' does n't really make sense . instead , you might have to visualize how a small change to the input influences each coordinate of the output . similarly , integration is fundamentally adding up a bunch of tiny little values—well , infinitely many infinitely tiny values—but this does not always mean area . in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend . graphs have the benefit of showing both the input space and the output space at once , but as a result , they are highly limited by dimension . for this reason , they are only really useful for single-variable functions and multivariable functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . contour maps . contour maps only show the input space and are useful for functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . parametric curves/surfaces . parametric curves and surfaces only show the output space and are used for functions whose output space has more dimensions than the input space . vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations . these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely . with each new topic and definition that you learn , a good way to test your understanding is to see if you can make sense of it in the context of functions that you visualize in each of these different ways . for example , the derivative indicates slope in the context of graphs , but the multivariable version of a derivative might mean something entirely different for parametric functions , vector fields , and contour maps .
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these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely .
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what software i can use to make a transformation animation ?
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background multivariable functions derivatives integration graphs are not the only way if you have a single-variable function , like the one below , it 's common to visualize it using a graph . $ f ( x ) = -\dfrac { 1 } { 2 } x^2 +2x+3 $ however , it 's important to remember that graphs are not the same thing as functions . this might seem obvious , but graphs are so useful for representing single-variable functions that people often hold on to the idea of graphs a little too tightly as they shift focus to multivariable functions . for example , do you remember the derivative ? at some point you may have seen the formal definition , which looks like this : $ \begin { align } \quad f ' ( x ) = \lim_ { h \to 0 } \dfrac { f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } { h } \quad \leftarrow \small { \gray { \text { formal definition of the derivative . } } } \end { align } $ be honest , though , how often did you actually think about this limit while doing exercises , learning how to compute derivatives , and interpreting the meaning of derivatives ? it 's much simpler to think of the derivative as representing the slope of the graph of $ f $ . and there 's nothing wrong with that ! at least , for single-variable calculus there 's not . in multivariable calculus , we will not always visualize functions with graphs . as a result , when we extend the idea of a derivative , you can not always think about it as a slope . but that does n't mean we wo n't visualize it ! it 's just that the visualization might be somewhat different at times . and , in the same way , the understanding of an integral as computing the signed area under a curve is so useful that students in single-variable calculus rarely think about it differently . why would you ? do n't fix what is n't broken , right ? mastering multivariable calculus requires the flexibility to think of functions differently—still visually , but differently . it also requires incorporating fundamental notions like derivatives and integration into those new ways of thinking . for example , the derivative is fundamentally asking how the output of a function changes as you slightly tweak its input . if a function has a multidimensional output , interpreting this as `` slope '' does n't really make sense . instead , you might have to visualize how a small change to the input influences each coordinate of the output . similarly , integration is fundamentally adding up a bunch of tiny little values—well , infinitely many infinitely tiny values—but this does not always mean area . in physics , for example , it 's common to compute the `` work '' done on an object by some force using an integral , but there 's not always a clear way to view that `` work '' as any kind of area . five different visualizations in the next several articles , we 'll go through five different ways to visualize multivariable functions . here we 'll just get a taste for each one . in each of the following descriptions , `` input space '' and `` output space '' refer to where the input and output of a function live . for example , if a function takes in an ordered pair $ ( x , y ) $ , like $ ( 2 , 5 ) $ , and outputs a single number , like $ 5 $ , the input space would be the $ xy $ -plane and the output space would be the real number line . graphs , our old friend . graphs have the benefit of showing both the input space and the output space at once , but as a result , they are highly limited by dimension . for this reason , they are only really useful for single-variable functions and multivariable functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . contour maps . contour maps only show the input space and are useful for functions with a two-dimensional input and a one-dimensional output . parametric curves/surfaces . parametric curves and surfaces only show the output space and are used for functions whose output space has more dimensions than the input space . vector fields . these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations . these have the benefit of applying to any function , no matter the dimension of the input and output space . however , the downside is that they can only be represented using an animation or a schematic drawing . as such , they are most useful for gaining a conceptual understanding of what a function is doing , but are impractical for representing the function precisely . with each new topic and definition that you learn , a good way to test your understanding is to see if you can make sense of it in the context of functions that you visualize in each of these different ways . for example , the derivative indicates slope in the context of graphs , but the multivariable version of a derivative might mean something entirely different for parametric functions , vector fields , and contour maps .
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these apply to functions whose input space and output space have the same number of dimensions . for example , functions with two-dimensional inputs and two-dimensional outputs , or three-dimensional inputs and three-dimensional outputs can be used with vector fields . transformations .
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what are ways to visualize functions with 4 or more inputs and outputs ?
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what are improper integrals ? improper integrals are definite integrals that cover an unbounded area . one type of improper integrals are integrals where at least one of the endpoints is extended to infinity . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . another type of improper integrals are integrals whose endpoints are finite , but the integrated function is unbounded at one ( or two ) of the endpoints . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to0^+ } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . an unbounded area that is n't infinite ? ! is that for real ? ! well , yeah ! not all improper integrals have a finite value , but some of them definitely do . when the limit exists we say the integral is convergent , and when it does n't we say it 's divergent . want to learn more about improper integrals ? check out this video . practice set 1 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded endpoints let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . we can use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an expression for the integral : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\int_1^b x^ { -2 } \ , dx \\ & amp ; =\left [ \dfrac { x^ { -1 } } { -1 } \right ] _1^b \\ & amp ; =\left [ -\dfrac { 1 } { x } \right ] _1^b \\ & amp ; =-\dfrac { 1 } { b } -\left ( -\dfrac { 1 } { 1 } \right ) \\ & amp ; =1-\dfrac { 1 } { b } \end { align } $ now we got rid of the integral and we have a limit to find : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \left ( 1-\dfrac { 1 } { b } \right ) \\ & amp ; =1-0 \\ & amp ; =1 \end { align } $ want to try more problems like this ? check out this exercise . practice set 2 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded function let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . again , we use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an expression for the integral : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\int_a^1 x^ { ^ { \large -\frac { 1 } { 2 } } } \ , dx \\ & amp ; =\left [ \dfrac { x^ { ^ { \large\frac { 1 } { 2 } } } } { \frac { 1 } { 2 } } \right ] _a^1 \\ & amp ; =\bigl [ 2\sqrt x\bigr ] _a^1 \\ & amp ; =2\sqrt 1-2\sqrt a \\ & amp ; =2-2\sqrt a \end { align } $ now we got rid of the integral and we have a limit to find : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } ( 2-2\sqrt a ) \\ & amp ; =2-2\cdot 0 \\ & amp ; =2 \end { align } $ want to try more problems like this ? check out this exercise .
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check out this video . practice set 1 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded endpoints let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ .
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how can i know if the improper integral is divergent ?
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what are improper integrals ? improper integrals are definite integrals that cover an unbounded area . one type of improper integrals are integrals where at least one of the endpoints is extended to infinity . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . another type of improper integrals are integrals whose endpoints are finite , but the integrated function is unbounded at one ( or two ) of the endpoints . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to0^+ } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . an unbounded area that is n't infinite ? ! is that for real ? ! well , yeah ! not all improper integrals have a finite value , but some of them definitely do . when the limit exists we say the integral is convergent , and when it does n't we say it 's divergent . want to learn more about improper integrals ? check out this video . practice set 1 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded endpoints let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . we can use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an expression for the integral : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\int_1^b x^ { -2 } \ , dx \\ & amp ; =\left [ \dfrac { x^ { -1 } } { -1 } \right ] _1^b \\ & amp ; =\left [ -\dfrac { 1 } { x } \right ] _1^b \\ & amp ; =-\dfrac { 1 } { b } -\left ( -\dfrac { 1 } { 1 } \right ) \\ & amp ; =1-\dfrac { 1 } { b } \end { align } $ now we got rid of the integral and we have a limit to find : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \left ( 1-\dfrac { 1 } { b } \right ) \\ & amp ; =1-0 \\ & amp ; =1 \end { align } $ want to try more problems like this ? check out this exercise . practice set 2 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded function let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . again , we use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an expression for the integral : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\int_a^1 x^ { ^ { \large -\frac { 1 } { 2 } } } \ , dx \\ & amp ; =\left [ \dfrac { x^ { ^ { \large\frac { 1 } { 2 } } } } { \frac { 1 } { 2 } } \right ] _a^1 \\ & amp ; =\bigl [ 2\sqrt x\bigr ] _a^1 \\ & amp ; =2\sqrt 1-2\sqrt a \\ & amp ; =2-2\sqrt a \end { align } $ now we got rid of the integral and we have a limit to find : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } ( 2-2\sqrt a ) \\ & amp ; =2-2\cdot 0 \\ & amp ; =2 \end { align } $ want to try more problems like this ? check out this exercise .
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another type of improper integrals are integrals whose endpoints are finite , but the integrated function is unbounded at one ( or two ) of the endpoints . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to0^+ } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ .
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is the integral from -1 to 1 of of 1/x equal to 0 ?
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what are improper integrals ? improper integrals are definite integrals that cover an unbounded area . one type of improper integrals are integrals where at least one of the endpoints is extended to infinity . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . another type of improper integrals are integrals whose endpoints are finite , but the integrated function is unbounded at one ( or two ) of the endpoints . for example , $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ is an improper integral . it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to0^+ } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . an unbounded area that is n't infinite ? ! is that for real ? ! well , yeah ! not all improper integrals have a finite value , but some of them definitely do . when the limit exists we say the integral is convergent , and when it does n't we say it 's divergent . want to learn more about improper integrals ? check out this video . practice set 1 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded endpoints let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_1^\infty \dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx $ . we can use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an expression for the integral : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\int_1^b x^ { -2 } \ , dx \\ & amp ; =\left [ \dfrac { x^ { -1 } } { -1 } \right ] _1^b \\ & amp ; =\left [ -\dfrac { 1 } { x } \right ] _1^b \\ & amp ; =-\dfrac { 1 } { b } -\left ( -\dfrac { 1 } { 1 } \right ) \\ & amp ; =1-\dfrac { 1 } { b } \end { align } $ now we got rid of the integral and we have a limit to find : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \int_1^b\dfrac { 1 } { x^2 } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\lim_ { b\to\infty } \left ( 1-\dfrac { 1 } { b } \right ) \\ & amp ; =1-0 \\ & amp ; =1 \end { align } $ want to try more problems like this ? check out this exercise . practice set 2 : evaluating improper integrals with unbounded function let 's evaluate , for example , the improper integral $ \displaystyle\int_0^1 \dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . as mentioned above , it 's useful to view this integral as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . again , we use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find an expression for the integral : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\int_a^1 x^ { ^ { \large -\frac { 1 } { 2 } } } \ , dx \\ & amp ; =\left [ \dfrac { x^ { ^ { \large\frac { 1 } { 2 } } } } { \frac { 1 } { 2 } } \right ] _a^1 \\ & amp ; =\bigl [ 2\sqrt x\bigr ] _a^1 \\ & amp ; =2\sqrt 1-2\sqrt a \\ & amp ; =2-2\sqrt a \end { align } $ now we got rid of the integral and we have a limit to find : $ \begin { align } \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx & amp ; =\displaystyle\lim_ { a\to 0 } ( 2-2\sqrt a ) \\ & amp ; =2-2\cdot 0 \\ & amp ; =2 \end { align } $ want to try more problems like this ? check out this exercise .
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it can be viewed as the limit $ \displaystyle\lim_ { a\to0^+ } \int_a^1\dfrac { 1 } { \sqrt x } \ , dx $ . an unbounded area that is n't infinite ? ! is that for real ? !
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is this ( cancelling out equal but opposite sized infinite regions ) allowed for integrating all unbounded odd functions ?
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key points price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . when government laws regulate prices instead of letting market forces determine prices , it is known as price control . introduction controversy sometimes surrounds the prices and quantities established by demand and supply , especially for products that are considered necessities . in some cases , discontent over prices turns into public pressure on politicians , who may then pass legislation to prevent a certain price from climbing “ too high ” or falling “ too low ” . economists can predict how people and firms will react to laws that control price by using the demand and supply model—by the end of this article , you 'll be able to make these predictions as well ! price ceilings laws enacted by the government to regulate prices are called price controls . price controls come in two flavors . a price ceiling keeps a price from rising above a certain level—the “ ceiling ” . a price floor keeps a price from falling below a certain level—the “ floor ” . we can use the demand and supply framework to understand price ceilings . in many markets for goods and services , demanders outnumber suppliers . consumers , who are also potential voters , sometimes unite to convince the government to hold down a certain price . for example , when rents begin to rise rapidly in a city—perhaps due to rising incomes or a change in tastes—renters may press political leaders to pass rent control laws , a price ceiling that usually works by stating that rents can be raised by only a certain maximum percentage each year . let 's expand this example by thinking about a hypothetical town . rent was fairly stable . but then , the town was featured on a top-ten-places-to-live article in a popular magazine . eventually , rent control laws were passed . we can use the demand and supply model below to understand how the market changed based on this event . in the beginning , before the article was published , the equilibrium , $ \text { e0 } $ , lay at the intersection of supply curve $ \text { s0 } $ and demand curve $ \text { d0 } $ , corresponding to an equilibrium price of \ $ 500 and an equilibrium quantity of 15,000 units of rental housing . when the article inspired more people to want to move to our imaginary town , it shifted the demand curve for rental housing to the right , as shown by the data in the table below and the shift from $ \text { d0 } $ to $ \text { d1 } $ on the graph . in the new market , at the new equilibrium $ \text { e1 } $ , the price of a rental unit rose to \ $ 600 and the equilibrium quantity increased to 17,000 units . || rent control || price | original quantity supplied | original quantity demanded | new quantity demanded - | - | - | - \ $ 400 | 12,000 | 18,000 | 23,000 \ $ 500 | 15,000 | 15,000 | 19,000 \ $ 600 | 17,000 | 13,000 | 17,000 \ $ 700 | 19,000 | 11,000 | 15,000 \ $ 800 | 20,000 | 10,000 | 14,000 now , let 's suppose that a bunch of residents were pretty unhappy with paying a 20 % increase in their rent . they pressured local politicians to pass a rent control law to keep the price at the original equilibrium of \ $ 500 for a typical apartment . in the demand and supply model above , the horizontal line at the price of \ $ 500 shows the legally fixed maximum price set by the rent control law . however , the underlying forces that shifted the demand curve to the right are still there . at the fixed maximum price of \ $ 500 , the quantity supplied remains at the same 15,000 rental units , but the quantity demanded is 19,000 rental units . in other words , the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied , so there is a shortage of rental housing . the effects of price ceilings are complex and sometimes unexpected . in the case of rent control , the price ceiling does n't simply benefit renters at the expense of landlords . rather , some renters—or potential renters—lose their housing as landlords convert apartments to co-ops and condos . there are actually fewer apartments rented out under the price ceiling—15,000 rental units—than would be the case at the market rent of \ $ 600—17,000 rental units . and , even when housing remains in the rental market , landlords tend to spend less on maintenance and on essentials like heating , cooling , hot water , and lighting . the first rule of economics is you do not get something for nothing—everything has an opportunity cost . so if renters get “ cheaper ” housing than the market requires , they tend to also end up with lower quality housing . price ceilings are enacted in an attempt to keep prices low for those who demand the product—be it housing , prescription drugs , or auto insurance . but when the market price is not allowed to rise to the equilibrium level , quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied , and thus a shortage occurs . those who manage to purchase the product at the lower price given by the price ceiling will benefit , but sellers of the product will suffer , along with those who are not able to purchase the product at all . quality is also likely to deteriorate . price floors a price floor is the lowest legal price that can be paid in a market for goods and services , labor , or financial capital . perhaps the best-known example of a price floor is the minimum wage , which is based on the normative view that someone working full time ought to be able to afford a basic standard of living . the federal minimum wage at the end of 2014 was \ $ 7.25 per hour , which yields an income for a single person slightly higher than the poverty line . as the cost of living rises over time , congress periodically raises the federal minimum wage . price floors are sometimes called price supports because they support a price by preventing it from falling below a certain level . around the world , many countries have passed laws to create agricultural price supports . farm prices , and thus farm incomes , fluctuate—sometimes widely . so even if , on average , farm incomes are adequate , some years they can be quite low . the purpose of price supports is to prevent these swings . the most common way price supports work is that the government enters the market and buys up the product , adding to demand to keep prices higher than they otherwise would be . we can take a look at the demand and supply model below to understand better the effects of a government program that creates a price above the equilibrium . this particular model represents the market for wheat in europe . in the absence of government intervention , the price of wheat would adjust so that the quantity supplied would equal the quantity demanded at the equilibrium point $ \text { e0 } $ , with price $ \text { p0 } $ and quantity $ \text { q0 } $ . however , policies to keep prices high for farmers keep the price above what would have been the market equilibrium level—the price $ \text { pf } $ shown by the horizontal line in the diagram . the result is a quantity supplied in excess of the quantity demanded— $ \text { qd } $ . when quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded , a surplus exists . our example is hypothetical , but the concept plays out in the real world as well . if a government is willing to purchase excess agricultural supply—or to provide payments for others to purchase it—then farmers will benefit from the price floor , but taxpayers and consumers of food will pay the costs . do price ceilings and floors change demand or supply ? neither price ceilings nor price floors cause demand or supply to change . they simply set a price that limits what can be legally charged in the market . remember , changes in price do not cause demand or supply to change . price ceilings and price floors can cause a different choice of quantity demanded along a demand curve , but they do not move the demand curve . price controls can cause a different choice of quantity supplied along a supply curve , but they do not shift the supply curve . summary price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . price floors and price ceilings often lead to unintended consequences . self-check questions what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity demanded of the product ? what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity supplied ? why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ? review questions does a price ceiling attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price ceiling set below the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? does a price floor attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price floor set above the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? critical thinking questions what are the effects of raising the minimum wage ? the answer is more complex than the idea that producers lose and workers gain . who benefits and who loses , and what exactly do they gain and lose ? to what extent does the policy change achieve its goals ? agricultural price supports result in governments holding large inventories of agricultural products . why do you think the government can not simply give the products away to people living in poverty ? can you propose a policy that would induce the market to supply more rental housing units ? problems a low-income country decides to set a price ceiling on bread so it can make sure that bread is affordable to people living in poverty . the conditions of demand and supply are given in the table below . what are the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity before the price ceiling ? what will the excess demand or the shortage—quantity demanded minus quantity supplied—be if the price ceiling is set at \ $ 2.40 ? at \ $ 2.00 ? at \ $ 3.60 ? price | qd | qs - | - | - \ $ 1.60 | 9,000 | 5,000 \ $ 2.00 | 8,500 | 5,500 \ $ 2.40 | 8,000 | 6,400 \ $ 2.80 | 7,500 | 7,500 \ $ 3.20 | 7,000 | 9,000 \ $ 3.60 | 6,500 | 11,000 \ $ 4.00 | 6,000 | 15,000
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why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ?
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what if government fixed the price ceiling and price floor ?
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key points price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . when government laws regulate prices instead of letting market forces determine prices , it is known as price control . introduction controversy sometimes surrounds the prices and quantities established by demand and supply , especially for products that are considered necessities . in some cases , discontent over prices turns into public pressure on politicians , who may then pass legislation to prevent a certain price from climbing “ too high ” or falling “ too low ” . economists can predict how people and firms will react to laws that control price by using the demand and supply model—by the end of this article , you 'll be able to make these predictions as well ! price ceilings laws enacted by the government to regulate prices are called price controls . price controls come in two flavors . a price ceiling keeps a price from rising above a certain level—the “ ceiling ” . a price floor keeps a price from falling below a certain level—the “ floor ” . we can use the demand and supply framework to understand price ceilings . in many markets for goods and services , demanders outnumber suppliers . consumers , who are also potential voters , sometimes unite to convince the government to hold down a certain price . for example , when rents begin to rise rapidly in a city—perhaps due to rising incomes or a change in tastes—renters may press political leaders to pass rent control laws , a price ceiling that usually works by stating that rents can be raised by only a certain maximum percentage each year . let 's expand this example by thinking about a hypothetical town . rent was fairly stable . but then , the town was featured on a top-ten-places-to-live article in a popular magazine . eventually , rent control laws were passed . we can use the demand and supply model below to understand how the market changed based on this event . in the beginning , before the article was published , the equilibrium , $ \text { e0 } $ , lay at the intersection of supply curve $ \text { s0 } $ and demand curve $ \text { d0 } $ , corresponding to an equilibrium price of \ $ 500 and an equilibrium quantity of 15,000 units of rental housing . when the article inspired more people to want to move to our imaginary town , it shifted the demand curve for rental housing to the right , as shown by the data in the table below and the shift from $ \text { d0 } $ to $ \text { d1 } $ on the graph . in the new market , at the new equilibrium $ \text { e1 } $ , the price of a rental unit rose to \ $ 600 and the equilibrium quantity increased to 17,000 units . || rent control || price | original quantity supplied | original quantity demanded | new quantity demanded - | - | - | - \ $ 400 | 12,000 | 18,000 | 23,000 \ $ 500 | 15,000 | 15,000 | 19,000 \ $ 600 | 17,000 | 13,000 | 17,000 \ $ 700 | 19,000 | 11,000 | 15,000 \ $ 800 | 20,000 | 10,000 | 14,000 now , let 's suppose that a bunch of residents were pretty unhappy with paying a 20 % increase in their rent . they pressured local politicians to pass a rent control law to keep the price at the original equilibrium of \ $ 500 for a typical apartment . in the demand and supply model above , the horizontal line at the price of \ $ 500 shows the legally fixed maximum price set by the rent control law . however , the underlying forces that shifted the demand curve to the right are still there . at the fixed maximum price of \ $ 500 , the quantity supplied remains at the same 15,000 rental units , but the quantity demanded is 19,000 rental units . in other words , the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied , so there is a shortage of rental housing . the effects of price ceilings are complex and sometimes unexpected . in the case of rent control , the price ceiling does n't simply benefit renters at the expense of landlords . rather , some renters—or potential renters—lose their housing as landlords convert apartments to co-ops and condos . there are actually fewer apartments rented out under the price ceiling—15,000 rental units—than would be the case at the market rent of \ $ 600—17,000 rental units . and , even when housing remains in the rental market , landlords tend to spend less on maintenance and on essentials like heating , cooling , hot water , and lighting . the first rule of economics is you do not get something for nothing—everything has an opportunity cost . so if renters get “ cheaper ” housing than the market requires , they tend to also end up with lower quality housing . price ceilings are enacted in an attempt to keep prices low for those who demand the product—be it housing , prescription drugs , or auto insurance . but when the market price is not allowed to rise to the equilibrium level , quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied , and thus a shortage occurs . those who manage to purchase the product at the lower price given by the price ceiling will benefit , but sellers of the product will suffer , along with those who are not able to purchase the product at all . quality is also likely to deteriorate . price floors a price floor is the lowest legal price that can be paid in a market for goods and services , labor , or financial capital . perhaps the best-known example of a price floor is the minimum wage , which is based on the normative view that someone working full time ought to be able to afford a basic standard of living . the federal minimum wage at the end of 2014 was \ $ 7.25 per hour , which yields an income for a single person slightly higher than the poverty line . as the cost of living rises over time , congress periodically raises the federal minimum wage . price floors are sometimes called price supports because they support a price by preventing it from falling below a certain level . around the world , many countries have passed laws to create agricultural price supports . farm prices , and thus farm incomes , fluctuate—sometimes widely . so even if , on average , farm incomes are adequate , some years they can be quite low . the purpose of price supports is to prevent these swings . the most common way price supports work is that the government enters the market and buys up the product , adding to demand to keep prices higher than they otherwise would be . we can take a look at the demand and supply model below to understand better the effects of a government program that creates a price above the equilibrium . this particular model represents the market for wheat in europe . in the absence of government intervention , the price of wheat would adjust so that the quantity supplied would equal the quantity demanded at the equilibrium point $ \text { e0 } $ , with price $ \text { p0 } $ and quantity $ \text { q0 } $ . however , policies to keep prices high for farmers keep the price above what would have been the market equilibrium level—the price $ \text { pf } $ shown by the horizontal line in the diagram . the result is a quantity supplied in excess of the quantity demanded— $ \text { qd } $ . when quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded , a surplus exists . our example is hypothetical , but the concept plays out in the real world as well . if a government is willing to purchase excess agricultural supply—or to provide payments for others to purchase it—then farmers will benefit from the price floor , but taxpayers and consumers of food will pay the costs . do price ceilings and floors change demand or supply ? neither price ceilings nor price floors cause demand or supply to change . they simply set a price that limits what can be legally charged in the market . remember , changes in price do not cause demand or supply to change . price ceilings and price floors can cause a different choice of quantity demanded along a demand curve , but they do not move the demand curve . price controls can cause a different choice of quantity supplied along a supply curve , but they do not shift the supply curve . summary price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . price floors and price ceilings often lead to unintended consequences . self-check questions what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity demanded of the product ? what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity supplied ? why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ? review questions does a price ceiling attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price ceiling set below the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? does a price floor attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price floor set above the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? critical thinking questions what are the effects of raising the minimum wage ? the answer is more complex than the idea that producers lose and workers gain . who benefits and who loses , and what exactly do they gain and lose ? to what extent does the policy change achieve its goals ? agricultural price supports result in governments holding large inventories of agricultural products . why do you think the government can not simply give the products away to people living in poverty ? can you propose a policy that would induce the market to supply more rental housing units ? problems a low-income country decides to set a price ceiling on bread so it can make sure that bread is affordable to people living in poverty . the conditions of demand and supply are given in the table below . what are the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity before the price ceiling ? what will the excess demand or the shortage—quantity demanded minus quantity supplied—be if the price ceiling is set at \ $ 2.40 ? at \ $ 2.00 ? at \ $ 3.60 ? price | qd | qs - | - | - \ $ 1.60 | 9,000 | 5,000 \ $ 2.00 | 8,500 | 5,500 \ $ 2.40 | 8,000 | 6,400 \ $ 2.80 | 7,500 | 7,500 \ $ 3.20 | 7,000 | 9,000 \ $ 3.60 | 6,500 | 11,000 \ $ 4.00 | 6,000 | 15,000
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why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ?
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what are the likely effects on the imposition by the government of i ) a maximum price of a commodity and ii ) a minimum price of the same commodity ?
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key points price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . when government laws regulate prices instead of letting market forces determine prices , it is known as price control . introduction controversy sometimes surrounds the prices and quantities established by demand and supply , especially for products that are considered necessities . in some cases , discontent over prices turns into public pressure on politicians , who may then pass legislation to prevent a certain price from climbing “ too high ” or falling “ too low ” . economists can predict how people and firms will react to laws that control price by using the demand and supply model—by the end of this article , you 'll be able to make these predictions as well ! price ceilings laws enacted by the government to regulate prices are called price controls . price controls come in two flavors . a price ceiling keeps a price from rising above a certain level—the “ ceiling ” . a price floor keeps a price from falling below a certain level—the “ floor ” . we can use the demand and supply framework to understand price ceilings . in many markets for goods and services , demanders outnumber suppliers . consumers , who are also potential voters , sometimes unite to convince the government to hold down a certain price . for example , when rents begin to rise rapidly in a city—perhaps due to rising incomes or a change in tastes—renters may press political leaders to pass rent control laws , a price ceiling that usually works by stating that rents can be raised by only a certain maximum percentage each year . let 's expand this example by thinking about a hypothetical town . rent was fairly stable . but then , the town was featured on a top-ten-places-to-live article in a popular magazine . eventually , rent control laws were passed . we can use the demand and supply model below to understand how the market changed based on this event . in the beginning , before the article was published , the equilibrium , $ \text { e0 } $ , lay at the intersection of supply curve $ \text { s0 } $ and demand curve $ \text { d0 } $ , corresponding to an equilibrium price of \ $ 500 and an equilibrium quantity of 15,000 units of rental housing . when the article inspired more people to want to move to our imaginary town , it shifted the demand curve for rental housing to the right , as shown by the data in the table below and the shift from $ \text { d0 } $ to $ \text { d1 } $ on the graph . in the new market , at the new equilibrium $ \text { e1 } $ , the price of a rental unit rose to \ $ 600 and the equilibrium quantity increased to 17,000 units . || rent control || price | original quantity supplied | original quantity demanded | new quantity demanded - | - | - | - \ $ 400 | 12,000 | 18,000 | 23,000 \ $ 500 | 15,000 | 15,000 | 19,000 \ $ 600 | 17,000 | 13,000 | 17,000 \ $ 700 | 19,000 | 11,000 | 15,000 \ $ 800 | 20,000 | 10,000 | 14,000 now , let 's suppose that a bunch of residents were pretty unhappy with paying a 20 % increase in their rent . they pressured local politicians to pass a rent control law to keep the price at the original equilibrium of \ $ 500 for a typical apartment . in the demand and supply model above , the horizontal line at the price of \ $ 500 shows the legally fixed maximum price set by the rent control law . however , the underlying forces that shifted the demand curve to the right are still there . at the fixed maximum price of \ $ 500 , the quantity supplied remains at the same 15,000 rental units , but the quantity demanded is 19,000 rental units . in other words , the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied , so there is a shortage of rental housing . the effects of price ceilings are complex and sometimes unexpected . in the case of rent control , the price ceiling does n't simply benefit renters at the expense of landlords . rather , some renters—or potential renters—lose their housing as landlords convert apartments to co-ops and condos . there are actually fewer apartments rented out under the price ceiling—15,000 rental units—than would be the case at the market rent of \ $ 600—17,000 rental units . and , even when housing remains in the rental market , landlords tend to spend less on maintenance and on essentials like heating , cooling , hot water , and lighting . the first rule of economics is you do not get something for nothing—everything has an opportunity cost . so if renters get “ cheaper ” housing than the market requires , they tend to also end up with lower quality housing . price ceilings are enacted in an attempt to keep prices low for those who demand the product—be it housing , prescription drugs , or auto insurance . but when the market price is not allowed to rise to the equilibrium level , quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied , and thus a shortage occurs . those who manage to purchase the product at the lower price given by the price ceiling will benefit , but sellers of the product will suffer , along with those who are not able to purchase the product at all . quality is also likely to deteriorate . price floors a price floor is the lowest legal price that can be paid in a market for goods and services , labor , or financial capital . perhaps the best-known example of a price floor is the minimum wage , which is based on the normative view that someone working full time ought to be able to afford a basic standard of living . the federal minimum wage at the end of 2014 was \ $ 7.25 per hour , which yields an income for a single person slightly higher than the poverty line . as the cost of living rises over time , congress periodically raises the federal minimum wage . price floors are sometimes called price supports because they support a price by preventing it from falling below a certain level . around the world , many countries have passed laws to create agricultural price supports . farm prices , and thus farm incomes , fluctuate—sometimes widely . so even if , on average , farm incomes are adequate , some years they can be quite low . the purpose of price supports is to prevent these swings . the most common way price supports work is that the government enters the market and buys up the product , adding to demand to keep prices higher than they otherwise would be . we can take a look at the demand and supply model below to understand better the effects of a government program that creates a price above the equilibrium . this particular model represents the market for wheat in europe . in the absence of government intervention , the price of wheat would adjust so that the quantity supplied would equal the quantity demanded at the equilibrium point $ \text { e0 } $ , with price $ \text { p0 } $ and quantity $ \text { q0 } $ . however , policies to keep prices high for farmers keep the price above what would have been the market equilibrium level—the price $ \text { pf } $ shown by the horizontal line in the diagram . the result is a quantity supplied in excess of the quantity demanded— $ \text { qd } $ . when quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded , a surplus exists . our example is hypothetical , but the concept plays out in the real world as well . if a government is willing to purchase excess agricultural supply—or to provide payments for others to purchase it—then farmers will benefit from the price floor , but taxpayers and consumers of food will pay the costs . do price ceilings and floors change demand or supply ? neither price ceilings nor price floors cause demand or supply to change . they simply set a price that limits what can be legally charged in the market . remember , changes in price do not cause demand or supply to change . price ceilings and price floors can cause a different choice of quantity demanded along a demand curve , but they do not move the demand curve . price controls can cause a different choice of quantity supplied along a supply curve , but they do not shift the supply curve . summary price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . price floors and price ceilings often lead to unintended consequences . self-check questions what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity demanded of the product ? what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity supplied ? why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ? review questions does a price ceiling attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price ceiling set below the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? does a price floor attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price floor set above the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? critical thinking questions what are the effects of raising the minimum wage ? the answer is more complex than the idea that producers lose and workers gain . who benefits and who loses , and what exactly do they gain and lose ? to what extent does the policy change achieve its goals ? agricultural price supports result in governments holding large inventories of agricultural products . why do you think the government can not simply give the products away to people living in poverty ? can you propose a policy that would induce the market to supply more rental housing units ? problems a low-income country decides to set a price ceiling on bread so it can make sure that bread is affordable to people living in poverty . the conditions of demand and supply are given in the table below . what are the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity before the price ceiling ? what will the excess demand or the shortage—quantity demanded minus quantity supplied—be if the price ceiling is set at \ $ 2.40 ? at \ $ 2.00 ? at \ $ 3.60 ? price | qd | qs - | - | - \ $ 1.60 | 9,000 | 5,000 \ $ 2.00 | 8,500 | 5,500 \ $ 2.40 | 8,000 | 6,400 \ $ 2.80 | 7,500 | 7,500 \ $ 3.20 | 7,000 | 9,000 \ $ 3.60 | 6,500 | 11,000 \ $ 4.00 | 6,000 | 15,000
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why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ?
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- this question is related to price ceiling and price floors right ?
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key points price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . when government laws regulate prices instead of letting market forces determine prices , it is known as price control . introduction controversy sometimes surrounds the prices and quantities established by demand and supply , especially for products that are considered necessities . in some cases , discontent over prices turns into public pressure on politicians , who may then pass legislation to prevent a certain price from climbing “ too high ” or falling “ too low ” . economists can predict how people and firms will react to laws that control price by using the demand and supply model—by the end of this article , you 'll be able to make these predictions as well ! price ceilings laws enacted by the government to regulate prices are called price controls . price controls come in two flavors . a price ceiling keeps a price from rising above a certain level—the “ ceiling ” . a price floor keeps a price from falling below a certain level—the “ floor ” . we can use the demand and supply framework to understand price ceilings . in many markets for goods and services , demanders outnumber suppliers . consumers , who are also potential voters , sometimes unite to convince the government to hold down a certain price . for example , when rents begin to rise rapidly in a city—perhaps due to rising incomes or a change in tastes—renters may press political leaders to pass rent control laws , a price ceiling that usually works by stating that rents can be raised by only a certain maximum percentage each year . let 's expand this example by thinking about a hypothetical town . rent was fairly stable . but then , the town was featured on a top-ten-places-to-live article in a popular magazine . eventually , rent control laws were passed . we can use the demand and supply model below to understand how the market changed based on this event . in the beginning , before the article was published , the equilibrium , $ \text { e0 } $ , lay at the intersection of supply curve $ \text { s0 } $ and demand curve $ \text { d0 } $ , corresponding to an equilibrium price of \ $ 500 and an equilibrium quantity of 15,000 units of rental housing . when the article inspired more people to want to move to our imaginary town , it shifted the demand curve for rental housing to the right , as shown by the data in the table below and the shift from $ \text { d0 } $ to $ \text { d1 } $ on the graph . in the new market , at the new equilibrium $ \text { e1 } $ , the price of a rental unit rose to \ $ 600 and the equilibrium quantity increased to 17,000 units . || rent control || price | original quantity supplied | original quantity demanded | new quantity demanded - | - | - | - \ $ 400 | 12,000 | 18,000 | 23,000 \ $ 500 | 15,000 | 15,000 | 19,000 \ $ 600 | 17,000 | 13,000 | 17,000 \ $ 700 | 19,000 | 11,000 | 15,000 \ $ 800 | 20,000 | 10,000 | 14,000 now , let 's suppose that a bunch of residents were pretty unhappy with paying a 20 % increase in their rent . they pressured local politicians to pass a rent control law to keep the price at the original equilibrium of \ $ 500 for a typical apartment . in the demand and supply model above , the horizontal line at the price of \ $ 500 shows the legally fixed maximum price set by the rent control law . however , the underlying forces that shifted the demand curve to the right are still there . at the fixed maximum price of \ $ 500 , the quantity supplied remains at the same 15,000 rental units , but the quantity demanded is 19,000 rental units . in other words , the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied , so there is a shortage of rental housing . the effects of price ceilings are complex and sometimes unexpected . in the case of rent control , the price ceiling does n't simply benefit renters at the expense of landlords . rather , some renters—or potential renters—lose their housing as landlords convert apartments to co-ops and condos . there are actually fewer apartments rented out under the price ceiling—15,000 rental units—than would be the case at the market rent of \ $ 600—17,000 rental units . and , even when housing remains in the rental market , landlords tend to spend less on maintenance and on essentials like heating , cooling , hot water , and lighting . the first rule of economics is you do not get something for nothing—everything has an opportunity cost . so if renters get “ cheaper ” housing than the market requires , they tend to also end up with lower quality housing . price ceilings are enacted in an attempt to keep prices low for those who demand the product—be it housing , prescription drugs , or auto insurance . but when the market price is not allowed to rise to the equilibrium level , quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied , and thus a shortage occurs . those who manage to purchase the product at the lower price given by the price ceiling will benefit , but sellers of the product will suffer , along with those who are not able to purchase the product at all . quality is also likely to deteriorate . price floors a price floor is the lowest legal price that can be paid in a market for goods and services , labor , or financial capital . perhaps the best-known example of a price floor is the minimum wage , which is based on the normative view that someone working full time ought to be able to afford a basic standard of living . the federal minimum wage at the end of 2014 was \ $ 7.25 per hour , which yields an income for a single person slightly higher than the poverty line . as the cost of living rises over time , congress periodically raises the federal minimum wage . price floors are sometimes called price supports because they support a price by preventing it from falling below a certain level . around the world , many countries have passed laws to create agricultural price supports . farm prices , and thus farm incomes , fluctuate—sometimes widely . so even if , on average , farm incomes are adequate , some years they can be quite low . the purpose of price supports is to prevent these swings . the most common way price supports work is that the government enters the market and buys up the product , adding to demand to keep prices higher than they otherwise would be . we can take a look at the demand and supply model below to understand better the effects of a government program that creates a price above the equilibrium . this particular model represents the market for wheat in europe . in the absence of government intervention , the price of wheat would adjust so that the quantity supplied would equal the quantity demanded at the equilibrium point $ \text { e0 } $ , with price $ \text { p0 } $ and quantity $ \text { q0 } $ . however , policies to keep prices high for farmers keep the price above what would have been the market equilibrium level—the price $ \text { pf } $ shown by the horizontal line in the diagram . the result is a quantity supplied in excess of the quantity demanded— $ \text { qd } $ . when quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded , a surplus exists . our example is hypothetical , but the concept plays out in the real world as well . if a government is willing to purchase excess agricultural supply—or to provide payments for others to purchase it—then farmers will benefit from the price floor , but taxpayers and consumers of food will pay the costs . do price ceilings and floors change demand or supply ? neither price ceilings nor price floors cause demand or supply to change . they simply set a price that limits what can be legally charged in the market . remember , changes in price do not cause demand or supply to change . price ceilings and price floors can cause a different choice of quantity demanded along a demand curve , but they do not move the demand curve . price controls can cause a different choice of quantity supplied along a supply curve , but they do not shift the supply curve . summary price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . price floors and price ceilings often lead to unintended consequences . self-check questions what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity demanded of the product ? what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity supplied ? why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ? review questions does a price ceiling attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price ceiling set below the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? does a price floor attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price floor set above the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? critical thinking questions what are the effects of raising the minimum wage ? the answer is more complex than the idea that producers lose and workers gain . who benefits and who loses , and what exactly do they gain and lose ? to what extent does the policy change achieve its goals ? agricultural price supports result in governments holding large inventories of agricultural products . why do you think the government can not simply give the products away to people living in poverty ? can you propose a policy that would induce the market to supply more rental housing units ? problems a low-income country decides to set a price ceiling on bread so it can make sure that bread is affordable to people living in poverty . the conditions of demand and supply are given in the table below . what are the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity before the price ceiling ? what will the excess demand or the shortage—quantity demanded minus quantity supplied—be if the price ceiling is set at \ $ 2.40 ? at \ $ 2.00 ? at \ $ 3.60 ? price | qd | qs - | - | - \ $ 1.60 | 9,000 | 5,000 \ $ 2.00 | 8,500 | 5,500 \ $ 2.40 | 8,000 | 6,400 \ $ 2.80 | 7,500 | 7,500 \ $ 3.20 | 7,000 | 9,000 \ $ 3.60 | 6,500 | 11,000 \ $ 4.00 | 6,000 | 15,000
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why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ?
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in what situation that the government will set a price floor ( price ceiling ) that is below ( above ) the equilibrium level ?
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key points price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . when government laws regulate prices instead of letting market forces determine prices , it is known as price control . introduction controversy sometimes surrounds the prices and quantities established by demand and supply , especially for products that are considered necessities . in some cases , discontent over prices turns into public pressure on politicians , who may then pass legislation to prevent a certain price from climbing “ too high ” or falling “ too low ” . economists can predict how people and firms will react to laws that control price by using the demand and supply model—by the end of this article , you 'll be able to make these predictions as well ! price ceilings laws enacted by the government to regulate prices are called price controls . price controls come in two flavors . a price ceiling keeps a price from rising above a certain level—the “ ceiling ” . a price floor keeps a price from falling below a certain level—the “ floor ” . we can use the demand and supply framework to understand price ceilings . in many markets for goods and services , demanders outnumber suppliers . consumers , who are also potential voters , sometimes unite to convince the government to hold down a certain price . for example , when rents begin to rise rapidly in a city—perhaps due to rising incomes or a change in tastes—renters may press political leaders to pass rent control laws , a price ceiling that usually works by stating that rents can be raised by only a certain maximum percentage each year . let 's expand this example by thinking about a hypothetical town . rent was fairly stable . but then , the town was featured on a top-ten-places-to-live article in a popular magazine . eventually , rent control laws were passed . we can use the demand and supply model below to understand how the market changed based on this event . in the beginning , before the article was published , the equilibrium , $ \text { e0 } $ , lay at the intersection of supply curve $ \text { s0 } $ and demand curve $ \text { d0 } $ , corresponding to an equilibrium price of \ $ 500 and an equilibrium quantity of 15,000 units of rental housing . when the article inspired more people to want to move to our imaginary town , it shifted the demand curve for rental housing to the right , as shown by the data in the table below and the shift from $ \text { d0 } $ to $ \text { d1 } $ on the graph . in the new market , at the new equilibrium $ \text { e1 } $ , the price of a rental unit rose to \ $ 600 and the equilibrium quantity increased to 17,000 units . || rent control || price | original quantity supplied | original quantity demanded | new quantity demanded - | - | - | - \ $ 400 | 12,000 | 18,000 | 23,000 \ $ 500 | 15,000 | 15,000 | 19,000 \ $ 600 | 17,000 | 13,000 | 17,000 \ $ 700 | 19,000 | 11,000 | 15,000 \ $ 800 | 20,000 | 10,000 | 14,000 now , let 's suppose that a bunch of residents were pretty unhappy with paying a 20 % increase in their rent . they pressured local politicians to pass a rent control law to keep the price at the original equilibrium of \ $ 500 for a typical apartment . in the demand and supply model above , the horizontal line at the price of \ $ 500 shows the legally fixed maximum price set by the rent control law . however , the underlying forces that shifted the demand curve to the right are still there . at the fixed maximum price of \ $ 500 , the quantity supplied remains at the same 15,000 rental units , but the quantity demanded is 19,000 rental units . in other words , the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied , so there is a shortage of rental housing . the effects of price ceilings are complex and sometimes unexpected . in the case of rent control , the price ceiling does n't simply benefit renters at the expense of landlords . rather , some renters—or potential renters—lose their housing as landlords convert apartments to co-ops and condos . there are actually fewer apartments rented out under the price ceiling—15,000 rental units—than would be the case at the market rent of \ $ 600—17,000 rental units . and , even when housing remains in the rental market , landlords tend to spend less on maintenance and on essentials like heating , cooling , hot water , and lighting . the first rule of economics is you do not get something for nothing—everything has an opportunity cost . so if renters get “ cheaper ” housing than the market requires , they tend to also end up with lower quality housing . price ceilings are enacted in an attempt to keep prices low for those who demand the product—be it housing , prescription drugs , or auto insurance . but when the market price is not allowed to rise to the equilibrium level , quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied , and thus a shortage occurs . those who manage to purchase the product at the lower price given by the price ceiling will benefit , but sellers of the product will suffer , along with those who are not able to purchase the product at all . quality is also likely to deteriorate . price floors a price floor is the lowest legal price that can be paid in a market for goods and services , labor , or financial capital . perhaps the best-known example of a price floor is the minimum wage , which is based on the normative view that someone working full time ought to be able to afford a basic standard of living . the federal minimum wage at the end of 2014 was \ $ 7.25 per hour , which yields an income for a single person slightly higher than the poverty line . as the cost of living rises over time , congress periodically raises the federal minimum wage . price floors are sometimes called price supports because they support a price by preventing it from falling below a certain level . around the world , many countries have passed laws to create agricultural price supports . farm prices , and thus farm incomes , fluctuate—sometimes widely . so even if , on average , farm incomes are adequate , some years they can be quite low . the purpose of price supports is to prevent these swings . the most common way price supports work is that the government enters the market and buys up the product , adding to demand to keep prices higher than they otherwise would be . we can take a look at the demand and supply model below to understand better the effects of a government program that creates a price above the equilibrium . this particular model represents the market for wheat in europe . in the absence of government intervention , the price of wheat would adjust so that the quantity supplied would equal the quantity demanded at the equilibrium point $ \text { e0 } $ , with price $ \text { p0 } $ and quantity $ \text { q0 } $ . however , policies to keep prices high for farmers keep the price above what would have been the market equilibrium level—the price $ \text { pf } $ shown by the horizontal line in the diagram . the result is a quantity supplied in excess of the quantity demanded— $ \text { qd } $ . when quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded , a surplus exists . our example is hypothetical , but the concept plays out in the real world as well . if a government is willing to purchase excess agricultural supply—or to provide payments for others to purchase it—then farmers will benefit from the price floor , but taxpayers and consumers of food will pay the costs . do price ceilings and floors change demand or supply ? neither price ceilings nor price floors cause demand or supply to change . they simply set a price that limits what can be legally charged in the market . remember , changes in price do not cause demand or supply to change . price ceilings and price floors can cause a different choice of quantity demanded along a demand curve , but they do not move the demand curve . price controls can cause a different choice of quantity supplied along a supply curve , but they do not shift the supply curve . summary price ceilings prevent a price from rising above a certain level . when a price ceiling is set below the equilibrium price , quantity demanded will exceed quantity supplied , and excess demand or shortages will result . price floors prevent a price from falling below a certain level . when a price floor is set above the equilibrium price , quantity supplied will exceed quantity demanded , and excess supply or surpluses will result . price floors and price ceilings often lead to unintended consequences . self-check questions what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity demanded of the product ? what is the effect of a price ceiling on the quantity supplied ? why exactly does a price ceiling cause a shortage ? does a price ceiling change the equilibrium price ? what would be the impact of imposing a price floor below the equilibrium price ? review questions does a price ceiling attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price ceiling set below the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? does a price floor attempt to make a price higher or lower ? how does a price floor set above the equilibrium level affect quantity demanded and quantity supplied ? critical thinking questions what are the effects of raising the minimum wage ? the answer is more complex than the idea that producers lose and workers gain . who benefits and who loses , and what exactly do they gain and lose ? to what extent does the policy change achieve its goals ? agricultural price supports result in governments holding large inventories of agricultural products . why do you think the government can not simply give the products away to people living in poverty ? can you propose a policy that would induce the market to supply more rental housing units ? problems a low-income country decides to set a price ceiling on bread so it can make sure that bread is affordable to people living in poverty . the conditions of demand and supply are given in the table below . what are the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity before the price ceiling ? what will the excess demand or the shortage—quantity demanded minus quantity supplied—be if the price ceiling is set at \ $ 2.40 ? at \ $ 2.00 ? at \ $ 3.60 ? price | qd | qs - | - | - \ $ 1.60 | 9,000 | 5,000 \ $ 2.00 | 8,500 | 5,500 \ $ 2.40 | 8,000 | 6,400 \ $ 2.80 | 7,500 | 7,500 \ $ 3.20 | 7,000 | 9,000 \ $ 3.60 | 6,500 | 11,000 \ $ 4.00 | 6,000 | 15,000
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we can take a look at the demand and supply model below to understand better the effects of a government program that creates a price above the equilibrium . this particular model represents the market for wheat in europe . in the absence of government intervention , the price of wheat would adjust so that the quantity supplied would equal the quantity demanded at the equilibrium point $ \text { e0 } $ , with price $ \text { p0 } $ and quantity $ \text { q0 } $ .
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like giving the excess of wheat bought by the european government to the poor in africa ?
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the qur'an : from recitation to book the qur'an is the sacred text of islam , consisting of the divine revelation to the prophet muhammad in arabic . over the course of the first century and a half of islam , the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation . however , the word qur'an , which means “ recitation , ” suggests that manuscripts were of secondary importance to oral tradition . in fact , the 114 suras ( or chapters ) of the qur'an were compiled into a textual format , organized from longest to shortest , only after the death of muhammad , although scholars still debate exactly when this might have occurred . this two-page spread ( or bifolium ) of a qur'an manuscript , which contains the beginning of surat al-'ankabut ( the spider ) , is now in the collection of the morgan library and museum in new york . other folios that appear to be from the same qur'an survive in the chester beatty library ( dublin ) , the topkapı palace museum and the museum of turkish and islamic art ( istanbul ) , and the national museum of syria ( damascus ) . one page includes an inscription , which states that ʿabd al-munʿim ibn aḥmad donated the qur'an to the great mosque of damascus in 298 a.h. ( july , 911 c.e . ) , although we do not know where or how long before this donation the manuscript was produced . a roadmap for readers the main text of the mushaf ( pronounced muss-hoff ) , as manuscripts of the qur'an are known , is written in brown ink . arabic , the language of the divine word of islam , is read from right to left . several consonants share the same basic letterform , and these are usually distinguished from each other by lines or dots placed above or below the letter . short vowels such as a , u , and i , are not normally written in arabic , but in order to avoid misreadings of such an important text it quickly became standard to include vowels in the qur'an . in this manuscript , these short vowels are marked with red circles positioned above , next to , or below the consonants , depending on the vowel . the text of each sura is further divided into verses by triangles made up of 5 gold circles located at the end of each verse ( left ) . the title of each sura is written in gold ink , and surrounded by a rectangle , filled here with an undulating golden vine ( below ) . combined with a rounded palmette extending into the margin of the folio , it allows readers to quickly locate the beginning of each sura . because figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects , artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and sacred manuscripts . vines and palmettes like the ones that surround the sura heading here appear alone in sacred contexts , but they also accompanied animal and human forms in the secular decoration of palaces and textiles . planning the proportions of the page the art of producing a mushaf began well before a pen was ever dipped into ink . the dimensions of each page were calculated before the parchment was cut , and the text was carefully situated relative to the edges of the pages . each page of costly parchment ( or vellum ) in this qur'an is larger than a standard sheet of printer paper , and contains only nine lines of calligraphy . these materials suggest both the dignity of the sacred text and the wealth of its patron , who was probably a member of the aristocratic elite . in addition to the high quality and large quantity of materials used , the deliberate geometric planning of the page conveys the importance of the text that it contains . as in many of the mushafs produced between 750 and 1000 c.e. , the pages of this manuscript are wider than they are tall . the text-block of this manuscript has a height-to-width ratio of 2:3 , and the width of the text-block is approximately equal to the height of the page . the height of each line of text was derived from the first letter of the alphabet , alif , which was in turn derived from the width of the nib of the reed pen used by the calligraphers to write the text . each line was further divided into a set number of “ interlines , ” which were used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters . there is no ruling on the parchment , however , so scribes probably placed each sheet of the semi-transparent parchment on a board marked with horizontal guidelines as they wrote . memorizing and producing the proportions of each pen stroke , however , must have been part of the training of every scribe . kufic script and the specialization of scribes writing in the tenth century c.e. , the abbasid court secretary ibn durustuyah noted that letters of the alphabet were written differently by qur'anic scribes , professional secretaries , and other copyists . the calligraphic style used by these early scribes of the qur'an is known today as kufic . only two or three of the more than 1300 fragments and manuscripts written in kufic that survive contain non-qur'anic content . kufic is not so much a single type of handwriting as it is a family of 17 related styles based on common principles , including a preference for strokes of relatively uniform thickness , short straight vertical lines and long horizontal lines , and a straight , horizontal baseline . various types of kufic were popular from the seventh century c.e . until the late tenth century c.e . scribes used a wide reed pen dipped in ink to write . in some letters the angle of the pen was adjusted as the scribe wrote in order to maintain an even thickness throughout the entire letterform , but in others the angle could be held constant in order to produce both very thick and very thin lines . although letters and even entire words at first appear to consist of a single stroke of the pen , in fact individual letters were often formed using multiple strokes . the regularity and precision of the penmanship in the fragment from the morgan library reveals the skill of the scribes who produced it . each of them deliberately imitated a single style in order to produce a unified finished product . scribes also had some freedom in composing a page . they could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally ( a technique known as mashq ) . they could also adjust spacing between words and letters , and even split words between two lines , in order to balance positive and negative space across the page . in this mushaf , the spaces between non-connecting characters within a word are as wide as the spaces that separate different words ( sometimes even wider ! ) . for readers unfamiliar with the text , it is therefore difficult to figure out which letters should be grouped together to form words . this deliberate obfuscation would have slowed down readers , and it suggests that anyone who read aloud from these manuscripts had probably already memorized the text of the qur'an and used the lavish manuscript only as a kind of mnemonic device . essay by alex brey suggested readings : sheila blair , islamic calligraphy ( edinburgh : edinburgh university press , 2006 ) . alain george , the rise of islamic calligraphy ( london : saqi , 2010 ) . alain george , “ the geometry of early qur'anic manuscripts. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 9 , no . 1 ( 2007 ) , pp . 78-110 . alain george , “ calligraphy , colour and light in the blue qur'an. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 11 , no . 1 ( 2009 ) , pp . 75-125 . estelle whelan , “ writing the word of god : some early qur ’ an manuscripts and their milieux , part i , ” ars orientalis volume 20 ( 1990 ) , pp . 113-147 . additional resources this manuscript at the morgan library and museum glossary from the british museum 's catalogue of illuminated manuscripts the development and spread of calligraphic scripts from the metropolitan museum of art scripts in development from the metropolitan museum of art islamic manuscripts from the cambridge digital library alain george , a little-known collection of early qur'anic fragments at the metropolitan museum of art ( video )
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the qur'an : from recitation to book the qur'an is the sacred text of islam , consisting of the divine revelation to the prophet muhammad in arabic . over the course of the first century and a half of islam , the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation .
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what is the difference between quran and koran ?
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the qur'an : from recitation to book the qur'an is the sacred text of islam , consisting of the divine revelation to the prophet muhammad in arabic . over the course of the first century and a half of islam , the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation . however , the word qur'an , which means “ recitation , ” suggests that manuscripts were of secondary importance to oral tradition . in fact , the 114 suras ( or chapters ) of the qur'an were compiled into a textual format , organized from longest to shortest , only after the death of muhammad , although scholars still debate exactly when this might have occurred . this two-page spread ( or bifolium ) of a qur'an manuscript , which contains the beginning of surat al-'ankabut ( the spider ) , is now in the collection of the morgan library and museum in new york . other folios that appear to be from the same qur'an survive in the chester beatty library ( dublin ) , the topkapı palace museum and the museum of turkish and islamic art ( istanbul ) , and the national museum of syria ( damascus ) . one page includes an inscription , which states that ʿabd al-munʿim ibn aḥmad donated the qur'an to the great mosque of damascus in 298 a.h. ( july , 911 c.e . ) , although we do not know where or how long before this donation the manuscript was produced . a roadmap for readers the main text of the mushaf ( pronounced muss-hoff ) , as manuscripts of the qur'an are known , is written in brown ink . arabic , the language of the divine word of islam , is read from right to left . several consonants share the same basic letterform , and these are usually distinguished from each other by lines or dots placed above or below the letter . short vowels such as a , u , and i , are not normally written in arabic , but in order to avoid misreadings of such an important text it quickly became standard to include vowels in the qur'an . in this manuscript , these short vowels are marked with red circles positioned above , next to , or below the consonants , depending on the vowel . the text of each sura is further divided into verses by triangles made up of 5 gold circles located at the end of each verse ( left ) . the title of each sura is written in gold ink , and surrounded by a rectangle , filled here with an undulating golden vine ( below ) . combined with a rounded palmette extending into the margin of the folio , it allows readers to quickly locate the beginning of each sura . because figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects , artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and sacred manuscripts . vines and palmettes like the ones that surround the sura heading here appear alone in sacred contexts , but they also accompanied animal and human forms in the secular decoration of palaces and textiles . planning the proportions of the page the art of producing a mushaf began well before a pen was ever dipped into ink . the dimensions of each page were calculated before the parchment was cut , and the text was carefully situated relative to the edges of the pages . each page of costly parchment ( or vellum ) in this qur'an is larger than a standard sheet of printer paper , and contains only nine lines of calligraphy . these materials suggest both the dignity of the sacred text and the wealth of its patron , who was probably a member of the aristocratic elite . in addition to the high quality and large quantity of materials used , the deliberate geometric planning of the page conveys the importance of the text that it contains . as in many of the mushafs produced between 750 and 1000 c.e. , the pages of this manuscript are wider than they are tall . the text-block of this manuscript has a height-to-width ratio of 2:3 , and the width of the text-block is approximately equal to the height of the page . the height of each line of text was derived from the first letter of the alphabet , alif , which was in turn derived from the width of the nib of the reed pen used by the calligraphers to write the text . each line was further divided into a set number of “ interlines , ” which were used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters . there is no ruling on the parchment , however , so scribes probably placed each sheet of the semi-transparent parchment on a board marked with horizontal guidelines as they wrote . memorizing and producing the proportions of each pen stroke , however , must have been part of the training of every scribe . kufic script and the specialization of scribes writing in the tenth century c.e. , the abbasid court secretary ibn durustuyah noted that letters of the alphabet were written differently by qur'anic scribes , professional secretaries , and other copyists . the calligraphic style used by these early scribes of the qur'an is known today as kufic . only two or three of the more than 1300 fragments and manuscripts written in kufic that survive contain non-qur'anic content . kufic is not so much a single type of handwriting as it is a family of 17 related styles based on common principles , including a preference for strokes of relatively uniform thickness , short straight vertical lines and long horizontal lines , and a straight , horizontal baseline . various types of kufic were popular from the seventh century c.e . until the late tenth century c.e . scribes used a wide reed pen dipped in ink to write . in some letters the angle of the pen was adjusted as the scribe wrote in order to maintain an even thickness throughout the entire letterform , but in others the angle could be held constant in order to produce both very thick and very thin lines . although letters and even entire words at first appear to consist of a single stroke of the pen , in fact individual letters were often formed using multiple strokes . the regularity and precision of the penmanship in the fragment from the morgan library reveals the skill of the scribes who produced it . each of them deliberately imitated a single style in order to produce a unified finished product . scribes also had some freedom in composing a page . they could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally ( a technique known as mashq ) . they could also adjust spacing between words and letters , and even split words between two lines , in order to balance positive and negative space across the page . in this mushaf , the spaces between non-connecting characters within a word are as wide as the spaces that separate different words ( sometimes even wider ! ) . for readers unfamiliar with the text , it is therefore difficult to figure out which letters should be grouped together to form words . this deliberate obfuscation would have slowed down readers , and it suggests that anyone who read aloud from these manuscripts had probably already memorized the text of the qur'an and used the lavish manuscript only as a kind of mnemonic device . essay by alex brey suggested readings : sheila blair , islamic calligraphy ( edinburgh : edinburgh university press , 2006 ) . alain george , the rise of islamic calligraphy ( london : saqi , 2010 ) . alain george , “ the geometry of early qur'anic manuscripts. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 9 , no . 1 ( 2007 ) , pp . 78-110 . alain george , “ calligraphy , colour and light in the blue qur'an. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 11 , no . 1 ( 2009 ) , pp . 75-125 . estelle whelan , “ writing the word of god : some early qur ’ an manuscripts and their milieux , part i , ” ars orientalis volume 20 ( 1990 ) , pp . 113-147 . additional resources this manuscript at the morgan library and museum glossary from the british museum 's catalogue of illuminated manuscripts the development and spread of calligraphic scripts from the metropolitan museum of art scripts in development from the metropolitan museum of art islamic manuscripts from the cambridge digital library alain george , a little-known collection of early qur'anic fragments at the metropolitan museum of art ( video )
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they could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally ( a technique known as mashq ) . they could also adjust spacing between words and letters , and even split words between two lines , in order to balance positive and negative space across the page . in this mushaf , the spaces between non-connecting characters within a word are as wide as the spaces that separate different words ( sometimes even wider ! ) . for readers unfamiliar with the text , it is therefore difficult to figure out which letters should be grouped together to form words .
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could the spacing within words be used to indicate emphasis or tempo ?
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the qur'an : from recitation to book the qur'an is the sacred text of islam , consisting of the divine revelation to the prophet muhammad in arabic . over the course of the first century and a half of islam , the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation . however , the word qur'an , which means “ recitation , ” suggests that manuscripts were of secondary importance to oral tradition . in fact , the 114 suras ( or chapters ) of the qur'an were compiled into a textual format , organized from longest to shortest , only after the death of muhammad , although scholars still debate exactly when this might have occurred . this two-page spread ( or bifolium ) of a qur'an manuscript , which contains the beginning of surat al-'ankabut ( the spider ) , is now in the collection of the morgan library and museum in new york . other folios that appear to be from the same qur'an survive in the chester beatty library ( dublin ) , the topkapı palace museum and the museum of turkish and islamic art ( istanbul ) , and the national museum of syria ( damascus ) . one page includes an inscription , which states that ʿabd al-munʿim ibn aḥmad donated the qur'an to the great mosque of damascus in 298 a.h. ( july , 911 c.e . ) , although we do not know where or how long before this donation the manuscript was produced . a roadmap for readers the main text of the mushaf ( pronounced muss-hoff ) , as manuscripts of the qur'an are known , is written in brown ink . arabic , the language of the divine word of islam , is read from right to left . several consonants share the same basic letterform , and these are usually distinguished from each other by lines or dots placed above or below the letter . short vowels such as a , u , and i , are not normally written in arabic , but in order to avoid misreadings of such an important text it quickly became standard to include vowels in the qur'an . in this manuscript , these short vowels are marked with red circles positioned above , next to , or below the consonants , depending on the vowel . the text of each sura is further divided into verses by triangles made up of 5 gold circles located at the end of each verse ( left ) . the title of each sura is written in gold ink , and surrounded by a rectangle , filled here with an undulating golden vine ( below ) . combined with a rounded palmette extending into the margin of the folio , it allows readers to quickly locate the beginning of each sura . because figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects , artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and sacred manuscripts . vines and palmettes like the ones that surround the sura heading here appear alone in sacred contexts , but they also accompanied animal and human forms in the secular decoration of palaces and textiles . planning the proportions of the page the art of producing a mushaf began well before a pen was ever dipped into ink . the dimensions of each page were calculated before the parchment was cut , and the text was carefully situated relative to the edges of the pages . each page of costly parchment ( or vellum ) in this qur'an is larger than a standard sheet of printer paper , and contains only nine lines of calligraphy . these materials suggest both the dignity of the sacred text and the wealth of its patron , who was probably a member of the aristocratic elite . in addition to the high quality and large quantity of materials used , the deliberate geometric planning of the page conveys the importance of the text that it contains . as in many of the mushafs produced between 750 and 1000 c.e. , the pages of this manuscript are wider than they are tall . the text-block of this manuscript has a height-to-width ratio of 2:3 , and the width of the text-block is approximately equal to the height of the page . the height of each line of text was derived from the first letter of the alphabet , alif , which was in turn derived from the width of the nib of the reed pen used by the calligraphers to write the text . each line was further divided into a set number of “ interlines , ” which were used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters . there is no ruling on the parchment , however , so scribes probably placed each sheet of the semi-transparent parchment on a board marked with horizontal guidelines as they wrote . memorizing and producing the proportions of each pen stroke , however , must have been part of the training of every scribe . kufic script and the specialization of scribes writing in the tenth century c.e. , the abbasid court secretary ibn durustuyah noted that letters of the alphabet were written differently by qur'anic scribes , professional secretaries , and other copyists . the calligraphic style used by these early scribes of the qur'an is known today as kufic . only two or three of the more than 1300 fragments and manuscripts written in kufic that survive contain non-qur'anic content . kufic is not so much a single type of handwriting as it is a family of 17 related styles based on common principles , including a preference for strokes of relatively uniform thickness , short straight vertical lines and long horizontal lines , and a straight , horizontal baseline . various types of kufic were popular from the seventh century c.e . until the late tenth century c.e . scribes used a wide reed pen dipped in ink to write . in some letters the angle of the pen was adjusted as the scribe wrote in order to maintain an even thickness throughout the entire letterform , but in others the angle could be held constant in order to produce both very thick and very thin lines . although letters and even entire words at first appear to consist of a single stroke of the pen , in fact individual letters were often formed using multiple strokes . the regularity and precision of the penmanship in the fragment from the morgan library reveals the skill of the scribes who produced it . each of them deliberately imitated a single style in order to produce a unified finished product . scribes also had some freedom in composing a page . they could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally ( a technique known as mashq ) . they could also adjust spacing between words and letters , and even split words between two lines , in order to balance positive and negative space across the page . in this mushaf , the spaces between non-connecting characters within a word are as wide as the spaces that separate different words ( sometimes even wider ! ) . for readers unfamiliar with the text , it is therefore difficult to figure out which letters should be grouped together to form words . this deliberate obfuscation would have slowed down readers , and it suggests that anyone who read aloud from these manuscripts had probably already memorized the text of the qur'an and used the lavish manuscript only as a kind of mnemonic device . essay by alex brey suggested readings : sheila blair , islamic calligraphy ( edinburgh : edinburgh university press , 2006 ) . alain george , the rise of islamic calligraphy ( london : saqi , 2010 ) . alain george , “ the geometry of early qur'anic manuscripts. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 9 , no . 1 ( 2007 ) , pp . 78-110 . alain george , “ calligraphy , colour and light in the blue qur'an. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 11 , no . 1 ( 2009 ) , pp . 75-125 . estelle whelan , “ writing the word of god : some early qur ’ an manuscripts and their milieux , part i , ” ars orientalis volume 20 ( 1990 ) , pp . 113-147 . additional resources this manuscript at the morgan library and museum glossary from the british museum 's catalogue of illuminated manuscripts the development and spread of calligraphic scripts from the metropolitan museum of art scripts in development from the metropolitan museum of art islamic manuscripts from the cambridge digital library alain george , a little-known collection of early qur'anic fragments at the metropolitan museum of art ( video )
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other folios that appear to be from the same qur'an survive in the chester beatty library ( dublin ) , the topkapı palace museum and the museum of turkish and islamic art ( istanbul ) , and the national museum of syria ( damascus ) . one page includes an inscription , which states that ʿabd al-munʿim ibn aḥmad donated the qur'an to the great mosque of damascus in 298 a.h. ( july , 911 c.e . ) , although we do not know where or how long before this donation the manuscript was produced .
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the text says that the bifolium was given to the great mosque of damascus in 298 a.h. what would a.h. mean ?
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the qur'an : from recitation to book the qur'an is the sacred text of islam , consisting of the divine revelation to the prophet muhammad in arabic . over the course of the first century and a half of islam , the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation . however , the word qur'an , which means “ recitation , ” suggests that manuscripts were of secondary importance to oral tradition . in fact , the 114 suras ( or chapters ) of the qur'an were compiled into a textual format , organized from longest to shortest , only after the death of muhammad , although scholars still debate exactly when this might have occurred . this two-page spread ( or bifolium ) of a qur'an manuscript , which contains the beginning of surat al-'ankabut ( the spider ) , is now in the collection of the morgan library and museum in new york . other folios that appear to be from the same qur'an survive in the chester beatty library ( dublin ) , the topkapı palace museum and the museum of turkish and islamic art ( istanbul ) , and the national museum of syria ( damascus ) . one page includes an inscription , which states that ʿabd al-munʿim ibn aḥmad donated the qur'an to the great mosque of damascus in 298 a.h. ( july , 911 c.e . ) , although we do not know where or how long before this donation the manuscript was produced . a roadmap for readers the main text of the mushaf ( pronounced muss-hoff ) , as manuscripts of the qur'an are known , is written in brown ink . arabic , the language of the divine word of islam , is read from right to left . several consonants share the same basic letterform , and these are usually distinguished from each other by lines or dots placed above or below the letter . short vowels such as a , u , and i , are not normally written in arabic , but in order to avoid misreadings of such an important text it quickly became standard to include vowels in the qur'an . in this manuscript , these short vowels are marked with red circles positioned above , next to , or below the consonants , depending on the vowel . the text of each sura is further divided into verses by triangles made up of 5 gold circles located at the end of each verse ( left ) . the title of each sura is written in gold ink , and surrounded by a rectangle , filled here with an undulating golden vine ( below ) . combined with a rounded palmette extending into the margin of the folio , it allows readers to quickly locate the beginning of each sura . because figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects , artists relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and sacred manuscripts . vines and palmettes like the ones that surround the sura heading here appear alone in sacred contexts , but they also accompanied animal and human forms in the secular decoration of palaces and textiles . planning the proportions of the page the art of producing a mushaf began well before a pen was ever dipped into ink . the dimensions of each page were calculated before the parchment was cut , and the text was carefully situated relative to the edges of the pages . each page of costly parchment ( or vellum ) in this qur'an is larger than a standard sheet of printer paper , and contains only nine lines of calligraphy . these materials suggest both the dignity of the sacred text and the wealth of its patron , who was probably a member of the aristocratic elite . in addition to the high quality and large quantity of materials used , the deliberate geometric planning of the page conveys the importance of the text that it contains . as in many of the mushafs produced between 750 and 1000 c.e. , the pages of this manuscript are wider than they are tall . the text-block of this manuscript has a height-to-width ratio of 2:3 , and the width of the text-block is approximately equal to the height of the page . the height of each line of text was derived from the first letter of the alphabet , alif , which was in turn derived from the width of the nib of the reed pen used by the calligraphers to write the text . each line was further divided into a set number of “ interlines , ” which were used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters . there is no ruling on the parchment , however , so scribes probably placed each sheet of the semi-transparent parchment on a board marked with horizontal guidelines as they wrote . memorizing and producing the proportions of each pen stroke , however , must have been part of the training of every scribe . kufic script and the specialization of scribes writing in the tenth century c.e. , the abbasid court secretary ibn durustuyah noted that letters of the alphabet were written differently by qur'anic scribes , professional secretaries , and other copyists . the calligraphic style used by these early scribes of the qur'an is known today as kufic . only two or three of the more than 1300 fragments and manuscripts written in kufic that survive contain non-qur'anic content . kufic is not so much a single type of handwriting as it is a family of 17 related styles based on common principles , including a preference for strokes of relatively uniform thickness , short straight vertical lines and long horizontal lines , and a straight , horizontal baseline . various types of kufic were popular from the seventh century c.e . until the late tenth century c.e . scribes used a wide reed pen dipped in ink to write . in some letters the angle of the pen was adjusted as the scribe wrote in order to maintain an even thickness throughout the entire letterform , but in others the angle could be held constant in order to produce both very thick and very thin lines . although letters and even entire words at first appear to consist of a single stroke of the pen , in fact individual letters were often formed using multiple strokes . the regularity and precision of the penmanship in the fragment from the morgan library reveals the skill of the scribes who produced it . each of them deliberately imitated a single style in order to produce a unified finished product . scribes also had some freedom in composing a page . they could emphasize individual words and balance the widths of lines of different length by elongating certain letters horizontally ( a technique known as mashq ) . they could also adjust spacing between words and letters , and even split words between two lines , in order to balance positive and negative space across the page . in this mushaf , the spaces between non-connecting characters within a word are as wide as the spaces that separate different words ( sometimes even wider ! ) . for readers unfamiliar with the text , it is therefore difficult to figure out which letters should be grouped together to form words . this deliberate obfuscation would have slowed down readers , and it suggests that anyone who read aloud from these manuscripts had probably already memorized the text of the qur'an and used the lavish manuscript only as a kind of mnemonic device . essay by alex brey suggested readings : sheila blair , islamic calligraphy ( edinburgh : edinburgh university press , 2006 ) . alain george , the rise of islamic calligraphy ( london : saqi , 2010 ) . alain george , “ the geometry of early qur'anic manuscripts. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 9 , no . 1 ( 2007 ) , pp . 78-110 . alain george , “ calligraphy , colour and light in the blue qur'an. ” journal of qur'anic studies volume 11 , no . 1 ( 2009 ) , pp . 75-125 . estelle whelan , “ writing the word of god : some early qur ’ an manuscripts and their milieux , part i , ” ars orientalis volume 20 ( 1990 ) , pp . 113-147 . additional resources this manuscript at the morgan library and museum glossary from the british museum 's catalogue of illuminated manuscripts the development and spread of calligraphic scripts from the metropolitan museum of art scripts in development from the metropolitan museum of art islamic manuscripts from the cambridge digital library alain george , a little-known collection of early qur'anic fragments at the metropolitan museum of art ( video )
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over the course of the first century and a half of islam , the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation . however , the word qur'an , which means “ recitation , ” suggests that manuscripts were of secondary importance to oral tradition . in fact , the 114 suras ( or chapters ) of the qur'an were compiled into a textual format , organized from longest to shortest , only after the death of muhammad , although scholars still debate exactly when this might have occurred .
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is it clear wether these spacings in the mashq had anything to with a cadence of recitation , like in poetry or music ?
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two-way tables organize data based on two categorical variables . two way frequency tables two-way frequency tables show how many data points fit in each category . here 's an example : preference | male | female - | : - : | : - : | : - : | prefers dogs | $ 36 $ | $ 22 $ prefers cats | $ 8 $ | $ 26 $ no preference | $ 2 $ | $ 6 $ the columns of the table tell us whether the student is a male or a female . the rows of the table tell us whether the student prefers dogs , cats , or does n't have a preference . each cell tells us the number ( or frequency ) of students . for example , the $ 36 $ is in the male column and the prefers dogs row . this tells us that there are $ 36 $ males who preferred dogs in this dataset . notice that there are two variables—gender and preference—this is where the two in two-way frequency table comes from . want a review of making two-way frequency tables ? check out this video . want to practice making frequency tables ? check out this exercise . want to practice reading frequency tables ? check out this exercise two way relative frequency tables two-way relative frequency tables show what percent of data points fit in each category . we can use row relative frequencies or column relative frequencies , it just depends on the context of the problem . for example , here 's how we would make column relative frequencies : step 1 : find the totals for each column . preference | male | female - | : - : | : - : | : - : prefers dogs | $ 36 $ | $ 22 $ prefers cats | $ 8 $ | $ 26 $ no preference | $ 2 $ | $ 6 $ total | $ 46 $ | $ 54 $ step 2 : divide each cell count by its column total and convert to a percentage . preference | male | female - | : - : | : - : | : - : prefers dogs | $ \dfrac { 36 } { 46 } \approx78\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 22 } { 54 } \approx41\ % $ prefers cats | $ \dfrac { 8 } { 46 } \approx17\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 26 } { 54 } \approx48\ % $ no preference | $ \dfrac { 2 } { 46 } \approx4\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 6 } { 54 } \approx11\ % $ total | $ \dfrac { 46 } { 46 } =100\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 54 } { 54 } =100\ % $ notice that sometimes your percentages wo n't add up to $ 100\ % $ even though we rounded properly . this is called round-off error , and we do n't worry about it too much . two-way relative frequency tables are useful when there are different sample sizes in a dataset . in this example , more females were surveyed than males , so using percentages makes it easier to compare the preferences of males and females . from the relative frequencies , we can see that a large majority of males preferred dogs $ ( 78\ % ) $ compared to a minority of females $ ( 41\ % ) $ . want a review of making two-way relative frequency tables ? check out this video . want to practice making relative frequency tables ? check out this exercise . want to practice reading relative frequency tables ? check out this exercise
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preference | male | female - | : - : | : - : | : - : prefers dogs | $ 36 $ | $ 22 $ prefers cats | $ 8 $ | $ 26 $ no preference | $ 2 $ | $ 6 $ total | $ 46 $ | $ 54 $ step 2 : divide each cell count by its column total and convert to a percentage . preference | male | female - | : - : | : - : | : - : prefers dogs | $ \dfrac { 36 } { 46 } \approx78\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 22 } { 54 } \approx41\ % $ prefers cats | $ \dfrac { 8 } { 46 } \approx17\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 26 } { 54 } \approx48\ % $ no preference | $ \dfrac { 2 } { 46 } \approx4\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 6 } { 54 } \approx11\ % $ total | $ \dfrac { 46 } { 46 } =100\ % $ | $ \dfrac { 54 } { 54 } =100\ % $ notice that sometimes your percentages wo n't add up to $ 100\ % $ even though we rounded properly . this is called round-off error , and we do n't worry about it too much .
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why would someone have the columns add up to 100 % instead of having the rows add up to 100 % ?
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“ our north is the south. ” so joaquín torres-garcía proudly announced in 1935 in the school of the south manifesto , in which he articulated his ideas about the direction of uruguayan , and indeed all latin american art . torres-garcía upended traditional hierarchical structures by defining the art of south america on its own terms , rather than in relation to that of the north ( i.e . the united states and europe ) as it had been in the past . in proclaiming itself independent from artistic centers of power like new york and paris , torres-garcía looked to the pre-columbian past ( before the arrival of christopher columbus to the americas in 1492 ) as a source of artistic inspiration . in 1934 , torres-garcía returned to uruguay from the united states and europe , where he had lived for roughly 40 years . upon his return , he established the school of the south , a workshop in which he encouraged students to seek inspiration locally rather than globally , while at the same time establishing an autonomous artistic tradition . as seen in américa invertida ( inverted america ) , the aim of torres-garcía was to challenge the traditional frame of mind , and reposition the south as the new north . inverted map with the southern cone turned upside down , one sees the map of south america in an entirely new way . the map communicates important details like the cardinal direction of the south , the latitude line of montevideo , and the equatorial line . rather than show the equator at the center of the hemisphere , as is usually the case , torres-garcía instead places uruguay in this privileged position . other symbols like the sun , boat and fish seem relatively straightforward , however for torres-garcía they also communicated greater meaning . appearing often in his work , the sun is a powerful pre-columbian symbol . due to its life giving force , torres-garcía prominently features it , not only in this map , but also in his cosmic monument ( 1938 ) , where it appears at the center . the boat is usually associated with travel , while the fish represents fecundity . torres-garcía argued that these symbols were indigenous to latin america and featured in monuments as old as the ones found in tiwanaku ( one of the most prominent civilizations in south america prior to the inca empire ) . as a result of their ancient origins and timeless quality , torres-garcía held that these were universal symbols . in the gate of the sun at tiwanaku ( above ) , the sun god faces out from the top of the gate with rays around his face . pre-columbian symbols here joined the great art of ancient civilizations , along with the hieroglyphics of the ancient egyptians and the reliefs of the ancient greeks . torres-garcía drew on quintessentially latin american symbols to articulate a version of modern art that was autonomous from what he had seen in barcelona , paris and new york , thus reaffirming his cultural identity , while simultaneously articulating a new direction . constructive universalism constructive universalism , as he referred to this new style , sought to imbue geometric art with a new spiritual dimension , here achieved through the appropriation of ancient symbols . abstraction and figuration were at odds with each other at this time , when other latin american artists like mexican diego rivera ( above ) , ecuadorian camilo egas , and brazilian candido portinari championed figural depictions of local subjects rooted in social activism . interestingly , torres-garcía upheld both the principles of abstraction and a regional sense of identity , while eschewing any socio-political message . while pre-columbian art was at the center of constructive universalism , torres-garcía also looked to astral , zodiacal , and other ancient signs , explaining the presence of the star and the yin and yang in his cosmic monument ( above ) . the conflation of these influences demonstrates the international nature of his work , despite its emphasis on latin american culture . essay by dr. maya jiménez additional resources : other works by this artist at the museum of modern art artist biography at the guggenheim museum
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as a result of their ancient origins and timeless quality , torres-garcía held that these were universal symbols . in the gate of the sun at tiwanaku ( above ) , the sun god faces out from the top of the gate with rays around his face . pre-columbian symbols here joined the great art of ancient civilizations , along with the hieroglyphics of the ancient egyptians and the reliefs of the ancient greeks .
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or , is the barbed wire part of the installation , which is the gate , or , is has the barbed wire been added for the occasion of the photograph in order to become another work of art ?
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overview the congress for racial equality ( core ) was formed in 1942 as an interracial organization committed to achieving integration through nonviolent direct action and civil disobedience . the student nonviolent coordinating committee ( sncc ) , formed in 1960 , focused on mobilizing local communities in nonviolent protests to expose injustice and demand federal action . core and sncc—together with other organizations such as the naacp and the southern christian leadership conference—led the civil right movement ’ s campaigns of the early 1960s , which included sit-ins , freedom rides , voter registration drives , and the 1963 march on washington . by the late 1960s both core and sncc became disillusioned with the slow rate of progress associated with nonviolence and turned toward the growing black power movement . core core was founded by a group of white and black students on the campus of the university of chicago in 1942 . its founders had been active in the interfaith , pacifist fellowship of reconciliation , and drew inspiration from mahatma gandhi ’ s practice of nonviolent civil disobedience. $ ^1 $ core sent some of its members to help in the montgomery bus boycott , and supported student sit-ins at lunch counters across the south . in 1961 , core 's national director james farmer organized an effort to integrate interstate bus stations and buses in the deep south with a series of freedom rides . freedom riders were groups of white and black civil rights activists who rode buses to challenge segregation in interstate transportation in southern states . the first freedom riders left washington , d.c. on two buses that traveled into southern states . freedom riders were met with brutal violence by whites opposed to racial integration . an unidentified white person threw a fire bomb through an open bus window outside anniston , alabama , and freedom riders were beaten by a white mob after exiting the burning bus . one rider suffered permanent brain damage from a beating . in birmingham , alabama another rider required more than fifty stitches after being struck by a metal pipe. $ ^2 $ the first two freedom ride buses were terminated after ten days . but during the summer of 1961 , the freedom rides were carried on by more than a thousand americans . john lewis , who would soon become a celebrated civil rights leader , wrote at the time that he would “ give up all if necessary for the freedom ride , that justice and freedom might come to the deep south. ” the freedom rides were widely covered in the press , and remain one of the most memorable events in civil rights movement history. $ ^3 $ core activists also contributed to the voter registration drives in the deep south that became the focus of the civil rights movement in late 1961 , and contributed to the voter education and registration drives during 1963 and 1964 in mississippi and elsewhere . core cosponsored the 1963 march on washington for jobs and freedom , the gathering of some 250,000 americans at which martin luther king , jr. delivered his “ i have a dream ” speech . by 1966 core increasingly embraced black separatism and black power , and lent its support to the anti-vietnam war movement. $ ^4 $ sncc sncc—pronounced “ snick ” —grew out of student sit-ins at lunch counters that had begun in february 1960 in greensboro , north carolina . in april , ella baker , the executive secretary of the southern christian leadership conference ( sclc ) and students from the sit-ins met on the campus of shaw university in raleigh , north carolina and founded sncc. $ ^5 $ sncc , as its name suggests , endeavored to coordinate efforts among students—both black and white—in direct action , nonviolent efforts in the movement for civil rights . sncc conducted lunch-counter sit-ins , contributed participants to the 1961 freedom rides , cosponsored the 1963 march on washington , and contributed to voter education and registration drives across the south . during the 1964 mississippi freedom summer three young sncc activists were murdered in their efforts to register black voters . in 1966 stokely carmichael was elected to head sncc . carmichael embraced the black power movement , which included black separatism and the use of violence in self-defense . in june 1966 , carmichael declared at a rally that “ 1966 is the year of the concept of black power . the year when black men realized their full worth in society—their dignity and their beauty—and their power—the greatest power on the earth—the power of the right. ” $ ^6 $ with its commitment to nonviolence dropped , carmichael renamed the organization the student national coordinating committee . in 1967 , h. rap brown took over as sncc chairman and moved the organization further toward black separatism . by the late 1960s , the broader civil rights movement fragmented in the wake of the april 1968 assassination of martin luther king , jr. and rioting in major american cities . by the early 1970s , sncc had dissolved . what do you think ? college-age students were principal founders of both core and sncc . in what ways did student voices advance the movement for civil rights ? in what ways might college-aged students ’ perspectives have been limited ? what were the successes and challenges of the direct action , nonviolent protest strategy that both core and sncc employed in the early 1960s ? why did both core and sncc increasingly turn away from nonviolence by the late 1960s ? do you think this turn was a good idea ? why or why not ?
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in 1966 stokely carmichael was elected to head sncc . carmichael embraced the black power movement , which included black separatism and the use of violence in self-defense . in june 1966 , carmichael declared at a rally that “ 1966 is the year of the concept of black power .
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how is `` the use of violence in self-defense , '' viewed differently from `` non-violence '' ?
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overview the congress for racial equality ( core ) was formed in 1942 as an interracial organization committed to achieving integration through nonviolent direct action and civil disobedience . the student nonviolent coordinating committee ( sncc ) , formed in 1960 , focused on mobilizing local communities in nonviolent protests to expose injustice and demand federal action . core and sncc—together with other organizations such as the naacp and the southern christian leadership conference—led the civil right movement ’ s campaigns of the early 1960s , which included sit-ins , freedom rides , voter registration drives , and the 1963 march on washington . by the late 1960s both core and sncc became disillusioned with the slow rate of progress associated with nonviolence and turned toward the growing black power movement . core core was founded by a group of white and black students on the campus of the university of chicago in 1942 . its founders had been active in the interfaith , pacifist fellowship of reconciliation , and drew inspiration from mahatma gandhi ’ s practice of nonviolent civil disobedience. $ ^1 $ core sent some of its members to help in the montgomery bus boycott , and supported student sit-ins at lunch counters across the south . in 1961 , core 's national director james farmer organized an effort to integrate interstate bus stations and buses in the deep south with a series of freedom rides . freedom riders were groups of white and black civil rights activists who rode buses to challenge segregation in interstate transportation in southern states . the first freedom riders left washington , d.c. on two buses that traveled into southern states . freedom riders were met with brutal violence by whites opposed to racial integration . an unidentified white person threw a fire bomb through an open bus window outside anniston , alabama , and freedom riders were beaten by a white mob after exiting the burning bus . one rider suffered permanent brain damage from a beating . in birmingham , alabama another rider required more than fifty stitches after being struck by a metal pipe. $ ^2 $ the first two freedom ride buses were terminated after ten days . but during the summer of 1961 , the freedom rides were carried on by more than a thousand americans . john lewis , who would soon become a celebrated civil rights leader , wrote at the time that he would “ give up all if necessary for the freedom ride , that justice and freedom might come to the deep south. ” the freedom rides were widely covered in the press , and remain one of the most memorable events in civil rights movement history. $ ^3 $ core activists also contributed to the voter registration drives in the deep south that became the focus of the civil rights movement in late 1961 , and contributed to the voter education and registration drives during 1963 and 1964 in mississippi and elsewhere . core cosponsored the 1963 march on washington for jobs and freedom , the gathering of some 250,000 americans at which martin luther king , jr. delivered his “ i have a dream ” speech . by 1966 core increasingly embraced black separatism and black power , and lent its support to the anti-vietnam war movement. $ ^4 $ sncc sncc—pronounced “ snick ” —grew out of student sit-ins at lunch counters that had begun in february 1960 in greensboro , north carolina . in april , ella baker , the executive secretary of the southern christian leadership conference ( sclc ) and students from the sit-ins met on the campus of shaw university in raleigh , north carolina and founded sncc. $ ^5 $ sncc , as its name suggests , endeavored to coordinate efforts among students—both black and white—in direct action , nonviolent efforts in the movement for civil rights . sncc conducted lunch-counter sit-ins , contributed participants to the 1961 freedom rides , cosponsored the 1963 march on washington , and contributed to voter education and registration drives across the south . during the 1964 mississippi freedom summer three young sncc activists were murdered in their efforts to register black voters . in 1966 stokely carmichael was elected to head sncc . carmichael embraced the black power movement , which included black separatism and the use of violence in self-defense . in june 1966 , carmichael declared at a rally that “ 1966 is the year of the concept of black power . the year when black men realized their full worth in society—their dignity and their beauty—and their power—the greatest power on the earth—the power of the right. ” $ ^6 $ with its commitment to nonviolence dropped , carmichael renamed the organization the student national coordinating committee . in 1967 , h. rap brown took over as sncc chairman and moved the organization further toward black separatism . by the late 1960s , the broader civil rights movement fragmented in the wake of the april 1968 assassination of martin luther king , jr. and rioting in major american cities . by the early 1970s , sncc had dissolved . what do you think ? college-age students were principal founders of both core and sncc . in what ways did student voices advance the movement for civil rights ? in what ways might college-aged students ’ perspectives have been limited ? what were the successes and challenges of the direct action , nonviolent protest strategy that both core and sncc employed in the early 1960s ? why did both core and sncc increasingly turn away from nonviolence by the late 1960s ? do you think this turn was a good idea ? why or why not ?
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in what ways did student voices advance the movement for civil rights ? in what ways might college-aged students ’ perspectives have been limited ? what were the successes and challenges of the direct action , nonviolent protest strategy that both core and sncc employed in the early 1960s ?
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in what ways might college aged students ' perspectives have been limited ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles .
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i am wondering , how can we empty aquifers faster than they replenish ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice .
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or is the water that we use from these aquifers raining down , or flowing down , into other areas or the ocean ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas .
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can water pollutants and air pollutants interfere with the water cycle and the ecosystem around it ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive .
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living organisms only last one week in our body before it is replaced ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground .
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what is the role of moisture for bringing rain ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground .
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does low pressure or high pressure affect the amount of rain ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice .
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how large a percentage of the water on earth is in biospheric ( in living organisms ) form ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
|
water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas .
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i was wondering , how are various organisms part of the cycle , and how do they recycle water in the ecosystem and biosphere ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground .
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why is clouds white colour ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
|
water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas .
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what are the essential elements of the water cycle ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
|
water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas .
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how do aquifers help the water cycle ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
|
water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas .
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what 's the water cycle formula ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
|
key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need .
|
difference between `` percolation '' and `` infiltration '' ?
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key points the vast majority of earth 's water is saltwater found in oceans . only a tiny fraction is readily accessible freshwater , which is what humans need . water found at the earth 's surface can cycle rapidly , but much of earth 's water lies in ice , oceans , and underground reservoirs ; this water cycles slowly . the water cycle is complex and involves state changes in water as well as the physical movement of water through and between ecosystems . groundwater is found underground between soil particles and in cracks of rocks . aquifers are groundwater reservoirs often tapped by wells . water : why does it matter ? water is pretty darn important for living things . your body is more than one-half water , and if we were to take a look at your cells , we ’ d find they were over 70 % water ! so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice . all told , less than 1 % of fresh water is found in lakes , rivers , and other available surface forms . many living things depend on this small supply of surface fresh water , and lack of water can have serious effects on ecosystems . humans , of course , have come up with some technologies to increase water availability . these include digging wells to get at groundwater , collecting rainwater , and using desalination—salt removal—to get fresh water from the ocean . still , clean , safe drinking water is not always available in many parts of the world today . most of the water on earth does not cycle—move from one place to another—very rapidly . we can see this in the figure below , which shows the average time that an individual water molecule spends in each of earth ’ s major water reservoirs , a measurement called residence time . water in oceans , underground , and in the form of ice tends to cycle very slowly . only surface water cycles rapidly . the water cycle the water cycle is driven by the sun ’ s energy . the sun warms the ocean surface and other surface water , causing liquid water to evaporate and ice to sublime—turn directly from a solid to a gas . these sun-driven processes move water into the atmosphere in the form of water vapor . over time , water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and eventually falls as precipitation , rain or snow . when precipitation reaches earth 's surface , it has a few options : it may evaporate again , flow over the surface , or percolate—sink down—into the ground . in land-based , or terrestrial , ecosystems in their natural state , rain usually hits the leaves and other surfaces of plants before it reaches the soil . some water evaporates quickly from the surfaces of the plants . the water that 's left reaches the soil and , in most cases , will begin to move down into it . in general , water moves along the surface as runoff only when the soil is saturated with water , when rain is falling very hard , or when the surface ca n't absorb much water . a non-absorbent surface could be rock in a natural ecosystem or asphalt or cement in an urban or suburban ecosystem . water in the upper levels of the soil can be taken up by plant roots . plants use some of the water for their own metabolism , and water that 's in plant tissues can find its way into animals ’ bodies when the plants get eaten . however , most of the water that enters a plant 's body will be lost back to the atmosphere in a process called transpiration . in transpiration , water enters through the roots , travels upwards through vascular tubes made out of dead cells , and evaporates through pores called stomata found in the leaves . if water is not taken up by plant roots , it may percolate down into the subsoil and bedrock , forming groundwater . groundwater is water found in the pores between particles in sand and gravel or in the cracks in rocks , and it ’ s an important reservoir of freshwater . shallow groundwater flows slowly through pores and fissures and may eventually find its way to a stream or lake , where it can become part of the surface water again . some groundwater lies deep in the bedrock and can stay there for millennia . groundwater reservoirs , or aquifers , are usually the source of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells . today , many aquifers are being used up faster than they 're renewed by water that moves down from above . the water cycle drives other cycles . the water cycle is important in itself , and patterns of water cycling and rainfall have major effects on earth 's ecosystems . however , rainfall and surface runoff also play important roles in the cycling of various elements . these include carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . in particular , surface runoff helps move elements from terrestrial , land-based , to aquatic ecosystems . we 'll take a closer look at how this works in the following articles , where we 'll examine different elements ' biogeochemical cycles .
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so , you—like most land animals—need a reliable supply of fresh water to survive . of the water on earth , 97.5 % is salt water . of the remaining water , over 99 % is in the form of underground water or ice .
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when erosion is happening and water is causing it , does the water go in a different direction every time ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards .
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what is the date of the earliest illustrated manuscript ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive .
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were the images not found in the original and added by later copyists after iconoclasm ended ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages .
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how many of the surviving medieval books are novels ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed .
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were novels around back then ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text .
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so that 's my question- did every literate reader have the right to make these notes ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ .
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does anyone know what 's st. augustine 's main argument about human will ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts .
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what were the manuscripts made out of ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative .
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what language were the manuscripts written in ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well .
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would another reason for the function of illustrated manuscripts be because in the middle ages most people were illiterate ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts .
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ok so in the second picture what is the deal with the winged ox ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity .
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in the 5th paragraph when we are talking about `` the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco '' is there any link between that book and the movie starring sean connery ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity .
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and if yes is the movie slightly close to that original novel ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge .
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when did monks first begin writing books by hand ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative .
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did these manuscripts help the split to take place ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes .
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my question is this - was the bible the most circulated book of this time ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative .
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did the scribes and monks also copy illuminated manuscripts ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl .
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if so , were the illuminations removed to save time , changed to suit the needs of the time , or fairly accurately reproduced ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display .
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how long did it take for one of these medieval manuscripts to get written , and why did the priests and other religious members of society be often the only ones who could read and gain knowledge ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes .
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how long did it take the monks to make a book ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation .
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how many scrolls are around today ?
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what survives more medieval books survive from the middle ages than any other artistic medium . scholars refer to the hand-made books of the middle ages as manuscripts . books that contain artistic decoration are called illuminated manuscripts . manuscripts that survive from the european middle ages are generally religious books that reflect the canon , doctrine and practices of christianity , though there are jewish and muslim books and other types of books that survive from this time period as well . the codex vs the scroll a medieval manuscript is a codex ( pl . codices ) , meaning a book made of pages bound between two boards . ancient scribes wrote on scrolls that were stored in boxes . these ancient scrolls only survive in occasional fragments , as a scroll is especially vulnerable to physical degradation . the pages of codices , on the other hand , are protected by their covers and have a much greater chance for survival . thus , medieval books survive in large numbers . where to see medieval manuscripts the bibliothèque nationale de france in paris and the british library in london house the world 's largest collections of medieval manuscripts . though normally only available to scholars , many museums and libraries put some of their manuscript treasures on display . digitizing , or creating high quality digital images of manuscripts , is increasingly common and these images are normally available on the internet , furthering the study of these medieval books . what 's in the books the original manuscripts of the bible , the works of aristotle and plato and other ancient writers do not survive . they are known today because medieval scribes diligently copied them . a slow and laborious process recording and disseminating information is quick and easy today , but in the middle ages this process was slow and laborious . monastery libraries housed most books and all books were copied by hand , usually by monks . this process of copying and disseminating books was essential to the preservation of knowledge . some monks traveled to distant monasteries to view and copy books to bring back to their own monastery 's library . fires destroyed many medieval libraries and the books they housed . because of this and other accidents of history , not all texts survived the middle ages . the name of the rose , a novel by umberto eco , imagines such a fate for aristotle 's lost work on poetics . books & amp ; christianity books were essential to the practice of christianity . medieval christian missionaries , such as st. augustine of canterbury , brought books with them as they traveled from place to place preaching and establishing new churches . the gospel book of st. augustine survives today in the parker library of corpus christi college , cambridge . it contains the text of the gospels—matthew , mark , luke and john of the new testament—an essential work for teaching potential converts about the life of christ . a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative . illuminated initials and painted miniatures marked the beginnings of important sections in the text and allowed readers to navigate the book . prefatory image cycles prepared the mind of the reader to engage with the text . some illustrations elaborate doctrines , record events or simply tells stories . even readers ' doodles are intriguing to contemporary scholars . word & amp ; image in illuminated manuscripts , words and images worked together to inform the medieval reader and occasionally these readers left their own mark . these books are highly interactive . nearly all medieval manuscripts provide ample space in the margins for readers ' notes and comments . in this way , illuminated manuscripts are different from other types of media in that they provided spaces for readers to record their reactions to image and text . essay by dr. nancy ross
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a series of images illustrating the life of christ prefaces the text and each book of the gospels begins with an illustration detailing the events unique to that gospel , though some of these are now lost . illustrations the oldest illuminated manuscripts are among the oldest manuscripts in existence . the illustration of books was functional as well as decorative .
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when manuscripts were written , what were they written on ?
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the artist known by the name he adopted in his late thirties , zheng sixiao painted ink orchid to evoke his sentiments at a tumultuous time in chinese history . zheng was born in fujian province in 1241 , which was then part of the southern song empire ( 1127 – 1279 ) . the capital of the southern song empire was lin'an ( present-day hangzhou ) . zheng was a student of the imperial academy of the southern song . he was considered one of the literati , or the educated elite . in 1279 , the mongolian armies conquered the southern song empire . zheng , a patriot , went to suzhou ( just north of lin'an ) where he lived the life of a hermit . the fall of the southern song prompted zheng to rename himself . indeed it was a common practice for literati to bestow on themselves several names . zheng renamed himself zheng sixiao . sixiao implied “ remember the zhao. ” zhao was the family name of the song imperial family . the character for xiao 肖 was the same as the right side of the chinese character for the word zhao 趙. zheng ’ s patriotism was also demonstrated in his choice of another name for himself . he signed this painting suo-nan-weng , which means southern facing old man . he was so patriotic that he never lay or sat facing to the north—where the mongolian capital was located . zheng was also given the courtesy name of yiweng , meaning old man who reminisced about the fallen dynasty . the only surviving painting reliably attributed to zheng is the short horizontal scroll ink orchid , a balanced , tranquil , symbolic monochrome painting . the subject matter the orchid , the blossoming plum , the bamboo and the chrysanthemum each embodied traditional chinese virtues . known as the “ four gentlemen , ” the four plants were depicted by literati in different dynasties . the orchid with a faint , delicate fragrance grew in hidden and secluded places . thus , the orchid can embody the characteristics of self-containment , reservation , simplicity , solitude and unpretentiousness . the description could also be used to describe how zheng depicted himself . in zheng ’ s ink orchid , there are no eye-catching colors or meticulous details . precise calligraphic strokes rendered the simple and balanced composition . zheng ’ s strokes depicted a few leaves and two orchid flowers . the deft use of brush and ink brings perspective , vitality and movement to the leaves and flowers . unlike many western still life flower paintings , the ink orchid has no vase or basket . there is also no depiction of roots . the orchid seems to float in the air . when people enquired as to why zheng depicted it so , he was reported to have replied , “ don ’ t you know that the soil was stolen by the barbarians ? ” the rootlessness of the orchid added to the symbolism , for it connoted that zheng was also without a home with the collapse of the southern song . zheng became a yimin , a leftover subject . the rootless orchid was a personal statement of his refusal to serve the yuan mongolian court—a court ruled by the foreigners . the inscriptions and seals zheng wrote a poem to the right of the orchid ( fig . a ) , which expressed his bitterness at the fall of the song . he compared himself to the orchid , emphasizing its faint , everlasting fragrance . he signed the poem with his pseudonym “ south-facing old man ” ( ( fig . b ) . when he put the year and date , he denied the legitimacy of the yuan dynasty by not noting its reign period ( fig . c ) . zheng stamped two of his seals on the painting . one seal was his pseudonym matched with his signature ( fig . d ) while another was a longer text with four vertical lines starting from the right ( fig . e ) . the latter hinted that he would not paint for the yuan officials even if they asked . it was almost thirty years after the song collapsed that zheng painted the piece , yet all of these components signaled his remembrance of and unyielding loyalty to the song and his enduring resistance to the yuan . voids in the painting when the painting was first created , it consisted merely of the orchid , the poem inscription at the right , the year and date indicated at the left and two of the seals at the lower left . in other words , the ink orchid exists in a void . the other inscriptions and seals were added by later literati and connoisseurs . leaving the background empty added great strength to the artwork . in the painting , the substance and the void complement each other . the void is not nothingness , but a space for imagination . without details in the background , it also allows us to focus on the subject matter and inscription . the rootless orchid lends insights into zheng ’ s artistic skills and philosophy as well as aspects of his life . while conveying a strong statement by zheng , the painting did not arouse anger or hatred but a sense of quietness . it elegantly embodied the modesty and integrity of this reclusive literati . many subsequent literati appreciated and respected zheng ’ s temperament and his depiction of the rootless orchid . essay by hung sheng
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in the painting , the substance and the void complement each other . the void is not nothingness , but a space for imagination . without details in the background , it also allows us to focus on the subject matter and inscription . the rootless orchid lends insights into zheng ’ s artistic skills and philosophy as well as aspects of his life .
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are all voids in chinese paintings to be considered space for imagination , allowing viewers to focus on the subject matter or inscriptions ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . )
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i have heard that ancient china is the oldest continuous society in existence , is that true ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites .
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are the cong hollow all the way through or is one end closed off ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites .
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what is the correct pronunciation of cong , and bi ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites .
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it seems a mystery to me : how were the holes in cong made ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming .
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how do you know the date and age of these ancient objects ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel .
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in the general idea of the passage jade was very important to the chinese because it was to show power in prestige as well as respect even in death and so can it be said that it could be compared to as how the egyptians use deorite ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years .
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what was the meaning for putting congs and bis in chinese burial graves ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way .
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what 's the relationship between jade and bi ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong .
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are cong and bi the same as jade ?
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ancient china includes the neolithic period ( 10,000 -2,000 b.c.e . ) , the shang dynasty ( c. 1500-1050 b.c.e . ) and the zhou dynasty ( 1050-221 b.c.e . ) . each age was distinct , but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated . the neolithic period , defined as the age before the use of metal , witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming . people made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities . stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel . neolithic liangzhu culture a group of neolithic peoples grouped today as the liangzhu culture lived in the jiangsu province of china during the third millennium b.c.e . their jades , ceramics and stone tools were highly sophisticated . cong they used two distinct types of ritual jade objects : a disc , later known as a bi , and a tube , later known as a cong . the main types of cong have a square outer section around a circular inner part , and a circular hole , though jades of a bracelet shape also display some of the characteristics of cong . they clearly had great significance , but despite the many theories the meaning and purpose of bi and cong remain a mystery . they were buried in large numbers : one tomb alone had 25 bi and 33 cong . spectacular examples have been found at all the major archaeological sites . the principal decoration on cong of the liangzhu period was the face pattern , which may refer to spirits or deities . on the square-sectioned pieces , like the examples here , the face pattern is placed across the corners , whereas on the bracelet form it appears in square panels . these faces are derived from a combination of a man-like figure and a mysterious beast . cong are among the most impressive yet most enigmatic of all ancient chinese jade artifacts . their function and meaning are completely unknown . although they were made at many stages of the neolithic and early historic period , the origin of the cong in the neolithic cultures of south-east china has only been recognized in the last thirty years . cong were extremely difficult and time-consuming to produce . as jade can not be split like other stones , it must be worked with a hard abrasive sand . this one is exceptionally long and may have been particularly important in its time . bi stone rings were being made by the peoples of eastern china as early as the fifth millennium b.c.e . jade discs have been found carefully laid on the bodies of the dead in tombs of the hongshan culture ( about 3800-2700 b.c.e . ) , a practice which was continued by later neolithic cultures . large and heavy jade discs such as this example , appear to have been an innovation of the liangzhu culture ( about 3000-2000 b.c.e . ) , although they are not found in all major liangzhu tombs . the term bi is applied to wide discs with proportionately small central holes . the most finely carved discs or bi of the best stone ( like the example above ) were placed in prominent positions , often near the stomach and the chest of the deceased . other bi were aligned with the body . where large numbers of discs are found , usually in small piles , they tend to be rather coarse , made of stone of inferior quality that has been worked in a cursory way . we do not know what the true significance of these discs was , but they must have had an important ritual function as part of the burial . this is an exceptionally fine example , with the two faces very highly polished . suggested readings : j. rawson , chinese jade from the neolithic to the qing ( london , the british museum press , 1995 , reprinted 2002 ) . j. rawson ( ed . ) , the british museum book of chinese art ( london , the british museum press , 1992 ) . © trustees of the british museum
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stone workers employed jade to make prestigious , beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools , such as axes , and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions . the status of jade continues throughout chinese history . pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter ’ s wheel .
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do high class chinese use jade here in modern times ?
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the tomb of pope julius ii when michelangelo finished sculpting david , it was clear that this was quite possibly the most beautiful figure ever created—exceeding the beauty even of ancient greek and roman sculptures . word of david reached pope julius ii in rome , and he asked michelangelo to come to rome to work for him . the first work pope julius ii commissioned from michelangelo was a tomb for the pope . this may seem a bit strange to us today , but great rulers throughout history have planned fabulous tombs for themselves while they were still alive—they hoped to ensure that they would be remembered forever . when michelangelo began the tomb of pope julius ii , his ideas were quite ambitious . he planned a two-story structure decorated with more than 20 sculptures—each of these life sized . this was more than one person could do in a lifetime . pope julius ii asked michelangelo to pause his work on the tomb to paint the ceiling of the sistine chapel and he was never able to complete his plan for the tomb . after experiencing trouble with julius ' heirs , michelangelo eventually completed a much scaled-down version of the tomb , which was installed in san pietro in vincoli ( and not in st. peter 's basilica as planned ) . moses moses is an imposing figure—he is nearly eight feet high sitting down ! he has enormous muscular arms and an angry , intense look in his eyes . under his arms he carries the tablets of the law—the stones inscribed with the ten commandments that he has just received from god on mt . sinai . you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head . in this story from the old testament book of exodus , moses leaves the israelites , who he has just delivered from slavery in egypt , to go to the top of mt . sinai . when he returns , he finds that the israelites have constructed a golden calf to worship and make sacrifices to . they have , in other words , been acting like the egyptians and worshipping a pagan idol . one of the commandments moses received is “ thou shalt not make any graven images , ” so when moses sees the israelites worshipping this idol and betraying the one and only god who has just delivered them from slavery , he throws down the tablets and breaks them . here is the passage from the hebrew bible : then moses turned and went down the mountain . he held in his hands the two stone tablets inscribed with the terms of the covenant . they were inscribed on both sides , front and back . these stone tablets were god 's work ; the words on them were written by god himself . when joshua heard the noise of the people shouting below them , he exclaimed to moses , `` it sounds as if there is a war in the camp ! '' but moses replied , `` no , it 's neither a cry of victory nor a cry of defeat . it is the sound of a celebration . '' when they came near the camp , moses saw the calf and the dancing . in terrible anger , he threw the stone tablets to the ground , smashing them at the foot of the mountain . ( exodus 32 : 15-19 ) we can see the figure 's pent-up energy . the entire figure is charged with thought and energy . it is not entirely clear what moment of the story michelangelo shows us . moses sits with the tables of the ten commandments under his right arm . is he about to rise in anger after seeing the israelites worshiping the golden calf ? moses is not simply sitting down ; his left leg is pulled back to the side of his chair as though he is about to rise . and because this leg is pulled back , his hips also face left . michelangelo , to create an interesting , energetic figure—where the forces of life are pulsing throughout the body—pulls the torso in the opposite direction . and so his torso faces to his right . and because the torso faces to the right , moses turns his head to the left , and then pulls his beard to the right . michelangelo managed to create an intense , energetic figure even though moses is seated . while the marble itself is still , it seems as though his beard is moving and flowing and that his muscular arms and torso are about to shift . in comparing michelangelo 's moses to an early renaissance sculpture by donatello , it is easy to see the difference between the early and high renaissance ideals . donatello 's relaxed figure st. john really lacks the power and life of michelangelo 's sculpture . think about how you ’ re sitting right now at the computer . perhaps your legs are crossed , as mine are as i write this . what about if you were not at the computer ? and what to do with the hands ? you can see that this could be a rather uninteresting position . yet michelangelo has given the entire figure energy and movement , even in a sitting position . in michelangelo 's dynamic figure of moses we have a clear sense of the prophet and his duty to fulfill god 's wishes . moses is not a passive figure from the distant biblical past , but a living , breathing , present figure that reflects the will and might of god . additional resources : another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the british museum another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the metropolitan museum of art
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after experiencing trouble with julius ' heirs , michelangelo eventually completed a much scaled-down version of the tomb , which was installed in san pietro in vincoli ( and not in st. peter 's basilica as planned ) . moses moses is an imposing figure—he is nearly eight feet high sitting down ! he has enormous muscular arms and an angry , intense look in his eyes .
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do you know why was moses elected for this tomb ?
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the tomb of pope julius ii when michelangelo finished sculpting david , it was clear that this was quite possibly the most beautiful figure ever created—exceeding the beauty even of ancient greek and roman sculptures . word of david reached pope julius ii in rome , and he asked michelangelo to come to rome to work for him . the first work pope julius ii commissioned from michelangelo was a tomb for the pope . this may seem a bit strange to us today , but great rulers throughout history have planned fabulous tombs for themselves while they were still alive—they hoped to ensure that they would be remembered forever . when michelangelo began the tomb of pope julius ii , his ideas were quite ambitious . he planned a two-story structure decorated with more than 20 sculptures—each of these life sized . this was more than one person could do in a lifetime . pope julius ii asked michelangelo to pause his work on the tomb to paint the ceiling of the sistine chapel and he was never able to complete his plan for the tomb . after experiencing trouble with julius ' heirs , michelangelo eventually completed a much scaled-down version of the tomb , which was installed in san pietro in vincoli ( and not in st. peter 's basilica as planned ) . moses moses is an imposing figure—he is nearly eight feet high sitting down ! he has enormous muscular arms and an angry , intense look in his eyes . under his arms he carries the tablets of the law—the stones inscribed with the ten commandments that he has just received from god on mt . sinai . you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head . in this story from the old testament book of exodus , moses leaves the israelites , who he has just delivered from slavery in egypt , to go to the top of mt . sinai . when he returns , he finds that the israelites have constructed a golden calf to worship and make sacrifices to . they have , in other words , been acting like the egyptians and worshipping a pagan idol . one of the commandments moses received is “ thou shalt not make any graven images , ” so when moses sees the israelites worshipping this idol and betraying the one and only god who has just delivered them from slavery , he throws down the tablets and breaks them . here is the passage from the hebrew bible : then moses turned and went down the mountain . he held in his hands the two stone tablets inscribed with the terms of the covenant . they were inscribed on both sides , front and back . these stone tablets were god 's work ; the words on them were written by god himself . when joshua heard the noise of the people shouting below them , he exclaimed to moses , `` it sounds as if there is a war in the camp ! '' but moses replied , `` no , it 's neither a cry of victory nor a cry of defeat . it is the sound of a celebration . '' when they came near the camp , moses saw the calf and the dancing . in terrible anger , he threw the stone tablets to the ground , smashing them at the foot of the mountain . ( exodus 32 : 15-19 ) we can see the figure 's pent-up energy . the entire figure is charged with thought and energy . it is not entirely clear what moment of the story michelangelo shows us . moses sits with the tables of the ten commandments under his right arm . is he about to rise in anger after seeing the israelites worshiping the golden calf ? moses is not simply sitting down ; his left leg is pulled back to the side of his chair as though he is about to rise . and because this leg is pulled back , his hips also face left . michelangelo , to create an interesting , energetic figure—where the forces of life are pulsing throughout the body—pulls the torso in the opposite direction . and so his torso faces to his right . and because the torso faces to the right , moses turns his head to the left , and then pulls his beard to the right . michelangelo managed to create an intense , energetic figure even though moses is seated . while the marble itself is still , it seems as though his beard is moving and flowing and that his muscular arms and torso are about to shift . in comparing michelangelo 's moses to an early renaissance sculpture by donatello , it is easy to see the difference between the early and high renaissance ideals . donatello 's relaxed figure st. john really lacks the power and life of michelangelo 's sculpture . think about how you ’ re sitting right now at the computer . perhaps your legs are crossed , as mine are as i write this . what about if you were not at the computer ? and what to do with the hands ? you can see that this could be a rather uninteresting position . yet michelangelo has given the entire figure energy and movement , even in a sitting position . in michelangelo 's dynamic figure of moses we have a clear sense of the prophet and his duty to fulfill god 's wishes . moses is not a passive figure from the distant biblical past , but a living , breathing , present figure that reflects the will and might of god . additional resources : another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the british museum another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the metropolitan museum of art
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sinai . you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head .
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why does moses have horns ?
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the tomb of pope julius ii when michelangelo finished sculpting david , it was clear that this was quite possibly the most beautiful figure ever created—exceeding the beauty even of ancient greek and roman sculptures . word of david reached pope julius ii in rome , and he asked michelangelo to come to rome to work for him . the first work pope julius ii commissioned from michelangelo was a tomb for the pope . this may seem a bit strange to us today , but great rulers throughout history have planned fabulous tombs for themselves while they were still alive—they hoped to ensure that they would be remembered forever . when michelangelo began the tomb of pope julius ii , his ideas were quite ambitious . he planned a two-story structure decorated with more than 20 sculptures—each of these life sized . this was more than one person could do in a lifetime . pope julius ii asked michelangelo to pause his work on the tomb to paint the ceiling of the sistine chapel and he was never able to complete his plan for the tomb . after experiencing trouble with julius ' heirs , michelangelo eventually completed a much scaled-down version of the tomb , which was installed in san pietro in vincoli ( and not in st. peter 's basilica as planned ) . moses moses is an imposing figure—he is nearly eight feet high sitting down ! he has enormous muscular arms and an angry , intense look in his eyes . under his arms he carries the tablets of the law—the stones inscribed with the ten commandments that he has just received from god on mt . sinai . you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head . in this story from the old testament book of exodus , moses leaves the israelites , who he has just delivered from slavery in egypt , to go to the top of mt . sinai . when he returns , he finds that the israelites have constructed a golden calf to worship and make sacrifices to . they have , in other words , been acting like the egyptians and worshipping a pagan idol . one of the commandments moses received is “ thou shalt not make any graven images , ” so when moses sees the israelites worshipping this idol and betraying the one and only god who has just delivered them from slavery , he throws down the tablets and breaks them . here is the passage from the hebrew bible : then moses turned and went down the mountain . he held in his hands the two stone tablets inscribed with the terms of the covenant . they were inscribed on both sides , front and back . these stone tablets were god 's work ; the words on them were written by god himself . when joshua heard the noise of the people shouting below them , he exclaimed to moses , `` it sounds as if there is a war in the camp ! '' but moses replied , `` no , it 's neither a cry of victory nor a cry of defeat . it is the sound of a celebration . '' when they came near the camp , moses saw the calf and the dancing . in terrible anger , he threw the stone tablets to the ground , smashing them at the foot of the mountain . ( exodus 32 : 15-19 ) we can see the figure 's pent-up energy . the entire figure is charged with thought and energy . it is not entirely clear what moment of the story michelangelo shows us . moses sits with the tables of the ten commandments under his right arm . is he about to rise in anger after seeing the israelites worshiping the golden calf ? moses is not simply sitting down ; his left leg is pulled back to the side of his chair as though he is about to rise . and because this leg is pulled back , his hips also face left . michelangelo , to create an interesting , energetic figure—where the forces of life are pulsing throughout the body—pulls the torso in the opposite direction . and so his torso faces to his right . and because the torso faces to the right , moses turns his head to the left , and then pulls his beard to the right . michelangelo managed to create an intense , energetic figure even though moses is seated . while the marble itself is still , it seems as though his beard is moving and flowing and that his muscular arms and torso are about to shift . in comparing michelangelo 's moses to an early renaissance sculpture by donatello , it is easy to see the difference between the early and high renaissance ideals . donatello 's relaxed figure st. john really lacks the power and life of michelangelo 's sculpture . think about how you ’ re sitting right now at the computer . perhaps your legs are crossed , as mine are as i write this . what about if you were not at the computer ? and what to do with the hands ? you can see that this could be a rather uninteresting position . yet michelangelo has given the entire figure energy and movement , even in a sitting position . in michelangelo 's dynamic figure of moses we have a clear sense of the prophet and his duty to fulfill god 's wishes . moses is not a passive figure from the distant biblical past , but a living , breathing , present figure that reflects the will and might of god . additional resources : another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the british museum another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the metropolitan museum of art
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you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head . in this story from the old testament book of exodus , moses leaves the israelites , who he has just delivered from slavery in egypt , to go to the top of mt .
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why is there rays of light coming out of his head ?
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the tomb of pope julius ii when michelangelo finished sculpting david , it was clear that this was quite possibly the most beautiful figure ever created—exceeding the beauty even of ancient greek and roman sculptures . word of david reached pope julius ii in rome , and he asked michelangelo to come to rome to work for him . the first work pope julius ii commissioned from michelangelo was a tomb for the pope . this may seem a bit strange to us today , but great rulers throughout history have planned fabulous tombs for themselves while they were still alive—they hoped to ensure that they would be remembered forever . when michelangelo began the tomb of pope julius ii , his ideas were quite ambitious . he planned a two-story structure decorated with more than 20 sculptures—each of these life sized . this was more than one person could do in a lifetime . pope julius ii asked michelangelo to pause his work on the tomb to paint the ceiling of the sistine chapel and he was never able to complete his plan for the tomb . after experiencing trouble with julius ' heirs , michelangelo eventually completed a much scaled-down version of the tomb , which was installed in san pietro in vincoli ( and not in st. peter 's basilica as planned ) . moses moses is an imposing figure—he is nearly eight feet high sitting down ! he has enormous muscular arms and an angry , intense look in his eyes . under his arms he carries the tablets of the law—the stones inscribed with the ten commandments that he has just received from god on mt . sinai . you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head . in this story from the old testament book of exodus , moses leaves the israelites , who he has just delivered from slavery in egypt , to go to the top of mt . sinai . when he returns , he finds that the israelites have constructed a golden calf to worship and make sacrifices to . they have , in other words , been acting like the egyptians and worshipping a pagan idol . one of the commandments moses received is “ thou shalt not make any graven images , ” so when moses sees the israelites worshipping this idol and betraying the one and only god who has just delivered them from slavery , he throws down the tablets and breaks them . here is the passage from the hebrew bible : then moses turned and went down the mountain . he held in his hands the two stone tablets inscribed with the terms of the covenant . they were inscribed on both sides , front and back . these stone tablets were god 's work ; the words on them were written by god himself . when joshua heard the noise of the people shouting below them , he exclaimed to moses , `` it sounds as if there is a war in the camp ! '' but moses replied , `` no , it 's neither a cry of victory nor a cry of defeat . it is the sound of a celebration . '' when they came near the camp , moses saw the calf and the dancing . in terrible anger , he threw the stone tablets to the ground , smashing them at the foot of the mountain . ( exodus 32 : 15-19 ) we can see the figure 's pent-up energy . the entire figure is charged with thought and energy . it is not entirely clear what moment of the story michelangelo shows us . moses sits with the tables of the ten commandments under his right arm . is he about to rise in anger after seeing the israelites worshiping the golden calf ? moses is not simply sitting down ; his left leg is pulled back to the side of his chair as though he is about to rise . and because this leg is pulled back , his hips also face left . michelangelo , to create an interesting , energetic figure—where the forces of life are pulsing throughout the body—pulls the torso in the opposite direction . and so his torso faces to his right . and because the torso faces to the right , moses turns his head to the left , and then pulls his beard to the right . michelangelo managed to create an intense , energetic figure even though moses is seated . while the marble itself is still , it seems as though his beard is moving and flowing and that his muscular arms and torso are about to shift . in comparing michelangelo 's moses to an early renaissance sculpture by donatello , it is easy to see the difference between the early and high renaissance ideals . donatello 's relaxed figure st. john really lacks the power and life of michelangelo 's sculpture . think about how you ’ re sitting right now at the computer . perhaps your legs are crossed , as mine are as i write this . what about if you were not at the computer ? and what to do with the hands ? you can see that this could be a rather uninteresting position . yet michelangelo has given the entire figure energy and movement , even in a sitting position . in michelangelo 's dynamic figure of moses we have a clear sense of the prophet and his duty to fulfill god 's wishes . moses is not a passive figure from the distant biblical past , but a living , breathing , present figure that reflects the will and might of god . additional resources : another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the british museum another drawing for the tomb of pope julius ii in the metropolitan museum of art
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sinai . you might marvel at moses' horns . this comes from a mistranslation of a hebrew word that described moses as having rays of light coming from his head . in this story from the old testament book of exodus , moses leaves the israelites , who he has just delivered from slavery in egypt , to go to the top of mt .
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when the mistranslation says beams of light did michelangelo represents them as horns ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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will we get extra points for attempting the optional essay ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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if the optional essay is graded seperately and does n't affect our sat score , how is it beneficial for us if we choose to do it ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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does harvard or stanford require you to take the essay ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) .
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are there student-produced response questions in new sat ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test .
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if one was to attempt the essay and , let 's say , not receive a good score , would that be counted by colleges that do not require essays as something negative ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt .
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is the act still needed in order to get into some collages or is that not given anymore ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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should we choose to take the essay , but in the end do poorly on it , then how will that affect our application processes ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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do we have the option to not report the essay when we 're applying to colleges ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours .
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is it possible to take the sat in 9th grade ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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i have planned for a career in aviation..basically to become a pilot..thus the universities or flight schools do n't require an essay , they only look for sat scores..do you still advice doing the optional essay ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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are there any extra points for the essay and where can we get the sat vocabulary ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours .
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sat exam in india is taken in front of a computer screen or on a desk with hard copy of exam paper ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score .
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can homeschoolers take the sat at home or do you have to go to a local high school to take the test ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer .
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does all college look at sat score ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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is it possible to take just the essay portion of the sat without taking the others again ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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for example , if a person gets a 1600 on the sat and a 2 on the essay , can he retake just the essay instead of the whole test again ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it !
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is their an optional essay on the psat 8/9 or 10 ?
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one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored .
|
how much marks does each question carry ?
|
one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
|
scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) .
|
why is the scaled scare always between 200 and 800 ?
|
one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score .
|
what is considered a good score for the essay ?
|
one of the keys to success on the sat — along with plenty of practice and keeping a clear head — is to understand exactly what the test is all about . over the course of your sat prep experience here on khan academy , you may come across an unfamiliar term or two . we hope this glossary helps ! is there something missing you ’ d like to have explained and added to this list ? let us know here . accommodation an adjustment in testing conditions to enable students with disabilities to take a standardized test . examples : having the questions read out loud ( for visually impaired students ) ; use of a computer for the essay ( dysgraphia ) , 50 % or 100 % extended time to complete the test ( documented add/adhd , executive function , working memory impairments ) . while the testing conditions for students taking the test with accommodations may be different , the test questions and scoring system are the same . more info answer choices on a multiple-choice question , there will be four answer options lettered a , b , c , and d. only one of these will be correct . the three incorrect answer choices may represent common errors and can be very tempting ! in the reading test , and in many of the writing & amp ; language test questions , the best choice is always the one that has the best textual support - that is , evidence ! diagnostic test a diagnostic is a brief test with a small number of questions intended to test your general level of mastery . for the sat , the khan academy diagnostic tests aim to identify your current level of skills for math and evidence-based reading and writing so the practice program can give you the most accurate recommendations for skills to work on . in this way , our system “ diagnoses ” your current state of knowledge , and that helps us make personalized practice recommendations just for you ! iq test / intelligence test an iq ( intelligence quotient ) test is an exam or a set of exams intended to evaluate a person ’ s general intelligence based on a combination of question accuracy and age . the sat is not an iq test . it is important to remember this , because it can seem at times like your parents , peers , or the colleges to which you apply are judging how smart you are based on your score . the sat measures college readiness , not intelligence or aptitude or persistence . multiple-choice question multiple-choice questions provide a set of answer options from which the student must select the correct or the best-fit answer . percentile rank percentile ranks provide a way for you to compare your scores to those of other students . sat percentile ranks are reported based on the total group of sat test-takers in the us . the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score . proctor a proctor , also called a test room supervisor or a test center supervisor , is an adult who may be in your test room to help make sure that the administration goes well . the proctor helps hand out and collect materials , check admission tickets , and make sure the room is quiet . the proctor also helps monitor test-takers to ensure no one has an unfair advantage . you may also see proctors helping test-takers at check-in or in the hallways during testing and breaks , to make sure that everyone gets where they need to go and that these areas are quiet . prompt the prompt is what we call the question , sentences , image , or other content that you are required to analyze and address in order to respond to the assignment or solve the problem . the sat essay assignment is sometimes called a prompt . make sure you fully understand what the prompt is asking of you before you rush to solve it ! raw score your raw score is simply the number of questions you got correct out of the total number of questions . if there are 40 questions on a test and you got 28 correct , your raw score is 28 . for the sat , your raw score will be translated into a scaled score that takes into account things like the difficulty of the questions on this administration of the test versus another administration . scaled score when you take a standardized test , there are two types of scores you may see : the raw score ( number of questions you got correct out of the overall number of questions ) and the converted score , which is the translation of your raw score into a different numerical format that takes into account the difficulty of the questions and the performance of your peers . for the sat , your converted score will be 200-800 for each section . subscore your sat score report will include a number of scores , including test scores ( for the math , reading , and writing and language tests and the essay ) , cross-test scores ( like analysis in science , which is a skill covered across sections ) , and subscores ( like expression of ideas , which is a skill tested within one section ) . more info student-produced response this is what we call the questions that require the student to provide the answer to a question rather than choose from a multiple-choice list of options . student-produced responses occur on the math section ( in the form of a grid-in ) and the essay ( the full essay is student-written ) . when completing a student-produced response question , don ’ t forget to read the instructions carefully to make sure you ’ re providing your answer in the requested format ! test specifications the specifications , or specs , of a test are the detailed descriptions of how the test is formatted ( time , length , and sections ) , what content is covered ( skills , subjects ) , and how the test is scored . it can be helpful to review test specifications to understand the full detail of the test you ’ ll be facing , but it can also be overwhelming and provide a lot of information that won ’ t be helpful to you . the redesigned sat specs include a list of all math and reading and writing and language skills that the sat covers — but you can find all of that info in a more approachable article and video format right here in official sat practice on khanacademy.org . total score your total score for the redesigned sat is the combination of your scaled scores from the math and evidence-based reading and writing sections , which are each 200 to 800 points . thus , your total score for the redesigned sat will be between 400 and 1600 points .
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the number can range from 1 to 99 , and indicates the percentage of test-takers who achieved an equal or lower score than yours . for instance , a percentile rank of 76 means that 76 percent of sat-takers achieved a score at or below your score . a percentile rank of 43 means that 43 percent of sat-takers attained scores at or below your score .
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what is considered a great score for the essay ?
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